A melanocortin receptor subtype found primarily in BRAIN. It shows specificity for ALPHA-MSH; BETA-MSH; GAMMA-MSH and ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE.
Arthritis, especially of the great toe, as a result of gout. Acute gouty arthritis often is precipitated by trauma, infection, surgery, etc. The initial attacks are usually monoarticular but later attacks are often polyarticular.
A family of G-protein-coupled receptors that have specificity for MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONES and ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. There are several subtypes of melanocortin receptors, each having a distinct ligand specificity profile and tissue localization.
A melanocortin receptor subtype found primarily in BRAIN. It shows specificity for ALPHA-MSH; BETA-MSH and ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE.
A 13-amino acid peptide derived from proteolytic cleavage of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE, the N-terminal segment of ACTH. ACTH (1-13) is amidated at the C-terminal to form ACTH (1-13)NH2 which in turn is acetylated to form alpha-MSH in the secretory granules. Alpha-MSH stimulates the synthesis and distribution of MELANIN in MELANOCYTES in mammals and MELANOPHORES in lower vertebrates.
A melanocortin receptor subtype found primarily in MELANOCYTES. It shows specificity for ALPHA-MSH and ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. Loss of function mutations of the type 1 melanocortin receptor account for the majority of red hair and fair skin recessive traits in human.
A melanocortin receptor subtype found primarily in the ADRENAL CORTEX. It shows specificity for ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE.
Cell surface receptors that bind CORTICOTROPIN; (ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes. Pharmacology suggests there may be multiple ACTH receptors. An ACTH receptor has been cloned and belongs to a subfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors. In addition to the adrenal cortex, ACTH receptors are found in the brain and immune systems.
Peptides with the ability to stimulate pigmented cells MELANOCYTES in mammals and MELANOPHORES in lower vertebrates. By stimulating the synthesis and distribution of MELANIN in these pigmented cells, they increase coloration of skin and other tissue. MSHs, derived from pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), are produced by MELANOTROPHS in the INTERMEDIATE LOBE OF PITUITARY; CORTICOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY, and the hypothalamic neurons in the ARCUATE NUCLEUS OF HYPOTHALAMUS.
A secreted protein of approximately 131 amino acids that is related to AGOUTI SIGNALING PROTEIN and is also an antagonist of MELANOCORTIN RECEPTOR activity. It is expressed primarily in the HYPOTHALAMUS and the ADRENAL GLAND. As a paracrine signaling molecule, AGRP is known to regulate food intake and body weight. Elevated AGRP has been associated with OBESITY.
A secreted protein of approximately 131 amino acids (depending on species) that regulates the synthesis of eumelanin (brown/black) pigments in MELANOCYTES. Agouti protein antagonizes the signaling of MELANOCORTIN RECEPTORS and has wide distribution including ADIPOSE TISSUE; GONADS; and HEART. Its overexpression in agouti mice results in uniform yellow coat color, OBESITY, and metabolic defects similar to type II diabetes in humans.
An 11-amino acid peptide derived from the N-terminal fragment of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Gamma-MSH stimulates adrenal steroidogenesis and has an regulatory role in the cardiovascular and the renal systems.
Color of hair or fur.
An 18-amino acid peptide that is the C-terminal fragment of gamma-lipotropin which is the N-terminal fragment of BETA-LIPOTROPIN. Beta-MSH is shown to regulate skin pigmentation, steroid production, and feeding.
Diseases of the sebaceous glands such as sebaceous hyperplasia and sebaceous cell carcinoma (SEBACEOUS GLAND NEOPLASMS).
The consumption of edible substances.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
A nucleus located in the middle hypothalamus in the most ventral part of the third ventricle near the entrance of the infundibular recess. Its small cells are in close contact with the ependyma.
Peptides whose amino and carboxy ends are linked together with a peptide bond forming a circular chain. Some of them are ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS. Some of them are biosynthesized non-ribosomally (PEPTIDE BIOSYNTHESIS, NON-RIBOSOMAL).
Coloration or discoloration of a part by a pigment.
An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX and its production of CORTICOSTEROIDS. ACTH is a 39-amino acid polypeptide of which the N-terminal 24-amino acid segment is identical in all species and contains the adrenocorticotrophic activity. Upon further tissue-specific processing, ACTH can yield ALPHA-MSH and corticotrophin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP).
Coloration of the skin.
A 16-kDa peptide hormone secreted from WHITE ADIPOCYTES. Leptin serves as a feedback signal from fat cells to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM in regulation of food intake, energy balance, and fat storage.
Physiologic mechanisms which regulate or control the appetite and food intake.
A 36-amino acid peptide present in many organs and in many sympathetic noradrenergic neurons. It has vasoconstrictor and natriuretic activity and regulates local blood flow, glandular secretion, and smooth muscle activity. The peptide also stimulates feeding and drinking behavior and influences secretion of pituitary hormones.
A synthetic peptide that is identical to the 24-amino acid segment at the N-terminal of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. ACTH (1-24), a segment similar in all species, contains the biological activity that stimulates production of CORTICOSTEROIDS in the ADRENAL CORTEX.
Injections into the cerebral ventricles.
Cell surface receptors for obesity factor (LEPTIN), a hormone secreted by the WHITE ADIPOCYTES. Upon leptin-receptor interaction, the signal is mediated through the JAK2/STAT3 pathway to regulate food intake, energy balance and fat storage.

Long term orexigenic effect of a novel melanocortin 4 receptor selective antagonist. (1/383)

1. We designed and synthesized several novel cyclic MSH analogues and tested their affinities for cells expressing the MC1, MC3, MC4 and MC5 receptors. 2. One of the substances HS028 (cyclic [AcCys11, dichloro-D-phenylalanine14, Cys18, Asp-NH2(22)]-beta-MSH11-22) showed high affinity (Ki of 0.95nM) and high (80 fold) MC4 receptor selectivity over the MC3 receptor. HS028 thus shows both higher affinity and higher selectivity for the MC4 receptor compared to the earlier first described MC4 receptor selective substance HS014. 3. HS028 antagonised a alpha-MSH induced increase in cyclic AMP production in transfected cells expressing the MC3 and MC4 receptors, whereas it seemed to be a partial agonist for the MC1 and MC5 receptors. 4. Chronic intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) administration of HS028 by osmotic minipumps significantly increased both food intake and body weight in a dose dependent manner without tachyphylaxis for a period of 7 days. 5. This is the first report demonstrating that an MC4 receptor antagonist can increase food intake and body weight during chronic administration providing further evidence that the MC4 receptor is an important mediator of long term weight homeostasis.  (+info)

Identification and functional analysis of novel human melanocortin-4 receptor variants. (2/383)

