A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Thyrotropin stimulates THYROID GLAND by increasing the iodide transport, synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE). Thyrotropin consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH; LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
Cell surface proteins that bind pituitary THYROTROPIN (also named thyroid stimulating hormone or TSH) and trigger intracellular changes of the target cells. TSH receptors are present in the nervous system and on target cells in the thyroid gland. Autoantibodies to TSH receptors are implicated in thyroid diseases such as GRAVES DISEASE and Hashimoto disease (THYROIDITIS, AUTOIMMUNE).
A highly vascularized endocrine gland consisting of two lobes joined by a thin band of tissue with one lobe on each side of the TRACHEA. It secretes THYROID HORMONES from the follicular cells and CALCITONIN from the parafollicular cells thereby regulating METABOLISM and CALCIUM level in blood, respectively.
A tripeptide that stimulates the release of THYROTROPIN and PROLACTIN. It is synthesized by the neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, TRH (was called TRF) stimulates the release of TSH and PRL from the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (MONOIODOTYROSINE) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (DIIODOTYROSINE) in the THYROGLOBULIN. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form TRIIODOTHYRONINE which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism.
A syndrome that results from abnormally low secretion of THYROID HORMONES from the THYROID GLAND, leading to a decrease in BASAL METABOLIC RATE. In its most severe form, there is accumulation of MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES in the SKIN and EDEMA, known as MYXEDEMA.
Hypersecretion of THYROID HORMONES from the THYROID GLAND. Elevated levels of thyroid hormones increase BASAL METABOLIC RATE.
A highly purified recombinant glycoprotein form of human THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE, produced by recombinant DNA technology comprising two non-covalently linked subunits, an alpha subunit of 92 amino acid residues containing two N-linked glycosylation sites, and a beta subunit of 118 residues containing one N-linked glycosylation site. The amino acid sequence of thyrotropin alfa is identical to that of human pituitary thyroid stimulating hormone.
Blood tests used to evaluate the functioning of the thyroid gland.
Autoantibodies that bind to the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor (RECEPTORS, THYROTROPIN) on thyroid epithelial cells. The autoantibodies mimic TSH causing an unregulated production of thyroid hormones characteristic of GRAVES DISEASE.
A common form of hyperthyroidism with a diffuse hyperplastic GOITER. It is an autoimmune disorder that produces antibodies against the THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE RECEPTOR. These autoantibodies activate the TSH receptor, thereby stimulating the THYROID GLAND and hypersecretion of THYROID HORMONES. These autoantibodies can also affect the eyes (GRAVES OPHTHALMOPATHY) and the skin (Graves dermopathy).
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
A condition in infancy or early childhood due to an in-utero deficiency of THYROID HORMONES that can be caused by genetic or environmental factors, such as thyroid dysgenesis or HYPOTHYROIDISM in infants of mothers treated with THIOURACIL during pregnancy. Endemic cretinism is the result of iodine deficiency. Clinical symptoms include severe MENTAL RETARDATION, impaired skeletal development, short stature, and MYXEDEMA.
The beta subunit of thyroid stimulating hormone, thyrotropin. It is a 112-amino acid glycopolypeptide of about 16 kD. Full biological activity of TSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
Thyroglobulin is a glycoprotein synthesized and secreted by thyroid follicular cells, serving as a precursor for the production of thyroid hormones T3 and T4, and its measurement in blood serves as a tumor marker for thyroid cancer surveillance.
Pathological processes involving the THYROID GLAND.
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
A nonmetallic element of the halogen group that is represented by the atomic symbol I, atomic number 53, and atomic weight of 126.90. It is a nutritionally essential element, especially important in thyroid hormone synthesis. In solution, it has anti-infective properties and is used topically.
A metabolite of THYROXINE, formed by the peripheral enzymatic monodeiodination of T4 at the 5 position of the inner ring of the iodothyronine nucleus.
A hemeprotein that catalyzes the oxidation of the iodide radical to iodine with the subsequent iodination of many organic compounds, particularly proteins. EC 1.11.1.8.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Structurally, they include polypeptide, protein, and glycoprotein molecules.
Inorganic binary compounds of iodine or the I- ion.
An adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH.
Abnormal protrusion of both eyes; may be caused by endocrine gland malfunction, malignancy, injury, or paralysis of the extrinsic muscles of the eye.
Enlargement of the THYROID GLAND that may increase from about 20 grams to hundreds of grams in human adults. Goiter is observed in individuals with normal thyroid function (euthyroidism), thyroid deficiency (HYPOTHYROIDISM), or hormone overproduction (HYPERTHYROIDISM). Goiter may be congenital or acquired, sporadic or endemic (GOITER, ENDEMIC).
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
The anterior glandular lobe of the pituitary gland, also known as the adenohypophysis. It secretes the ADENOHYPOPHYSEAL HORMONES that regulate vital functions such as GROWTH; METABOLISM; and REPRODUCTION.
Commercially prepared reagent sets, with accessory devices, containing all of the major components and literature necessary to perform one or more designated diagnostic tests or procedures. They may be for laboratory or personal use.
A thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopeoia, 30th ed, p534)
A technique using antibodies for identifying or quantifying a substance. Usually the substance being studied serves as antigen both in antibody production and in measurement of antibody by the test substance.
An autoimmune disorder of the EYE, occurring in patients with Graves disease. Subtypes include congestive (inflammation of the orbital connective tissue), myopathic (swelling and dysfunction of the extraocular muscles), and mixed congestive-myopathic ophthalmopathy.
A hypermetabolic syndrome caused by excess THYROID HORMONES which may come from endogenous or exogenous sources. The endogenous source of hormone may be thyroid HYPERPLASIA; THYROID NEOPLASMS; or hormone-producing extrathyroidal tissue. Thyrotoxicosis is characterized by NERVOUSNESS; TACHYCARDIA; FATIGUE; WEIGHT LOSS; heat intolerance; and excessive SWEATING.
A lactogenic hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). It is a polypeptide of approximately 23 kD. Besides its major action on lactation, in some species prolactin exerts effects on reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immunomodulation and osmoregulation. Prolactin receptors are present in the mammary gland, hypothalamus, liver, ovary, testis, and prostate.
A sebaceous gland that, in some animals, acts as an accessory to the lacrimal gland. The harderian gland excretes fluid that facilitates movement of the third eyelid.
The alpha chain of pituitary glycoprotein hormones (THYROTROPIN; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; LUTEINIZING HORMONE) and the placental CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Within a species, the alpha subunits of these four hormones are identical; the distinct functional characteristics of these glycoprotein hormones are determined by the unique beta subunits. Both subunits, the non-covalently bound heterodimers, are required for full biologic activity.
Cell surface receptors that bind thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Activated TRH receptors in the anterior pituitary stimulate the release of thyrotropin (thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH); TRH receptors on neurons mediate neurotransmission by TRH.
Blood proteins that bind to THYROID HORMONES such as THYROXINE and transport them throughout the circulatory system.
Tumors or cancer of the THYROID GLAND.
An imidazole antithyroid agent. Carbimazole is metabolized to METHIMAZOLE, which is responsible for the antithyroid activity.
Inflammatory disease of the THYROID GLAND due to autoimmune responses leading to lymphocytic infiltration of the gland. It is characterized by the presence of circulating thyroid antigen-specific T-CELLS and thyroid AUTOANTIBODIES. The clinical signs can range from HYPOTHYROIDISM to THYROTOXICOSIS depending on the type of autoimmune thyroiditis.
Agents that are used to treat hyperthyroidism by reducing the excessive production of thyroid hormones.
A cyclized derivative of L-GLUTAMIC ACID. Elevated blood levels may be associated with problems of GLUTAMINE or GLUTATHIONE metabolism.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
A condition characterized by a dry, waxy type of swelling (EDEMA) with abnormal deposits of MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES in the SKIN and other tissues. It is caused by a deficiency of THYROID HORMONES. The skin becomes puffy around the eyes and on the cheeks. The face is dull and expressionless with thickened nose and lips.
Unstable isotopes of iodine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. I atoms with atomic weights 117-139, except I 127, are radioactive iodine isotopes.
Neoplasms which arise from or metastasize to the PITUITARY GLAND. The majority of pituitary neoplasms are adenomas, which are divided into non-secreting and secreting forms. Hormone producing forms are further classified by the type of hormone they secrete. Pituitary adenomas may also be characterized by their staining properties (see ADENOMA, BASOPHIL; ADENOMA, ACIDOPHIL; and ADENOMA, CHROMOPHOBE). Pituitary tumors may compress adjacent structures, including the HYPOTHALAMUS, several CRANIAL NERVES, and the OPTIC CHIASM. Chiasmal compression may result in bitemporal HEMIANOPSIA.
An enlarged THYROID GLAND containing multiple nodules (THYROID NODULE), usually resulting from recurrent thyroid HYPERPLASIA and involution over many years to produce the irregular enlargement. Multinodular goiters may be nontoxic or may induce THYROTOXICOSIS.
A thioureylene antithyroid agent that inhibits the formation of thyroid hormones by interfering with the incorporation of iodine into tyrosyl residues of thyroglobulin. This is done by interfering with the oxidation of iodide ion and iodotyrosyl groups through inhibition of the peroxidase enzyme.
An inorganic compound that is used as a source of iodine in thyrotoxic crisis and in the preparation of thyrotoxic patients for thyroidectomy. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Surgical removal of the thyroid gland. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A POU domain factor that regulates expression of GROWTH HORMONE; PROLACTIN; and THYROTROPIN-BETA in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.
Inflammatory diseases of the THYROID GLAND. Thyroiditis can be classified into acute (THYROIDITIS, SUPPURATIVE), subacute (granulomatous and lymphocytic), chronic fibrous (Riedel's), chronic lymphocytic (HASHIMOTO DISEASE), transient (POSTPARTUM THYROIDITIS), and other AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS subtypes.
An enzyme of the lyase class that catalyzes the formation of CYCLIC AMP and pyrophosphate from ATP. EC 4.6.1.1.
Conditions of abnormal THYROID HORMONES release in patients with apparently normal THYROID GLAND during severe systemic illness, physical TRAUMA, and psychiatric disturbances. It can be caused by the loss of endogenous hypothalamic input or by exogenous drug effects. The most common abnormality results in low T3 THYROID HORMONE with progressive decrease in THYROXINE; (T4) and TSH. Elevated T4 with normal T3 may be seen in diseases in which THYROXINE-BINDING GLOBULIN synthesis and release are increased.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Bony cavity that holds the eyeball and its associated tissues and appendages.
Radiopaque medium used as diagnostic aid.
"In the context of medical records, 'paper' typically refers to physical documents or reports created on paper-based media, which contain patient information and are used for healthcare purposes."
Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.
Diminution or cessation of secretion of one or more hormones from the anterior pituitary gland (including LH; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; SOMATOTROPIN; and CORTICOTROPIN). This may result from surgical or radiation ablation, non-secretory PITUITARY NEOPLASMS, metastatic tumors, infarction, PITUITARY APOPLEXY, infiltrative or granulomatous processes, and other conditions.
A compound forming white, odorless deliquescent crystals and used as iodine supplement, expectorant or in its radioactive (I-131) form as an diagnostic aid, particularly for thyroid function tests.
Examinations that evaluate functions of the pituitary gland.
The development and use of techniques and equipment to study or perform chemical reactions, with small quantities of materials, frequently less than a milligram or a milliliter.
A cyclic nucleotide derivative that mimics the action of endogenous CYCLIC AMP and is capable of permeating the cell membrane. It has vasodilator properties and is used as a cardiac stimulant. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
Spontaneously remitting inflammatory condition of the THYROID GLAND, characterized by FEVER; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; SORE THROAT; severe thyroid PAIN; and an enlarged damaged gland containing GIANT CELLS. The disease frequently follows a viral infection.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
CELL LINE derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus (CRICETULUS). The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.
A gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by the PLACENTA. Similar to the pituitary LUTEINIZING HORMONE in structure and function, chorionic gonadotropin is involved in maintaining the CORPUS LUTEUM during pregnancy. CG consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is virtually identical to the alpha subunits of the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN).
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Removal of tissue by vaporization, abrasion, or destruction. Methods used include heating tissue by hot liquids or microwave thermal heating, freezing (CRYOABLATION), chemical ablation, and photoablation with LASERS.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Luteinizing hormone regulates steroid production by the interstitial cells of the TESTIS and the OVARY. The preovulatory LUTEINIZING HORMONE surge in females induces OVULATION, and subsequent LUTEINIZATION of the follicle. LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
Those protein complexes or molecular sites on the surfaces and cytoplasm of gonadal cells that bind luteinizing or chorionic gonadotropic hormones and thereby cause the gonadal cells to synthesize and secrete sex steroids. The hormone-receptor complex is internalized from the plasma membrane and initiates steroid synthesis.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Abnormally elevated THYROXINE level in the BLOOD.

