The etiologic agent of PLAGUE in man, rats, ground squirrels, and other rodents.
An acute infectious disease caused by YERSINIA PESTIS that affects humans, wild rodents, and their ectoparasites. This condition persists due to its firm entrenchment in sylvatic rodent-flea ecosystems throughout the world. Bubonic plague is the most common form.
A species of the genus YERSINIA, isolated from both man and animal. It is a frequent cause of bacterial gastroenteritis in children.
Infections with bacteria of the genus YERSINIA.
A suspension of killed Yersinia pestis used for immunizing people in enzootic plague areas.
An order of parasitic, blood-sucking, wingless INSECTS with the common name of fleas.
A human and animal pathogen causing mesenteric lymphadenitis, diarrhea, and bacteremia.
Proteins secreted from an organism which form membrane-spanning pores in target cells to destroy them. This is in contrast to PORINS and MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that function within the synthesizing organism and COMPLEMENT immune proteins. These pore forming cytotoxic proteins are a form of primitive cellular defense which are also found in human LYMPHOCYTES.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic rod- to coccobacillus-shaped bacteria that occurs in a broad spectrum of habitats.
Proteins isolated from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
Infections with bacteria of the species YERSINIA PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.
Those components of an organism that determine its capacity to cause disease but are not required for its viability per se. Two classes have been characterized: TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL and surface adhesion molecules that effect the ability of the microorganism to invade and colonize a host. (From Davis et al., Microbiology, 4th ed. p486)
The period of history from the year 500 through 1450 of the common era.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of aspartic acid to ammonia and fumaric acid in plants and some microorganisms. EC 4.3.1.1.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
A heterogeneous group of proteolytic enzymes that convert PLASMINOGEN to FIBRINOLYSIN. They are concentrated in the lysosomes of most cells and in the vascular endothelium, particularly in the vessels of the microcirculation.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
A species of gram-negative bacteria responsible for red mouth disease in rainbow trout (ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS). The bacteria is a natural component of fresh water ecosystems in the United States and Canada.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
The dose amount of poisonous or toxic substance or dose of ionizing radiation required to kill 50% of the tested population.
The genetic complement of a BACTERIA as represented in its DNA.
A mammalian order which consists of 29 families and many genera.
Low-molecular-weight compounds produced by microorganisms that aid in the transport and sequestration of ferric iron. (The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994)
One of the Indian Ocean Islands off the southeast coast of Africa. Its capital is Antananarivo. It was formerly called the Malagasy Republic. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500, its history has been tied predominantly to the French, becoming a French protectorate in 1882, a French colony in 1896, and a territory within the French union in 1946. The Malagasy Republic was established in the French Community in 1958 but it achieved independence in 1960. Its name was changed to Madagascar in 1975. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p714)
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Periplasmic proteins that scavenge or sense diverse nutrients. In the bacterial environment they usually couple to transporters or chemotaxis receptors on the inner bacterial membrane.
Cell-surface components or appendages of bacteria that facilitate adhesion (BACTERIAL ADHESION) to other cells or to inanimate surfaces. Most fimbriae (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) of gram-negative bacteria function as adhesins, but in many cases it is a minor subunit protein at the tip of the fimbriae that is the actual adhesin. In gram-positive bacteria, a protein or polysaccharide surface layer serves as the specific adhesin. What is sometimes called polymeric adhesin (BIOFILMS) is distinct from protein adhesin.
Time period from 1401 through 1500 of the common era.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
The geographical area of Asia comprising KAZAKHSTAN; KYRGYZSTAN; TAJIKISTAN; TURKMENISTAN; and UZBEKISTAN. The desert region of Kara Kum (Qara Qum) is largely in Turkmenistan and the desert region of Kyzyl Kum (Kizil Kum or Qizil Qum), is in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p233, 590, 636)
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Physicochemical property of fimbriated (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) and non-fimbriated bacteria of attaching to cells, tissue, and nonbiological surfaces. It is a factor in bacterial colonization and pathogenicity.
Animals that are generated from breeding two genetically dissimilar strains of the same species.
Time period from 1501 through 1600 of the common era.
In bacteria, a group of metabolically related genes, with a common promoter, whose transcription into a single polycistronic MESSENGER RNA is under the control of an OPERATOR REGION.
Lipid A is the biologically active component of lipopolysaccharides. It shows strong endotoxic activity and exhibits immunogenic properties.
Animate or inanimate sources which normally harbor disease-causing organisms and thus serve as potential sources of disease outbreaks. Reservoirs are distinguished from vectors (DISEASE VECTORS) and carriers, which are agents of disease transmission rather than continuing sources of potential disease outbreaks.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A family of the order Rodentia which contains 49 genera. Some of the more common genera are MARMOTA, which includes the marmot and woodchuck; Sciurus, the gray squirrel, S. carolinensis, and the fox squirrel, S. niger; Tamias, the eastern and western chipmunk; and Tamiasciurus, the red squirrel. The flying squirrels, except the scaly-tailed Anomaluridae, also belong to this family.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.
Diseases of rodents of the order RODENTIA. This term includes diseases of Sciuridae (squirrels), Geomyidae (gophers), Heteromyidae (pouched mice), Castoridae (beavers), Cricetidae (rats and mice), Muridae (Old World rats and mice), Erethizontidae (porcupines), and Caviidae (guinea pigs).
The use of biological agents in TERRORISM. This includes the malevolent use of BACTERIA; VIRUSES; or other BIOLOGICAL TOXINS against people, ANIMALS; or PLANTS.
Endogenous substances produced through the activity of intact cells of glands, tissues, or organs.
Discrete segments of DNA which can excise and reintegrate to another site in the genome. Most are inactive, i.e., have not been found to exist outside the integrated state. DNA transposable elements include bacterial IS (insertion sequence) elements, Tn elements, the maize controlling elements Ac and Ds, Drosophila P, gypsy, and pogo elements, the human Tigger elements and the Tc and mariner elements which are found throughout the animal kingdom.
Substances elaborated by specific strains of bacteria that are lethal against other strains of the same or related species. They are protein or lipopolysaccharide-protein complexes used in taxonomy studies of bacteria.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
Time period from 1601 through 1700 of the common era.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kazakhstan" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition; it is the name of a country located in Central Asia, known officially as the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Living organisms or their toxic products that are used to cause disease or death of humans during WARFARE.
Proteins that specifically bind to IRON.
A mixture of polymyxins B1 and B2, obtained from Bacillus polymyxa strains. They are basic polypeptides of about eight amino acids and have cationic detergent action on cell membranes. Polymyxin B is used for infections with gram-negative organisms, but may be neurotoxic and nephrotoxic.

Protective efficacy of recombinant Yersinia outer proteins against bubonic plague caused by encapsulated and nonencapsulated Yersinia pestis. (1/989)

To evaluate the role of Yersinia outer proteins (Yops) in conferring protective immunity against plague, six yop loci from Yersinia pestis were individually amplified by PCR, cloned, and expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant proteins were purified and injected into mice. Most Yop-vaccinated animals succumbed to infection with either wild-type encapsulated Y. pestis or a virulent, nonencapsulated isogenic variant. Vaccination with YpkA significantly prolonged mean survival time but did not increase overall survival of mice infected with the nonencapsulated strain. The only significant protection against death was observed in YopD-vaccinated mice challenged with the nonencapsulated strain.  (+info)

Immune response to Yersinia outer proteins and other Yersinia pestis antigens after experimental plague infection in mice. (2/989)

There is limited information concerning the nature and extent of the immune response to the virulence determinants of Yersinia pestis during the course of plague infection. In this study, we evaluated the humoral immune response of mice that survived lethal Y. pestis aerosol challenge after antibiotic treatment. Such a model may replicate the clinical situation in humans and indicate which virulence determinants are expressed in vivo. Immunoglobulin G enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting were performed by using purified, recombinant antigens including F1, V antigen, YpkA, YopH, YopM, YopB, YopD, YopN, YopE, YopK, plasminogen activator protease (Pla), and pH 6 antigen as well as purified lipopolysaccharide. The major antigens recognized by murine convalescent sera were F1, V antigen, YopH, YopM, YopD, and Pla. Early treatment with antibiotics tended to reduce the immune response and differences between antibiotic treatment regimens were noted. These results may indicate that only some virulence factors are expressed and/or immunogenic during infection. This information may prove useful for selecting potential vaccine candidates and for developing improved serologic diagnostic assays.  (+info)

Structural and functional significance of the FGL sequence of the periplasmic chaperone Caf1M of Yersinia pestis. (3/989)

The periplasmic molecular chaperone Caf1M of Yersinia pestis is a typical representative of a subfamily of specific chaperones involved in assembly of surface adhesins with a very simple structure. One characteristic feature of this Caf1M-like subfamily is possession of an extended, variable sequence (termed FGL) between the F1 and subunit binding G1 beta-strands. In contrast, FGS subfamily members, characterized by PapD, have a short F1-G1 loop and are involved in assembly of complex pili. To elucidate the structural and functional significance of the FGL sequence, a mutant Caf1M molecule (dCaf1M), in which the 27 amino acid residues between the F1 and G1 beta-strands had been deleted, was constructed. Expression of the mutated caf1M in Escherichia coli resulted in accumulation of high levels of dCaf1M. The far-UV circular dichroism spectra of the mutant and wild-type proteins were indistinguishable and exhibited practically the same temperature and pH dependencies. Thus, the FGL sequence of Caf1M clearly does not contribute significantly to the stability of the protein conformation. Preferential cleavage of Caf1M by trypsin at Lys-119 confirmed surface exposure of this part of the FGL sequence in the isolated chaperone and periplasmic chaperone-subunit complex. There was no evidence of surface-localized Caf1 subunit in the presence of the Caf1A outer membrane protein and dCaf1M. In contrast to Caf1M, dCaf1M was not able to form a stable complex with Caf1 nor could it protect the subunit from proteolytic degradation in vivo. This demonstration that the FGL sequence is required for stable chaperone-subunit interaction, but not for folding of a stable chaperone, provides a sound basis for future detailed molecular analyses of the FGL subfamily of chaperones.  (+info)

The haemin storage (Hms+) phenotype of Yersinia pestis is not essential for the pathogenesis of bubonic plague in mammals. (4/989)

The haemin storage (Hms+) phenotype of Yersinia pestis enables this bacillus to form greenish/brown or red colonies on haemin or Congo Red agar plates, respectively, at 26 but not 37 degrees C. Escherichia coli strains that contain mutations in genes essential for siderophore biosynthesis, porphyrin generation and/or haemin transport remain unable to utilize exogenous haemin as a nutritional iron or porphyrin source when transformed with the cloned Y. pestis hmsHFRS locus. Further physiological analysis of the Hms+ phenotype of Y. pestis strain KIM6+ suggests that the haemin and inorganic iron stored by the Hms system was not used nutritionally under subsequent iron-deficient conditions. In vitro analysis of the bactericidal effects of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide and nitric oxide showed that Hms- Y. pestis cells, in certain cases, were more susceptible than the Hms+ parent cells to these reactive oxygen species at 26 and/or 37 degrees C. In adherence assays, a higher percentage of Hms+ cells were associated with HeLa cells and normal human neutrophils, compared to Hms- cells. However, the Hms+ phenotype did not provide any additional protection against the killing effects of neutrophils. Finally, LD50 analysis in subcutaneously infected mice showed that an Hms- strain was slightly more virulent than Hms+, indicating that the Hms phenotype is not essential for the pathogenesis of bubonic plague in mammals.  (+info)

Expression, characterization, and mutagenesis of the Yersinia pestis murine toxin, a phospholipase D superfamily member. (5/989)