Inactivation of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4-R) by gene-targeting results in mice that develop maturity-onset obesity, hyperinsulinemia, and hyperglycemia. These phenotypes resemble common forms of human obesity, which are late-onset and frequently accompanied by NIDDM. It is not clear whether sequence variation of the MC4-R gene contributes to obesity in humans. Therefore, we examined the human MC4-R gene polymorphism in 190 individuals ascertained on obesity status. Three allelic variants were identified, including two novel ones, Thr112Met and Ile137Thr. To analyze possible functional alterations, the variants were cloned and expressed in vitro and compared with the wild-type receptor. One of the novel variants, Ile137Thr, identified in an extremely obese proband (BMI 57), was found to be severely impaired in ligand binding and signaling, raising the possibility that it may contribute to development of obesity. Furthermore, our results also suggest that sequence polymorphism in the MC4-R coding region is unlikely to be a common cause of obesity in the population studied, given the low frequency of functionally significant mutations.  (+info)

Testing of human homologues of murine obesity genes as candidate regions in Finnish obese sib pairs. (3/383)

The human homologues of recently discovered murine obesity genes provide relevant candidates to study the genetic component of obesity in humans. We analysed the human counterparts to murine obesity genes ob, db, agouti, tub, melanocortin 4-receptor (MC4-R) and mitochondrial uncoupling proteins 2 and 3 (UCP2 and UCP3), as well as two other chromosomal regions reported to be linked to obesity-related phenotypes in restricted populations. We found no significant evidence for linkage to any analysed loci in our total study material of 105 affected sib pairs collected from the genetically homogenous population of Finland. However, several markers on 14 cM chromosomal region flanking the MC4-R gene showed sharing of alleles identical-by-descent (IBD) more frequently than expected. A selected subset of non-diabetic obese sib pairs strengthened the P values down to 0.003 in this particular region. The smallest P value (P = 0.001) was obtained with a marker D18S487 in a subgroup containing only sib pairs with one lean and one obese parent. We therefore screened seven obese subjects included in our sib pair material for sequence changes in their MC4-R gene, but no mutations of apparent causal relationship were found. In conclusion, we could not find evidence for significant contribution of the chromosomal loci corresponding to the murine single gene obesity genes for human morbid obesity, but additional studies are still needed to clarify whether DNA alterations within or adjacent to the MC4-R gene play some role.  (+info)

Contribution of melanocortin receptor exoloops to Agouti-related protein binding. (4/383)

Agouti-related protein (AGRP) is an endogenous antagonist of melanocortin action that functions in the hypothalamic control of feeding behavior. Although previous studies have shown that AGRP binds three of the five known subtypes of melanocortin receptor, the receptor domains participating in binding and the molecular interactions involved are presently unknown. The present studies were designed to examine the contribution of extracytoplasmic domains of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) to AGRP binding by making chimerical receptor constructs of the human melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R; a receptor that is not inhibited by AGRP) and the human MC4R (a receptor that is potently inhibited by AGRP). Substitutions of the extracytoplasmic NH2 terminus and the first extracytoplasmic loop (exoloop) of the MC4R with homologous domains of the MC1R had no effect on AGRP (87-132) binding affinity or inhibitory activity (the ability to inhibit melanocortin-stimulated cAMP generation). In contrast, cassette substitutions of exoloops 2 and 3 of the MC4R with the homologous exoloops of the MC1R resulted in a substantial loss of AGRP binding affinity and inhibitory activity. Conversely, the exchange of exoloops 2 and 3 of the MC1R with the homologous exoloops of the MC4R was found to confer AGRP binding and inhibitory activity to the basic structure of the MC1R. Importantly, these substitutions did not affect the ability of the alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone analogue [Nle4,D-Phe7] melanocyte stimulating hormone to bind or activate the chimeric receptors. These data indicate that exoloops 2 and 3 of the melanocortin receptors are important for AGRP binding.  (+info)

Altered energy balance causes selective changes in melanocortin-4(MC4-R), but not melanocortin-3 (MC3-R), receptors in specific hypothalamic regions: further evidence that activation of MC4-R is a physiological inhibitor of feeding. (5/383)

We have examined the effects of underfeeding and obesity on the density of hypothalamic melanocortin MC3 and MC4 receptors (MC3-R and MC4-R, respectively), which may mediate the hypophagic effects of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) in the rat. MC3-R and MC4-R were measured by quantitative autoradiography in brain sections using 125I-labeled Nle4-D-Phe7-alpha-MSH (125I-NDP-MSH) and discriminated by masking MC3-R with excess unlabelled gamma2-MSH. High densities of MC4-R occurred in the ventromedial (VMH) and arcuate (ARC) nuclei, median eminence (ME), and medial habenular nucleus (MHb), with lower densities in the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH) and forebrain regions. MC3-R were confined to the VMH, ARC, and MHb. After 10-days of food restriction (14% weight loss), density of MC4-R was significantly increased by 20-65% in the VMH, ARC, ME, and DMH, with no changes elsewhere. Similarly, obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats showed 43-98% increases in MC4-R in the same regions. By contrast, rats with diet-induced obesity (18% heavier than controls) showed significantly decreased binding to MC4-R, especially in the VMH, ARC, and ME. MC3-R showed no significant alterations in any model. We suggest that increased density of MC4-R with food restriction and in obese Zucker rats reflects receptor upregulation secondary to decreased release of alpha-MSH, consistent with increased hunger in these models. Conversely, downregulation of MC4-R in diet-induced obesity may indicate increased alpha-MSH secretion in an attempt to limit overeating. This alpha-MSH/MC4-R system may be inhibited by leptin and/or insulin. MC3-R are not apparently involved in regulating feeding.  (+info)

Conformation of the core sequence in melanocortin peptides directs selectivity for the melanocortin MC3 and MC4 receptors. (6/383)

Melanocortin peptides regulate a variety of physiological processes. Five melanocortin receptors (MC-R) have been cloned and the MC3R and MC4R are the main brain MC receptors. The aim of this study was to identify structural requirements in both ligand and receptor that determine gamma-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) selectivity for the MC3R versus the MC4R. Substitution of Asp10 in [Nle4]Lys-gamma2-MSH for Gly10 from [Nle4]alpha-MSH, increased both activity and affinity for the MC4R while the MC3R remained unaffected. Analysis of chimeric MC3R/MC4Rs and mutant MC4Rs showed that Tyr268 of the MC4R mainly determined the low affinity for [Nle4]Lys-gamma2-MSH. The data demonstrate that Asp10 determines selectivity for the MC3R, however, not through direct side chain interactions, but probably by influencing how the melanocortin core sequence is presented to the receptor-binding pocket. This is supported by mutagenesis of Tyr268 to Ile in the MC4R which increased affinity and activity for [Nle4]Lys-gamma2-MSH, but decreased affinity for two peptides with constrained cyclic structure of the melanocortin core sequence, MT-II and [D-Tyr4]MT-II, that also displayed lower affinity for the MC3R. This study provides a general concept for peptide receptor selectivity, in which the major determinant for a selective receptor interaction is the conformational presentation of the core sequence in related peptides to the receptor-binding pocket.  (+info)

Anatomy of an endogenous antagonist: relationship between Agouti-related protein and proopiomelanocortin in brain. (7/383)