Development of an animal model of autoimmune thyroid eye disease. (1/569)

In previous studies we have transferred thyroiditis to naive BALB/c and NOD mice with human thyrotropin (TSH) receptor (TSHR)-primed splenocytes. Because the TSHR has been implicated in the pathogenesis of thyroid eye disease (TED) we have examined the orbits of recipients of TSHR-primed T cells, generated using a TSHR fusion protein or by genetic immunization. In the NOD mice, 25 of 26 animals treated with TSHR-primed T cells developed thyroiditis with considerable follicular destruction, numerous activated and CD8+ T cells, and immunoreactivity for IFN-gamma. Thyroxine levels were reduced. Thyroiditis was not induced in controls. None of the NOD animals developed any orbital pathology. Thirty-five BALB/c mice received TSHR-primed spleen cells. Thyroiditis was induced in 60-100% and comprised activated T cells, B cells, and immunoreactivity for IL-4 and IL-10. Autoantibodies to the receptor were induced, including TSH binding inhibiting Igs. A total of 17 of 25 BALB/c orbits displayed changes consisting of accumulation of adipose tissue, edema caused by periodic acid Schiff-positive material, dissociation of the muscle fibers, the presence of TSHR immunoreactivity, and infiltration by lymphocytes and mast cells. No orbital changes or thyroiditis were observed in control BALB/c mice. We have induced orbital pathology having many parallels with human TED, only in BALB/c mice, suggesting that a Th2 autoimmune response to the TSHR may be a prerequisite for the development of TED.  (+info)

Adoptive autoimmune hyperthyroidism following allogeneic stem cell transplantation from an HLA-identical sibling with Graves' disease. (2/569)

Autoimmune diseases which follow allogeneic BMT from a donor who is a patient or a carrier of an autoimmune condition are considered to be a paradigm of adoptive autoimmunity. Seven cases of autoimmune thyroiditis associated with clinical hyperthyroidism have been published to date. In the case reported here a 35-year-old female patient with AML of the M2 subtype received unmanipulated PBSC from her HLA-identical sister who had therapeutically controlled Graves' disease. Antithyroid antibodies, including thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) antibodies, appeared 1 year after transplant. Clinical hyperthyroidism requiring thyrostatic medication appeared after 2 years. The biological and clinical implications of adoptive, post-transplant autoimmunity are briefly discussed.  (+info)

The effect of thyrotropin receptor antibodies on the proliferation of FRTL-5 cells and the expression of protooncogene c-fos mRNA. (3/569)

OBJECTIVE: Hyperthyroidism and a diffuse goiter are the main symptoms of Graves' disease (GD) associated with autoantibodies to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor (TRAb). The present study was conducted to evaluate effects of autoantibodies in patients with GD (TRAb-IgG) on induction of the proliferation and c-fos mRNA expression in FRTL-5 cells (Fisher rat thyroid cell line). METHODS: Highly purified IgG fractions were isolated from 11 patients with GD, TRAb-IgG and 15 normal individuals (normal controls) with Protein A Sepharose CL-4B affinity column chromatograph. FRTL-5 cells, which had been grown to subconfluency and deprived of TSH for a few days. Then, these cells were used for measuring cAMP content, 3H-thymidine incorporation in cells and the expression of c-fos mRNA respectively. RESULTS: After stimulation of TRAb-IgG, the cAMP production and 3H-thymidine incorporation in FRTL-5 cells were much higher than those from normal controls (P < 0.05 respectively). Using 32P labelled v-fos probe by the Northern Blot method, the expression of c-fos mRNA could be induced by IgGs from patients with GD. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that the stimulation of TRAb-IgG followed by cAMP production and 3H-thymidine incorporation is related to the induction of c-fos mRNA and, thus, to the growth of FRTL-5 cells.  (+info)

Selective regulation of G protein-coupled receptor-mediated signaling by G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 in FRTL-5 cells: analysis of thyrotropin, alpha(1B)-adrenergic, and A(1) adenosine receptor-mediated responses. (4/569)

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) play a key role in the process of receptor homologous desensitization. In the present study, we address the question of whether a variety of receptors coupled to different G protein subtypes and naturally expressed on the same cell are selectively regulated by GRK2. The signaling stimulated by thyrotropin (TSH), alpha(1B)-adrenergic, and A(1) adenosine receptors was studied in FRTL-5 cells permanently transfected to overexpress GRK2 and GRK2-K220R, a kinase dead GRK dominant negative mutant. In FRTL-5 overexpressing GRK2, TSH-induced cyclic AMP response was attenuated, indicating that TSH receptor is desensitized by this kinase. Consistently, FRTL-5 cells overexpressing GRK2-K220R show increased TSH-induced cyclic AMP response, demonstrating that this receptor is under tonic control by GRK. Unlike TSH receptor, alpha(1B)-adrenergic receptor response was unaffected in FRTL-5 overexpressing GRK2 and GRK2-K220R. When A(1) adenosine receptors were stimulated, G(ialpha)-mediated cyclic AMP inhibition was totally unaffected by overexpression of either GRK2 or GRK2-K220R. By contrast, G(betagamma)-mediated response (activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases) was efficiently desensitized by GRK2 but was unaffected by GRK2-K220R overexpression. The present study documents that overexpression of GRK2 results in a selective regulation of different G protein-coupled receptors expressed on the same cell and that this kinase can regulate preferentially only one of the different pathways activated by the same receptor. The preferential regulation of the A(1) adenosine receptor-stimulated mitogen-activated protein kinases by GRK2 indicates that this kinase can have additional regulatory effects on G(betagamma)-stimulated pathways, possibly through direct binding and regulation of the receptor-G(betagamma) complex.  (+info)

A case of Graves' disease associated with autoimmune hepatitis and mixed connective tissue disease. (5/569)

The patient was a woman of forty-eight. Liver dysfunction was pointed out at the age of forty-five. She was admitted to hospital because of her hyperthyroidism. Her palmar skin was wet and her fingers were swollen like sausages. She had a diffuse and elastic hard goiter with a rough surface. The serum levels of free T3 (9.6 pg/mL) and free T4 (3.76 ng/dL) were high and that of TSH (0.11 microU/mL) was low. The activity of TSH-binding inhibitory immunoglobulin (TBII) was 89%. The uptake rate of 123I to the thyroid was 55.1% and the uptake pattern was nearly diffuse. The goiter was proved to contain several nodules by ultrasonography, but aspiration cytology showed no malignant cells. She was diagnosed to have Graves' disease with adenomatous goiter. She also had high ALT (34 IU/L) and gamma-globulin (1.97 g/dL). She had positive antinuclear antibody (speckled type), positive anti-ribosomal nuclear protein antibody, and positive LE cell phenomenon. The liver biopsy revealed mononuclear cell infiltration with fibrosis in the portal area. These data indicated that she also had autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD). The analysis of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) showed positive A11 which had been reported to relate to Graves' disease, and positive DR4 which had been reported to relate to AIH and MCTD. These results suggested that HLA would determine susceptibility to three distinct autoimmune diseases in this case.  (+info)

Contrasting effects of activating mutations of GalphaS and the thyrotropin receptor on proliferation and differentiation of thyroid follicular cells. (6/569)

The cyclic AMP pathway is a major regulator of thyrocyte function and proliferation and, predictably, its inappropriate activation is associated with a sub-set of human thyroid tumours. Activating mutations are, however, more common in the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) than in its downstream transducer, Galphas. To investigate whether this reflects an inherent difference in their oncogenic potency, we compared the effects of retrovirally-transduced mutant (A623I) TSHR or (Q227L) Galphas (GSP), using the rat thyroid cell line FRTL5 and primary human thyrocytes. In FRTL5, expression of GSP or mutant (m) TSHR induced a 2 - 3-fold increase in basal levels of cAMP. This was associated with TSH-independent proliferation (assessed by both cell number and DNA synthesis) and function (as shown by increased expression of thyroglobulin (Tg) and the sodium/iodide symporter). In primary cultures, expression of mTSHR, but not GSP, consistently induced formation of colonies with epithelial morphology and thyroglobulin expression, capable of 10 - 15 population doublings (PD) compared to less than three in controls. Thus, while mTSHR and GSP exert similar effects in FRTL5, use of primary cultures reveals a major difference in their ability to induce sustained proliferation in normal human thyrocytes, and provides the first direct evidence that mTSHR is sufficient to initiate thyroid tumorigenesis.  (+info)

Clinical significance of a sensitive assay for thyroid-stimulating antibodies in Graves' disease using polyethylene glycol at high concentrations and porcine thyroid cells. (7/569)

The Inui and Ochi group recently reported that cAMP production by porcine thyroid cells (PTC) was augmented more by polyethylene glycol (PEG) 22.5% precipitated fractions from almost all Graves' sera than those of PEG 12.5%. In the present study, thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) activity was determined with PTC and prepared crude Ig fractions precipitated by two different concentrations of PEG (final concentrations 13.5% and 22.5%) from sera obtained from 117 Graves' patients. The activity of TSI determined by the PEG 13.5% assay and activity determined by the PEG 22.5% assay were designated as thyroid-stimulating antibody (TSAb) and sTSAb, respectively. At first we studied 55 TSAb-positive patients with untreated hyperthyroid Graves' disease and classified them according to the TSAb activity-below 500% (group 1) and above 500% (group 2). The positive stimulatory effect, arbitrarily defined as the ratio of sTSAb to TSAb, being more than 1.2, was observed in 85% of patients, and group 1 had a significantly (P<0.025) greater stimulatory effect (34/35, 97.1%) than group 2 (13/20, 65%). Subsequently, in 29 TSAb-negative patients, sTSAb was measured and detected in 26 (89.7%). Finally, sTSAb, TSAb and TBII were compared between patients presenting with recurrent Graves' disease and those with silent thyroiditis after withdrawal of antithyroid drug treatment for Graves' disease. sTSAb was detected in all 14 relapsed patients, but none of the 9 patients with silent thyroiditis had detectable sTSAb. In contrast, TSAb and TBII activities were found in only 7 (50.0%) of the 14 relapsed cases. The present paper demonstrated that the assay with a higher PEG concentration was found to be sensitive, specific and useful for the diagnosis and follow-up of Graves' disease after drug withdrawal, although the underlying mechanism remains unclear.  (+info)

Autoantibodies interacting with purified native thyrotropin receptor. (8/569)

Native thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) was purified by immunoaffinity chromatography from membrane extracts of stably transfected L cells. An ELISA test was devised to study anti-TSHR autoantibodies directly. Comparison of native TSHR with bacterially expressed, denatured TSHR showed that the latter was not recognized by the autoantibodies, suggesting that they bind to conformational epitopes only present on the native receptor. The use of deglycosylated TSHR and of purified receptor ectodomain (alpha-subunit) showed that the autoantibodies recognized only the protein backbone moiety of the receptor and that their epitopes were localized entirely in its ectodomain. Autoantibodies were detected in 45 of 48 subjects with untreated Graves' disease and in 26 of 47 healthy volunteers. The affinity for the receptor was similar in the two groups (Kd = 0.25-1 x 10-10 M) and the autoantibodies belonged to the IgG class in all cases. Although the concentration of autoantibodies was higher in Graves' disease patients (3.50 +/- 0.36 mg.L-1) than in control subjects (1.76 +/- 0.21) (mean +/- SEM), there was an overlap between the groups. Receptor-stimulating autoantibodies (TSAb) were studied by measuring cAMP synthesis in stably transfected HEK 293 cells. Their characteristics (recognition of alpha-subunit, of deglycosylated TSHR, nonrecognition of bacterially expressed denatured receptor) were similar to those of the antibodies detected by the ELISA test. TSAb were only found in individuals with Graves' disease. The ELISA test measures total anti-TSHR antibodies, whereas the test using adenylate cyclase stimulation measures antibodies that recognize specific epitopes involved in receptor activation. Our observations thus disprove the hypothesis according to which Graves' disease is related to the appearance of anti-TSHR antibodies not present in normal subjects. Actually, anti-TSHR antibodies exist in many euthyroid subjects, in some cases even at concentrations higher than those found in patients with Graves' disease. What distinguishes the latter from normal subjects is the existence of subpopulation(s) of antibodies directed against specific epitope(s) of the receptor involved in its activation.  (+info)

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is to regulate the production and release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormones from the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin binds to receptors on the surface of thyroid follicular cells, stimulating the uptake of iodide and the synthesis and release of T4 and T3. The secretion of thyrotropin is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of thyrotropin, while T3 and T4 inhibit its release through a negative feedback mechanism.

Thyrotropin receptors (TSHRs) are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found on the surface of cells in the thyroid gland. They bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is produced and released by the pituitary gland. When TSH binds to the TSHR, it activates a series of intracellular signaling pathways that stimulate the production and release of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones are important for regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. Mutations in the TSHR gene can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.

The thyroid gland is a major endocrine gland located in the neck, anterior to the trachea and extends from the lower third of the Adams apple to the suprasternal notch. It has two lateral lobes, connected by an isthmus, and sometimes a pyramidal lobe. This gland plays a crucial role in the metabolism, growth, and development of the human body through the production of thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine/T3 and thyroxine/T4) and calcitonin. The thyroid hormones regulate body temperature, heart rate, and the production of protein, while calcitonin helps in controlling calcium levels in the blood. The function of the thyroid gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus in the brain. Its main function is to regulate the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. TRH acts on the pituitary gland to stimulate the synthesis and secretion of TSH, which then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)) into the bloodstream.

TRH is a tripeptide amino acid sequence with the structure of pGlu-His-Pro-NH2, and it is synthesized as a larger precursor molecule called preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone (preproTRH) in the hypothalamus. PreproTRH undergoes post-translational processing to produce TRH, which is then stored in secretory vesicles and released into the hypophyseal portal system, where it travels to the anterior pituitary gland and binds to TRH receptors on thyrotroph cells.

In addition to its role in regulating TSH release, TRH has been shown to have other physiological functions, including modulation of feeding behavior, body temperature, and neurotransmitter release. Dysregulation of the TRH-TSH axis can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

Thyroxine (T4) is a type of hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of your neck. It is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, with the other being triiodothyronine (T3).

Thyroxine plays a crucial role in regulating various metabolic processes in the body, including growth, development, and energy expenditure. Specifically, T4 helps to control the rate at which your body burns calories for energy, regulates protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, and influences the body's sensitivity to other hormones.

T4 is produced by combining iodine and tyrosine, an amino acid found in many foods. Once produced, T4 circulates in the bloodstream and gets converted into its active form, T3, in various tissues throughout the body. Thyroxine has a longer half-life than T3, which means it remains active in the body for a more extended period.

Abnormal levels of thyroxine can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). These conditions can cause a range of symptoms, including weight gain or loss, fatigue, mood changes, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure.