A phospholipase D (PLD) superfamily was recently identified that contains proteins of highly diverse functions with the conserved motif HXKX4DX6G(G/S). The superfamily includes a bacterial nuclease, human and plant PLD enzymes, cardiolipin synthases, phosphatidylserine synthases, and the murine toxin from Yersinia pestis (Ymt). Ymt is particularly effective as a prototype for family members containing two conserved motifs, because it is smaller than many other two-domain superfamily enzymes, and it can be overexpressed. Large quantities of pure recombinant Ymt allowed the formation of diffraction-quality crystals for x-ray structure determination. Dimeric Ymt was shown to have PLD-like activity as demonstrated by the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine. Ymt also used bis(para-nitrophenol) phosphate as a substrate. Using these substrates, the amino acids essential for Ymt function were determined. Specifically, substitution of histidine or lysine in the conserved motifs reduced the turnover rate of bis(para-nitrophenol) phosphate by a factor of 10(4) and phospholipid turnover to an undetectable level. The role of the conserved residues in catalysis was further defined by the isolation of a radiolabeled phosphoenzyme intermediate, which identified a conserved histidine residue as the nucleophile in the catalytic reaction. Based on these data, a unifying two-step catalytic mechanism is proposed for this diverse family of enzymes.  (+info)

YscP of Yersinia pestis is a secreted component of the Yop secretion system. (6/989)

The Yersinia pestis low-Ca2+ response stimulon is responsible for the environmentally regulated expression and secretion of antihost proteins (V antigen and Yops). We have previously shown that yscO encodes a secreted core component of the Yop secretion (Ysc) mechanism. In this study, we constructed and characterized in-frame deletions in the adjacent gene, yscP, in the yscN-yscU operon. The DeltaP1 mutation, which removed amino acids 246 to 333 of YscP, had no effect on Yop expression or secretion, and the mutant protein, YscP1, was secreted, as was YscP in the parent. In contrast, the DeltaP2 strain expressed and secreted less of each Yop than did the parent under the inductive conditions of 37 degrees C and the absence of Ca2+, with an exception being YopE, which was only minimally affected by the mutation. The YscP2 protein, missing amino acids 57 to 324 of YscP, was expressed but not secreted by the DeltaP2 mutant. The effect of the DeltaP2 mutation was at the level of Yop secretion because YopM and V antigen still showed limited secretion when overproduced in trans. Excess YscP also affected secretion: overexpression of YscP in the parent, in either yscP mutant, or in an lcrG mutant effectively shut off secretion. However, co-overexpression of YscO and YscP had no effect on secretion, and YscP overexpression in an lcrE mutant had little effect on Yop secretion, suggesting that YscP acts, in conjunction with YscO, at the level of secretion control of LcrE at the bacterial surface. These findings place YscP among the growing family of mobile Ysc components that both affect secretion and themselves are secreted by the Ysc.  (+info)

Molecular characterization of KatY (antigen 5), a thermoregulated chromosomally encoded catalase-peroxidase of Yersinia pestis. (7/989)

The first temperature-dependent proteins (expressed at 37 degrees C, but not 26 degrees C) to be identified in Yersinia pestis were antigens 3 (fraction 1), 4 (pH 6 antigen), and 5 (hereafter termed KatY). Antigens 3 and 4 are now established virulence factors, whereas little is known about KatY, except that it is encoded chromosomally, produced in abundance, possesses modest catalase activity, and is shared by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, but not Yersinia enterocolitica. We report here an improved chromatographic method (DEAE-cellulose, calcium hydroxylapatite, and Sephadex G-150) that yields enzymatically active KatY (2,423 U/mg of protein). Corresponding mouse monoclonal antibody 1B70.1 detected plasminogen activator-mediated hydrolysis of KatY, and a polyclonal rabbit antiserum raised against outer membranes of Y. pestis was enriched for anti-KatY. A sequenced approximately 16-kb Y. pestis DNA insert of a positive pLG338 clone indicated that katY encodes an 81.4-kDa protein (pI 6.98) containing a leader sequence of 2.6 kDa; the deduced molecular mass and pI of processed KatY were 78.8 kDa and 6. 43, respectively. A minor truncated variant (predicted molecular mass of 53.6 kDa) was also expressed. KatY is similar (39 to 59% identity) to vegetative bacterial catalase-peroxidases (KatG in Escherichia coli) and is closely related to plasmid-encoded KatP of enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 (75% identity). katY encoded a putative Ca2+-binding site, and its promoter contained three homologues to the consensus recognition sequence of the pCD-encoded transcriptional activator LcrF. rbsA was located upstream of katY, and cybB, cybC, dmsABC, and araD were mapped downstream. These genes are not linked to katG or katP in E. coli.  (+info)

PCR detection of Yersinia pestis in fleas: comparison with mouse inoculation. (8/989)

The "gold standard" for identifying Yersinia pestis-infected fleas has been inoculation of mice with pooled flea material. Inoculated mice are monitored for 21 days, and those that die are further analyzed for Y. pestis infection by fluorescent-antibody assay and/or culture. PCR may provide a more rapid and sensitive alternative for identifying Y. pestis in fleas. To compare these assays, samples were prepared from 381 field-collected fleas. Each flea was analyzed individually by both PCR and mouse inoculation. Sixty of the 381 flea samples were positive for Y. pestis by PCR; 48 of these PCR-positive samples caused death in mice (80.0% agreement). None of the 321 PCR-negative samples caused death. Among the 12 mice that survived inoculation with PCR-positive samples, 10 were later demonstrated by serology or culture to have been infected with Y. pestis. This suggests that death of inoculated mice is less reliable than PCR as an indicator of the presence of Y. pestis in flea samples. Mouse inoculation assays produce results that are comparable to PCR only when surviving as well as dead mice are analyzed for infection. The rapidity and sensitivity (10 to 100 CFU of Y. pestis) of PCR suggest that it could serve as a useful alternative to mouse inoculation for routine plague surveillance and outbreak investigations.  (+info)

"Yersinia pestis" is a bacterial species that is the etiological agent (cause) of plague. Plague is a severe and often fatal infectious disease that can take various forms, including bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic plagues. The bacteria are typically transmitted to humans through the bites of infected fleas, but they can also be spread by direct contact with infected animals or by breathing in droplets from an infected person's cough.

The bacterium is named after Alexandre Yersin, a Swiss-French bacteriologist who discovered it in 1894 during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong. The disease has had a significant impact on human history, causing widespread pandemics such as the Justinian Plague in the 6th century and the Black Death in the 14th century, which resulted in millions of deaths across Europe and Asia.

Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative, non-motile, coccobacillus that can survive in various environments, including soil and water. It has several virulence factors that contribute to its ability to cause disease, such as the production of antiphagocytic capsules, the secretion of proteases, and the ability to resist phagocytosis by host immune cells.

Modern antibiotic therapy can effectively treat plague if diagnosed early, but without treatment, the disease can progress rapidly and lead to severe complications or death. Preventive measures include avoiding contact with infected animals, using insect repellent and protective clothing in areas where plague is endemic, and seeking prompt medical attention for any symptoms of infection.

Medical Definition:

Plague is a severe and potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It is primarily a disease of animals but can occasionally be transmitted to humans through flea bites, direct contact with infected animals, or inhalation of respiratory droplets from an infected person or animal.

There are three main clinical manifestations of plague: bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic. Bubonic plague is characterized by painful, swollen lymph nodes (buboes) in the groin, armpits, or neck. Septicemic plague occurs when the bacteria spread throughout the bloodstream, causing severe sepsis and potentially leading to organ failure. Pneumonic plague is the most contagious form of the disease, involving infection of the lungs and transmission through respiratory droplets.

Plague is a zoonotic disease, meaning it primarily affects animals but can be transmitted to humans under certain conditions. The bacteria are typically found in small mammals, such as rodents, and their fleas. Plague is most commonly found in Africa, Asia, and South America, with the majority of human cases reported in Africa.

Early diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment can significantly improve outcomes for plague patients. Public health measures, including surveillance, vector control, and vaccination, are essential for preventing and controlling outbreaks.

"Yersinia enterocolitica" is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that is capable of causing gastrointestinal infections in humans. It is commonly found in the environment, particularly in water and soil, as well as in animals such as pigs, cattle, and birds.

Infection with Yersinia enterocolitica can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and vomiting. The infection is typically transmitted through the consumption of contaminated food or water, although it can also be spread through person-to-person contact.

Yersinia enterocolitica infections are more common in young children and older adults, and they tend to occur more frequently during colder months of the year. The bacterium is able to survive at low temperatures, which may contribute to its prevalence in cooler climates.

Diagnosis of Yersinia enterocolitica infection typically involves the detection of the bacterium in stool samples or other clinical specimens. Treatment usually involves antibiotics and supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom and before handling food, as well as cooking meats thoroughly and avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked foods.

Yersinia infections are caused by bacteria of the genus Yersinia, with Y. pestis (causing plague), Y. enterocolitica, and Y. pseudotuberculosis being the most common species associated with human illness. These bacteria can cause a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection.

Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis primarily infect the gastrointestinal tract, causing yersiniosis. Symptoms may include diarrhea (often containing blood), abdominal pain, fever, vomiting, and inflammation of the lymph nodes in the abdomen. In severe cases, these bacteria can spread to other parts of the body, leading to more serious complications such as sepsis or meningitis.

Y. pestis is infamous for causing plague, which can manifest as bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic forms. Bubonic plague results from the bite of an infected flea and causes swollen, painful lymph nodes (buboes) in the groin, armpits, or neck. Septicemic plague occurs when Y. pestis spreads through the bloodstream, causing fever, chills, extreme weakness, and potential organ failure. Pneumonic plague is a severe respiratory infection caused by inhaling infectious droplets from an infected person or animal; it can lead to rapidly progressing pneumonia, sepsis, and respiratory failure if left untreated.

Proper diagnosis of Yersinia infections typically involves laboratory testing of bodily fluids (e.g., blood, stool) or tissue samples to identify the bacteria through culture, PCR, or serological methods. Treatment usually consists of antibiotics such as doxycycline, fluoroquinolones, or aminoglycosides, depending on the severity and type of infection. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, prompt treatment of infected individuals, and vector control to reduce the risk of transmission.

A plague vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against the bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. The vaccine contains killed or weakened forms of the bacteria, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate immune cells that can recognize and fight off the infection if the person is exposed to the bacteria in the future.

There are several types of plague vaccines available, including whole-cell killed vaccines, live attenuated vaccines, and subunit vaccines. The choice of vaccine depends on various factors, such as the target population, the route of exposure (e.g., respiratory or cutaneous), and the desired duration of immunity.

Plague vaccines have been used for many years to protect military personnel and individuals at high risk of exposure to plague, such as laboratory workers and people living in areas where plague is endemic. However, their use is not widespread, and they are not currently recommended for general use in the United States or other developed countries.

It's important to note that while plague vaccines can provide some protection against the disease, they are not 100% effective, and other measures such as antibiotics and insect control are also important for preventing and treating plague infections.

Siphonaptera is the scientific order that includes fleas. Fleas are small, wingless insects with laterally compressed bodies and strong legs adapted for jumping. They are external parasites, living by hematophagy off the blood of mammals and birds. Fleas can be a nuisance to their hosts, and some people and animals have allergic reactions to flea saliva. Fleas can also transmit diseases, such as bubonic plague and murine typhus, and parasites like tapeworms.

"Yersinia pseudotuberculosis" is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is facultatively anaerobic, meaning it can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen. It is a causative agent of gastrointestinal illness in humans and animals, known as yersiniosis. The infection can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and vomiting.

The bacterium is commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil and water, and can be transmitted to humans through contaminated food or water. It can also be spread through contact with infected animals, including birds and mammals.

Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is closely related to Yersinia pestis, the bacterium that causes plague, but it is generally less virulent in humans. However, in rare cases, it can cause severe illness, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

Pore-forming cytotoxic proteins are a group of toxins that can create pores or holes in the membranes of cells, leading to cell damage or death. These toxins are produced by various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants, as a defense mechanism or to help establish an infection.

The pore-forming cytotoxic proteins can be divided into two main categories:

1. Membrane attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain-containing proteins: These are found in many organisms, including humans. They form pores by oligomerizing, or clustering together, in the target cell membrane. An example of this type of toxin is the perforin protein, which is released by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells to destroy virus-infected or cancerous cells.
2. Cholesterol-dependent cytolysins (CDCs): These are mainly produced by gram-positive bacteria. They bind to cholesterol in the target cell membrane, forming a prepore structure that then undergoes conformational changes to create a pore. An example of a CDC is alpha-hemolysin from Staphylococcus aureus, which can lyse red blood cells and damage various other cell types.