Agouti-related protein (AGRP) is a recently discovered orexigenic neuropeptide that inhibits the binding and action of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone derived from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) at the melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) and has been proposed to function primarily as an endogenous melanocortin antagonist. To better understand the interplay between the AGRP and melanocortin signaling systems, we compared their nerve fiber distributions with each other by immunohistochemistry and their perikarya distribution with MC3R and MC4R by double in situ hybridization. Although deriving from distinct cell groups, AGRP and melanocortin terminals project to identical brain areas. Both AGRP and melanocortin neurons selectively express the MC3R, which provides a neuroanatomical basis for a dual-input circuit with biological amplification and feedback inhibition. These studies highlight a broader complexity in POMC-mediated behavior in the brain.  (+info)

Type I beta-turn conformation is important for biological activity of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogues. (8/383)

In order to define which structure of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) analogues plays a critical role for ligand-receptor interaction and selectivity, we analysed receptor-binding and cAMP-generating activity in Chinese hamster ovary cell lines stably transfected with rMC3R and hMC4R, as well as the NMR structures of chemically synthesized alpha-MSH analogues. Compared with [Ahx4]alpha-MSH, the linear MTII designated as alpha-MSH-ND revealed a preference for the MC4R, whereas its IC50 and EC50 values were comparable to those of MTII reported previously. Truncation of Ahx4 and Asp5 of alpha-MSH-ND remarkably decreased the receptor-binding and cAMP-generating activity. Meanwhile, maximum cAMP-generating activity was observed at a higher concentration (10(-5) M) of alpha-MSH-ND(6-10), and MC4R preference was changed into MC3R preference. In contrast, [Gln6]alpha-MSH-ND(6-10) lost its cAMP-generating activity almost completely, even though it bound to both receptors. Whereas the solution conformation of alpha-MSH-ND revealed a stable type I beta-turn structure, [Gln6]alpha-MSH-ND(6-10) revealed a tight gamma-turn composed of Gln6-D-Phe7-Arg8. Replacement of the His6 residue of alpha-MSH-ND by Gln, Asn, Arg or Lys decreased not only the receptor binding, but also the cAMP-generating activity in both the MC3R and the MC4R. The structure of [Gln6]alpha-MSH-ND exhibited a stable type I' beta-turn comprising Asp5, Gln6, D-Phe7 and Arg8. [Lys6]alpha-MSH-ND showed a greatly reduced binding affinity and cAMP-generating activity with the loss of MC4R selectivity. In NMR studies, [Lys6]alpha-MSH-ND also demonstrated a gamma-turn conformation around Lys6-DPhe7-Arg8. From the above results, we conclude that a type I beta-turn conformation comprising the residues Asp5-His6-(D-Phe7)-Arg8 was important for receptor binding and activation, as well as the selectivity of MSH analogues.  (+info)

A melanocortin receptor (MCR) is a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds melanocortin peptides. The melanocortin system plays crucial roles in various biological processes such as pigmentation, energy homeostasis, sexual function, and inflammation.

The melanocortin receptor type 3 (MC3R) is one of the five subtypes of MCRs (MC1R to MC5R). It is widely expressed in the central nervous system, including the hypothalamus, and is involved in the regulation of energy balance, feeding behavior, and body weight.

The endogenous ligands for MC3R include α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which are derived from the precursor protein proopiomelanocortin (POMC). Activation of MC3R by these ligands leads to a decrease in food intake and an increase in energy expenditure, contributing to weight loss. However, the exact mechanisms through which MC3R modulates these physiological functions are not yet fully understood.

Gouty arthritis is a type of inflammatory arthritis that occurs due to the buildup of uric acid crystals in the joints. Uric acid is a waste product that is formed when the body breaks down purines, which are substances found naturally in the body and in certain foods such as organ meats, anchovies, sardines, and beer.

In people with gouty arthritis, uric acid levels in the blood become elevated, leading to the formation of sharp, needle-like crystals that can accumulate in the joints, causing pain, inflammation, and swelling. The symptoms of gouty arthritis typically occur suddenly and may include:

* Intense pain in the affected joint, often occurring at night
* Redness, warmth, and swelling in the affected area
* Stiffness and limited mobility in the affected joint

The most commonly affected joint is the big toe, but gouty arthritis can also occur in other joints such as the ankles, knees, wrists, and fingers. Over time, repeated episodes of gouty arthritis can lead to joint damage and chronic pain. Treatment typically involves medications to reduce inflammation and manage pain, as well as lifestyle changes to lower uric acid levels in the body.

Melanocortin receptors (MCRs) are a group of G protein-coupled receptors that bind melanocortin peptides, which include α-, β-, and γ-melanocyte stimulating hormones (MSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). These receptors are involved in a variety of physiological processes, including pigmentation, energy homeostasis, sexual function, and inflammation. There are five subtypes of melanocortin receptors (MCR1-5) that are expressed in different tissues and have distinct functions.

MCR1 is primarily expressed in melanocytes and plays a crucial role in skin and hair pigmentation. Activation of MCR1 by α-MSH leads to the production and distribution of eumelanin, which results in darker skin and hair.

MCR2 is widely expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral tissues, including the adrenal gland, testis, and ovary. It is involved in various functions such as sexual function, feeding behavior, and energy homeostasis.

MCR3 is primarily expressed in the adrenal gland and plays a critical role in the regulation of steroid hormone production and release. Activation of MCR3 by ACTH leads to the synthesis and secretion of cortisol and other steroid hormones.

MCR4 is widely expressed in the CNS, peripheral tissues, and immune cells. It is involved in various functions such as energy homeostasis, feeding behavior, sexual function, and inflammation.

MCR5 is primarily expressed in the testis and plays a role in spermatogenesis and fertility.

Overall, melanocortin receptors are important regulators of various physiological processes, and dysregulation of these receptors has been implicated in several diseases, including obesity, metabolic disorders, and skin disorders.

A melanocortin receptor (MCR) is a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds melanocortin peptides. The melanocortin system plays crucial roles in various biological processes such as pigmentation, energy homeostasis, sexual function, and inflammation.

The melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4R) is one of the five subtypes of MCRs, which is widely expressed in the central nervous system, including the hypothalamus, and some peripheral tissues. MC4R is a key component in the regulation of energy balance, appetite, and body weight. Activation of MC4R by melanocortin peptides, such as α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), leads to decreased food intake and increased energy expenditure, while antagonism or deficiency of MC4R results in obesity.

In summary, the medical definition of 'Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4' is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds melanocortin peptides and plays a critical role in regulating energy balance, appetite, and body weight.

Alpha-MSH (α-MSH) stands for alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone. It is a peptide hormone that is produced in the pituitary gland and other tissues in the body. Alpha-MSH plays a role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Melanin production: Alpha-MSH stimulates melanin production in the skin, which leads to skin tanning.
2. Appetite regulation: Alpha-MSH acts as a appetite suppressant by signaling to the brain that the stomach is full.
3. Inflammation and immune response: Alpha-MSH has anti-inflammatory effects and helps regulate the immune response.
4. Energy balance and metabolism: Alpha-MSH helps regulate energy balance and metabolism by signaling to the brain to increase or decrease food intake and energy expenditure.

Alpha-MSH exerts its effects by binding to melanocortin receptors, specifically MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R. Dysregulation of alpha-MSH signaling has been implicated in various medical conditions, including obesity, anorexia nervosa, and certain skin disorders.