Hypothyroidism is a medical condition where the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck, does not produce enough thyroid hormones. This results in a slowing down of the body's metabolic processes, leading to various symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, cold intolerance, dry skin, hair loss, muscle weakness, and depression.

The two main thyroid hormones produced by the thyroid gland are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, and energy levels. In hypothyroidism, the production of these hormones is insufficient, leading to a range of symptoms that can affect multiple organ systems.

Hypothyroidism can be caused by several factors, including autoimmune disorders (such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis), surgical removal of the thyroid gland, radiation therapy for neck cancer, certain medications, and congenital defects. Hypothyroidism is typically diagnosed through blood tests that measure levels of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), T3, and T4. Treatment usually involves taking synthetic thyroid hormones to replace the missing hormones and alleviate symptoms.

Hyperthyroidism is a medical condition characterized by an excessive production and release of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland, leading to an increased metabolic rate in various body systems. The thyroid gland, located in the front of the neck, produces two main thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating many bodily functions, including heart rate, digestion, energy levels, and mood.

In hyperthyroidism, the elevated levels of T3 and T4 can cause a wide range of symptoms, such as rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, increased appetite, tremors, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Some common causes of hyperthyroidism include Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, Plummer's disease (toxic multinodular goiter), and thyroiditis. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential to manage the symptoms and prevent potential complications associated with this condition.

Thyrotropin alfa is a recombinant form of human thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) used as a diagnostic aid in the investigation of reduced thyroid function (hypothyroidism). It is not to be confused with thyrotropin, which is the endogenous TSH produced by the pituitary gland. Thyrotropin alfa is used in tests to evaluate thyroid gland function and to help diagnose the cause of low thyroid hormone levels.

The medication is administered via subcutaneous injection, stimulating the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones T3 and T4. Blood samples are then taken at various intervals following the injection, allowing the measurement of T3 and T4 levels over time. This information can help differentiate between primary hypothyroidism (a problem with the thyroid gland itself) and secondary hypothyroidism (a problem with the pituitary gland or hypothalamus that affects TSH production).

It is important to note that thyrotropin alfa should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as inappropriate use can lead to hyperthyroidism and other related complications.

Thyroid function tests (TFTs) are a group of blood tests that assess the functioning of the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the body.

TFTs typically include the following tests:

1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) test: This test measures the level of TSH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates the production of thyroid hormones. High levels of TSH may indicate an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism), while low levels may indicate an overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism).
2. Thyroxine (T4) test: This test measures the level of T4, a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T4 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
3. Triiodothyronine (T3) test: This test measures the level of T3, another hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T3 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
4. Thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) test: This test measures the level of TPOAb, an antibody that attacks the thyroid gland and can cause hypothyroidism.
5. Thyroglobulin (Tg) test: This test measures the level of Tg, a protein produced by the thyroid gland. It is used to monitor the treatment of thyroid cancer.

These tests help diagnose and manage various thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, thyroiditis, and thyroid cancer.

Immunoglobulins, Thyroid-Stimulating (TSI), are autoantibodies that bind to the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) on the surface of thyroid cells. These antibodies mimic the action of TSH and stimulate the growth and function of the thyroid gland, leading to excessive production of thyroid hormones. This results in a condition known as Graves' disease, which is characterized by hyperthyroidism, goiter, and sometimes ophthalmopathy (eye problems). The presence and titer of TSIs are used in the diagnosis of Graves' disease.

Graves' disease is defined as an autoimmune disorder that leads to overactivity of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism). It results when the immune system produces antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland, causing it to produce too much thyroid hormone. This can result in a variety of symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, and bulging eyes (Graves' ophthalmopathy). The exact cause of Graves' disease is unknown, but it is more common in women and people with a family history of the disorder. Treatment may include medications to control hyperthyroidism, radioactive iodine therapy to destroy thyroid tissue, or surgery to remove the thyroid gland.

Triiodothyronine (T3) is a thyroid hormone, specifically the active form of thyroid hormone, that plays a critical role in the regulation of metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. It is produced by the thyroid gland through the iodination and coupling of the amino acid tyrosine with three atoms of iodine. T3 is more potent than its precursor, thyroxine (T4), which has four iodine atoms, as T3 binds more strongly to thyroid hormone receptors and accelerates metabolic processes at the cellular level.

In circulation, about 80% of T3 is bound to plasma proteins, while the remaining 20% is unbound or free, allowing it to enter cells and exert its biological effects. The primary functions of T3 include increasing the rate of metabolic reactions, promoting protein synthesis, enhancing sensitivity to catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), and supporting normal brain development during fetal growth and early infancy. Imbalances in T3 levels can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, which may require clinical intervention and management.

Congenital hypothyroidism is a medical condition characterized by the partial or complete absence of thyroid hormone production in the baby's body at birth. The thyroid gland, which is located in the front of the neck, produces hormones that are essential for normal growth and development of the brain and body.

Congenital hypothyroidism can occur due to various reasons such as the absence or abnormal development of the thyroid gland, or a defect in the production or regulation of thyroid hormones. In some cases, it may be caused by genetic mutations that affect the development or function of the thyroid gland.

If left untreated, congenital hypothyroidism can lead to mental and physical retardation, growth problems, and other health issues. Therefore, it is important to diagnose and treat this condition as early as possible, usually within the first few weeks of life. Treatment typically involves replacing the missing thyroid hormones with synthetic medications, which are safe and effective when administered under a doctor's supervision.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating the function of the thyroid gland by stimulating the production and release of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

The TSH molecule is composed of two subunits: alpha and beta. The alpha subunit is common to several pituitary hormones, including TSH, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). In contrast, the beta subunit is unique to each hormone, determining its specific biological activity.

Therefore, 'Thyrotropin, beta Subunit' refers to the distinct portion of the TSH molecule that confers its thyroid-stimulating properties and allows it to be identified and measured separately from other pituitary hormones sharing the common alpha subunit. Beta-subunit assays are sometimes used in clinical settings to evaluate thyroid function, as they can provide information about TSH levels independent of the common alpha subunit.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small endocrine gland located in the neck that helps regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain iodine atoms. These hormones play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, digestion, and brain development. They help regulate the rate at which your body uses energy, affects how sensitive your body is to other hormones, and plays a vital role in the development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through a feedback mechanism that helps maintain proper balance.

Thyroglobulin is a protein produced and used by the thyroid gland in the production of thyroid hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). It is composed of two subunits, an alpha and a beta or gamma unit, which bind iodine atoms necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones. Thyroglobulin is exclusively produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland.

In clinical practice, measuring thyroglobulin levels in the blood can be useful as a tumor marker for monitoring treatment and detecting recurrence of thyroid cancer, particularly in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (papillary or follicular) who have had their thyroid gland removed. However, it is important to note that thyroglobulin is not specific to thyroid tissue and can be produced by some non-thyroidal cells under certain conditions, which may lead to false positive results in some cases.

Thyroid diseases are a group of conditions that affect the function and structure of the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the base of the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate many vital functions in the body, including metabolism, growth, and development.

Thyroid diseases can be classified into two main categories: hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, and depression. Hyperthyroidism, on the other hand, occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much hormone, resulting in symptoms such as weight loss, heat intolerance, rapid heart rate, tremors, and anxiety.

Other common thyroid diseases include:

1. Goiter: an enlargement of the thyroid gland that can be caused by iodine deficiency or autoimmune disorders.
2. Thyroid nodules: abnormal growths on the thyroid gland that can be benign or malignant.
3. Thyroid cancer: a malignant tumor of the thyroid gland that requires medical treatment.
4. Hashimoto's disease: an autoimmune disorder that causes chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
5. Graves' disease: an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism and can also lead to eye problems and skin changes.

Thyroid diseases are diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, blood tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment options depend on the specific type and severity of the disease and may include medication, surgery, or radioactive iodine therapy.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used in clinical and research laboratories to measure concentrations of various substances, such as hormones, vitamins, drugs, or tumor markers, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues. The method relies on the specific interaction between an antibody and its corresponding antigen, combined with the use of radioisotopes to quantify the amount of bound antigen.

In a typical RIA procedure, a known quantity of a radiolabeled antigen (also called tracer) is added to a sample containing an unknown concentration of the same unlabeled antigen. The mixture is then incubated with a specific antibody that binds to the antigen. During the incubation period, the antibody forms complexes with both the radiolabeled and unlabeled antigens.

After the incubation, the unbound (free) radiolabeled antigen is separated from the antibody-antigen complexes, usually through a precipitation or separation step involving centrifugation, filtration, or chromatography. The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (containing the antibody-antigen complexes) is then measured using a gamma counter or other suitable radiation detection device.

The concentration of the unlabeled antigen in the sample can be determined by comparing the ratio of bound to free radiolabeled antigen in the sample to a standard curve generated from known concentrations of unlabeled antigen and their corresponding bound/free ratios. The higher the concentration of unlabeled antigen in the sample, the lower the amount of radiolabeled antigen that will bind to the antibody, resulting in a lower bound/free ratio.

Radioimmunoassays offer high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, making them valuable tools for detecting and quantifying low levels of various substances in biological samples. However, due to concerns about radiation safety and waste disposal, alternative non-isotopic immunoassay techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become more popular in recent years.

Iodine is an essential trace element that is necessary for the production of thyroid hormones in the body. These hormones play crucial roles in various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and brain development during pregnancy and infancy. Iodine can be found in various foods such as seaweed, dairy products, and iodized salt. In a medical context, iodine is also used as an antiseptic to disinfect surfaces, wounds, and skin infections due to its ability to kill bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Reverse Triiodothyronine (rT3) is a thyroid hormone that is chemically identical to triiodothyronine (T3), but has a reverse configuration at one end of the molecule. It is produced in smaller quantities compared to T3 and its function is not well understood. In some cases, increased levels of rT3 have been associated with decreased thyroid hormone action, such as in non-thyroidal illnesses or during calorie restriction. However, the clinical significance of rT3 levels remains a topic of ongoing research and debate.

Iodide peroxidase, also known as iodide:hydrogen peroxide oxidoreductase, is an enzyme that belongs to the family of oxidoreductases. Specifically, it is a peroxidase that uses iodide as its physiological reducing substrate. This enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of iodide by hydrogen peroxide to produce iodine, which plays a crucial role in thyroid hormone biosynthesis.

The systematic name for this enzyme is iodide:hydrogen-peroxide oxidoreductase (iodinating). It is most commonly found in the thyroid gland, where it helps to produce and regulate thyroid hormones by facilitating the iodination of tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, a protein produced by the thyroid gland.

Iodide peroxidase requires a heme cofactor for its enzymatic activity, which is responsible for the oxidation-reduction reactions it catalyzes. The enzyme's ability to iodinate tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin is essential for the production of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), two critical hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in mammals.

Anterior pituitary hormones are a group of six major hormones that are produced and released by the anterior portion (lobe) of the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions and activities. The six main anterior pituitary hormones are:

1. Growth Hormone (GH): Also known as somatotropin, GH is essential for normal growth and development in children and adolescents. It helps regulate body composition, metabolism, and bone density in adults.
2. Prolactin (PRL): A hormone that stimulates milk production in females after childbirth and is also involved in various reproductive and immune functions in both sexes.
3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH regulates the development, growth, and maturation of follicles in the ovaries (in females) and sperm production in the testes (in males).
4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH plays a key role in triggering ovulation in females and stimulating testosterone production in males.
5. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): TSH regulates the function of the thyroid gland, which is responsible for producing and releasing thyroid hormones that control metabolism and growth.
6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a steroid hormone involved in stress response, metabolism, and immune function.

These anterior pituitary hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus, which is located above the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus releases releasing and inhibiting factors that control the synthesis and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, creating a complex feedback system to maintain homeostasis in the body.

Iodides are chemical compounds that contain iodine in the form of an iodide ion (I-). Iodide ions are negatively charged ions that consist of one iodine atom and an extra electron. Iodides are commonly found in dietary supplements and medications, and they are often used to treat or prevent iodine deficiency. They can also be used as expectorants to help thin and loosen mucus in the respiratory tract. Examples of iodides include potassium iodide (KI) and sodium iodide (NaI).

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.

Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Exophthalmos is a medical condition that refers to the abnormal protrusion or bulging of one or both eyes beyond the normal orbit (eye socket). This condition is also known as proptosis. Exophthalmos can be caused by various factors, including thyroid eye disease (Graves' ophthalmopathy), tumors, inflammation, trauma, or congenital abnormalities. It can lead to various symptoms such as double vision, eye discomfort, redness, and difficulty closing the eyes. Treatment of exophthalmos depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or radiation therapy.

Goiter is a medical term that refers to an enlarged thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck below the larynx or voice box. It produces hormones that regulate your body's metabolism, growth, and development.

Goiter can vary in size and may be visible as a swelling at the base of the neck. It can be caused by several factors, including iodine deficiency, autoimmune disorders, thyroid cancer, pregnancy, or the use of certain medications. Depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the goiter, treatment options may include medication, surgery, or radioactive iodine therapy.

The pituitary gland is a small, endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is often called the "master gland" because it controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger many body functions. The pituitary gland measures about 0.5 cm in height and 1 cm in width, and it weighs approximately 0.5 grams.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe is further divided into three zones: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. Each part of the pituitary gland has distinct functions and produces different hormones.

The anterior pituitary gland produces and releases several important hormones, including:

* Growth hormone (GH), which regulates growth and development in children and helps maintain muscle mass and bone strength in adults.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and lactating women.

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus:

* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling urine production.
* Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding.

Overall, the pituitary gland plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

The anterior pituitary, also known as the adenohypophysis, is the front portion of the pituitary gland. It is responsible for producing and secreting several important hormones that regulate various bodily functions. These hormones include:

* Growth hormone (GH), which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in bones and other tissues.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which regulates the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females by controlling the development and release of eggs or sperm.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and nursing women.
* Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

The anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus, a small region of the brain located just above it. The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary. These hormones are released into a network of blood vessels called the portal system, which carries them directly to the anterior pituitary gland.