These pore-forming cytotoxic proteins play a significant role in host-pathogen interactions and have implications for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

"Yersinia" is a genus of gram-negative bacteria that includes several species capable of causing human diseases. The most notable species are:

1. Yersinia pestis: This is the causative agent of plague, a severe and potentially fatal infectious disease. Plague can manifest in different forms, such as bubonic, septicemic, or pneumonic plague, depending on the route of infection. Historically, it has been associated with major pandemics like the Justinian Plague and the Black Death.

2. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis: This species is responsible for causing a gastrointestinal illness known as pseudoappendicitis or mesenteric adenitis, which can mimic appendicitis symptoms. Infection often results from consuming contaminated food or water.

3. Yersinia enterocolitica: Similar to Y. pseudotuberculosis, this species causes gastrointestinal infections, typically presenting as enterocolitis or terminal ileitis. Symptoms may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, and fever. In rare cases, it can lead to severe complications like sepsis or extraintestinal infections.

These bacteria are primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, either by consuming contaminated food or water or coming into contact with infected animals or their excrement. Proper hygiene practices and adequate cooking of food can help prevent Yersinia infections.

Bacterial outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are a type of protein found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. The outer membrane is a unique characteristic of gram-negative bacteria, and it serves as a barrier that helps protect the bacterium from hostile environments. OMPs play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and selective permeability of the outer membrane. They are involved in various functions such as nutrient uptake, transport, adhesion, and virulence factor secretion.

OMPs are typically composed of beta-barrel structures that span the bacterial outer membrane. These proteins can be classified into several groups based on their size, function, and structure. Some of the well-known OMP families include porins, autotransporters, and two-partner secretion systems.

Porins are the most abundant type of OMPs and form water-filled channels that allow the passive diffusion of small molecules, ions, and nutrients across the outer membrane. Autotransporters are a diverse group of OMPs that play a role in bacterial pathogenesis by secreting virulence factors or acting as adhesins. Two-partner secretion systems involve the cooperation between two proteins to transport effector molecules across the outer membrane.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial OMPs is essential for developing new antibiotics and therapies that target gram-negative bacteria, which are often resistant to conventional treatments.

"Yersinia pseudotuberculosis" infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. This gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium is found in the environment, particularly in soil and water contaminated with animal feces. It can cause gastrointestinal infection in humans, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, and vomiting. In severe cases, it can spread beyond the intestines and cause complications like skin lesions, joint inflammation, and spread to the bloodstream (septicemia). The incubation period for Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infections is typically 5-10 days. Diagnosis is usually made through culture of the bacterium from stool or other bodily fluids, and treatment typically involves antibiotics. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as proper handwashing and avoiding consumption of contaminated food and water.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Gene expression regulation in bacteria refers to the complex cellular processes that control the production of proteins from specific genes. This regulation allows bacteria to adapt to changing environmental conditions and ensure the appropriate amount of protein is produced at the right time.

Bacteria have a variety of mechanisms for regulating gene expression, including:

1. Operon structure: Many bacterial genes are organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule. The expression of these genes can be coordinately regulated by controlling the transcription of the entire operon.
2. Promoter regulation: Transcription is initiated at promoter regions upstream of the gene or operon. Bacteria have regulatory proteins called sigma factors that bind to the promoter and recruit RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into RNA. The binding of sigma factors can be influenced by environmental signals, allowing for regulation of transcription.
3. Attenuation: Some operons have regulatory regions called attenuators that control transcription termination. These regions contain hairpin structures that can form in the mRNA and cause transcription to stop prematurely. The formation of these hairpins is influenced by the concentration of specific metabolites, allowing for regulation of gene expression based on the availability of those metabolites.
4. Riboswitches: Some bacterial mRNAs contain regulatory elements called riboswitches that bind small molecules directly. When a small molecule binds to the riboswitch, it changes conformation and affects transcription or translation of the associated gene.
5. CRISPR-Cas systems: Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas systems for adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids. These systems incorporate short sequences from foreign DNA into their own genome, which can then be used to recognize and cleave similar sequences in invading genetic elements.

Overall, gene expression regulation in bacteria is a complex process that allows them to respond quickly and efficiently to changing environmental conditions. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms can provide insights into bacterial physiology and help inform strategies for controlling bacterial growth and behavior.

Virulence factors are characteristics or components of a microorganism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, that contribute to its ability to cause damage or disease in a host organism. These factors can include various structures, enzymes, or toxins that allow the pathogen to evade the host's immune system, attach to and invade host tissues, obtain nutrients from the host, or damage host cells directly.

Examples of virulence factors in bacteria include:

1. Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that can trigger a strong immune response and inflammation.
2. Exotoxins: proteins secreted by some bacteria that have toxic effects on host cells, such as botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum or diphtheria toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
3. Adhesins: structures that help the bacterium attach to host tissues, such as fimbriae or pili in Escherichia coli.
4. Capsules: thick layers of polysaccharides or proteins that surround some bacteria and protect them from the host's immune system, like those found in Streptococcus pneumoniae or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
5. Invasins: proteins that enable bacteria to invade and enter host cells, such as internalins in Listeria monocytogenes.
6. Enzymes: proteins that help bacteria obtain nutrients from the host by breaking down various molecules, like hemolysins that lyse red blood cells to release iron or hyaluronidases that degrade connective tissue.

Understanding virulence factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

A "Medical History, Medieval" typically refers to the study and documentation of medical practices, knowledge, and beliefs during the Middle Ages, which spanned approximately from the 5th to the 15th century. This era saw significant developments in medicine, including the translation and dissemination of ancient Greek and Roman medical texts, the establishment of hospitals and medical schools, and the growth of surgical techniques.

During this time, medical theories were heavily influenced by the works of Hippocrates and Galen, who believed that diseases were caused by an imbalance in the four bodily fluids or "humors" (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile). Treatments often involved attempts to restore this balance through diet, lifestyle changes, and various medical interventions such as bloodletting, purgatives, and herbal remedies.

The Medieval period also saw the rise of monastic medicine, in which monasteries and convents played a crucial role in providing medical care to the sick and poor. Monks and nuns often served as healers and were known for their knowledge of herbs and other natural remedies. Additionally, during this time, Islamic medicine flourished, with physicians such as Avicenna and Rhazes making significant contributions to the field, including the development of new surgical techniques and the creation of comprehensive medical texts that were widely translated and studied in Europe.

Overall, the Medieval period was a critical time in the development of medical knowledge and practice, laying the groundwork for many modern medical concepts and practices.

Aspartate ammonia-lyase is an enzyme that plays a role in the metabolism of certain amino acids. Its systematic name is L-aspartate ammonia-lyase (ADI), and it is also known as aspartase. This enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the conversion of L-aspartic acid to fumaric acid and ammonia.

L-aspartic acid + H2O → fumaric acid + NH3

Aspartate ammonia-lyase is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In bacteria, this enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of several essential amino acids. In plants, aspartate ammonia-lyase plays a role in the synthesis of certain aromatic compounds. The human body does not produce this enzyme, so it is not relevant to medical definitions in the context of human health and disease.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Plasminogen activators are a group of enzymes that play a crucial role in the body's fibrinolytic system, which is responsible for breaking down and removing blood clots. These enzymes activate plasminogen, a zymogen (inactive precursor) found in circulation, converting it into plasmin - a protease that degrades fibrin, the insoluble protein mesh that forms the structural basis of a blood clot.

There are two main types of plasminogen activators:

1. Tissue Plasminogen Activator (tPA): This is a serine protease primarily produced by endothelial cells lining blood vessels. tPA has a higher affinity for fibrin-bound plasminogen and is therefore more specific in activating plasmin at the site of a clot, helping to localize fibrinolysis and minimize bleeding risks.
2. Urokinase Plasminogen Activator (uPA): This is another serine protease found in various tissues and body fluids, including urine. uPA can be produced by different cell types, such as macrophages and fibroblasts. Unlike tPA, uPA does not have a strong preference for fibrin-bound plasminogen and can activate plasminogen in a more general manner, which might contribute to its role in processes like tissue remodeling and cancer progression.

Plasminogen activators are essential for maintaining vascular homeostasis by ensuring the proper removal of blood clots and preventing excessive fibrin accumulation. They have also been implicated in various pathological conditions, including thrombosis, hemorrhage, and tumor metastasis.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

"Yersinia ruckeri" is a species of gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is the causative agent of enteric redmouth disease (ERM), a serious and often fatal infection in salmonid fish such as rainbow trout and Atlantic salmon. The bacteria can cause septicemia, hemorrhagic septicemia, and skin lesions in infected fish. It is not known to cause disease in humans or other animals.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

Medical Definition:

Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) is a standard measurement in toxicology that refers to the estimated amount or dose of a substance, which if ingested, injected, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin by either human or animal, would cause death in 50% of the test population. It is expressed as the mass of a substance per unit of body weight (mg/kg, μg/kg, etc.). LD50 values are often used to compare the toxicity of different substances and help determine safe dosage levels.

A bacterial genome is the complete set of genetic material, including both DNA and RNA, found within a single bacterium. It contains all the hereditary information necessary for the bacterium to grow, reproduce, and survive in its environment. The bacterial genome typically includes circular chromosomes, as well as plasmids, which are smaller, circular DNA molecules that can carry additional genes. These genes encode various functional elements such as enzymes, structural proteins, and regulatory sequences that determine the bacterium's characteristics and behavior.

Bacterial genomes vary widely in size, ranging from around 130 kilobases (kb) in Mycoplasma genitalium to over 14 megabases (Mb) in Sorangium cellulosum. The complete sequencing and analysis of bacterial genomes have provided valuable insights into the biology, evolution, and pathogenicity of bacteria, enabling researchers to better understand their roles in various diseases and potential applications in biotechnology.

"Rodentia" is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in biology. It refers to the largest order of mammals, comprising over 40% of all mammal species. Commonly known as rodents, this group includes mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, squirrels, prairie dogs, capybaras, beavers, and many others.

While "Rodentia" itself is not a medical term, certain conditions or issues related to rodents can have medical implications. For instance, rodents are known to carry and transmit various diseases that can affect humans, such as hantavirus, leptospirosis, salmonellosis, and lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV). Therefore, understanding the biology and behavior of rodents is important in the context of public health and preventive medicine.

Siderophores are low-molecular-weight organic compounds that are secreted by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, to chelate and solubilize iron from their environment. They are able to bind ferric iron (Fe3+) with very high affinity and form a siderophore-iron complex, which can then be taken up by the microorganism through specific transport systems. This allows them to acquire iron even in environments where it is present at very low concentrations or in forms that are not readily available for uptake. Siderophores play an important role in the survival and virulence of many pathogenic microorganisms, as they help them to obtain the iron they need to grow and multiply.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Madagascar" is not a medical term. It is actually the fourth-largest island country in the world, located in the Indian Ocean, off the southeastern coast of Africa. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I'd be happy to help answer those!

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Periplasmic binding proteins (PBPs) are a type of water-soluble protein found in the periplasmic space of gram-negative bacteria. They play a crucial role in the bacterial uptake of specific nutrients, such as amino acids, sugars, and ions, through a process known as active transport.

PBPs function by specifically binding to their target substrates in the extracellular environment and then shuttling them across the inner membrane into the cytoplasm. This is achieved through a complex series of interactions with other proteins, including transmembrane permeases and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters.

The binding of PBPs to their substrates typically results in a conformational change that allows for the transport of the substrate across the inner membrane. Once inside the cytoplasm, the substrate can be used for various metabolic processes, such as energy production or biosynthesis.

PBPs are often used as targets for the development of new antibiotics, as they play a critical role in bacterial survival and virulence. Inhibiting their function can disrupt essential physiological processes and lead to bacterial death.