A melanocortin receptor (MCR) is a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds melanocortin peptides. The melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) is one of five known subtypes of MCRs (MC1R-MC5R).

The MC1R is primarily expressed in melanocytes, which are pigment-producing cells located in the skin, hair follicles, and eyes. This receptor plays a crucial role in determining the type of melanin that is produced in response to environmental stimuli such as UV radiation.

Activation of the MC1R by its endogenous ligands, including α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), leads to the activation of adenylate cyclase and an increase in intracellular cAMP levels. This results in the activation of protein kinase A and the phosphorylation of key transcription factors, which ultimately promote the expression of genes involved in melanin synthesis.

Mutations in the MC1R gene have been associated with various pigmentation disorders, including red hair color, fair skin, and an increased risk of developing skin cancer. Additionally, polymorphisms in the MC1R gene have been linked to an increased risk of developing other diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.

A melanocortin type 2 receptor (MC2R) is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds melanocortin peptides such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). It is primarily expressed in the adrenal gland, specifically in the zona fasciculata of the cortex. Upon activation by ACTH, MC2R stimulates the production and release of steroid hormones, particularly cortisol, through the cAMP signaling pathway. Dysfunction in this receptor can lead to various endocrine disorders such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia and Cushing's disease.

Corticotropin receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to the hormone corticotropin (also known as adrenocorticotropic hormone or ACTH). These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the adrenal glands.

There are two main types of corticotropin receptors, known as melanocortin receptor 1 (MC1R) and melanocortin receptor 2 (MC2R). MC2R is the primary receptor for corticotropin in the adrenal glands. When corticotropin binds to this receptor, it stimulates the production and release of steroid hormones, such as cortisol, which help regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress response.

Abnormalities in corticotropin receptors have been implicated in several medical conditions, including certain endocrine disorders and skin pigmentation disorders.

Melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) are a group of peptide hormones that originate from the precursor protein proopiomelanocortin (POMC). They play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including pigmentation, energy balance, and appetite regulation.

There are several types of MSH, but the most well-known ones include α-MSH, β-MSH, and γ-MSH. These hormones bind to melanocortin receptors (MCRs), which are found in various tissues throughout the body. The binding of MSH to MCRs triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior.

In the context of skin physiology, α-MSH and β-MSH bind to melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) on melanocytes, which are the cells responsible for producing pigment (melanin). This binding stimulates the production and release of eumelanin, a type of melanin that is brown or black in color. As a result, increased levels of MSH can lead to darkening of the skin, also known as hyperpigmentation.

Apart from their role in pigmentation, MSH hormones have been implicated in several other physiological processes. For instance, α-MSH has been shown to suppress appetite and promote weight loss by binding to melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that regulates energy balance. Additionally, MSH hormones have been implicated in inflammation, immune response, and sexual function.

Overall, melanocyte-stimulating hormones are a diverse group of peptide hormones that play important roles in various physiological processes, including pigmentation, energy balance, and appetite regulation.

Agouti-related protein (AGRP) is a neuropeptide that functions as an endogenous antagonist of melanocortin receptors, specifically MC3R and MC4R. It is expressed in the hypothalamus and plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance, body weight, and glucose homeostasis. AGRP increases food intake and decreases energy expenditure by inhibiting melanocortin signaling in the hypothalamus. Dysregulation of AGRP has been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Agouti signaling protein (ASP) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ASIP gene. It is a paracrine signaling molecule that regulates melanin synthesis in the hair follicle and plays a critical role in determining coat color in mammals. ASP binds to and antagonizes the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), which is a G protein-coupled receptor found on the surface of melanocytes, the cells that produce melanin.

When ASP binds to MC1R, it inhibits the activation of adenylyl cyclase and reduces the intracellular levels of cAMP, which in turn leads to a decrease in eumelanin (black or brown) production and an increase in pheomelanin (yellow or red) production. This switch in melanin synthesis results in a banded coat pattern, as seen in the agouti mouse and some other mammals.

In addition to its role in coat color determination, ASP has been implicated in various physiological processes, including energy homeostasis, appetite regulation, and inflammation. Dysregulation of ASP function has been associated with obesity, metabolic disorders, and certain types of cancer.

Gamma-MSH (Gamma-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone) is a type of melanocyte stimulating hormone that is produced in the human body. It is a tripeptide, consisting of four amino acids (His-Phe-Arg-Trp), and is a cleavage product of the proopiomelanocortin (POMC) peptide.

Gamma-MSH plays a role in regulating pigmentation in the skin by stimulating melanin production in melanocytes, which are specialized cells found in the skin. It also has been shown to have potential effects on appetite regulation and energy balance, as well as anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. However, its precise physiological roles and therapeutic potentials remain an area of ongoing research.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hair color" is not a term that has a medical definition in the same way that a term like "myocardial infarction" (heart attack) does. Hair color can be described in various ways, such as being a natural hair color (like blonde, brunette, red, or black) or describing a change in hair color due to factors like aging (gray or white hairs) or hair dye usage.

However, it's worth noting that changes in hair color can sometimes be associated with certain medical conditions. For example, premature graying of the hair before the age of 30 can be a feature of certain genetic disorders or vitamin B12 deficiency. Similarly, some skin conditions like alopecia areata or vitiligo can cause patchy changes in hair color. But these associations don't provide a medical definition for 'hair color'.

Beta-MSH (beta-melanocyte-stimulating hormone) is a neuropeptide that is a cleavage product of the proopiomelanocortin (POMC) protein. It plays a role in regulating melanin production in the skin and has been found to have appetite suppressant effects, making it a target for obesity research. Beta-MSH acts as an agonist at melanocortin receptors MC3R and MC4R, which are involved in energy balance and feeding behavior.

Sebaceous gland diseases refer to conditions that affect the sebaceous glands, which are small glands in the skin that produce an oily substance called sebum. Sebum helps keep the skin and hair moisturized. Sebaceous gland diseases can cause a variety of symptoms, including skin inflammation, redness, pain, and the formation of bumps or cysts.

Some common types of sebaceous gland diseases include:

1. Acne: A common skin condition that occurs when the hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin cells, leading to whiteheads, blackheads, or pimples.
2. Seborrheic dermatitis: A skin condition that causes red, itchy, and flaky skin, often on the scalp, face, or chest.
3. Rosacea: A chronic skin condition that causes redness, pimples, and visible blood vessels on the face.
4. Sebaceous hyperplasia: A benign growth of the sebaceous glands that appears as a small, yellowish bump on the skin.
5. Sebaceous adenitis: A rare inflammatory disease that affects the sebaceous glands, causing hair loss and scaly skin.
6. Sebaceous carcinoma: A rare and aggressive form of skin cancer that develops in the sebaceous glands.

Treatment for sebaceous gland diseases depends on the specific condition and its severity. Treatments may include topical or oral medications, light therapy, or surgical removal of affected tissue. It is important to consult a healthcare provider for an accurate diagnosis and treatment plan.