Damage or disease of the anterior pituitary can lead to hormonal imbalances and various medical conditions, such as growth disorders, thyroid dysfunction, adrenal insufficiency, reproductive problems, and diabetes insipidus.

Reagent kits, diagnostic are prepackaged sets of chemical reagents and other components designed for performing specific diagnostic tests or assays. These kits are often used in clinical laboratories to detect and measure the presence or absence of various biomarkers, such as proteins, antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids, or small molecules, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues.

Diagnostic reagent kits typically contain detailed instructions for their use, along with the necessary reagents, controls, and sometimes specialized equipment or supplies. They are designed to simplify the testing process, reduce human error, and increase standardization, ensuring accurate and reliable results. Examples of diagnostic reagent kits include those used for pregnancy tests, infectious disease screening, drug testing, genetic testing, and cancer biomarker detection.

Propylthiouracil is a medication that is primarily used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition characterized by an overactive thyroid gland that produces too much thyroid hormone. The medication works by inhibiting the production of thyroid hormones in the body. It belongs to a class of drugs called antithyroid agents or thionamides.

In medical terms, propylthiouracil is defined as an antithyroid medication used to manage hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease or toxic adenoma. It acts by inhibiting the synthesis of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), in the thyroid gland. Propylthiouracil also reduces the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. The medication is available as a tablet for oral administration and is typically prescribed at a starting dose of 100-150 mg three times daily, with adjustments made based on the patient's response and thyroid function tests.

It's important to note that propylthiouracil should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider due to potential side effects and risks associated with its use. Regular monitoring of thyroid function tests is necessary during treatment, and patients should promptly report any signs or symptoms of adverse reactions to their healthcare provider.

An immunoassay is a biochemical test that measures the presence or concentration of a specific protein, antibody, or antigen in a sample using the principles of antibody-antigen reactions. It is commonly used in clinical laboratories to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions such as infections, hormonal disorders, allergies, and cancer.

Immunoassays typically involve the use of labeled reagents, such as enzymes, radioisotopes, or fluorescent dyes, that bind specifically to the target molecule. The amount of label detected is proportional to the concentration of the target molecule in the sample, allowing for quantitative analysis.

There are several types of immunoassays, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), fluorescence immunoassay (FIA), and chemiluminescent immunoassay (CLIA). Each type has its own advantages and limitations, depending on the sensitivity, specificity, and throughput required for a particular application.

Graves' ophthalmopathy, also known as Graves' eye disease or thyroid eye disease, is an autoimmune condition that affects the eyes. It often occurs in individuals with Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid gland). However, it can also occur in people without Graves' disease.

In Graves' ophthalmopathy, the immune system attacks the tissue behind the eyes, causing inflammation and enlargement of the muscles, fatty tissue, and connective tissue within the orbit (eye socket). This leads to symptoms such as:

1. Protrusion or bulging of the eyes (exophthalmos)
2. Redness and swelling of the eyelids
3. Double vision (diplopia) due to restricted eye movement
4. Pain and discomfort, especially when looking up, down, or sideways
5. Light sensitivity (photophobia)
6. Tearing and dryness in the eyes
7. Vision loss in severe cases

The treatment for Graves' ophthalmopathy depends on the severity of the symptoms and may include medications to manage inflammation, eye drops or ointments for dryness, prisms to correct double vision, or surgery for severe cases.

Thyrotoxicosis is a medical condition that results from an excess of thyroid hormones in the body, leading to an overactive metabolic state. It can be caused by various factors such as Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, Plummer's disease, or excessive intake of thyroid hormone medication. Symptoms may include rapid heart rate, weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, and increased sweating, among others. Thyrotoxicosis is not a diagnosis itself but a manifestation of various underlying thyroid disorders. Proper diagnosis and management are crucial to prevent complications and improve quality of life.

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. Its primary function is to stimulate milk production in women after childbirth, a process known as lactation. However, prolactin also plays other roles in the body, including regulating immune responses, metabolism, and behavior. In men, prolactin helps maintain the sexual glands and contributes to paternal behaviors.

Prolactin levels are usually low in both men and non-pregnant women but increase significantly during pregnancy and after childbirth. Various factors can affect prolactin levels, including stress, sleep, exercise, and certain medications. High prolactin levels can lead to medical conditions such as amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), galactorrhea (spontaneous milk production not related to childbirth), infertility, and reduced sexual desire in both men and women.

The Harderian gland is a specialized exocrine gland located in many vertebrate species, including birds and mammals. In humans, it is rudimentary and not fully developed. However, in other animals like rodents, lagomorphs (rabbits and hares), and some reptiles, this gland plays a significant role.

The Harderian gland is primarily responsible for producing and secreting lipids, which help to lubricate the eye's surface and the nictitating membrane (third eyelid). This lubrication ensures that the eyes remain moist and protected from dryness and external irritants. Additionally, the secretions of the Harderian gland contain immunoglobulins, which contribute to the animal's immune defense system by providing protection against pathogens.

In some animals, the Harderian gland also has a role in pheromone production and communication. The study and understanding of this gland are particularly important in toxicological research, as it is often used as an indicator of environmental pollutant exposure and their effects on wildlife.

Glycoprotein hormones are a group of hormones that share a similar structure and are made up of four subunits: two identical alpha subunits and two distinct beta subunits. The alpha subunit is common to all glycoprotein hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).

The alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones is a 92 amino acid polypeptide chain that contains several disulfide bonds, which help to stabilize its structure. It is heavily glycosylated, meaning that it contains many carbohydrate groups attached to the protein backbone. The alpha subunit plays an important role in the biological activity of the hormone by interacting with a specific receptor on the target cell surface.

The alpha subunit contains several regions that are important for its function, including a signal peptide, a variable region, and a conserved region. The signal peptide is a short sequence of amino acids at the N-terminus of the protein that directs it to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion. The variable region contains several amino acid residues that differ between different glycoprotein hormones, while the conserved region contains amino acids that are identical or very similar in all glycoprotein hormones.

Together with the beta subunit, the alpha subunit forms the functional hormone molecule. The beta subunit determines the specificity of the hormone for its target cells and regulates its biological activity.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the pituitary gland and other tissues throughout the body. TRH is a tripeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.

TRH receptors are activated when TRH binds to them, which triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to an increase in intracellular calcium and the release of TSH. In addition to regulating TSH secretion, TRH receptors have been found to play a role in various physiological processes, including feeding behavior, energy metabolism, and neuroprotection.

Abnormalities in TRH receptor function have been implicated in several endocrine disorders, such as thyroid dysfunction and obesity. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of TRH receptors is essential for developing new therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Thyroxine-binding proteins (TBPs) are specialized transport proteins in the blood that bind and carry thyroid hormones, primarily Thyroxine (T4), but also Triiodothyronine (T3) to a lesser extent. The majority of T4 and T3 in the blood are bound to these proteins, while only a small fraction (0.03% of T4 and 0.3% of T3) remains unbound or free, which is the biologically active form that can enter cells and tissues to exert its physiological effects.

There are three main types of thyroxine-binding proteins:

1. Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG): This is the major thyroid hormone transport protein, synthesized in the liver and accounting for approximately 70-80% of T4 and T3 binding. TBG has a high affinity but low capacity for thyroid hormones.
2. Transthyretin (TTR), also known as prealbumin: This protein accounts for around 10-20% of T4 and T3 binding. It has a lower affinity but higher capacity for thyroid hormones compared to TBG.
3. Albumin: This is the most abundant protein in the blood and binds approximately 15-20% of T4 and a smaller fraction of T3. Although albumin has a low affinity for thyroid hormones, its high concentration allows it to contribute significantly to their transport.

The binding of thyroid hormones to these proteins helps maintain stable levels in the blood and ensures a steady supply to tissues. Additionally, TBPs protect thyroid hormones from degradation and rapid clearance by the kidneys, thereby extending their half-life in the circulation.

Thyroid neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the thyroid gland, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can vary in size and may cause a noticeable lump or nodule in the neck. Thyroid neoplasms can also affect the function of the thyroid gland, leading to hormonal imbalances and related symptoms. The exact causes of thyroid neoplasms are not fully understood, but risk factors include radiation exposure, family history, and certain genetic conditions. It is important to note that most thyroid nodules are benign, but a proper medical evaluation is necessary to determine the nature of the growth and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

Carbimazole is an antithyroid medication that is primarily used to manage hyperthyroidism, a condition characterized by an overactive thyroid gland that produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones. The drug works by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for producing these hormones, thereby reducing their levels in the body and alleviating symptoms associated with the disorder.

Hyperthyroidism can manifest as various signs and symptoms, including rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Common causes of hyperthyroidism include Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, and thyroiditis.

Carbimazole is a prodrug that gets converted to its active metabolite, methimazole, in the liver. Methimazole inhibits the activity of thyroperoxidase, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). By blocking this enzyme, carbimazole reduces the production of T3 and T4, ultimately helping to control hyperthyroidism.

The medication is typically administered orally in tablet form, with dosages varying depending on individual patient needs and response to treatment. Common side effects of carbimazole include gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Rare but severe adverse reactions may include agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cells), aplastic anemia (a condition where the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient numbers of blood cells), and hepatotoxicity (liver damage).

Patients taking carbimazole should be closely monitored for signs of adverse reactions, and regular blood tests are necessary to assess thyroid hormone levels and potential side effects. Pregnant women should avoid using carbimazole due to the risk of birth defects in the developing fetus. In such cases, alternative antithyroid medications like propylthiouracil may be prescribed instead.

In summary, carbimazole is an antithyroid medication used primarily for managing hyperthyroidism by inhibiting thyroperoxidase and reducing the production of thyroid hormones T3 and T4. While effective, it carries potential risks and side effects that necessitate close monitoring during treatment.

Autoimmune thyroiditis, also known as Hashimoto's disease, is a chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland caused by an autoimmune response. In this condition, the immune system produces antibodies that attack and damage the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). The thyroid gland may become enlarged (goiter), and symptoms can include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. Autoimmune thyroiditis is more common in women than men and tends to run in families. It is often associated with other autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, Addison's disease, and type 1 diabetes. The diagnosis is typically made through blood tests that measure levels of thyroid hormones and antibodies. Treatment usually involves thyroid hormone replacement therapy to manage the symptoms of hypothyroidism.

Antithyroid agents are a class of medications that are used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone. These medications work by inhibiting the production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland. There are several types of antithyroid agents available, including:

1. Propylthiouracil (PTU): This medication works by blocking the enzyme that is needed to produce thyroid hormones. It also reduces the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), another thyroid hormone, in peripheral tissues.
2. Methimazole: This medication works similarly to propylthiouracil by blocking the enzyme that is needed to produce thyroid hormones. However, it does not affect the conversion of T4 to T3 in peripheral tissues.
3. Carbimazole: This medication is converted to methimazole in the body and works similarly to block the production of thyroid hormones.

Antithyroid agents are usually taken orally, and their effects on thyroid hormone production begin within a few hours after ingestion. However, it may take several weeks for patients to notice an improvement in their symptoms. These medications can have side effects, including rash, hives, and joint pain. In rare cases, they can cause liver damage or agranulocytosis, a condition in which the body does not produce enough white blood cells.

It is important to note that antithyroid agents do not cure hyperthyroidism; they only treat the symptoms by reducing thyroid hormone production. Therefore, patients may need to take these medications for several months or even years, depending on their individual circumstances. In some cases, surgery or radioactive iodine therapy may be recommended as alternative treatments for hyperthyroidism.

Pyrrolidonecarboxylic acid, also known as Proline or Prolinic acid, is an organic compound with the formula N-pyrrolidinecarboxylic acid. It is a cyclic amino acid, which means that its side chain is bonded to the rest of the molecule in a ring structure.

Proline is an important constituent of many proteins and plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of the protein. It is classified as a non-essential amino acid because it can be synthesized by the human body from other amino acids, such as glutamic acid.

Pyrrolidonecarboxylic acid has a variety of uses in medicine and industry, including as a chiral auxiliary in organic synthesis, a building block for pharmaceuticals, and a component in cosmetics and personal care products. It is also used as a buffering agent and a stabilizer in various medical and industrial applications.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

Myxedema is not a term used in modern medicine to describe a specific medical condition. However, historically, it was used to refer to the severe form of hypothyroidism, a condition characterized by an underactive thyroid gland that doesn't produce enough thyroid hormones. In hypothyroidism, various body functions slow down, which can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, and dry skin.

Myxedema specifically refers to the physical signs of severe hypothyroidism, including swelling (edema) and thickening of the skin, particularly around the face, hands, and feet, as well as a puffy appearance of the face. The term myxedema coma was used to describe a rare but life-threatening complication of long-standing, untreated hypothyroidism, characterized by altered mental status, hypothermia, and other systemic manifestations.

Nowadays, healthcare professionals use more precise medical terminology to describe these conditions, such as hypothyroidism or myxedematous edema, rather than the outdated term myxedema.

Iodine radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element iodine, which decays and emits radiation in the form of gamma rays. Some commonly used iodine radioisotopes include I-123, I-125, I-131. These radioisotopes have various medical applications such as in diagnostic imaging, therapy for thyroid disorders, and cancer treatment.

For example, I-131 is commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism and differentiated thyroid cancer due to its ability to destroy thyroid tissue. On the other hand, I-123 is often used in nuclear medicine scans of the thyroid gland because it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, allowing for detailed images of the gland's structure and function.

It is important to note that handling and administering radioisotopes require specialized training and safety precautions due to their radiation-emitting properties.