Bacterial adhesins are proteins or structures on the surface of bacterial cells that allow them to attach to other cells or surfaces. This ability to adhere to host tissues is an important first step in the process of bacterial infection and colonization. Adhesins can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, such as proteins or sugars, enabling the bacteria to establish a close relationship with the host and evade immune responses.

There are several types of bacterial adhesins, including fimbriae, pili, and non-fimbrial adhesins. Fimbriae and pili are thin, hair-like structures that extend from the bacterial surface and can bind to a variety of host cell receptors. Non-fimbrial adhesins are proteins that are directly embedded in the bacterial cell wall and can also mediate attachment to host cells.

Bacterial adhesins play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of many bacterial infections, including urinary tract infections, respiratory tract infections, and gastrointestinal infections. Understanding the mechanisms of bacterial adhesion is important for developing new strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections.

I believe there might be a bit of confusion in your question. A "medical definition" refers to the explanation of a medical term or concept. On the other hand, "15th century" is a historical time period and does not have a medical definition per se. However, I can provide you with some context regarding the medical advancements and practices during the 15th century.

The 15th century was marked by significant developments in medicine, particularly in Europe, as it transitioned from medieval to early modern medicine. Some key aspects of 15th-century medicine include:

1. Universities and medical education: Universities became more prominent centers for medical education, with institutions like the University of Bologna, Padua, Montpellier, and Salamanca playing crucial roles in shaping medical thought. Medical faculties taught subjects such as anatomy, physiology, pathology, surgery, and pharmacology based on ancient Greek and Roman texts, mainly Galen and Hippocrates.

2. Anatomical studies: The 15th century saw the beginning of a more accurate understanding of human anatomy. Italian anatomist and physician Mondino de Luzzi (c. 1270–1326) is known for his influential anatomy textbook, "Anathomia," which was widely used during this period. Later in the century, Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), often regarded as the founder of modern human anatomy, began his groundbreaking work on detailed dissections and accurate representations of the human body.

3. Renaissance of medical illustrations: The 15th century marked a revival in medical illustrations, with artists like Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) creating highly accurate anatomical drawings based on dissections. These detailed images helped physicians better understand the human body and its functions.

4. Development of hospitals: Hospitals during this time became more organized and specialized, focusing on specific medical conditions or patient populations. For example, mental health institutions, known as "madhouses" or "asylums," were established to treat individuals with mental illnesses.

5. Plague and public health: The ongoing threat of the bubonic plague (Black Death) led to increased efforts in public health, including improved sanitation practices and the establishment of quarantine measures for infected individuals.

6. Humoral theory: Although challenged by some during this period, the ancient Greek humoral theory—which posited that the balance of four bodily fluids or "humors" (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) determined a person's health—remained influential in medical practice.

7. Surgery: Barber-surgeons continued to perform various surgical procedures, including bloodletting, tooth extraction, and amputations. However, anesthesia was still not widely used, and pain management relied on opium or alcohol-based preparations.

8. Pharmacology: The use of herbal remedies and other natural substances to treat illnesses remained popular during the 15th century. Physicians like Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) compiled extensive lists of medicinal plants and their uses, contributing to the development of modern pharmacology.

9. Astrology and medicine: Despite growing skepticism among some scholars, astrological beliefs continued to influence medical practice in the 15th century. Physicians often consulted astrological charts when diagnosing and treating patients.

10. Medical education: Universities across Europe offered formal medical education, with students studying anatomy, physiology, pathology, and pharmacology. However, many practitioners still learned their trade through apprenticeships or self-study.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Central Asia is a geographical region in Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east, and from Russia in the north to Afghanistan in the south. It includes the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

The medical definition of Central Asia may refer to the epidemiology, healthcare systems, or health issues specific to this region. For example, Central Asia has a high prevalence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, and HIV/AIDS, due to various factors including poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and mobility of populations. In addition, non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes are also becoming more prevalent in Central Asia, partly due to lifestyle changes such as unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and tobacco use.

Overall, the medical definition of Central Asia encompasses the unique health challenges and healthcare systems that exist within this geographical region.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Bacterial adhesion is the initial and crucial step in the process of bacterial colonization, where bacteria attach themselves to a surface or tissue. This process involves specific interactions between bacterial adhesins (proteins, fimbriae, or pili) and host receptors (glycoproteins, glycolipids, or extracellular matrix components). The attachment can be either reversible or irreversible, depending on the strength of interaction. Bacterial adhesion is a significant factor in initiating biofilm formation, which can lead to various infectious diseases and medical device-associated infections.

"Outbred strains" of animals in a medical context refers to populations of animals that are not genetically identical or inbred. These animals are derived from matings between individuals from different genetic backgrounds and are characterized by a high degree of genetic variability. This genetic diversity is maintained through random mating and selection, allowing for a wide range of phenotypic traits to be expressed within the population.

Outbred strains are often used in biomedical research as they provide a more genetically diverse background compared to inbred or genetically modified animal models. This genetic diversity can help to better represent human populations and improve the translatability of research findings to clinical applications. Additionally, outbred animals may be less susceptible to certain experimental artifacts that can arise from the use of highly inbred strains, such as reduced immune function or increased susceptibility to disease.

Examples of commonly used outbred animal models include the Sprague-Dawley rat and the Swiss Webster mouse. These animals are widely used in a variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, behavioral studies, and basic biomedical research.

I believe there might be a bit of confusion in your question. A "history" in medical terms usually refers to the detailed account of a patient's symptoms, illnesses, and treatments over time. It is a crucial part of the medical record and helps healthcare professionals understand the patient's health status and inform their care plans.

On the other hand, "16th century" refers to a specific period in history, spanning from 1501 to 1600 AD.

There isn't a direct medical definition for 'History, 16th Century.' However, if you are interested in learning about the medical advancements and practices during that time, I would be happy to provide some information. The 16th century was marked by significant developments in anatomy, surgery, and pharmacology, thanks to pioneers like Andreas Vesalius, Ambroise Paré, and William Shakespeare, who incorporated medical themes into his plays.

An operon is a genetic unit in prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) consisting of a cluster of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule, which then undergoes translation to produce multiple proteins. This genetic organization allows for the coordinated regulation of genes that are involved in the same metabolic pathway or functional process. The unit typically includes promoter and operator regions that control the transcription of the operon, as well as structural genes encoding the proteins. Operons were first discovered in bacteria, but similar genetic organizations have been found in some eukaryotic organisms, such as yeast.

Lipid A is the biologically active component of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It is responsible for the endotoxic activity of LPS and plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of gram-negative bacterial infections. Lipid A is a glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, consisting of a glucosamine disaccharide backbone with multiple fatty acid chains and phosphate groups attached to it. It can induce the release of proinflammatory cytokines, fever, and other symptoms associated with sepsis when introduced into the bloodstream.

A disease reservoir refers to a population or group of living organisms, including humans, animals, and even plants, that can naturally carry and transmit a particular pathogen (disease-causing agent) without necessarily showing symptoms of the disease themselves. These hosts serve as a source of infection for other susceptible individuals, allowing the pathogen to persist and circulate within a community or environment.

Disease reservoirs can be further classified into:

1. **Primary (or Main) Reservoir**: This refers to the species that primarily harbors and transmits the pathogen, contributing significantly to its natural ecology and maintaining its transmission cycle. For example, mosquitoes are the primary reservoirs for many arboviruses like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses.

2. **Amplifying Hosts**: These hosts can become infected with the pathogen and experience a high rate of replication, leading to an increased concentration of the pathogen in their bodies. This allows for efficient transmission to other susceptible hosts or vectors. For instance, birds are amplifying hosts for West Nile virus, as they can become viremic (have high levels of virus in their blood) and infect feeding mosquitoes that then transmit the virus to other animals and humans.

3. **Dead-end Hosts**: These hosts may become infected with the pathogen but do not contribute significantly to its transmission cycle, as they either do not develop sufficient quantities of the pathogen to transmit it or do not come into contact with potential vectors or susceptible hosts. For example, humans are dead-end hosts for many zoonotic diseases like rabies, as they cannot transmit the virus to other humans.

Understanding disease reservoirs is crucial in developing effective strategies for controlling and preventing infectious diseases, as it helps identify key species and environments that contribute to their persistence and transmission.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Sciuridae" is not a medical term. It is a scientific name in the field of biology, specifically for the family of animals that include squirrels, chipmunks, marmots, and prairie dogs, among others. These are rodents known for their agility in climbing trees and their ability to store food.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Gene deletion is a type of mutation where a segment of DNA, containing one or more genes, is permanently lost or removed from a chromosome. This can occur due to various genetic mechanisms such as homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining, or other types of genomic rearrangements.

The deletion of a gene can have varying effects on the organism, depending on the function of the deleted gene and its importance for normal physiological processes. If the deleted gene is essential for survival, the deletion may result in embryonic lethality or developmental abnormalities. However, if the gene is non-essential or has redundant functions, the deletion may not have any noticeable effects on the organism's phenotype.

Gene deletions can also be used as a tool in genetic research to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes. For example, researchers may use gene deletion techniques to create genetically modified animal models to investigate the impact of gene deletion on disease progression or development.

Rodent-borne diseases are infectious diseases transmitted to humans (and other animals) by rodents, their parasites or by contact with rodent urine, feces, or saliva. These diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Some examples of rodent-borne diseases include Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome, Leptospirosis, Salmonellosis, Rat-bite fever, and Plague. It's important to note that rodents can also cause allergic reactions in some people through their dander, urine, or saliva. Proper sanitation, rodent control measures, and protective equipment when handling rodents can help prevent the spread of these diseases.

Bioterrorism is the intentional use of microorganisms or toxins derived from living organisms to cause disease, death, or disruption in noncombatant populations. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or food and may take hours to days to cause illness, depending on the agent and route of exposure. Examples of biological agents that could be used as weapons include anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism toxin, and viruses that cause hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola. Bioterrorism is a form of terrorism and is considered a public health emergency because it has the potential to cause widespread illness and death, as well as social disruption and economic loss.

The medical definition of bioterrorism focuses on the use of biological agents as weapons and the public health response to such attacks. It is important to note that the majority of incidents involving the intentional release of biological agents have been limited in scope and have not resulted in widespread illness or death. However, the potential for large-scale harm makes bioterrorism a significant concern for public health officials and emergency responders.

Preparation and response to bioterrorism involve a multidisciplinary approach that includes medical professionals, public health officials, law enforcement agencies, and government organizations at the local, state, and federal levels. Preparedness efforts include developing plans and procedures for responding to a bioterrorism event, training healthcare providers and first responders in the recognition and management of biological agents, and stockpiling vaccines, medications, and other resources that may be needed during a response.

In summary, bioterrorism is the intentional use of biological agents as weapons to cause illness, death, or disruption in noncombatant populations. It is considered a public health emergency due to its potential for widespread harm and requires a multidisciplinary approach to preparedness and response.

Bodily secretions are substances that are produced and released by various glands and organs in the body. These secretions help maintain the body's homeostasis, protect it from external threats, and aid in digestion and other physiological processes. Examples of bodily secretions include:

1. Sweat: A watery substance produced by sweat glands to regulate body temperature through evaporation.
2. Sebaceous secretions: Oily substances produced by sebaceous glands to lubricate and protect the skin and hair.
3. Saliva: A mixture of water, enzymes, electrolytes, and mucus produced by salivary glands to aid in digestion and speech.
4. Tears: A mixture of water, electrolytes, and proteins produced by the lacrimal glands to lubricate and protect the eyes.
5. Mucus: A slippery substance produced by mucous membranes lining various body cavities, such as the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, to trap and remove foreign particles and pathogens.
6. Gastric juices: Digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach to break down food.
7. Pancreatic juices: Digestive enzymes produced by the pancreas to further break down food in the small intestine.
8. Bile: A greenish-brown alkaline fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, which helps digest fats and eliminate waste products.
9. Menstrual blood: The shedding of the uterine lining that occurs during menstruation, containing blood, mucus, and endometrial tissue.
10. Vaginal secretions: Fluid produced by the vagina to maintain its moisture, pH balance, and provide a protective barrier against infections.
11. Semen: A mixture of sperm cells, fluids from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands that aids in the transportation and survival of sperm during sexual reproduction.