The medical definition of "eating" refers to the process of consuming and ingesting food or nutrients into the body. This process typically involves several steps, including:

1. Food preparation: This may involve cleaning, chopping, cooking, or combining ingredients to make them ready for consumption.
2. Ingestion: The act of taking food or nutrients into the mouth and swallowing it.
3. Digestion: Once food is ingested, it travels down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is broken down by enzymes and acids to facilitate absorption of nutrients.
4. Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and transported to cells throughout the body for use as energy or building blocks for growth and repair.
5. Elimination: Undigested food and waste products are eliminated from the body through the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Eating is an essential function that provides the body with the nutrients it needs to maintain health, grow, and repair itself. Disorders of eating, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, can have serious consequences for physical and mental health.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

The arcuate nucleus is a part of the hypothalamus in the brain. It is involved in the regulation of various physiological functions, including appetite, satiety, and reproductive hormones. The arcuate nucleus contains two main types of neurons: those that produce neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein, which stimulate feeding and reduce energy expenditure; and those that produce pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine-and-amphetamine-regulated transcript, which suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure. These neurons communicate with other parts of the brain to help maintain energy balance and reproductive function.

Cyclic peptides are a type of peptides in which the N-terminus and C-terminus of the peptide chain are linked to form a circular structure. This is in contrast to linear peptides, which have a straight peptide backbone with a free N-terminus and C-terminus. The cyclization of peptides can occur through various mechanisms, including the formation of an amide bond between the N-terminal amino group and the C-terminal carboxylic acid group (head-to-tail cyclization), or through the formation of a bond between side chain functional groups.

Cyclic peptides have unique structural and chemical properties that make them valuable in medical and therapeutic applications. For example, they are more resistant to degradation by enzymes compared to linear peptides, which can increase their stability and half-life in the body. Additionally, the cyclic structure allows for greater conformational rigidity, which can enhance their binding affinity and specificity to target molecules.

Cyclic peptides have been explored as potential therapeutics for a variety of diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders. They have also been used as tools in basic research to study protein-protein interactions and cell signaling pathways.

Pigmentation, in a medical context, refers to the coloring of the skin, hair, or eyes due to the presence of pigment-producing cells called melanocytes. These cells produce a pigment called melanin, which determines the color of our skin, hair, and eyes.

There are two main types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is responsible for brown or black coloration, while pheomelanin produces a red or yellow hue. The amount and type of melanin produced by melanocytes can vary from person to person, leading to differences in skin color and hair color.

Changes in pigmentation can occur due to various factors such as genetics, exposure to sunlight, hormonal changes, inflammation, or certain medical conditions. For example, hyperpigmentation refers to an excess production of melanin that results in darkened patches on the skin, while hypopigmentation is a condition where there is a decreased production of melanin leading to lighter or white patches on the skin.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. ACTH plays a crucial role in the regulation of the body's stress response and has significant effects on various physiological processes.

The primary function of ACTH is to stimulate the adrenal glands, which are triangular-shaped glands situated on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands consist of two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. ACTH specifically targets the adrenal cortex, where it binds to specific receptors and initiates a series of biochemical reactions leading to the production and release of steroid hormones, primarily cortisol (a glucocorticoid) and aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid).

Cortisol is involved in various metabolic processes, such as regulating blood sugar levels, modulating the immune response, and helping the body respond to stress. Aldosterone plays a vital role in maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.

ACTH release is controlled by the hypothalamus, another part of the brain, which produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH, which in turn triggers cortisol production in the adrenal glands. This complex feedback system helps maintain homeostasis and ensures that appropriate amounts of cortisol are released in response to various physiological and psychological stressors.

Disorders related to ACTH can lead to hormonal imbalances, resulting in conditions such as Cushing's syndrome (excessive cortisol production) or Addison's disease (insufficient cortisol production). Proper diagnosis and management of these disorders typically involve assessing the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and addressing any underlying issues affecting ACTH secretion.

Skin pigmentation is the coloration of the skin that is primarily determined by two types of melanin pigments, eumelanin and pheomelanin. These pigments are produced by melanocytes, which are specialized cells located in the epidermis. Eumelanin is responsible for brown or black coloration, while pheomelanin produces a red or yellow hue.

The amount and distribution of melanin in the skin can vary depending on genetic factors, age, sun exposure, and various other influences. Increased production of melanin in response to UV radiation from the sun helps protect the skin from damage, leading to darkening or tanning of the skin. However, excessive sun exposure can also cause irregular pigmentation, such as sunspots or freckles.

Abnormalities in skin pigmentation can result from various medical conditions, including albinism (lack of melanin production), vitiligo (loss of melanocytes leading to white patches), and melasma (excessive pigmentation often caused by hormonal changes). These conditions may require medical treatment to manage or improve the pigmentation issues.

Leptin is a hormone primarily produced and released by adipocytes, which are the fat cells in our body. It plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance and appetite by sending signals to the brain when the body has had enough food. This helps control body weight by suppressing hunger and increasing energy expenditure. Leptin also influences various metabolic processes, including glucose homeostasis, neuroendocrine function, and immune response. Defects in leptin signaling can lead to obesity and other metabolic disorders.

Appetite regulation refers to the physiological and psychological processes that control and influence the desire to eat food. This complex system involves a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, and neural pathways that work together to help maintain energy balance and regulate body weight. The hypothalamus in the brain plays a key role in appetite regulation by integrating signals from the digestive system, fat cells, and other organs to adjust feelings of hunger and fullness.

The hormones leptin and ghrelin are also important regulators of appetite. Leptin is released from fat cells and acts on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and promote weight loss, while ghrelin is produced in the stomach and stimulates appetite and promotes weight gain. Other factors that can influence appetite regulation include stress, emotions, sleep patterns, and cultural influences.

Abnormalities in appetite regulation can contribute to the development of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder, as well as obesity and other health problems. Understanding the mechanisms of appetite regulation is an important area of research for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter and neuropeptide that is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is a member of the pancreatic polypeptide family, which includes peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. NPY plays important roles in various physiological functions such as energy balance, feeding behavior, stress response, anxiety, memory, and cardiovascular regulation. It is involved in the modulation of neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity, and neural development. NPY is synthesized from a larger precursor protein called prepro-NPY, which is post-translationally processed to generate the mature NPY peptide. The NPY system has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as obesity, depression, anxiety disorders, hypertension, and drug addiction.

Cosyntropin is a synthetic form of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) that is used in medical testing to assess the function of the adrenal glands. ACTH is a hormone produced and released by the pituitary gland that stimulates the production and release of cortisol, a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands.

Cosyntropin is typically administered as an injection, and its effects on cortisol production are measured through blood tests taken at various time points after administration. This test, known as a cosyntropin stimulation test or ACTH stimulation test, can help diagnose conditions that affect the adrenal glands, such as Addison's disease or adrenal insufficiency.

It is important to note that while cosyntropin is a synthetic form of ACTH, it is not identical to the natural hormone and may have slightly different effects on the body. Therefore, it should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Intraventricular injections are a type of medical procedure where medication is administered directly into the cerebral ventricles of the brain. The cerebral ventricles are fluid-filled spaces within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This procedure is typically used to deliver drugs that target conditions affecting the central nervous system, such as infections or tumors.