Pituitary neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), with most being benign. They can vary in size and may cause various symptoms depending on their location, size, and hormonal activity.

Pituitary neoplasms can produce and secrete excess hormones, leading to a variety of endocrine disorders such as Cushing's disease (caused by excessive ACTH production), acromegaly (caused by excessive GH production), or prolactinoma (caused by excessive PRL production). They can also cause local compression symptoms due to their size, leading to headaches, vision problems, and cranial nerve palsies.

The exact causes of pituitary neoplasms are not fully understood, but genetic factors, radiation exposure, and certain inherited conditions may increase the risk of developing these tumors. Treatment options for pituitary neoplasms include surgical removal, radiation therapy, and medical management with drugs that can help control hormonal imbalances.

A goiter is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the neck. Goiters can be either diffuse (uniformly enlarged) or nodular (lumpy with distinct nodules). Nodular goiter refers to a thyroid gland that has developed one or more discrete lumps or nodules while the remaining tissue is normal or may also be diffusely enlarged.

Nodular goiters can be classified into two types: multinodular goiter and solitary thyroid nodule. Multinodular goiter consists of multiple nodules in the thyroid gland, while a solitary thyroid nodule is an isolated nodule within an otherwise normal or diffusely enlarged thyroid gland.

The majority of nodular goiters are benign and do not cause symptoms. However, some patients may experience signs and symptoms related to compression of nearby structures (such as difficulty swallowing or breathing), hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), or hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). The evaluation of a nodular goiter typically includes a physical examination, imaging studies like ultrasound, and sometimes fine-needle aspiration biopsy to determine the nature of the nodules and assess the risk of malignancy. Treatment options depend on various factors, including the size and number of nodules, the presence of compressive symptoms, and the patient's thyroid function.

Methimazole is an anti-thyroid medication that is primarily used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones. It works by inhibiting the enzyme thyroperoxidase, which is essential for the production of thyroid hormones. By blocking this enzyme, methimazole reduces the amount of thyroid hormones produced by the thyroid gland, helping to restore normal thyroid function.

Methimazole is available in oral tablet form and is typically taken two to three times a day. Common side effects of methimazole include nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, and joint pain. In rare cases, it can cause more serious side effects such as liver damage or agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cell count).

It is important to note that methimazole should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, as regular monitoring of thyroid function and potential side effects is necessary. Additionally, it may take several weeks or months of treatment with methimazole before thyroid function returns to normal.

Potassium iodide is an inorganic, non-radioactive salt of iodine. Medically, it is used as a thyroid blocking agent to prevent the absorption of radioactive iodine in the event of a nuclear accident or radiation exposure. It works by saturating the thyroid gland with stable iodide, which then prevents the uptake of radioactive iodine. This can help reduce the risk of thyroid cancer and other thyroid related issues that may arise from exposure to radioactive materials. Potassium iodide is also used in the treatment of iodine deficiency disorders.

Thyroidectomy is a surgical procedure where all or part of the thyroid gland is removed. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck, responsible for producing hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

There are different types of thyroidectomy procedures, including:

1. Total thyroidectomy: Removal of the entire thyroid gland.
2. Partial (or subtotal) thyroidectomy: Removal of a portion of the thyroid gland.
3. Hemithyroidectomy: Removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland, often performed to treat benign solitary nodules or differentiated thyroid cancer.

Thyroidectomy may be recommended for various reasons, such as treating thyroid nodules, goiter, hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), or thyroid cancer. Potential risks and complications of the procedure include bleeding, infection, damage to nearby structures like the parathyroid glands and recurrent laryngeal nerve, and hypoparathyroidism or hypothyroidism due to removal of or damage to the parathyroid glands or thyroid gland, respectively. Close postoperative monitoring and management are essential to minimize these risks and ensure optimal patient outcomes.

Transcription Factor Pit-1, also known as POU1F1 or pituitary-specific transcription factor 1, is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and function of the anterior pituitary gland. It is a member of the POU domain family of transcription factors, which are characterized by a conserved DNA-binding domain.

Pit-1 is essential for the differentiation and proliferation of certain types of pituitary cells, including those that produce growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Pit-1 binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of these hormone genes, thereby activating their transcription and promoting hormone production.

Mutations in the gene encoding Pit-1 can lead to a variety of pituitary disorders, such as dwarfism due to GH deficiency, delayed puberty, and hypothyroidism due to TSH deficiency. Additionally, some studies have suggested that Pit-1 may also play a role in regulating energy balance and body weight, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood.

Growth Hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone secreted by the somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the liver and other tissues. GH also has important metabolic functions, such as increasing glucose levels, enhancing protein synthesis, and reducing fat storage. Its secretion is regulated by two hypothalamic hormones: growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), which stimulates its release, and somatostatin (SRIF), which inhibits its release. Abnormal levels of GH can lead to various medical conditions, such as dwarfism or gigantism if there are deficiencies or excesses, respectively.

Thyroiditis is a general term that refers to inflammation of the thyroid gland. It can be caused by various factors such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or medications. Depending on the cause and severity, thyroiditis may lead to overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism) of thyroid hormones, or it can result in a temporary or permanent loss of thyroid function.

There are several types of thyroiditis, including:

1. Hashimoto's thyroiditis - an autoimmune disorder where the body attacks and damages the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
2. Subacute granulomatous thyroiditis (De Quervain's thyroiditis) - often follows a viral infection and results in painful inflammation of the thyroid gland, causing hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism.
3. Silent thyroiditis - an autoimmune disorder similar to Hashimoto's thyroiditis but without symptoms like pain or tenderness; it can cause temporary hyperthyroidism and later hypothyroidism.
4. Postpartum thyroiditis - occurs in women after childbirth, causing inflammation of the thyroid gland leading to hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism.
5. Acute suppurative thyroiditis - a rare bacterial infection that causes painful swelling and redness of the thyroid gland, usually requiring antibiotics for treatment.

Symptoms of thyroiditis depend on whether it leads to hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. Hyperthyroidism symptoms include rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, and tremors. Hypothyroidism symptoms include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. Treatment varies depending on the type of thyroiditis and its severity.

Adenylate cyclase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). It plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including signal transduction and metabolism. Adenylate cyclase is activated by hormones and neurotransmitters that bind to G-protein-coupled receptors on the cell membrane, leading to the production of cAMP, which then acts as a second messenger to regulate various intracellular responses. There are several isoforms of adenylate cyclase, each with distinct regulatory properties and subcellular localization.

Euthyroid sick syndrome, also known as non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS), is a condition characterized by abnormal thyroid function tests that occur in individuals with underlying non-thyroidal systemic illness. Despite the presence of abnormal test results, these individuals do not have evidence of clinical hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

In euthyroid sick syndrome, the levels of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) hormones may be decreased, while thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels remain normal or low. This is thought to occur due to alterations in the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones, rather than changes in the function of the thyroid gland itself.

The condition is often seen in individuals with severe illness, such as sepsis, cancer, malnutrition, or following major surgery. It is thought to represent an adaptive response to stress and illness, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood. In most cases, euthyroid sick syndrome resolves on its own once the underlying illness has been treated.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

In medical terms, the orbit refers to the bony cavity or socket in the skull that contains and protects the eye (eyeball) and its associated structures, including muscles, nerves, blood vessels, fat, and the lacrimal gland. The orbit is made up of several bones: the frontal bone, sphenoid bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla bone, and palatine bone. These bones form a pyramid-like shape that provides protection for the eye while also allowing for a range of movements.

Iopanoic acid is a contrast medium, specifically a radiocontrast agent, that is used during imaging examinations such as X-rays and CT scans to help improve the visibility of internal body structures. It works by blocking the absorption of X-rays in the digestive tract, making it possible to visualize the gastrointestinal tract more clearly on imaging studies. Iopanoic acid is typically given orally before the examination.

It's important to note that the use of iopanoic acid and other radiocontrast agents should be carefully weighed against the potential risks, as they can cause allergic reactions, kidney damage, and other complications in some individuals. Therefore, it is usually reserved for situations where the benefits of improved imaging outweigh these potential risks.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "paper" is not a medical term. In general, it refers to a thin material made from pulp derived from wood, rags, or other fibrous substances, which is used for writing, printing, drawing, or packaging. If you have a question about a specific medical concept or condition, I'd be happy to help if I can!

Cell surface receptors, also known as membrane receptors, are proteins located on the cell membrane that bind to specific molecules outside the cell, known as ligands. These receptors play a crucial role in signal transduction, which is the process of converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular response.

Cell surface receptors can be classified into several categories based on their structure and mechanism of action, including:

1. Ion channel receptors: These receptors contain a pore that opens to allow ions to flow across the cell membrane when they bind to their ligands. This ion flux can directly activate or inhibit various cellular processes.
2. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These receptors consist of seven transmembrane domains and are associated with heterotrimeric G proteins that modulate intracellular signaling pathways upon ligand binding.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity or are linked to an enzyme, which becomes activated when the receptor binds to its ligand. This activation can lead to the initiation of various signaling cascades within the cell.
4. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These receptors contain intracellular tyrosine kinase domains that become activated upon ligand binding, leading to the phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules.
5. Integrins: These receptors are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions by binding to extracellular matrix proteins or counter-receptors on adjacent cells. They play essential roles in cell adhesion, migration, and survival.

Cell surface receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and cell growth and differentiation. Dysregulation of these receptors can contribute to the development of numerous diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Hypopituitarism is a medical condition characterized by deficient secretion of one or more hormones produced by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland controls several other endocrine glands in the body, including the thyroid, adrenals, and sex glands (ovaries and testes).

Hypopituitarism can result from damage to the pituitary gland due to various causes such as tumors, surgery, radiation therapy, trauma, or inflammation. In some cases, hypopituitarism may also be caused by a dysfunction of the hypothalamus, a region in the brain that regulates the pituitary gland's function.

The symptoms and signs of hypopituitarism depend on which hormones are deficient and can include fatigue, weakness, decreased appetite, weight loss, low blood pressure, decreased sex drive, infertility, irregular menstrual periods, intolerance to cold, constipation, thinning hair, dry skin, and depression.

Treatment of hypopituitarism typically involves hormone replacement therapy to restore the deficient hormones' normal levels. The type and dosage of hormones used will depend on which hormones are deficient and may require regular monitoring and adjustments over time.

Sodium iodide is a chemical compound with the formula NaI. It is a white, crystalline solid that is widely used in medicine, particularly as a radiocontrast agent for imaging procedures such as CT scans and X-rays. Sodium iodide is also used in the treatment of thyroid disorders because it contains iodine, which is an essential nutrient for proper thyroid function.

In medical applications, sodium iodide may be combined with a radioactive isotope such as technetium-99m or iodine-131 to create a radiopharmaceutical that can be used to diagnose or treat various conditions. The radiation emitted by the isotope can be detected by medical imaging equipment, allowing doctors to visualize and assess the function of organs and tissues within the body.

It's important to note that sodium iodide should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, as it may have potential side effects and risks associated with its use.

Pituitary function tests are a group of diagnostic exams that evaluate the proper functioning of the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and releasing several essential hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and lactation.

These tests typically involve measuring the levels of different hormones in the blood, stimulating or suppressing the pituitary gland with specific medications, and assessing the body's response to these challenges. Some common pituitary function tests include:

1. Growth hormone (GH) testing: Measures GH levels in the blood, often after a provocative test using substances like insulin, arginine, clonidine, or glucagon to stimulate GH release.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) testing: Assesses the function of the thyroid gland by measuring TSH and FT4 levels in response to TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) stimulation.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol testing: Evaluates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by measuring ACTH and cortisol levels after a CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) stimulation test or an insulin tolerance test.
4. Prolactin (PRL) testing: Measures PRL levels in the blood, which can be elevated due to pituitary tumors or other conditions affecting the hypothalamus.
5. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) testing: Assesses reproductive function by measuring FSH and LH levels, often in conjunction with estradiol or testosterone levels.
6. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test: Evaluates gonadal function by measuring FSH and LH levels after GnRH administration.
7. Growth hormone (GH) testing: Measures GH levels in response to various stimuli, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), glucagon, or arginine.
8. Vasopressin (ADH) testing: Assesses the posterior pituitary function by measuring ADH levels and performing a water deprivation test.

These tests can help diagnose various pituitary disorders, such as hypopituitarism, hyperpituitarism, or pituitary tumors, and guide appropriate treatment strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Microchemistry" is not a commonly used term in medicine. It is, however, a branch of chemistry that deals with the separation, identification, and analysis of chemical substances in minute quantities. This field can be applied in various scientific disciplines, including forensic science, environmental science, and materials science.

In the medical field, you might encounter similar concepts under terms like "microanalysis" or "clinical chemistry," which refer to the identification and measurement of chemical components in body fluids (like blood or urine) for diagnostic purposes. But again, "Microchemistry" is not a standard term used in this context.

I apologize for the confusion, but "Bucladesine" is not a recognized medical term or a medication in current use in medicine. It's possible that there may be some mistake or typo in the spelling. If you have any more context about where you encountered this term, I might be able to provide a more accurate and helpful response.

Subacute thyroiditis, also known as de Quervain's thyroiditis or granulomatous thyroiditis, is a inflammatory disorder of the thyroid gland. It is characterized by the presence of granulomas, which are collections of immune cells, within the thyroid tissue. The condition often follows an upper respiratory infection and is more common in women than men.

Subacute thyroiditis typically presents with pain and tenderness in the front of the neck, along with systemic symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and low-grade fever. The disorder can cause hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) initially, followed by hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) as the gland becomes damaged and inflamed. In some cases, the thyroid function may return to normal on its own after several months. Treatment typically involves anti-inflammatory medications to reduce pain and inflammation, and beta blockers to manage symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

CHO cells, or Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, are a type of immortalized cell line that are commonly used in scientific research and biotechnology. They were originally derived from the ovaries of a female Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) in the 1950s.