DNA transposable elements, also known as transposons or jumping genes, are mobile genetic elements that can change their position within a genome. They are composed of DNA sequences that include genes encoding the enzymes required for their own movement (transposase) and regulatory elements. When activated, the transposase recognizes specific sequences at the ends of the element and catalyzes the excision and reintegration of the transposable element into a new location in the genome. This process can lead to genetic variation, as the insertion of a transposable element can disrupt the function of nearby genes or create new combinations of gene regulatory elements. Transposable elements are widespread in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes and are thought to play a significant role in genome evolution.

Bacteriocins are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria as a defense mechanism against other competing bacterial strains. They primarily target and inhibit the growth of closely related bacterial species, although some have a broader spectrum of activity. Bacteriocins can be classified into different types based on their structural features, molecular masses, and mechanisms of action.

These antimicrobial peptides often interact with the cell membrane of target bacteria, causing pore formation, depolarization, or disrupting cell wall biosynthesis, ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. Bacteriocins have gained interest in recent years as potential alternatives to conventional antibiotics due to their narrow spectrum of activity and reduced likelihood of inducing resistance. They are being explored for use in food preservation, agricultural applications, and as therapeutic agents in the medical field.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Attenuated vaccines consist of live microorganisms that have been weakened (attenuated) through various laboratory processes so they do not cause disease in the majority of recipients but still stimulate an immune response. The purpose of attenuation is to reduce the virulence or replication capacity of the pathogen while keeping it alive, allowing it to retain its antigenic properties and induce a strong and protective immune response.

Examples of attenuated vaccines include:

1. Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV): This vaccine uses live but weakened polioviruses to protect against all three strains of the disease-causing poliovirus. The weakened viruses replicate in the intestine and induce an immune response, which provides both humoral (antibody) and cell-mediated immunity.
2. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: This combination vaccine contains live attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella viruses. It is given to protect against these three diseases and prevent their spread in the population.
3. Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: This vaccine uses a weakened form of the varicella-zoster virus, which causes chickenpox. By introducing this attenuated virus into the body, it stimulates an immune response that protects against future infection with the wild-type virus.
4. Yellow fever vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to prevent yellow fever, a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and South America. The vaccine contains a weakened form of the yellow fever virus that cannot cause the disease but still induces an immune response.
5. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to protect against tuberculosis (TB). It contains a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which does not cause TB in humans but stimulates an immune response that provides some protection against the disease.

Attenuated vaccines are generally effective at inducing long-lasting immunity and can provide robust protection against targeted diseases. However, they may pose a risk for individuals with weakened immune systems, as the attenuated viruses or bacteria could potentially cause illness in these individuals. Therefore, it is essential to consider an individual's health status before administering live attenuated vaccines.

I believe there might be a bit of confusion in your question. A "history" in medical terms usually refers to the detailed account of a patient's symptoms, illnesses, and treatments received, which is used by healthcare professionals to understand their health status and provide appropriate care. It is not typically associated with a specific century like the 17th century.

If you are asking for information about the medical practices or significant developments in the field of medicine during the 17th century, I would be happy to provide some insight into that. The 17th century was a time of great advancement in medical knowledge and practice, with several key figures and events shaping the course of medical history.

Some notable developments in medicine during the 17th century include:

1. William Harvey's discovery of the circulation of blood (1628): English physician William Harvey published his groundbreaking work "De Motu Cordis" (On the Motion of the Heart and Blood), which described the circulatory system and the role of the heart in pumping blood throughout the body. This discovery fundamentally changed our understanding of human anatomy and physiology.
2. The development of the microscope (1600s): The invention of the microscope allowed scientists to observe structures that were previously invisible to the naked eye, such as cells, bacteria, and other microorganisms. This technology opened up new avenues of research in anatomy, physiology, and pathology, paving the way for modern medical science.
3. The establishment of the Royal Society (1660): The Royal Society, a prominent scientific organization in the UK, was founded during this century to promote scientific inquiry and share knowledge among its members. Many notable scientists and physicians, including Robert Hooke and Christopher Wren, were part of the society and contributed significantly to the advancement of medical science.
4. The Smallpox Vaccination (1796): Although this occurred near the end of the 18th century, the groundwork for Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine was laid during the 17th century. Smallpox was a significant public health issue during this time, and Jenner's development of an effective vaccine marked a major milestone in the history of medicine and public health.
5. The work of Sylvius de le Boe (1614-1672): A Dutch physician and scientist, Sylvius de le Boe made significant contributions to our understanding of human anatomy and physiology. He was the first to describe the circulation of blood in the lungs and identified the role of the liver in metabolism.

These are just a few examples of the many advancements that took place during the 17th century, shaping the course of medical history and laying the foundation for modern medicine.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kazakhstan" is not a medical term or concept. It is the world's largest landlocked country, located in Central Asia. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Biological warfare agents are pathogenic organisms or toxins that are intentionally used in a military conflict or act of terrorism to cause disease, death, or disruption. These agents can be bacteria, viruses, fungi, or toxins produced by living organisms. They can be spread through the air, water, or food and can cause a range of illnesses, from mild symptoms to serious diseases that can be fatal if left untreated.

Biological warfare agents are considered weapons of mass destruction because they have the potential to cause widespread harm and panic. The use of such agents is prohibited by international law, and their production, storage, and transportation are closely monitored and regulated. Despite these efforts, there remains a risk that biological warfare agents could be used in acts of terrorism or other hostile actions.

Iron-binding proteins, also known as transferrins, are a type of protein responsible for the transport and storage of iron in the body. They play a crucial role in maintaining iron homeostasis by binding free iron ions and preventing them from participating in harmful chemical reactions that can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cause cellular damage.

Transferrin is the primary iron-binding protein found in blood plasma, while lactoferrin is found in various exocrine secretions such as milk, tears, and saliva. Both transferrin and lactoferrin have a similar structure, consisting of two lobes that can bind one ferric ion (Fe3+) each. When iron is bound to these proteins, they are called holo-transferrin or holo-lactoferrin; when they are unbound, they are referred to as apo-transferrin or apo-lactoferrin.

Iron-binding proteins have a high affinity for iron and can regulate the amount of free iron available in the body. They help prevent iron overload, which can lead to oxidative stress and cellular damage, as well as iron deficiency, which can result in anemia and other health problems.

In summary, iron-binding proteins are essential for maintaining iron homeostasis by transporting and storing iron ions, preventing them from causing harm to the body's cells.

Polymyxin B is an antibiotic derived from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. It belongs to the class of polypeptide antibiotics and has a cyclic structure with a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region, which allows it to interact with and disrupt the bacterial cell membrane. Polymyxin B is primarily active against gram-negative bacteria, including many multidrug-resistant strains. It is used clinically to treat serious infections caused by these organisms, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections. However, its use is limited due to potential nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.