Intraventricular injections are usually performed using a thin, hollow needle that is inserted through a small hole drilled into the skull. The medication is then injected directly into the ventricles, allowing it to circulate throughout the CSF and reach the brain tissue more efficiently than other routes of administration.

This type of injection is typically reserved for situations where other methods of drug delivery are not effective or feasible. It carries a higher risk of complications, such as bleeding, infection, or damage to surrounding tissues, compared to other routes of administration. Therefore, it is usually performed by trained medical professionals in a controlled clinical setting.

Leptin receptors are cell surface receptors that bind to and respond to the hormone leptin. These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the hypothalamus in the brain, which plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance and appetite. Leptin is a hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that signals information about the size of fat stores to the brain. When leptin binds to its receptors, it activates signaling pathways that help regulate energy intake and expenditure, body weight, and glucose metabolism.

There are several subtypes of leptin receptors (LEPR), including LEPRa, LEPRb, LEPC, and LEPD. Among these, the LEPRb isoform is the most widely expressed and functionally important form. Mutations in the gene encoding the leptin receptor can lead to obesity, hyperphagia (excessive hunger), and impaired energy metabolism, highlighting the importance of this receptor in maintaining energy balance and overall health.

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Peterschmitt, M.; Grain, F.; Arnaud, B.; Deléage, G.; Lambert, V. (August 2009). "Mutation in the melanocortin 1 receptor is ... but consisted only of down type hairs with a normal down type helical curl, which varied as in normal down hairs. Whiskers were ... the melanocortin 1 receptor, MC1R) changes black pigment to amber or light amber, similar in appearance to red and cream. ... New types of rex arise spontaneously in random-bred cats now and then. Some of the rex genes that breeders have selected for ...
It controls the type of melanin being produced, and its activation causes the melanocyte to switch from generating the yellow- ... "Melanocortin Receptors: MC1". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), also known as melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MSHR), melanin-activating peptide ... "Melanocortins contribute to sequential differentiation and enucleation of human erythroblasts via melanocortin receptors 1, 2 ...
... as melanocortin receptors are inhibited through competitive antagonism. Inhibition of melanocortin by ASP can also be through ... In wild-type mice agouti is only expressed in the skin during hair growth, but these dominant yellow mutations cause it to be ... Agouti also promotes obesity by antagonizing melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) at the melanocortin receptor (MC4R), as MC4R ... Agouti interacts with the melanocortin 1 receptor to determine whether the melanocyte (pigment cell) produces phaeomelanin (a ...
... redheads have a mutated melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) gene that produces an altered receptor for MSH. Melanocytes, the cells ... This type of inheritance is described as an autosomal recessive. Even if both parents do not have red hair themselves, both can ... July 2005). "Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants affect pain and mu-opioid analgesia in mice and humans". Journal of Medical ... The genetics of red hair appear to be associated with the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), which is found on chromosome 16. In ...
... mutations in the melanocortin 2 receptor accessory protein that lead to late onset familial glucocorticoid deficiency type 2". ... "Distinct melanocortin 2 receptor accessory protein domains are required for melanocortin 2 receptor interaction and promotion ... MRAP is an accessory protein to a family of five receptors called the melanocortin receptors (MC1-5). It was previously known ... Melanocortin 2 receptor accessory protein is a transmembrane accessory protein that in humans is encoded by the MRAP gene ...
Millington GW (May 2006). "Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): the cutaneous roles of its melanocortin products and receptors". ... Tanning activator List of distinct cell types in the adult human body List of human cell types derived from the germ layers " ... "The melanocortin-1 receptor is a key regulator of human cutaneous pigmentation". Pigment Cell Research. 13 (Suppl 8): 156-62. ... Alpha-MSH is a cleavage product of ACTH that has an equal affinity for the MC1 receptor on melanocytes as ACTH. Melanosomes are ...
By binding to ganglion type nicotinic receptors in the adrenal medulla, nicotine increases flow of adrenaline (epinephrine), a ... POMC neurons are a precursor of the melanocortin system, a critical regulator of body weight and peripheral tissue such as skin ... Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor ... Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist at most nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), except at two nicotinic receptor ...
2016: The marijuana receptor-human Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) and the human C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2) 2017: ... the human neurokinin 1 receptor, and the melatonin receptors MT1 and MT2 2020:The human melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4), In ... 2013: Serotonin receptors 5-HT1B and 5-HT2B, the second HIV co-receptor, C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) and the first ... The human Lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 (LPAR1), the human angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AT1R), human P2Y receptor 1 (P2Y1 ...
... encoding MORC family CW-type zinc finger protein 3 MRAP: encoding melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein MRPL39: encoding ... encoding interferon alpha/beta receptor 2 IFNGR2: encoding interferon gamma receptor 2 IL10RB: encoding interleukin-10 receptor ... encoding glutamate receptor ionotropic, kainate 1 H2BC12L: encoding histone H2B type F-S HLCS: encoding enzyme holocarboxylase ... For example, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (a type of blood cancer most often diagnosed in childhood) has been associated with a ...
... in expression of human melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R)". Life Sciences. 71 (18): 2171-9. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01996-3. PMID ... The term "lineage-specific", since it relates to MITF, means genes or traits that are only found in a certain cell type. ... April 2011). "Nudix-type motif 2 in human breast carcinoma: a potent prognostic factor associated with cell proliferation". ... The binding of immunoglobulin E to the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) provides the stimulus that starts the cascade. Lysyl- ...
This receptor has been shown to be similar to class C G- protein coupled receptors (GPCR). OA1 receptor has a characteristic ... Furthermore, OA1 was found to be stimulated by α-melanocortin stimulating hormone but inhibited by agouti signal protein. The ... Ocular albinism type 1 (OA1) is the most common type of ocular albinism, with a prevalence rate of 1:50,000. It is an ... Localization patterns of wild type OA1-GFP and mutated OA1-GFP were compared. The wild type OA1 localized to late endosomal or ...
Millington GW (May 2006). "Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): the cutaneous roles of its melanocortin products and receptors". ... POMC variant may be involved in the natural history of polygenic obesity, contributing to the link between type 2 diabetes and ... The endogenous agonists of melanocortin 4 receptor include α-MSH, β-MSH, γ-MSH, and ACTH. The fact that these are all cleavage ... It allows T3 to bind to the thyroid hormone receptor (TR), which then binds to thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) in the ...