CHO cells have several characteristics that make them useful for laboratory experiments. They can grow and divide indefinitely under appropriate conditions, which allows researchers to culture large quantities of them for study. Additionally, CHO cells are capable of expressing high levels of recombinant proteins, making them a popular choice for the production of therapeutic drugs, vaccines, and other biologics.

In particular, CHO cells have become a workhorse in the field of biotherapeutics, with many approved monoclonal antibody-based therapies being produced using these cells. The ability to genetically modify CHO cells through various methods has further expanded their utility in research and industrial applications.

It is important to note that while CHO cells are widely used in scientific research, they may not always accurately represent human cell behavior or respond to drugs and other compounds in the same way as human cells do. Therefore, results obtained using CHO cells should be validated in more relevant systems when possible.

Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that is produced during pregnancy. It is produced by the placenta after implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus. The main function of hCG is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum, which is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after ovulation and produces progesterone during early pregnancy. Progesterone is essential for maintaining the lining of the uterus and supporting the pregnancy.

hCG can be detected in the blood or urine as early as 10 days after conception, and its levels continue to rise throughout the first trimester of pregnancy. In addition to its role in maintaining pregnancy, hCG is also used as a clinical marker for pregnancy and to monitor certain medical conditions such as gestational trophoblastic diseases.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

Ablation techniques are medical procedures that involve the removal or destruction of body tissue or cells. This can be done through various methods, including:

1. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA): This technique uses heat generated by radio waves to destroy targeted tissue. A thin probe is inserted into the body, and the tip of the probe emits high-frequency electrical currents that heat up and destroy the surrounding tissue.
2. Cryoablation: Also known as cryosurgery, this technique uses extreme cold to destroy abnormal tissue. A probe is inserted into the body, and a gas is passed through it to create a ball of ice that freezes and destroys the targeted tissue.
3. Microwave ablation: This technique uses microwaves to heat up and destroy targeted tissue. A probe is inserted into the body, and microwaves are emitted from the tip of the probe to heat up and destroy the surrounding tissue.
4. Laser ablation: This technique uses laser energy to vaporize and destroy targeted tissue. A laser fiber is inserted into the body, and the laser energy is directed at the targeted tissue to destroy it.
5. High-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU): This technique uses high-frequency sound waves to heat up and destroy targeted tissue. The sound waves are focused on a specific area of the body, and the heat generated by the sound waves destroys the targeted tissue.

Ablation techniques are used in various medical fields, including cardiology, oncology, and neurology, to treat a range of conditions such as arrhythmias, cancer, and chronic pain.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone, which is primarily produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, a surge of LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. During pregnancy, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone. In men, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. It plays a crucial role in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining the reproductive system.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) receptors are specialized protein structures found on the surface of certain cells in the body. They play a crucial role in the endocrine system by binding to specific hormones, such as Luteinizing Hormone, and triggering a series of intracellular events that ultimately lead to changes in cell function.

In particular, LH receptors are found on the cells of the ovaries and testes. In females, when LH binds to its receptor in the ovary, it stimulates ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. In males, LH (also known as Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone in this context) binding to its receptor on testicular Leydig cells triggers the production of testosterone.

Therefore, LH receptors are essential for reproductive processes and the maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Hyperthyroxinemia is a condition characterized by an elevated level of thyroxine (T4) in the blood. Thyroxine is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland, and its levels are regulated by another hormone called thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Hyperthyroxinemia can be caused by various factors, including overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism), excessive intake of thyroid hormones, or genetic disorders affecting thyroid hormone metabolism.

It is important to note that hyperthyroxinemia may not always result in symptoms or clinical manifestations of hyperthyroidism, as T4 levels must be converted to the active form of the hormone, triiodothyronine (T3), to exert its effects on various organs and tissues. Therefore, additional tests, such as measuring free T3 and TSH levels, may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis of hyperthyroidism.