... (Y. pestis; formerly Pasteurella pestis) is a gram-negative, non-motile, coccobacillus bacterium without spores ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yersinia pestis. Wikispecies has information related to Yersinia pestis. A list of ... Yersinia Pestis) at Drugs.com Wyndham Lathem speaking on "From Mild to Murderous: How Yersinia pestis Evolved to Cause ... Yersinia pestis is a parasite of its host, the rat flea, which is also a parasite of rats, hence Y. pestis is a hyperparasite. ...
Yersinia pestis); the true (man-made) level of lead pollution in the air; trade and migration patterns across Eurasia and the ...
"Yersinia pestis" (PDF). Wadsworth Center. 2006. "Bacteria Table" (PDF). Creighton University School of Medicine. Archived from ... Bubeck SS, Dube PH (September 2007). "Yersinia pestis CO92ΔyopH Is a Potent Live, Attenuated Plague Vaccine". Clin. Vaccine ... and Yersinia pestis. These can exist intracellularly, but can exist outside of host cells.[citation needed] Bacterial pathogens ...
Some members of Yersinia are pathogenic in humans; in particular, Y. pestis is the causative agent of the plague. Rodents are ... Y. pestis is the causative agent of plague. The disease caused by Y. enterocolitica is called yersiniosis. Yersinia may be ... "Discovery of Yersinia pestis". Loghem, J. J. (1944). "The classification of the plague-bacillus". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 10 ( ... In 1944, van Loghem reclassified the species P. pestis and P. rondentium into a new genus, Yersinia. Following the introduction ...
Titball, R. W.; Williamson, E. D. (2004). "Yersinia pestis (plague) vaccines". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 4 (6): 965 ... disease vaccine Staphylococcus aureus vaccine Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine Syphilis vaccine Tularemia vaccine Yersinia pestis ...
Titball, R. W.; Williamson, E. D. (2004). "Yersinia pestis (plague) vaccines". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 4 (6): 965 ...
... and Yersinia pestis. Many viral agents have been studied and/or weaponized, including some of the Bunyaviridae (especially Rift ...
Plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which exists in parasitic fleas of several species in the wild and of rats ... A study published in the journal Nature in June 2022 found evidence for Yersinia pestis in the teeth of early plague victims in ... Yersinia pestis: Retrospective and Perspective. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. Vol. 918. pp. 1-26. doi:10.1007/ ... It has been suggested that evolutionary processes may have favored less virulent strains of the pathogen Yersinia pestis. In ...
"Black Death (Yersinia pestis) genomics". McMaster University Ancient DNA Centre. Retrieved 19 March 2019. Minard, Anne. "Spawn ... After examining bacterial samples from 46 teeth and 53 bones, the research team was able to establish that Yersinia pestis was ... 2011). "A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death". Nature. 478 (7370): 506-510. Bibcode:2011Natur.478 ... Yersinia pestis, recovered from plague victims at a medieval London burial site. The archaeological excavation of the plague ...
2017). "Yersinia pestis strains of ancient phylogenetic branch 0.ANT are widely spread in the high-mountain plague foci of ... April 2014). "Yersinia pestis and the plague of Justinian 541-543 AD: a genomic analysis". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 14 ... Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis spread by fleas, but during the Black Death it probably also took a ... Genetic analysis points to the evolution of Yersinia pestis in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and ...
Shewanella oneidensis and Yersinia pestis. Certain eukaryotes are also facultative anaerobes, including fungi such as ...
Harbin 35 Yersinia pestis biovar Microtus Yersinia pestis biovar Microtus str. 91001 Yersinia pestis biovar Orientalis Yersinia ... Ogawa RND6878 Yersinia pestis biovar Antiqua Yersinia pestis biovar Antiqua str. B42003004 Yersinia pestis biovar Antiqua str. ... IP674 Yersinia pestis biovar Orientalis str. India 195 Yersinia pestis biovar Orientalis str. MG05-1020 Yersinia pestis biovar ... PEXU2 Yersinia pestis subsp. microtus bv. Altaica Yersinia pestis subsp. microtus bv. Caucasica Yersinia pestis subsp. microtus ...
Despite these troubles, the band returned to Grieghallen to begin work on their next album, Yersinia Pestis. Massacre Records ... Jormundgand (CD/LP, 1995) Av Norrøn Ætt (CD, 1997) Terrorveldet (MCD, 1999) Blod og Ild (CD, 2000) Yersinia Pestis (CD, 2003) ... "Reviews for Helheim (Nor)'s Yersinia Pestis". Official website Helheim at AllMusic (Pages using the EasyTimeline extension, Use ...
2004). "Insights into the evolution of Yersinia pestis through whole-genome comparison with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis". Proc ... 2006). "Complete genome sequence of Yersinia pestis strains Antiqua and Nepal516: evidence of gene reduction in an emerging ... 2004). "Complete genome sequence of Yersinia pestis strain 91001, an isolate avirulent to humans". DNA Res. 11 (3): 179-97. doi ... 2002). "Genome sequence of Yersinia pestis KIM". J Bacteriol. 184 (16): 4601-11. doi:10.1128/JB.184.16.4601-4611.2002. PMC ...
citri Yersinia pestis Oliver JD (February 2005). "The viable but nonculturable state in bacteria". The Journal of Microbiology ... "Entry of Yersinia pestis into the viable but nonculturable state in a low-temperature tap water microcosm". PLOS ONE. 6 (3): ...
It is also produced by Yersinia pestis. Coagulase reacts with prothrombin in the blood. The resulting complex is called ...
"Yersinia pestis DNA from Skeletal Remains from the 6th Century AD Reveals Insights into Justinianic Plague". PLOS Pathogens. 9 ... "Yersinia pestis: New Evidence for an Old Infection". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e49803. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...749803B. doi:10.1371/journal ...
"Molecular identification by 'suicide PCR' of Yersinia pestis in the pulp tissue of teeth" and other forms of analysis on ... of Yersinia pestis as the agent of medieval black death". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 97 (23): 12800-3. Bibcode:2000PNAS... ... Orientalis-like Yersinia pestis, and plague pandemics". Emerg Infect Dis. 10 (9): 1585-92. doi:10.3201/eid1009.030933. PMC ... bubonic plague was the cause of the Justinian plague and the Black Death has been strongly supported by finding Yersinia pestis ...
"Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death". PLOS Pathogens. 6 (10): e1001134. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001134 ... to the far flung nature of their travels the Crusaders imported the Oriental rat flea carrying the bacterium Yersinia pestis ...
Yersinia pestis has been discovered in archaeological finds from the Late Bronze Age (~3800 BP). The bacteria is identified by ... Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. One to seven days after exposure to the ... October 2015). "Early divergent strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 years ago". Cell. 163 (3): 571-582. doi:10.1016/j. ... June 2018). "Analysis of 3800-year-old Yersinia pestis genomes suggests Bronze Age origin for bubonic plague". Nature ...
... coli OmpA and Yersinia pestis Ail. Several of these proteins are vaccine candidates. E. coli OmpA was shown to make specific ... "Structural insights into Ail-mediated adhesion in Yersinia pestis". Structure. 19 (11): 1672-82. doi:10.1016/j.str.2011.08.010 ... The Y. pestis protein Ail binds to laminin and heparin, therefore allowing bacterial attachment to host cells. The Borrelia ...
The causative bacterium, Yersinia pestis, was identified in 1894. The association with fleas, and in particular rat fleas in ...
Earlier samples of Yersinia pestis DNA have been found in skeletons dating from 3000 to 800 BC, across West and East Eurasia. ... The strain of Yersinia pestis responsible for the Black Death, the devastating pandemic of bubonic plague, does not appear to ... October 26, 2017). "Yersinia pestis strains of ancient phylogenetic branch 0.ANT are widely spread in the high-mountain plague ... April 2014). "Yersinia pestis and the Plague of Justinian 541-543 AD: a genomic analysis". The Lancet. 14 (4): 319-326. doi: ...
Portnoy, D A; Falkow, S (1981-12-01). "Virulence-associated plasmids from Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pestis". Journal ... Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and Yersinia pestis, and discovered what turned out to be the first effectors of type III ... In the Falkow Lab, he worked on the conserved virulence plasmids in Yersinia enterocolitica, ... "Characterization of plasmids and plasmid-associated determinants of Yersinia enterocolitica pathogenesis". Infection and ...
Efficient transmission of Yersinia pestis is generally thought to occur only through the bites of fleas whose mid guts become ... Their results showed no genetic evidence for Y. pestis, and Cooper concluded that though in 2003 "[w]e cannot rule out Yersinia ... The confirmation in 2010 and 2011 that Yersinia pestis DNA was associated with a large number of plague sites has led ... 2010), a multinational team that investigated the role of Yersinia pestis in the Black Death. The paper detailed the results of ...
This was demonstrated during studies of the plague, Yersinia pestis, which apparently evolved from a mild gastrointestinal ... December 2004). "Microevolution and history of the plague bacillus, Yersinia pestis". Proceedings of the National Academy of ... October 2001). "Genome sequence of Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague". Nature. 413 (6855): 523-7. Bibcode: ... and Yersinia pestis. Over time, the pseudogenes are deleted, and the organisms become fully dependent on their host as either ...
"Role of Yersinia murine toxin in survival of Yersinia pestis in the midgut of the flea vector". Science. 296 (5568): 733-735. ... "Insights into the evolution of Yersinia pestis through whole-genome comparison with Yersinia pseudotuberculosis". Proceedings ... Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative bacterium and belongs to the family of Enterobatteriaceae. Its closest relatives are ... aDNA Yersinia pestis Salmonella enterica DNA microarray DNA libraries NGS Spyrou, Maria A.; Bos, Kirsten I.; Herbig, Alexander ...
... in which the authors discovered fragments of a unique strain of the plague pathogen Yersinia pestis. Plasmids of Y. pestis have ... Y. pestis existed over Eurasia during the Bronze Age. Estimates of the age of the most recent common ancestor of all Y. pestis ... Rasmussen, Simon; Allentoft, Morten Erik (2015). "Early Divergent Strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 Years Ago". Cell ... Mark Achtman (October 31, 2010). "Yersinia pestis genome sequencing identifies patterns of global phylogenetic diversity". ...
On June 14, Kitasato discovered that the bacillus, now known as Yersinia pestis, that was the direct cause of the plague. ... The bacillus was later renamed Yersinia pestis in Yersin's honour. Some historians consider the plague as the starting point of ...
Antibody to Yersinia pestis in sera of dogs and cats. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1971. 124(5): pp. 527-531. Baltazard ... Karimi, Y., et al., Particularités des souches de Yersinia pestis isolés dans le nord-est du Brésil. Ann Inst Pasteur Microbiol ... The scope of this laboratory is as follows: Tests for bacteria Yersinia pestis including serological tests (ELISA and rapid ... Characteristics of strains of Yersinia pestis isolated in the northeastern part of Brazil. ...
Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis; formerly Pasteurella pestis) is a gram-negative, non-motile, coccobacillus bacterium without spores ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yersinia pestis. Wikispecies has information related to Yersinia pestis. A list of ... Yersinia Pestis) at Drugs.com Wyndham Lathem speaking on "From Mild to Murderous: How Yersinia pestis Evolved to Cause ... Yersinia pestis is a parasite of its host, the rat flea, which is also a parasite of rats, hence Y. pestis is a hyperparasite. ...
637000354: Yersinia pestis bv. Microtus 91001. organism-specific. Integrated Microbial Genomes. Notes:. Groups interested in ... Yersinia pestis biovar Microtus str. 91001. Taxonomy ID: 229193 (for references in articles please use NCBI:txid229193). ... Genetics of metabolic variations between Yersinia pestis biovars and the proposal of a new biovar, microtus. J. Bacteriol. ( ... Complete genome sequence of Yersinia pestis strain 91001, an isolate avirulent to humans. DNA Research (2004) 11:179-197. ...
Yersinia pestis (Lehmann and Neumann, 1896) van Loghem, 1944. Taxonomic Serial No.: 967822 (Download Help) Yersinia pestis TSN ...
Bacteria; Pseudomonadota; Gammaproteobacteria; Enterobacterales; Yersiniaceae; Yersinia. Brite. KEGG organisms [BR:br08601]. ...
Explore the impact of Yersinia Pestis on history, understand its symptoms, and discover effective prevention strategies. Stay ... Life Cycle of Yersinia pestis. Id like to start our deep dive into Yersinia pestis by detailing its life cycle. However, I ... What does Yersinia pestis look like in Gram stain?. Yersinia pestis is a small, Gram-negative coccobacillus that frequently ... Defining Yersinia pestis. Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. ...
... pestis causation of the Black Death and subsequent plague outbreaks. Today Ill discuss what I see as weaknesses in these ... Did Yersinia pestis really cause Black Plague? Part 2: Examination of the criticisms * facebook ... Did Yersinia pestis really cause Black Plague? Part 2: Examination of the criticisms ... have ever been found to be infected with Yersinia pestis, in contrast to 51 in North America--but again, this is an ...
Yersinia pestis--the bacterium that causes bubonic plague--still causes thousands of human illnesses every year. In modern ... Did Yersinia pestis really cause Black Plague? Part 5: Nail in the coffin * facebook ... Despite its reputation as a scourge of antiquity, Yersinia pestis--the bacterium that causes bubonic plague--still causes ... It is true that some scientific investigations of plague graves concluded that there were no signs of Yersinia Pestis, but ...
Through these carriers, Yersinia pestis is able to invade human cells and create diseases. Yersinia pestis are not rich in ... Yersinia pestis is a rod shaped gram-negative bacteria that can also have a spherical shape. It is also covered by a slime ... Yersinia pestis is a rod shaped gram-negative bacteria that can also have a spherical shape. It is also covered by a slime ... Yersinia pestis can be killed by mild heat (55°C) and by treatment with 0.5 percent phenol for 15 minutes. It is susceptible to ...
If you imagine the bubonic plague, based on what you learned as a kid, you probably imagine something similar to Pieter Bruegels 1562 painting, The Triumph of Death. Dead bodies in piles. Helpless civilians sprawled on the ground in anguish. Panicked crowds trying to flee as the village burns and falls into disarray. Total mayhem ...