Farooqi IS, O'Rahilly S (October 2008). "Mutations in ligands and receptors of the leptin-melanocortin pathway that lead to ... including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. The two types of adipose tissue are white adipose tissue ... Several mutations of genes involving the melanocortins (used in brain signaling associated with appetite) and their receptors ... These include peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), PRDM16, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ...
... such as the type of inverse agonist, the type of receptor, mutants of receptors, binding affinities and whether the effects are ... Receptors for which inverse agonists have been identified include the GABAA, melanocortin, mu opioid, histamine and beta ... Ollmann MM, Lamoreux ML, Wilson BD, Barsh GS (February 1998). "Interaction of Agouti protein with the melanocortin 1 receptor ... Thus, the effect an inverse agonist has on a receptor depends on the basal activity of the receptor, assuming the inverse ...
... and some non-melanocortin receptors such as ghrelin receptor (GHSR-1a), orexin (OX1R) receptor and prokineticin receptor (PKR-1 ... cause familial glucocorticoid deficiency type 2". Nature Genetics. 37 (2): 166-70. doi:10.1038/ng1501. PMID 15654338. S2CID ... "The early origin of melanocortin receptors, agouti-related peptide, agouti signalling peptide, and melanocortin receptor- ... "Pharmacological effect of human melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein 2 variants on hypothalamic melanocortin receptors". ...
... syndrome Congenital generalized lipodystrophy type 1 Congenital generalized lipodystrophy type 2 Diabetes mellitus type 1 ... Knocking out vagal nerve receptors has been shown to cause hyperphagia. Changes in hormones associated with the female ... Masuzaki H, Tanaka T, Ebihara K, Hosoda K, Nakao K (2009). "Hypothalamic melanocortin signaling and leptin resistance-- ... disease Hypotonia-cystinuria syndrome Kleine-Levin syndrome Leptin deficiency or dysfunction Leptin receptor deficiency Luscan- ...
Homobivalent ligands target two of the same receptor types. Heterobivalent ligands target two different receptor types. Bitopic ... and melanocortin receptor systems, and for GPCR-LIC systems (D2 and nACh receptors). Bivalent ligands usually tend to be larger ... Receptor affinity is measured by an inhibition constant or Ki value, the concentration required to occupy 50% of the receptor. ... A ligand that can bind to and alter the function of the receptor that triggers a physiological response is called a receptor ...
"High polymorphism at the human melanocortin 1 receptor locus". Genetics. 151 (4): 1547-1557. doi:10.1093/genetics/151.4.1547. ... However, these cancer types usually affect people at the end or after their reproductive career and could have not been the ... Dark skin is a type of human skin color that is rich in melanin pigments. People with very dark skin are often referred to as " ... As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing rickets, numerous types of cancers, and ...
The melanocortins are a family of neuropeptide hormones which are the ligands of the melanocortin receptors The melanocortin ... tissue and cell type expression, and downstream functions (Figure 2). MC1R is expressed on melanocytes, macrophages, epithelial ... the ligand β-defensin 3 acts as a neutral melanocortin receptor antagonist. The 5 melanocortin receptors are seven- ... For all the melanocortin receptors, binding of an agonistic ligand activates the receptor, leading to dissociation of the G ...
The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene is primarily responsible for determining whether pheomelanin and eumelanin are produced ... Some types of albinism affect only the skin and hair, while other types affect the skin, hair and eyes, and in rare cases only ... Shi, Peng; Lu, Xue Mei; Luo, Huai Rong; Xiang-Yu, Jin-Gong; Zhang, Ya Ping (2001). "Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants in ... Millington, G. W. M. (2006). "Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): the cutaneous roles of its melanocortin products and receptors". ...
Melanocortin/ACTH receptor InterPro: IPR001671 Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R, MSHR) Melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) Melanocortin ... IPR000248 Angiotensin II receptor, type 1 (AGTR1, AG2S) Angiotensin II receptor, type 2 (AGTR2, AG22) Apelin receptor (AGTRL1, ... Endothelin receptor InterPro: IPR000499 Endothelin receptor type A (EDNRA, ET1R) Endothelin receptor type B (EDNRB, ETBR) GPR37 ... Melanocortin 5 receptor (MC5R) ACTH receptor (MC2R), ACTR) GPR3 (GPR3) GPR6 (GPR6) GPR12 (GPR12, GPRC) Eicosanoid receptor ...
"Melanocortin-3 receptor gene variants in a Maori kindred with obesity and early onset type 2 diabetes". Diabetes Research and ... "Melanocortin Receptors: MC3". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... Melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MC3R gene. This gene encodes MC3R, a G-protein ... "Localization of the genes encoding the melanocortin-2 (adrenocorticotropic hormone) and melanocortin-3 receptors to chromosomes ...
... receptor, melanocortin, type 1 MeSH D12.776.543.750.100.430.750 - receptor, melanocortin, type 2 MeSH D12.776.543.750.100.430. ... receptor, melanocortin, type 1 MeSH D12.776.543.750.720.600.285.500.750 - receptor, melanocortin, type 2 MeSH D12.776.543.750. ... receptor, melanocortin, type 1 MeSH D12.776.543.750.750.555.285.500.750 - receptor, melanocortin, type 2 MeSH D12.776.543.750. ... receptor, melanocortin, type 1 MeSH D12.776.543.750.750.660.285.500.750 - receptor, melanocortin, type 2 MeSH D12.776.543.750. ...
In children with type-1 diabetes mellitus, the disease-associated insulin- and GAD65-specific T cells isolated from the blood ... Kv1.3 is physically coupled through a series of adaptor proteins to the T-cell receptor signaling complex and it traffics to ... "Kv1.3 gene-targeted deletion alters longevity and reduces adiposity by increasing locomotion and metabolism in melanocortin-4 ... This member contains six membrane-spanning domains with a shaker-type repeat in the fourth segment. It belongs to the delayed ...
Han, Jae-Ik; Yang, Hyun; Jeung, Eui-Bae; Na, Ki-Jeong (2012). "Altered expression of melanocortin‐1 receptor (MC1R) in a yellow ... A rare white colour type occurs in China. They can also come in a yellow colour. Common raccoon dogs are omnivores that feed on ... "Fur Types in Brief". Furcommission.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-18. Retrieved 2015-04-09. Bachrach, Max. (1953). ... By the 1940s, this practice lessened in popularity, as the common raccoon dogs required almost the same types of food as silver ...
However, mutations in melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry MC1R mutations ... The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek ... John Ray applied one of the previously more general terms for fixed natural types, "species", to plant and animal types, but he ... Other types of mutations can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon termed de novo gene ...
A second type of NSD has been observed in yeast. In this mechanism, the absence of Ski7 results in the loss of poly-A tail ... melanocortin-4-receptor). When the ribosome reaches a PTC the translation factors eRF1 and eRF3 interact with retained EJC ... This suggests that this NMD avoidance mechanism may be prevalent in other tissue types for a variety of genes. The current ... To this end, extensive BLAST searches have been performed to determine the prevalence of the proteins in various types of ...