The thyrotropin receptor (or TSH receptor) is a receptor (and associated protein) that responds to thyroid-stimulating hormone ... IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Thyrotropin+Receptors at ... resistance to thyrotropin caused by mutations in the thyrotropin-receptor gene". The New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (3): ... Farid NR, Kascur V, Balazs C (Jul 2000). "The human thyrotropin receptor is highly mutable: a review of gain-of-function ...
... (TRHR) is a G protein-coupled receptor which binds thyrotropin-releasing hormone. The ... "Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and ... Receptors,+Thyrotropin-Releasing+Hormone at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) v t e (CS1 ... Gershengorn MC (1993). "Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor: Cloning and regulation of its expression". pp. 341-63. doi: ...
Identification of thyrotropin receptors in human thymus". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 98 (10): 2228-34. doi:10.1172/ ...
"The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families". Proc. ... Allgeier A, Offermanns S, Van Sande J, Spicher K, Schultz G, Dumont JE (1994). "The human thyrotropin receptor activates G- ... 7-transmembrane domain receptors to intracellular signaling pathways. Receptor activation catalyzes the exchange of GDP for GTP ... Petit A, Geoffroy P, Bélisle S (1997). "Expression of angiotensin II type-I receptor and phospholipase C-linked G alpha q/11 ...
... and Somatostatin Receptor 5 (SSTR5) Expression in Thyrotropin-Producing Pituitary Adenoma (TSHoma)". Medical Science Monitor. ... SST2A receptor and SST2B receptor are seen in some brain and spinal cord areas in a rodent. Somatostatin receptor 2a has a ... SST2A receptor is made up of 369 amino acids and 346 amino acids make up the SST2B receptor. Somatostatin receptor 2a and ... somatostatin receptor 2a (SSTR2A) and somatostatin receptor 2b (SSTR2B). In a rodent, somatostatin receptor 2a is longer ...
2005). "Thyrotropin receptor trafficking relies on the hScrib-betaPIX-GIT1-ARF6 pathway". EMBO J. 24 (7): 1364-74. doi:10.1038/ ... a GTPase activating protein for ARF6 implicated in receptor recycling and exocytosis. SCRIB is found in the cell membrane most ...
The thyrotropin receptor (TSH receptor) is the antigen for TSH receptor antibodies (TRAbs). It is a seven transmembrane G ... thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb) and thyroglobulin antibodies (TgAb). TRAb's are subdivided into activating, blocking and ... Binding of the antibody to the amino terminus of the TSH receptor shows stimulatory activity, whereas binding to residues 261- ... These antibodies activate adenylate cyclase by binding to the TSH receptor. This causes the production of thyroid hormones and ...
"GRK2 and beta-arrestin 1 as negative regulators of thyrotropin receptor-stimulated response". Molecular Endocrinology. 10 (9): ... Lefkowitz RJ (July 1998). "G protein-coupled receptors. III. New roles for receptor kinases and beta-arrestins in receptor ... "Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1-induced CCR2B receptor desensitization mediated by the G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 ... Arrestin beta 1 is a cytosolic protein and acts as a cofactor in the beta-adrenergic receptor kinase (BARK) mediated ...
Brokken LJ, Wiersinga WM, Prummel MF (2003). "Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are associated with continued thyrotropin ... Lechan, Ronald M.; Fekete, C (2004). "Feedback regulation of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): mechanisms for the non- ... Prummel MF, Brokken LJ, Wiersinga WM (2004). "Ultra short-loop feedback control of thyrotropin secretion". Thyroid. 14 (10): ... Midgley JE, Hoermann R, Larisch R, Dietrich JW (2013). "Physiological states and functional relation between thyrotropin and ...
Adenosine modulates the preBötC output via activation of the A1 and A2A receptor subtypes. An adenosine A1 receptor agonist has ... Other markers for the preBötC include peptide hormone thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) and the glycoprotein reelin. In ... The suppression of muscarinic receptors and the activation of nicotinic receptors due to prenatal exposure to nicotine have ... µ-opioid receptors (µORs), as well as somatostatin (SST) and SST2a-type receptors. Of course, selectively does not mean ...
"The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families". ... Lee MJ, Evans M, Hla T (May 1996). "The inducible G protein-coupled receptor edg-1 signals via the G(i)/mitogen-activated ... Lee MJ, Evans M, Hla T (May 1996). "The inducible G protein-coupled receptor edg-1 signals via the G(i)/mitogen-activated ... Sidhu A, Niznik HB (Nov 2000). "Coupling of dopamine receptor subtypes to multiple and diverse G proteins". International ...
"The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families". ... Lee MJ, Evans M, Hla T (May 1996). "The inducible G protein-coupled receptor edg-1 signals via the G(i)/mitogen-activated ... Lee MJ, Evans M, Hla T (May 1996). "The inducible G protein-coupled receptor edg-1 signals via the G(i)/mitogen-activated ... Zhang J, Pratt RE (Jun 1996). "The AT2 receptor selectively associates with Gialpha2 and Gialpha3 in the rat fetus". The ...
"The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families". ... G12/G13 alpha subunits G protein-coupled receptor Heterotrimeric G protein Rho family of GTPases GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ... Becker KP, Garnovskaya M, Gettys T, Halushka PV (Jul 1999). "Coupling of thromboxane A2 receptor isoforms to Galpha13: effects ... Gilman, AG (1987). "G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 56: 615-649. doi: ...
T3 could then bind to the thyroid hormone receptor in these neurons and affect the production of thyrotropin-releasing hormone ... Unlike gonadal steroid receptors, glucocorticoid receptors are very widespread throughout the brain; in the paraventricular ... Estrogen receptors (and progesterone receptors) are found mainly in neurons in the anterior and mediobasal hypothalamus, ... Estrogen receptor (ER) has been shown to transactivate other transcription factors in this manner, despite the absence of an ...
1996). "The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families ... AbdAlla S, Lother H, Abdel-tawab AM, Quitterer U (2001). "The angiotensin II AT2 receptor is an AT1 receptor antagonist". J. ... Shraga-Levine Z, Sokolovsky M (2000). "Functional coupling of G proteins to endothelin receptors is ligand and receptor subtype ... Offermanns S, Simon MI (1995). "G alpha 15 and G alpha 16 couple a wide variety of receptors to phospholipase C". J. Biol. Chem ...
1996). "The human thyrotropin receptor: a heptahelical receptor capable of stimulating members of all four G protein families ... Georgoussi Z, Carr C, Milligan G (1993). "Direct measurements of in situ interactions of rat brain opioid receptors with the ... Preferential coupling of the alpha 2C-adrenergic receptor to the guanine nucleotide-binding protein, Go". J. Biol. Chem. 267 ( ... 2002). "Multiplicity of mechanisms of serotonin receptor signal transduction". Pharmacol. Ther. 92 (2-3): 179-212. doi:10.1016/ ...
Valente, William (July 19, 1982). "Monoclonal antibodies to the thyrotropin receptor: Stimulating and blocking antibodies ... Studies have shown that blocking antibodies can bind to and prevent thyrotropin binding, resulting in reduced cAMP levels in ...
In Igsf1 deficient mice, the receptor for TRH is downregulated in the pituitary. This decrease could explain, at least in part ... TSH secretion is controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is released by neurons in the hypothalamus of the ... How the loss of IGSF1 causes a decrease in TRH receptors is presently unknown. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000147255 - ...
Yusta B, Alarid ET, Gordon DF, Ridgway EC, Mellon PL (1998). "The thyrotropin beta-subunit gene is repressed by thyroid hormone ... Retinoid X receptor gamma (RXR-gamma), also known as NR2B3 (nuclear receptor subfamily 2, group B, member 3) is a nuclear ... Retinoid X receptor Retinoid X receptor gamma has been shown to interact with ITGB3BP. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ... This gene encodes a member of the retinoid X receptor (RXR) family of nuclear receptors which are involved in mediating the ...
"A detailed functional and structural analysis of a major thyroid hormone inhibitory element in the human thyrotropin beta- ... Thyroid hormone receptor beta (TR-beta) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group A, member 2 (NR1A2), is a nuclear ... The protein encoded by this gene is a nuclear hormone receptor for triiodothyronine. It is one of the several receptors for ... Tagami T, Lutz WH, Kumar R, Jameson JL (December 1998). "The interaction of the vitamin D receptor with nuclear receptor ...
"Functional expression of the thyrotropin receptor in C cells: new insights into their involvement in the hypothalamic-pituitary ... Barasch J, Gershon MD, Nunez EA, Tamir H, al-Awqati Q (December 1988). "Thyrotropin induces the acidification of the secretory ... They may also have a role in regulating thyroid hormones production locally, as they express thyrotropin-releasing hormone. ... Gkonos PJ, Tavianini MA, Liu CC, Roos BA (December 1989). "Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in normal thyroid ...
The basolateral membrane of follicular cells contains thyrotropin receptors which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) ...
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptors are present in both the melanotropes of the pars intermedia and the corticotropes ... releasing dopamine which then binds to dopamine receptors on the melanotropes. Activation of these dopamine receptors leads to ... In these horses, the thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test should either be used as an initial screening test, or to ... Kam YN, McKenzie K, Coyle M, Bertin FR (October 2021). "Repeatability of a thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test for ...
... thyrotropin-releasing hormone [TRH], and oxytocin); and endocannabinoids. GPCRs that act as receptors for stimuli that have not ... transmembrane domain receptors, 7TM receptors, heptahelical receptors, serpentine receptors, and G protein-linked receptors ( ... G protein-coupled receptors database List of MeSH codes (D12.776) Metabotropic receptor Orphan receptor Pepducins, a class of ... is a receptor that can bind with stimulative signal molecules, while inhibitory hormone receptor (Ri) is a receptor that can ...
... polymorphisms in the TNFA gene in the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid diseases and production of anti-thyrotropin receptor ... It may facilitate presentation by APC, enhance the binding affinity of the T-cell receptor, and activating specific T-cells. ... and Thyroid stimulating hormone receptor Antibodies (TRAb). The antibody attacks ultimately lead to hypothyroidism, which is ...
... to act on the D2 receptors of lactotrophs, causing inhibition of prolactin secretion. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone has a ... The D2 receptor is involved in the regulation of prolactin secretion, and agonists of the receptor such as bromocriptine and ... When prolactin binds to the receptor, it causes it to dimerize with another prolactin receptor. This results in the activation ... The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine manners through the prolactin receptor and numerous cytokine receptors ...
Urayama A, Yamada S, Kimura R, Zhang J, Watanabe Y (December 2002). "Neuroprotective effect and brain receptor binding of ... 2000). "A study of thyrotropin-releasing hormone for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy: a preliminary report". American ... July 1994). "Efficacy of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy". Journal of Child Neurology ... Taltirelin (marketed under the tradename Ceredist) is a thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analog, which mimics the ...
... receptor thyroid-stimulating hormone hypothalamic-pituitary thyroid axis hypothalamic-pituitary- ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a hypophysiotropic hormone produced by neurons in the hypothalamus that stimulates the ... Media related to Thyrotropin-releasing hormone at Wikimedia Commons (CS1 French-language sources (fr), Articles with short ... Prokai-Tatrai K, De La Cruz DL, Nguyen V, Ross BP, Toth I, Prokai L (July 2019). "Brain Delivery of Thyrotropin-Releasing ...
"Characterization of two LGR genes homologous to gonadotropin and thyrotropin receptors with extracellular leucine-rich repeats ... Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5 (LGR5) also known as G-protein coupled receptor 49 (GPR49) or G- ... heightens receptor activity. Thus, only the initial interaction with its unknown ligand and other membrane bound receptors is ... "Identification and cloning of an orphan G protein-coupled receptor of the glycoprotein hormone receptor subfamily". Biochem ...
"Characterization of two LGR genes homologous to gonadotropin and thyrotropin receptors with extracellular leucine-rich repeats ... G protein-coupled receptors, All stub articles, Transmembrane receptor stubs). ... Leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LGR4 gene. LGR4 is ... "Entrez Gene: LGR4 leucine-rich repeat-containing G protein-coupled receptor 4". Hsu SY, Liang SG, Hsueh AJ (1999). " ...
The thyrotropin receptor (or TSH receptor) is a receptor (and associated protein) that responds to thyroid-stimulating hormone ... IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Thyrotropin+Receptors at ... resistance to thyrotropin caused by mutations in the thyrotropin-receptor gene". The New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (3): ... Farid NR, Kascur V, Balazs C (Jul 2000). "The human thyrotropin receptor is highly mutable: a review of gain-of-function ...
Categorized as Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors (B) Proliferation index of spleen T cells. (B) Proliferation index of ... Categorized as Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors The selectivity of action of LfcinB is due to its strongly cationic ... Categorized as Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors Panneuronal expression of aSyn (and silencing. Panneuronal expression ... Categorized as Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors (b) Full-length LTBP-1 was treated with full-length recombinant ADAMTS6 ...
Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors At 5 days post fertilization (dpf), fish were heat shocked and reared in DD or LD ... Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors As a total result, we confirmed that 3D spheroid formation increased E-cadherin and ... Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors Moreover, the functions of the deubiquitination and de-ISGylation activities of PLpro ...
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation in the spinal cord increases blood pressure and sympathetic tone to the ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation in the spinal cord increases blood pressure and sympathetic tone to the ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation in the spinal cord increases blood pressure and sympathetic tone to the ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation in the spinal cord increases blood pressure and sympathetic tone to the ...
TSH Receptor) Antibody, TRAb (Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody), TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Receptor Binding, TSH Binding ... TSH Receptor) Antibody, TRAb (Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody), TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) Receptor Binding, TSH Binding ... Some patients with GD also have TRAb, which do not transactivate the thyrotropin receptor. The balance between stimulating and ... Recommended first-line test for detection of thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) antibodies, and used in the following situations:. - ...
Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies induce human thyroid cell growth and c-fos activation. / Huber, G. K.; Safirstein, R.; ... Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies induce human thyroid cell growth and c-fos activation. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology ... Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies induce human thyroid cell growth and c-fos activation. In: Journal of Clinical ... Dive into the research topics of Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies induce human thyroid cell growth and c-fos activation. ...
Keywords: Graves ophthalmopathy; Thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins; Thyrotropin receptors; Thyrotropin-binding inhibitory ... Stimulation of adipogenesis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), and thyrotropin receptor by ... these cells express a higher level of thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor than ordinary ... Thyrotropin Receptor Autoantibody Assessment in Thyroid Eye Disease: Does the Assay Type Matter?. Article information. Korean J ...
Posted by By cahrr February 19, 2023Posted inThyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors ... Posted by By cahrr February 10, 2023Posted inThyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors ... Posted by By cahrr April 24, 2022Posted inThyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors ... Posted by By cahrr February 25, 2022Posted inThyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors ...
keywords = "Medaka (Oryzias latipes), RT-PCR, Teleosts, Thyrotropin-releasing hormone, Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor", ... Molecular cloning of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors (TRHR) was performed in a model teleost fish, medaka (Oryzias ... N2 - Molecular cloning of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors (TRHR) was performed in a model teleost fish, medaka (Oryzias ... AB - Molecular cloning of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors (TRHR) was performed in a model teleost fish, medaka (Oryzias ...
... thyrotropin receptor antibodies because they specifically inhibit thyrotropin binding and competitively inhibit thyrotropin- ... thyrotropin receptor antibodies because they specifically inhibit thyrotropin binding and competitively inhibit thyrotropin- ... Monoclonal antibodies to the thyrotropin receptor: stimulating and blocking antibodies derived from the lymphocytes of patients ... of 125I-labeled thyrotropin binding to liposomes containing the glycoprotein component of the human thyrotropin receptor. ...
Thyrotropin level (if on thyroid replacement). Experts are divided on whether to include thyrotropin testing, regardless of a ... Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulator. Class Summary. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) affect some of the ... High bone density due to a mutation in LDL-receptor-related protein 5. N Engl J Med. 2002 May 16. 346(20):1513-21. [QxMD ... Six novel missense mutations in the LDL receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) gene in different conditions with an increased bone ...
Engineering the Human Thyrotropin Receptor Ectodomain from a Non-secreted Form to a Secreted, Highly Immunoreactive ...
Graves disease is an autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR). Several studies have ... N2 - Graves disease is an autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR). Several studies ... AB - Graves disease is an autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR). Several studies ... abstract = "Graves disease is an autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR). Several ...
T1 - Thyrotropin receptor-specific antibodies in BALB/cJ mice with experimental hyperthyroxinemia show a restricted binding ... title = "Thyrotropin receptor-specific antibodies in BALB/cJ mice with experimental hyperthyroxinemia show a restricted binding ... Thyrotropin receptor-specific antibodies in BALB/cJ mice with experimental hyperthyroxinemia show a restricted binding ... Thyrotropin receptor-specific antibodies in BALB/cJ mice with experimental hyperthyroxinemia show a restricted binding ...
Comparison of thyrotropin-receptor antibodies measured by four commercially available methods with a bioassay that uses fisher ... Comparison of thyrotropin-receptor antibodies measured by four commercially available methods with a bioassay that uses fisher ... Comparison of thyrotropin-receptor antibodies measured by four commercially available methods with a bioassay that uses fisher ... Comparison of thyrotropin-receptor antibodies measured by four commercially available methods with a bioassay that uses fisher ...
Receptors, Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone, Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone, Time Factors, Uterine Cervical Neoplasms. ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptor number determines the size of the TRH-responsive phosphoinositide pool. ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptor number determines the size of the TRH-responsive phosphoinositide pool. ... We use an adenovirus vector, AdCMVmTRHR, to express thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptors (TRH-Rs) to determine whether ...
Aberrant expression and activity of G proteins and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are frequently associated with ... Aberrant expression and activity of G proteins and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are frequently associated with ... Somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene cause hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas. Nature 365, 649-651 (1993). This ... EGF receptor transactivation by G-protein-coupled receptors requires metalloproteinase cleavage of proHB-EGF. Nature 402, 884- ...
... known as a receptor, that attaches (binds) to a hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Learn about this gene and ... Davies TF, Ando T, Lin RY, Tomer Y, Latif R. Thyrotropin receptor-associated diseases: from adenomata to Graves disease. J Clin ... Biebermann H, Schoneberg T, Krude H, Schultz G, Gudermann T, Gruters A. Mutations of the human thyrotropin receptor gene ... These mutations change one of the amino acids used to make the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor. As a result, the receptor ...
Kotwal A, Stan M. Thyrotropin Receptor Antibodies-An Overview. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018 Jul/Aug. 34 (4S Suppl 1): ... Wall JR, Lahooti H. Pathogenesis of thyroid eye disease--does autoimmunity against the TSH receptor explain all cases?. ...
Paschke R, Ludgate M. The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid diseases. N Engl J Med. 1997 Dec 4. 337 (23):1675-81. [QxMD MEDLINE ... Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in older persons. N Engl J Med. 1994 Nov 10. 331 ... A family with complete resistance to thyrotropin-releasing hormone. N Engl J Med. 2009 Feb 12. 360 (7):731-4. [QxMD MEDLINE ... Doeker BM, Pfäffle RW, Pohlenz J, Andler W. Congenital central hypothyroidism due to a homozygous mutation in the thyrotropin ...