Timeline for Species Yersinia pestis [TaxId:632] from d.198.1.1 Chaperone protein YscB: *Species Yersinia pestis [TaxId:632] ... PDB entry in Species: Yersinia pestis [TaxId: 632]:. *Domain(s) for 1xkp: *. Domain d1xkpc1: 1xkp C:2-127 [122088]. Other ... Lineage for Species: Yersinia pestis [TaxId: 632]. *Root: SCOPe 2.08 *. Class d: Alpha and beta proteins (a+b) [53931] (396 ... Species Yersinia pestis [TaxId:632] [142903] (1 PDB entry). Uniprot Q56973 2-127. ...
Until recently, it was not certain whether the bacterium Yersinia pestis -- known to cause the plague today -- was responsible ... June 15, 2022 The Black Death, the biggest pandemic of our history, was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and lasted in ... Until recently, it was not certain whether the bacterium Yersinia pestis -- known to cause the plague today -- was responsible ... May 30, 2023 Researchers have identified three 4,000-year-old British cases of Yersinia pestis, the bacteria causing the plague ...
Yersinia pestis disease : pathogenesis and treatment / Luther Lindler. Author: Lindler, Luther E. National Library of Medicine ... He is the author of numerous review articles on Y pestis and is the senior editor of the recent book Biological Weapons Defense ... He is the author of numerous review articles on Y pestis and is the senior editor of the recent book Biological Weapons Defense ...
While studying Yersinia pestis, the bacteria responsible for epidemics of plague such as the Black Death, Wyndham Lathem, Ph.D ... While studying Yersinia pestis, the bacteria responsible for epidemics of plague such as the Black Death, Wyndham Lathem, Ph.D ... A scanning electron microscope micrograph depicting a mass of Yersinia pestis bacteria in the foregut of an infected flea. ... Citation: How small genetic change in Yersinia pestis changed human history (2015, June 30) retrieved 1 December 2023 from ...
The phages exhibited relatively wide host ranges among Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and related species. One-step growth curve ... The Yersinia bacteriophages fPS-2, fPS-65, and fPS-90, isolated from pig stools, have long contractile tails and elongated ... "T4-like Bacteriophages Isolated from Pig Stools Infect Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia pestis Using LPS and OmpF as ... "T4-like Bacteriophages Isolated from Pig Stools Infect Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and Yersinia pestis Using LPS and OmpF as ...
Yersinia pestis infection future or investigational therapies ‎ (← links). *Yersinia pestis infection case study one ‎ (← links ... Yersinia pestis infection secondary prevention ‎ (← links). *Yersinia pestis infection epidemiology and demographics ‎ (← links ... Yersinia pestis infection screening ‎ (← links). *Yersinia pestis infection natural history, complications and prognosis ‎ (← ... Pages that link to "Yersinia pestis infection chest x ray". ← Yersinia pestis infection chest x ray ...
... transporter nanT partial - Gentaur.com - Product info ... Recombinant Yersinia pestis bv. Antiqua Putative sialic acid transporter (nanT)[Putative sialic acid transporter (nanT)] ... Yersinia pestis bv Antiqua Putative sialic acid transporter nanT partial selection audit. ... Recombinant Yersinia pestis Putative sialic acid transporter (nanT)[Putative sialic acid transporter (nanT)] ...
... é an baictéar Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis; Pasteurella pestis roimhe seo) a bhaineann le Yersinia pseudotuberculosis agus ... é Yersinia pestis, an dreancaid francaigh, ar seadán francaigh é faoi seach, mar sin is hipearparaisít é Y. pestis. ... Aisghafa ó "https://ga.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yersinia_pestis&oldid=1155953" ... Yersinia enterocolitica araon. Is orgánach anaeróbach ilacmhainneach é ar féidir leis daoine a ionfhabhtú tríd an dreancaid ...
Isolamento da Yersinia pestis nos focos pestosos do Nordeste do Brasil no período de 1966 a 1982 Isolation of Yersinia pestis ... Isolamento da Yersinia pestis nos focos pestosos do Nordeste do Brasil no período de 1966 a 1982 ... O isolamento da Yersinia pestis de material proveniente de 13 Municípios do Estado de Pernambuco, 7 do Ceará, 3 da Paraíba, 1 ... Isolation of Yersinia pestis in plague foci of Northeast Brazil from 1966 to 1982 ...
Because Yersinia pestis HasA (HasAyp) presents a Gln at position 32, we determined the structures of apo-and holo-HasAyp. ... The Hemophore HasA from Yersinia pestis (HasAyp) Coordinates Hemin with a Single Residue, Tyr75, and with Minimal ... The Hemophore HasA from Yersinia pestis (HasAyp) Coordinates Hemin with a Single Residue, Tyr75, and with Minimal ...
Availability of an Environmental Assessment for Field Testing of a Yersinia Pestis Vaccine, Live Raccoon Poxvirus Vector, 23207 ... Product: Yersinia Pestis Vaccine, Live Raccoon Poxvirus Vector. Possible Field Test Locations: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New ... Product: Yersinia Pestis Vaccine, Live Raccoon Poxvirus Vector. Possible Field Test Locations: Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New ... The above-mentioned product consists of a live recombinant raccoon poxvirus vector expressing two Yersinia pestis proteins. The ...
ABSTRACT Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of bubonic and pneumonic plagues, has undergone detailed study at the molecular ... The 102-kb pgm locus of Yersinia pestis: sequence analysis and comparison of selected regions among different Yersinia pestis ... Role of Yersinia murine toxin in survival of Yersinia pestis in the midgut of the flea vector. Science 296 : 733-735. ... Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague, is a recently emerged clone of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96 ...
Relative immunogenicity and protection potential of candidate Yersinia Pestis antigens against lethal mucosal plague challenge ... Relative immunogenicity and protection potential of candidate Yersinia Pestis antigens against lethal mucosal plague challenge ... Relative immunogenicity and protection potential of candidate Yersinia Pestis antigens against lethal mucosal plague challenge ...
Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, is endemic to the Caucasus region but few reference strain genome sequences ... Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, is endemic to the Caucasus region but few reference strain genome sequences ... Genome assemblies for 11 Yersinia pestis strains isolated in the Caucasus region. Authors: Zhgenti, Ekaterine and Johnson, ...
"Yersinia pestis Orientalis in Remains of Ancient Plague Patients" 13, no. 2 (2007). Drancourt, Michel et al. "Yersinia pestis ... Yersinia pestis DNA was recently detected in human remains from 2 ancient plague pandemics in France and Germany. We have now ... Title : Yersinia pestis Orientalis in Remains of Ancient Plague Patients Personal Author(s) : Drancourt, Michel;Signoli, Michel ... 2007). Yersinia pestis Orientalis in Remains of Ancient Plague Patients. 13(2). Drancourt, Michel et al. " ...
114 Y. pestis isolates were screened. Only two YopT full-size isoforms were found among them. The endemic allele (N149) was ... Recently Y. pestis cysteine protease YopT has been explored as a potential drug target. Targets conserved in the pathogen ... Antibiotic therapy of plague is hampered by the recent isolation of Yersinia pestis strain resistant to all of antibiotics ... Antibiotic therapy of plague is hampered by the recent isolation of Yersinia pestis strain resistant to all of antibiotics ...
Yersinia pestis) case definitions; uniform criteria used to define a disease for public health surveillance. ... Plague (Yersinia pestis) , 2020 Case Definition. *Plague (Yersinia pestis) , 1996 Case Definition ...
Differentiating Yersinia Pestis Infection from other Diseases. Epidemiology and Demographics. Risk Factors. Screening. Natural ... Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=Yersinia_pestis_infection&oldid=1644780" ...
Im Y. Pestis.. Im a Gram negative Enterobacteriaceae bacteria.. Im from the Yersiniae tribe.. I am the cause of the Black ... Chiar o rebotezasem Yersinia pe o vecină cu numele ăstă, pentru că-mi făcu zile negre timp de opt ani. Probabil am jignit ...
  • Y. pestis was discovered in 1894 by Alexandre Yersin, a Swiss/French physician and bacteriologist from the Pasteur Institute, during an epidemic of the plague in Hong Kong. (wikipedia.org)
  • The most well-known disease caused by Yersinia pestis is the Bubonic plague. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Did Yersinia pestis really cause Black Plague? (scienceblogs.com)
  • Yesterday I introduced criticisms that have been raised against Y. pestis causation of the Black Death and subsequent plague outbreaks. (scienceblogs.com)
  • They use similar documentation to argue that individuals were well-versed in symptoms of the plague and recognized it immediately when it showed up in a village, but they then discount this recognition when it comes to the actual discovery of the putative causative agent of the plague, Y. pestis , in 1894, or even to the 1720 Marseille outbreak I mentioned in the previous post. (scienceblogs.com)
  • Despite its reputation as a scourge of antiquity, Yersinia pestis --the bacterium that causes bubonic plague-- still causes thousands of human illnesses every year . (scienceblogs.com)
  • When Y. pestis was first confirmed as the cause of bubonic plague during an 1894 outbreak in Hong Kong , most people assumed that we also now knew the cause of the 14th-century Black Death, and the later plague outbreaks that resurfaced periodically. (scienceblogs.com)
  • More recently, we've been able to test these claims, using paleomicrobiology to look for molecular evidence of Y. pestis in skeletons that presumably died of plague. (scienceblogs.com)
  • Two of the authors (SW and JM) have previously argued that the epidemiology, virulence, and population dynamics of the Black Death were too different from those factors of modern yersinial plague to have been caused by Y. pestis (13). (scienceblogs.com)
  • Until recently, it was not certain whether the bacterium Yersinia pestis -- known to cause the plague today -- was responsible for that most deadly outbreak of disease ever. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Now, the University of Tübingen's Institute of Scientific Archaeology and McMaster University in Canada have been able to confirm that Yersinia pestis was behind the great plague. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Without a doubt, the plague pathogen known today as Y. pestis was also the cause of the plague in the Middle Ages," says Krause, who is well known for his DNA sequencing of ancient hominin finds, which help trace relationships between types of prehistoric man and modern humans. (sciencedaily.com)
  • While studying Yersinia pestis , the bacteria responsible for epidemics of plague such as the Black Death, Wyndham Lathem, Ph.D., assistant professor in microbiology-immunology at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, found a single small genetic change that fundamentally influenced the evolution of the deadly pathogen, and thus the course of human history. (phys.org)
  • The team examined ancestral strains of the bacteria in mouse models to learn when Y. pestis gained the ability to infect the lungs and cause the severe form of the disease known as pneumonic plague . (phys.org)
  • In the most ancestral of all currently existing Y. pestis strains, they showed how the bacteria could successfully colonize the lungs but could not cause the severe disease associated with pneumonic plague. (phys.org)
  • The lab also looked at variations of the gene Pla and discovered that a single modification only found in modern strains of Y. pestis was a critical adaptation for the bacteria to spread in the body and infect the lymph nodes, a form of the infection that causes bubonic plague. (phys.org)
  • According to Lathem, the surprising conclusion from this aspect of the study is that, contrary to current thinking in the field, Y. pestis may have first evolved as a respiratory pathogen before it could cause the more common form of disease, bubonic plague. (phys.org)
  • Lathem said the new research may explain how Y. pestis transitioned from causing only localized outbreaks of plague to the pandemic spread of Y. pestis such as the sixth century's Justinian Plague and the fourteenth century's Black Death. (phys.org)
  • From 1966 to 1982, 861 strains of Yersinia pestis were isolated from plague foci in Northeastern Brazil. (scielo.br)
  • It has been argued that each of the biovars was associated with one of the plague pandemics ( 14 , 20 , 34 ), and recent studies have tried to provide direct evidence of whether Y. pestis was associated with any of the historical pandemics ( 15 , 44 ). (asm.org)
  • Relative immunogenicity and protection potential of candidate Yersinia Pestis antigens against lethal mucosal plague challenge in Balb/C mice. (umassmed.edu)
  • Wang S, Joshi S, Mboudjeka I, Liu F, Ling T, Goguen JD, Lu S. Relative immunogenicity and protection potential of candidate Yersinia Pestis antigens against lethal mucosal plague challenge in Balb/C mice. (umassmed.edu)
  • Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, is endemic to the Caucasus region but few reference strain genome sequences from that region are available. (pacb.com)
  • Antibiotic therapy of plague is hampered by the recent isolation of Yersinia pestis strain resistant to all of antibiotics recommended for cure. (usf.edu)
  • Far from being simply the tale of those sad days when the Black Plague scattered death and disease over Europe, "Yersinia Pestis" is above all an observation on the caducity of life and the misery of humankind. (8merch.com)
  • Laboratory mice are well known to be highly susceptible to virulent strains of Yersinia pestis in experimental models of bubonic plague. (pasteur.fr)
  • Study on variability of Yersinia pestis in plague natural foci of Hebei province, China [J]. Chines Journal of Vector Biology and Control, 2018, 29(1): 100-102. (bmsw.net.cn)
  • Study on Yersinia-like bacteria in the plague natural foci of Hebei province [J]. Chines Journal of Vector Biology and Control, 2017, 28(6): 586-588. (bmsw.net.cn)
  • The bacteria Yersinia pestis is the etiological agent of plague and has caused human pandemics with millions of deaths in historic times. (cam.ac.uk)
  • By sequencing the genomes, we find that these ancient plague strains are basal to all known Yersinia pestis. (cam.ac.uk)
  • Plague is an infectious disease of animals and humans caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. (shelbycountytn.gov)
  • Pneumonic plague occurs when Yersinia pestis infects the lungs. (shelbycountytn.gov)
  • what is Yersinia pestis (the bacteria that causes plague)? (meganursingtutors.com)
  • https://meganursingtutors.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Meganursingtutors-300x59.png 0 0 Joseph https://meganursingtutors.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Meganursingtutors-300x59.png Joseph 2021-02-26 20:31:47 2021-02-26 20:31:47 what is Yersinia pestis (the bacteria that causes plague)? (meganursingtutors.com)