Thyrotropin receptor and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor crosstalk, orbital inflammatory infiltration and activation of ... Multicenter, 5-assay comparison of thyrotropin receptor blocking antibodies. George Augustine , Bossowski Artur , Frommer Lara ... Functional thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies in women with thyroid autoimmunity and the impact of ovarian stimulation. Poppe ... Background: Thyrotropin receptor (TSH-R) blocking autoantibodies (TBAb) are present in 10-15% of patients with autoimmune ...
Clinical presentation, thyroid function tests, and thyrotropin-receptor antibody status are key in establishing etiology. If ... including those older than 65 years or with persistent serum thyrotropin level less than 0.1 mIU/L. ...
siRNA screen identifies the phosphatase acting on the G protein-coupled thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.; ACS chemical ... the receptor changes conformation, activates Gq, and becomes phosphorylated by specific receptor kinases; the phospho-receptor ... Desensitization, trafficking, and resensitization of the pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.; Frontiers in ... Paroxetine is a direct inhibitor of g protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and increases myocardial contractility.; ACS chemical ...
TSI (thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulin or TRAb (thyrotropin receptor antibodies): antibodies often found in the blood when ... TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin) test: A low TSH level in the blood is the most accurate indicator of ...
2005) Thyrotropin receptor trafficking relies on the hScrib-betaPIX-GIT1-ARF6 pathway. EMBO J 24:1364-1374. ... 2000) ERBIN: a basolateral PDZ protein that interacts with the mammalian ERBB2/HER2 receptor. Nat Cell Biol 2:407-414. ... 2005) GRIP1 controls dendrite morphogenesis by regulating EphB receptor trafficking. Nat Neurosci 8:906-915. ... receptor trafficking (Lahuna et al., 2005), localization of adenomatous polyposis coli to the basolateral membrane (Takizawa et ...
Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and ... Biological effects of thyrotropin receptor activation on human orbital preadipocytes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 5197- ... The thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor: impact of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor ... and acute orbital congestion in a preclinical female mouse model of Graves orbitopathy induced by thyrotropin receptor plasmid ...
Thyrotropin Receptors (Thyrotropin Receptor)IBA 05/01/2014 - "The main difference in the clinical outcome of hyperthyroidism ... 02/01/2006 - "Adenovirus encoding the thyrotropin receptor A-subunit improves the efficacy of dendritic cell-induced Graves ... Thyrotropin (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone)FDA Link 04/01/1988 - "We report a prospective multicenter study, undertaken to ... 08/01/1984 - "In contrast, there is now a large body of work which shows that thyrotrophin receptor antibody levels, central to ...
Diversity and prevalence of somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor and Gs alpha genes as a cause of toxic thyroid ... Two autonomous nodules of a patient with multinodular goiter harbor different activating mutations of the thyrotropin receptor ... Identification of constitutively activating somatic thyrotropin receptor mutations in a subset of toxic multinodular goiters. ... Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder caused by anti-TSH receptor antibody. These antibodies interact with TSH receptor and ...
  • Autoimmune thyroid disease is characterized by the presence of autoantibodies against various thyroid components, namely the thyrotropin receptor, thyroid peroxidase, and thyroglobulin, as well as by an inflammatory cellular infiltrate of variable severity within the gland. (marshfieldlabs.org)
  • Among the autoantibodies found in autoimmune thyroid disease, thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies (TRAb) are most closely associated with disease pathogenesis. (marshfieldlabs.org)
  • These autoantibodies, also known as long-acting-thyroid-stimulator (LATS) or thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI), bind to the receptor and transactivate it, leading to stimulation of the thyroid gland independent of the normal feedback-regulated thyrotropin (TSH) stimulation. (marshfieldlabs.org)
  • Graves' disease encompasses hyperthyroidism and a diffuse goiter associated with autoantibodies to the TSH receptor (TRAb). (elsevierpure.com)
  • Graves' disease is an autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor (TSHR). (utmb.edu)
  • Background: Autoantibody mimicry of hormone action at the thyrotropin receptor (TSH-R) and aberrant signaling of TSH-R by autoantibodies (TSH-R-Ab) causes autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD), hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, both of which affect millions of patients worldwide. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Background: Thyrotropin receptor (TSH-R) blocking autoantibodies (TBAb) are present in 10-15% of patients with autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and outcome of the disease. (thieme-connect.de)
  • Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies stimulate the thyroid to produce thyroid hormone. (standardofcare.com)
  • Clinical evaluation and risk stratification include laboratory testing of thyroid hormones (thyroid-stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, and free triiodothyronine), autoantibodies (measurement of thyrotropin receptor antibodies [TRAK, for Thyreotropin-Rezeptor-Antikörper ]), and ultrasound/Doppler imaging ( 2 ). (snmjournals.org)
  • Association of immunoglobulin A deficiency and elevated thyrotropin-receptor autoantibodies in two Nordic countries. (cdc.gov)
  • Thyroid receptor antibodies can quantify thyroid eye disease activity, predict outcomes and aid timing of interventions. (ekjo.org)
  • To determine the clinical and biochemical relationships between a second-generation thyrotropin receptor-binding inhibition antibody (TRAb) immunoassay, detecting stimulatory and blocking antibodies, with the thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) bridging immunoassay detecting the stimulatory component only. (ekjo.org)
  • Monoclonal antibodies to the thyrotropin receptor: stimulating and blocking antibodies derived from the lymphocytes of patients with Graves disease. (unipi.it)
  • This report characterizes four antibodies as presumptive thyrotropin receptor antibodies because they specifically inhibit thyrotropin binding and competitively inhibit thyrotropin-induced cAMP levels in human thyroid cells. (unipi.it)
  • These two antibodies do not react with human thyroid gangliosides but are strong inhibitors of thyrotropin binding to liposomes containing the high-affinity glycoprotein component from human, bovine, and rat thyroid membranes. (unipi.it)
  • Graves disease mechanisms: the role of stimulating, blocking, and cleavage region TSH receptor antibodies. (thieme-connect.de)
  • The thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor: impact of thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies on multimerization, cleavage, and signaling. (thieme-connect.de)
  • Stimulation of the TSH receptors of the thyroid by TSH,TSH-receptor antibodies, or TSH receptor agonists, such as chorionic gonadotropin, may result in a diffuse goiter. (medscape.com)
  • TSH receptor stimulators include TSH receptor antibodies, pituitary resistance to thyroid hormone, adenomas of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, and tumors producing human chorionic gonadotropin. (medscape.com)
  • In TED patients, these cells express a higher level of thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor than ordinary fibroblasts [ 3 ]. (ekjo.org)
  • Immunization with the extracellular domain of TSH receptor (TSHR) led to the development of hyperthyroxinemia in BALB/cJ, but not C57BL/6J, SJL/J, and B10.BR, mice. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The most frequently mutated GPCRs include thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR), Smoothened (SMO), glutamate metabotropic receptors (GRMs), members of the adhesion family of GPCRs and receptors for bioactive lipid mediators such as lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) that accumulate in the tumour microenvironment. (nature.com)
  • The TSHR gene provides instructions for making a protein, known as a receptor, that attaches (binds) to a hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). (medlineplus.gov)
  • TSHR gene mutations change one of the protein building blocks (amino acids) used to make the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This antibody-mediated signaling via such receptors leads to fibroblast proliferation and differentiation into myofibroblasts and adipocytes [ 13 - 15 ]. (ekjo.org)
  • Clinical presentation, thyroid function tests, and thyrotropin-receptor antibody status are key in establishing etiology. (medscape.com)
  • Autoimmune disease caused by an antibody that acts as an agonist on the thryotropin receptor. (standardofcare.com)
  • It enhanced IL-6 production early during differentiation, but the effect of PDGF-BB on adipogenesis was independent of autocrine IL-6 signaling as it was not abrogated by IL-6-receptor-a neutralizing antibody. (eur.nl)
  • Paroxetine is a direct inhibitor of g protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and increases myocardial contractility. (rochester.edu)
  • The TSH receptor is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily of integral membrane proteins and is coupled to the Gs protein. (wikipedia.org)
  • Recent cancer genome deep sequencing efforts have revealed an unanticipated high frequency of mutations in G proteins and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in most tumour types. (nature.com)
  • Aberrant expression and activity of G proteins and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are frequently associated with tumorigenesis. (nature.com)
  • We use a number of model systems (pituitary cells, cell lines, transgenic animals) to study signal pathways for a hypothalamic peptide hormone, TRH, which acts via a G protein coupled receptor to increase cytoplasmic calcium and protein kinase C activity. (rochester.edu)
  • siRNA screen identifies the phosphatase acting on the G protein-coupled thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor. (rochester.edu)
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) with pivotal roles in reproduction. (frontiersin.org)
  • Membrane trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) tightly orchestrates the signaling from this superfamily of signaling receptors. (frontiersin.org)
  • The TSH-receptor is the only G-protein-coupled receptor known able to activate all G protein families, an activity directly mimicked by fluoride. (poisonfluoride.com)
  • Its presence in the anterior pituitary gland may be involved in mediating the paracrine signaling feedback inhibition of thyrotropin along the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Desensitization, trafficking, and resensitization of the pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor. (rochester.edu)
  • Distribution of the mRNAs encoding the thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH ) precursor and three TRH receptors in the brain and pituitary of Xenopus laevis: effect of background color adaptation on TRH and TRH receptor gene expression. (xenbase.org)
  • In the present study, we have examined the distribution of the mRNAs encoding proTRH and the three receptor subtypes (xTRHR1, xTRHR2 , and xTRHR3) in the frog CNS and pituitary , and we have investigated the effect of background color adaptation on the expression of these mRNAs. (xenbase.org)
  • also known as thyrotropin), secreted from the pituitary gland, which in turn is influenced by the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. (medscape.com)
  • Thyrotropin receptor and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor crosstalk, orbital inflammatory infiltration and activation of orbital fibroblasts lead to perpetuation of orbital inflammation a. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Bidirectional TSH and IGF-1 receptor cross talk mediates stimulation of hyaluronan secretion by Graves disease immunoglobins. (thieme-connect.de)
  • In amphibians, thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH ) is a potent stimulator of alpha-melanotropin (alpha-MSH) secretion, so TRH plays a major role in the neuroendocrine regulation of skin -color adaptation. (xenbase.org)
  • These data demonstrate that, in amphibians, the effect of TRH on alpha-MSH secretion is mediated through the novel receptor subtype xTRHR3. (xenbase.org)
  • Investigations in two IGSF1 knockout mouse models converged to show that IGSF1 deficiency leads to reduced expression of the receptor for thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and impaired TRH stimulation of thyrotropin secretion, providing a candidate mechanism for the central hypothyroidism observed in patients. (medscape.com)
  • Thyrotropin receptors in orbital tissues such as fibroblasts and adipocytes are the targets of such antobodies and cause the ophthalmopathy. (standardofcare.com)
  • It stimulates proliferation, cytokine, and hyaluronan production, and thyrotropin receptor expression by orbital fibroblasts. (eur.nl)
  • Molecular cloning of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors (TRHR) was performed in a model teleost fish, medaka (Oryzias latipes). (johnshopkins.edu)
  • cAMP- Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate, TRH - Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone, TRHR - Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone Receptor, TSH - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone. (endotext.org)
  • Some patients with GD also have TRAb, which do not transactivate the thyrotropin receptor. (marshfieldlabs.org)
  • The data unequivocally establish the pluritopic nature of the immunoglobulins in Graves disease and relate individual components or determinants of the thyrotropin receptor structure with specific autoimmune immunoglobulins. (unipi.it)
  • Fingolimod Improves the Outcome of Experimental Graves' Disease and Associated Orbitopathy by Modulating the Autoimmune Response to the Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Receptor. (uni-due.de)
  • Some of these mutations prevent the receptor from properly spanning the membrane, and in some cases the entire receptor is retained inside the cell. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Other mutations impair the receptor's ability to bind with thyroid stimulating hormone, even though the receptor correctly spans the membrane. (medlineplus.gov)
  • As a result of these somatic mutations, the thyroid stimulating hormone receptor is continuously activated, which could prompt the overgrowth of thyroid cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The thyrotropin receptor (or TSH receptor) is a receptor (and associated protein) that responds to thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as "thyrotropin") and stimulates the production of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). (wikipedia.org)
  • Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor activation in the spinal cord increases blood pressure and sympathetic tone to the vasculature and the adrenals. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptor number determines the size of the TRH-responsive phosphoinositide pool. (cornell.edu)
  • We use an adenovirus vector, AdCMVmTRHR, to express thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptors (TRH-Rs) to determine whether the size of the hormone-responsive phosphoinositide pool in mammalian cells is directly related to receptor number. (cornell.edu)
  • Thyroid stimulating hormone binds to the extracellular portion of the receptor like a key fitting into a lock, activating a series of reactions that control development of the thyroid gland and its functions. (medlineplus.gov)
  • As a result, the receptor cannot interact properly with thyroid stimulating hormone. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Without properly functioning receptors, thyroid hormone production is not stimulated. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In some cases, the increased levels of thyroid stimulating hormone compensate for receptors with minor defects, and the thyroid functions normally. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Impaired thyroid stimulating hormone receptors may also disrupt thyroid development, and as a result, the gland is smaller than normal. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Evidence for an association between thyroid-stimulating hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptors: a tale of two antigens implicated in Graves disease. (thieme-connect.de)
  • As cAMP signaling drives gonadotrophin hormone receptor recycling, rapid exocytic events were evaluated at single event resolution. (frontiersin.org)
  • Autoantibody mimicry of hormone action at the thyrotropin receptor. (ucsd.edu)
  • Receptors inside cells interact with hormones that regulate gene function (eg, corticosteroids, vitamin D , thyroid hormone). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Receptors on the cell surface bind with hormones that regulate enzyme activity or affect ion channels (eg, growth hormone, thyrotropin-releasing hormone). (msdmanuals.com)
  • in contrast, they are poor inhibitors of 125I-labeled thyrotropin binding to liposomes containing the glycoprotein component of the human thyrotropin receptor. (unipi.it)
  • A homeobox protein and transcription factor that localizes to the cell nucleus where it activates expression of thyroid specific genes such as THYROGLOBULIN and the THYROTROPIN RECEPTOR. (bvsalud.org)
  • Adipogenesis was determined by Oil-Red-O staining, triglyceride measurement, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-c mRNA expression. (eur.nl)
  • Thus they have no intrinsic stimulatory action in assays of thyroid function but rather inhibit thyrotropin activity in the assays tested. (unipi.it)
  • Dopamine receptor antagonists are one of the most common causes of hyperprolactinemia. (scialert.net)
  • Several drugs may cause a significant increase in blood prolactin concentration ( Torre and Falorni, 2007 ) which dopamine D2 receptor antagonists are the main. (scialert.net)
  • Stimulating medial prefrontal cortex cells that contained dopamine D1 receptors, but not D2 receptors, produced rapid and sustained antidepressant effects. (bipolarnews.org)
  • This receptor spans the membrane of certain cells (called follicular cells) in the thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped tissue in the lower neck. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Besides affecting the thyroid gland through immune-mediated processes, vitamin D has been shown to influence rat thyroid follicular cells by directly inhibiting thyrotropin-stimulated iodide uptake in a dose-dependent manner [ 12 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • their ability to inhibit thyrotropin-induced cAMP increases in thyroid cells competitively is complemented by more than additive agonism at low (10 pM) thyrotropin concentrations. (unipi.it)
  • Animal steroid hormones initiate signaling by passive diffusion into cells and binding to their nuclear receptors to regulate gene expression. (biologists.com)
  • Therefore, the identification and integration of further biomarkers such as PD\1 expression in T cells 44, T\cell receptor repertoire 45, 46, 47, and gene expression profiling of the tumor microenvironment 48 (reviewed in 49, 50) will be key to further increasing the predictive power of multivariate molecular profiling. (insulin-receptor.info)
  • Hormones bind selectively to receptors located inside or on the surface of target cells. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Researcher Ronald Duman further dissected these effects, showing that ketamine and its active metabolite norketamine reduce the steady firing rate of GABA interneurons by blocking NMDA receptors, while the partial agonist rapastinel acts on the glutamate neurons directly, and both increase the effects of a type of glutamate receptors known as AMPA. (bipolarnews.org)
  • These effects were demonstrated using a virus to selectively knock out GluN2B glutamate receptor subunits in either GABA interneurons or glutamate neurons. (bipolarnews.org)
  • Researcher Hailan Hu reported that NMDA glutamate receptors drive the burst firing of lateral habenula (LHb) neurons, which make up the depressogenic or "anti-reward center" of the brain and appear to mediate anhedonic behavior (loss of interest or enjoyment) in animal models of depression. (bipolarnews.org)
  • This may occur because inhibitory metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR-2) are activated, decreasing the release of glutamate. (bipolarnews.org)
  • In addition, we use biochemical and genetic approaches to identify proteins that interact with the receptor during biosynthesis, signaling and desensitization. (rochester.edu)
  • Adler GM - "The effect of sialic acid on adenylate cyclase activity and thyrotropin-receptor binding in human thyroid membranes" Acta Biochim Pol. (poisonfluoride.com)
  • 123I and 131I are used medically and all four are sufficiently long-lived to be transported to human receptors after their release into the environment. (cdc.gov)
  • Treatment for subclinical hyperthyroidism is recommended for patients who are at highest risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease, including those older than 65 years or with persistent serum thyrotropin level less than 0.1 mIU/L. (medscape.com)
  • A large part of the receptor sits on the outer surface of the cell (extracellular), and a small portion is retained inside the cell (intracellular). (medlineplus.gov)
  • Objectives: Teprotumumab, an IGF1-receptor antagonist, has been shown in three clinical trials to markedly improve the clinical course of Thyroid Eye Disease (TED) or Graves Orbitopathy (GO) with significant improvements noted in inflammation, proptosis, and diplopia. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Given the critical nature of receptor internalization and endosomal signaling for FSHR activity, we assessed whether these compounds exhibit differential abilities to alter receptor endosomal trafficking and signaling within the VEE. (frontiersin.org)
  • As a result, the receptor is continuously activated and overstimulates the production of thyroid hormones. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Demonstration using controlled expression of TRH receptors by adenovirus mediated gene transfer. (cornell.edu)