  • Recent molecular clues from ancient plague victims have suggested that plague may have been caused by the same bacterium, Yersinia pestis , which was responsible for the Black Death. (eurekalert.org)
  • Our research confirms that the Justinianic plague reached far beyond the historically documented affected region and provides new insights into the evolutionary history of Yersinia pestis , illustrating the potential of ancient genomic reconstructions to broaden our understanding of pathogen evolution and of historical events," said research colleague Michal Feldman. (eurekalert.org)
  • Plague , caused by Yersinia pestis , is characterized by quiescent periods punctuated by rapidly spreading epizootics. (bvsalud.org)
  • The substrate-binding protein YfeA (also known as YPO2439 or y1897) is a polyspecific metal-binding protein that is crucial for nutrient acquisition and virulence in Yersinia pestis, the causative microbe of plague. (uky.edu)
  • Susceptibility to Yersinia pestis experimental infection in wild Rattus rattus, reservoir of plague in Madagascar. (hal.science)
  • In Madagascar, the black rat, Rattus rattus, is the main reservoir of plague (Yersinia pestis infection), a disease still responsible for hundreds of cases each year in this country. (hal.science)
  • Plague is a zoonotic disease caused by enterobacteria Yersinia pestis. (who.int)
  • johnsoni flea, is a known vector for the plague bacterium, Yersinia pestis . (cdc.gov)
  • Plague and Other Yersinia Infections Plague is caused by the gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pestis . (msdmanuals.com)
  • citation needed] Several complete genome sequences are available for various strains and subspecies of Y. pestis: strain KIM (of biovar Y. p. medievalis), and strain CO92 (of biovar Y. p. orientalis, obtained from a clinical isolate in the United States). (wikipedia.org)
  • Genome sequence of Yersinia pestis KIM. (genome.jp)
  • It is very important to have the genome sequenced for Y. pestis because this organism is capable of causing very fatal diseases. (kenyon.edu)
  • Having the genome sequenced also means that they are able to determine other species that are related to yersinia pestis which can prevent future outbreaks. (kenyon.edu)
  • Genome assemblies for 11 Yersinia pestis strains isolated in the Caucasus region. (pacb.com)
  • In addition to revealing new insights in the molecular evolution of Yersinia pestis since the Byzantine times, the new sequence shows features that could not detected due to the limitations in the coverage of a draft genome previously reported by Wagner*, including 30 newly identified mutations and structural rearrangements unique to the Justinianic strain. (eurekalert.org)
  • formerly Pasteurella pestis) is a gram-negative, non-motile, coccobacillus bacterium without spores that is related to both Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, the pathogen from which Y. pestis evolved and responsible for the Far East scarlet-like fever. (wikipedia.org)
  • Y. pestis is a non-motile coccobacillus, a facultative anaerobic bacterium with bipolar staining (giving it a safety pin appearance) that produces an antiphagocytic slime layer. (wikipedia.org)
  • Yersinia pestis is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Let's delve into the signs, symptoms, and conditions associated with Yersinia Pestis- a bacterium that is known to trigger serious illnesses. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • June 15, 2022 The Black Death, the biggest pandemic of our history, was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and lasted in Europe between the years 1346 and 1353. (sciencedaily.com)
  • At the time, the papers got press not necessarily because of what they explained, but because the ancient Y. pestis strains looked fairly ordinary --there was nothing obvious to suggest why, from the bacterial point of view, the Black Death was so deadly. (scienceblogs.com)
  • They found the newly mutated strain had gained the ability to cause respiratory infection identically to modern strains of Y. pestis that cause disease today, demonstrating that the Pla gene was necessary for Y. pestis to infect the lungs. (phys.org)
  • We found 453 single nucleotide polymorphisms in protein-coding regions, which were used to assess the evolutionary relationships of these Y. pestis strains. (asm.org)
  • The results presented here clearly demonstrate the differences between the two biovar antiqua lineages and support the notion that grouping Y. pestis strains based strictly on the classical definition of biovars (predicated upon two biochemical assays) does not accurately reflect the phylogenetic relationships within this species. (asm.org)
  • A comparison of four virulent Y. pestis strains with the human-avirulent strain 91001 provides further insight into the genetic basis of virulence to humans. (asm.org)
  • Y. pestis strains have historically been classified according to their ability to utilize glycerol and reduce nitrate and have been grouped into three main subtypes or biovars: antiqua, medievalis, and orientalis. (asm.org)
  • Early divergent strains of Yersinia pestis in Eurasia 5,000 years ago. (cam.ac.uk)
  • When I think of infamous bacteria, the one that always comes to mind is Yersinia pestis. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Within these host cells, Yersinia pestis multiplies until they rupture-releasing more bacteria that continue this destructive cycle. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Yersinia pestis is a rod shaped gram-negative bacteria that can also have a spherical shape. (kenyon.edu)
  • A scanning electron microscope micrograph depicting a mass of Yersinia pestis bacteria in the foregut of an infected flea. (phys.org)
  • In addition, they found that no other changes to Y. pestis were required, even though the bacteria has continued to gain and lose genes over the last several thousand years. (phys.org)
  • Moreover, these infections the survival of Yersinia and other bacteria show a modest predilection for males, with in cold enrichment. (who.int)
  • Its closest relatives are the gastrointestinal pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and, more distantly, Yersinia enterocolitica. (wikipedia.org)
  • Like Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica, Y. pestis is host to the plasmid pCD1. (wikipedia.org)
  • Y. pestis is thought to be descended from Y. pseudotuberculosis, differing only in the presence of specific virulence plasmids. (wikipedia.org)
  • Among them was Yersinia-specific (also present in Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica) Ysr141 (Yersinia small RNA 141). (wikipedia.org)
  • The phages exhibited relatively wide host ranges among Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and related species. (mdpi.com)
  • Pasteurella pestis roimhe seo) a bhaineann le Yersinia pseudotuberculosis agus Yersinia enterocolitica araon. (wikipedia.org)
  • We compare all five currently sequenced Y. pestis genomes and the corresponding features in Yersinia pseudotuberculosis . (asm.org)
  • It was shown that Y. pestis recently diverged from Yersinia pseudotuberculosis , an enteropathogen, and likely comprises a clonal lineage ( 1 , 3 , 37 , 40 ). (asm.org)
  • Similar to other Yersinia species, it tests negative for urease, lactose fermentation, and indole. (wikipedia.org)
  • It also hosts two other plasmids, pPCP1 (also called pPla or pPst) and pMT1 (also called pFra) that are not carried by the other Yersinia species. (wikipedia.org)
  • The Yop-Ysc T3SS is a critical component of virulence for Yersinia species. (wikipedia.org)
  • Yersinia pestis has three sub species in which only two have been sequenced, strain KIM and strain CO92. (kenyon.edu)
  • This regurgitation spreads Yersinia pestis into the new host - and thus begins infection. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • The major defense against Y pestis infection is the development of specific anti-envelope (F1) antibodies, which serve as opsonins for the virulent organisms, allowing their rapid phagocytosis and destruction while still within the initial infectious locus. (kenyon.edu)
  • In a paper published in Nature Communications , Lathem and first author Daniel Zimbler, Ph.D., a Feinberg post-doctoral fellow, demonstrated how the acquisition of a single gene caused the shift of Y. pestis from causing a primarily gastrointestinal infection to a more serious and often fatal respiratory disease. (phys.org)
  • Lathem proposed that the bacteria's acquisition of the gene Pla enhanced its ability to cause infection in the lungs and was all that this ancestral strain of Y. pestis needed to produce a fatal lung infection. (phys.org)
  • The SEG strain therefore offers an invaluable opportunity to unravel mechanisms and underlying genetic factors of resistance against Y. pestis infection. (pasteur.fr)
  • Antibodies to Y. enterocolitica were raised for rapid Yersinia detection in the stool. (who.int)
  • Des anticorps anti-Y enterocolitica ont été cultivés afin de permettre la détection rapide de Yersinia dans les selles. (who.int)
  • Yersinia pestis , the causative agent of bubonic and pneumonic plagues, has undergone detailed study at the molecular level. (asm.org)
  • The causative agent, Yersinia pestis , primarily infects a wide range of rodents and is transmitted via flea vectors. (asm.org)
  • For microbiologic aspects of the causative organism(s), see Yersinia pestis . (wikidoc.org)
  • We find the origins of the Yersinia pestis lineage to be at least two times older than previous estimates. (cam.ac.uk)
  • Basically, many of those advocating "not Y. pestis " pointed to differences in the epidemiology of the Black Death compared to modern outbreaks of Y. pestis . (scienceblogs.com)
  • Two key bridging vectors of Y. pestis to humans , Oropsylla montana ( Siphonaptera Ceratophyllidae) or Xenopsylla cheopis ( Siphonaptera Pulicidae), were used in our study to test this hypothesis. (bvsalud.org)
  • Taxonomy browser (Yersinia pestis biovar Microtus str. (nih.gov)
  • Isolation of Yersinia spp. (who.int)
  • Targeted enrichment of ancient pathogens yielding the pPCP1 plasmid of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death. (scienceblogs.com)
  • Yersinia pestis is a parasite of its host, the rat flea, which is also a parasite of rats, hence Y. pestis is a hyperparasite. (wikipedia.org)
  • The consumed Yersinia pestis multiplies inside the flea and forms a plugged mass, which blocks its digestion. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Y. pestis causes diseases through a bite of an infected rat or flea, but can also be transmitted by air. (kenyon.edu)
  • Y. pestis grows in the midgut and eventually blocks the proventriculus, starving the flea for blood. (kenyon.edu)
  • Within the blocked flea model, Yersinia murine toxin (Ymt) has been shown to be important for facilitating colonization of the midgut within the flea . (bvsalud.org)
  • Yersinia pestis is found in rodents and their fleas in many areas around the world. (shelbycountytn.gov)
  • 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 3410-05-P DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service [Docket No. APHIS-2013-0020] Availability of an Environmental Assessment for Field Testing of a Yersinia Pestis Vaccine, Live Raccoon Poxvirus Vector Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, USDA. (justia.com)
  • AGENCY: We are advising the public that the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has prepared an environmental assessment concerning authorization to ship for the purpose of field testing, and then to field test, an unlicensed Yersinia Pestis Vaccine, Live Raccoon Poxvirus Vector. (justia.com)
  • As a biologist, I am fascinated by the complexity and diversity of biological organisms, and one such organism that piques my curiosity is Yersinia pestis. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Yersinia pestis was discovered in Hong Kong in 1894 by a Swiss physician Alexandre Yersin, who was a student of the Pasteur school of thought. (kenyon.edu)
  • Our findings demonstrate how Y. pestis had the ability to cause a severe respiratory disease very early in its evolution. (phys.org)
  • Although human disease is rare, Y. pestis is dangerous and highly infectious and thus has been identified as having potential for use in bioterrorism or as a biological weapon. (asm.org)
  • Yersiniosis is a rare disease in Muslim of Yersinia from the stool samples only to countries due to the scarcity of pork con- determine the highest possible number of sumption. (who.int)
  • Many novel sRNAs were identified from Y. pestis grown in vitro and in the infected lungs of mice suggesting they play role in bacterial physiology or pathogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Together, these plasmids, and a pathogenicity island called HPI, encode several proteins that cause the pathogenesis for which Y. pestis is famous. (wikipedia.org)
  • Instead, Yersinia pestis has more of an infectious pathway. (aboutdarwin.com)
  • Though they note that the time from appearance of symptoms to death averaged around 5 days (which fits in quite well with Y. pestis ), they argue that victims only became symptomatic after a long incubation period (~32 days) during which they were infectious but asymptomatic. (scienceblogs.com)
  • He is the author of numerous review articles on Y pestis and is the senior editor of the recent book Biological Weapons Defense, Infectious Diseases and Counterbioterrorism. (nih.gov)
  • Yersinia murine toxin is not required for early-phase transmission of Yersinia pestis by Oropsylla montana (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae) or Xenopsylla cheopis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae). (bvsalud.org)
  • ABSTRACT All 250 children presenting with diarrhoea at 2 teaching hospitals in Mosul, Iraq over a 9-month period were studied for the presence of Yersinia spp. (who.int)
  • He linked Y. pestis to the bubonic plauge, an epidemic that ravaged Europe during the 1300s. (kenyon.edu)
  • pFra codes for a phospholipase D that is important for the ability of Y. pestis to be transmitted by fleas. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fleas were infected with a mutant strain of Y. pestis containing a non-functional ymt that was shown previously to be incapable of colonizing the midgut and were then allowed to feed on SKH-1 mice 3 days p.i. (bvsalud.org)
  • However, there has been lingering resistance to the idea that Y. pestis actually caused the Black Death. (scienceblogs.com)
  • Instead of Yersinia , some authors have suggested that the Black Death was instead caused by a hemorrhagic fever virus , or perhaps by an unknown microbe that went extinct sometime in the last 600 years. (scienceblogs.com)
  • Through an exploration of its life cycle to typical diseases it causes, biochemical tests for its identification, and crucially, how we can prevent and treat infections caused by it - you'll gain a comprehensive understanding of Yersinia pestis. (aboutdarwin.com)