Molecular work suggests plumage color is associated with the melanocortin 1 receptor gene (MC1R), where a nonsynonymous point ... The Icelandic types are presumed to have less gene flow with their neighbors; they show less variation in plumage colors. ... analysis of the melanocortin-1 receptor gene". Journal of Heredity. 103 (3): 315-321. doi:10.1093/jhered/ess023. PMID 22504110 ... type locality, Sweden), as well as F. r. intermedius and F. r. grebnitzkii (Siberia) all tend towards more or less dark "silver ...
... hormone receptor or ACTH receptor also known as the melanocortin receptor 2 or MC2 receptor is a type of melanocortin receptor ... ACTH receptors are the shortest of the melanocortin receptor family and are the smallest known G-coupled receptors. Both human ... ACTH receptors also require the binding of melanocortin-2 receptor accessory protein-1 (MRAP1) without which ACTH receptors ... Lipolytic activity due to melanocortin receptors has been demonstrated in several types of test animals: rats and hamsters ...
Type:. allele of Mc4r Is Marker For:. Strains: WI-Mc4rm1Hubr Latest Assembly:. mRatBN7.2 - mRatBN7.2 Assembly. ... Melanocortin receptor 4 deficiency affects body weight regulation, grooming behavior, and substrate preference in the rat.. Mul ... Systematic generation of in vivo G protein-coupled receptor mutants in the rat.. van Boxtel R, etal., Pharmacogenomics J. 2011 ... Vascular effects of deletion of melanocortin-4 receptors in rats.. Stepp DW, etal., Physiol Rep. 2013 Nov;1(6):e00146. doi: ...
... proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1). One study provides genetic evidence linking rare coding variation to BMI and ... The non-selective melanocortin receptor agonist afamelanotide (NDP-α-MSH) has been found to induce brain-derived neurotrophic ... is a melanocortin receptor that in humans is encoded by the MC4R gene. It encodes the MC4R protein, a G protein-coupled ... while MC4 receptor antagonists have attracted interest as potential treatments for cachexia. The structures of the receptor in ...
DREAMM: a biobehavioral imaging methodology for dynamic in vivo whole-brain mapping of cell type-specific functional networks. ... Mice lacking MC4 receptors display a preference for various aversive stimuli. (A-C) Mice with genetic deletion of MC4Rs (MC4R- ... Expression of melanocortin 4 receptor mRNA in the central nervous system of the rat. J Comp Neurol. 2003;457(3):213-235.. View ... Motivational valence is determined by striatal melanocortin 4 receptors. Anna Mathia Klawonn,1 Michael Fritz,1 Anna Nilsson,1 ...
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and depression are significant public health and socioeconomic issues. They commonly co-occur, ... Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and depression are significant public health and socioeconomic issues. They commonly co-occur, ... Serotonin 2C receptor agonists improve type 2 diabetes via melanocortin-4 receptor signaling pathways. Cell Metab (2007) 6(5): ... its soluble receptor and interleukin-6/interleukin-6 receptor complexes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Acta ...
Following VSG, we analyzed body weight, food intake, glucose sensitivity, and macronutrient preference of wild-type and MC4R- ... "Effect of vertical sleeve gastrectomy in melanocortin receptor 4-deficient rats." Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, vol. 303, no. ... "Effect of vertical sleeve gastrectomy in melanocortin receptor 4-deficient rats." Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 303, no. 1 ( ... Effect of vertical sleeve gastrectomy in melanocortin receptor 4-deficient rats.. Publication , Journal Article ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 Medicine & Life Sciences 100% * Obesity Medicine & Life Sciences 31% ... Haplosufficiency of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene in individuals with deletions of 18q. / Cody, J. D.; Reveles, X. T.; Hale ... Haplosufficiency of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene in individuals with deletions of 18q. In: Human genetics. 1999 ; Vol. 105 ... Cody, J. D., Reveles, X. T., Hale, D. E., Lehman, D., Coon, H., & Leach, R. J. (1999). Haplosufficiency of the melanocortin-4 ...
Targeting melanocortin receptors as potential novel therapeutics. Getting, S.J. 2006. Targeting melanocortin receptors as ... Melanocortin receptor type 3 as a potential target for anti-inflammatory therapy. Current Drug Targets. Inflammation & Allergy. ... Arthritic diseases: melanocortin type 3 receptor agonists as potential therapeutics. Current Opinion in Investigational Drugs. ... Melanocortin receptor type 3 as a potential target for anti-inflammatory therapy. Lam, C.W. and Getting, S.J. 2004. ...
... proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1, leptin receptor (LEPR) deficiency obesity, and Bardet-Biedl and Alstrom syndrome ... The companys lead product candidate is IMCIVREE, a rare melanocortin-4 receptor for the treatment of pro-opiomelanocortin ( ... steroid receptor coactivator 1 deficiency obesity, SH2B1 deficiency obesity, MC4 receptor deficiency obesity, and other MC4R ... SEC Form 4. Lee Jennifer Kayden. EVP, Head of North America. Sep 05. Option Exercise. 6.80. 4,519. 30,729. 7,813. Sep 07 05:48 ...
Altered hepatic lipid metabolism in mice lacking both the melanocortin type 4 receptor and low density lipoprotein receptor. ... Comparative analysis of the signaling capabilities of the insulin receptor-related receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005, ... Garten A, Petzold S, Schuster S, Korner A, Kratzsch J, Kiess W: Nampt and its potential role in inflammation and type 2 ... Imai S, Kiess W: Therapeutic potential of SIRT1 and NAMPT-mediated NAD biosynthesis in type 2 diabetes. Front Biosci (Landmark ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 100% * Prefrontal Cortex 61% * Eating 51% * food 46% ... Prefrontal cortex melanocortin 4 receptors (MC4R) mediate food intake behavior in male mice. Ross, R. A., Kim, A., Das, P., Li ... Activation of Extrasynaptic Kainate Receptors Drives Hilar Mossy Cell Activity. Ramos, C., Lutzu, S., Yamasaki, M., Yanagawa, Y ... Target cell-specific plasticity rules of NMDA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. Lutzu, S., Alviña, K. ...
Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. PC1, proprotein convertase 1; POMC, pro-opiomelanocortin; MC4, melanocortin 4; PPAR-γ, ... Insulin receptor signaling in normal and insulin-resistant states. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2014;6:a009191. ... Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. PC1, proprotein convertase 1; POMC, pro-opiomelanocortin; MC4, melanocortin 4; PPAR-γ, ... Keywords: Insulin resistance; Type 2 diabetes; Obesity; Insulin; Pancreas; Child Introduction. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a major ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 100% * Lipocalin-2 90% * Appetite 70% * Bone and Bones 40% ... Adenylyl cyclase type 5 deficiency protects against diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance. Ho, D., Zhao, X., Yan, L., ... ARC is essential for maintaining pancreatic islet structure and β-cell viability during type 2 diabetes. McKimpson, W. M., ... Neuronal SNAP-23 is critical for synaptic plasticity and spatial memory independently of NMDA receptor regulation. Huang, M., ...
The rare peripheral type happens almost… Continue reading The adenomatoid odontogenic tumor (AOT) is a comparatively uncommon ... Categorized as Melanocortin (MC) Receptors Tagged IGKC, TKI-258 inhibitor. Leucine-rich G protein-coupled receptor-5 (LGR5) may ... Categorized as Melanocortin (MC) Receptors Tagged DUSP5, Romidepsin biological activity. Posts navigation. Page 1 … Page 7 ... Categorized as Melanocortin (MC) Receptors Tagged BRG1, Suvorexant supplier. Microfluidics is a system technology that has been ...
Melanocortins and body weight: a tale of two receptors. Nat Genet. 2000 Sep. 26(1):8-9. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ... 176, 177, 178, 179] In particular, activation of the cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is associated with increased appetite ... lessons to be learned from proopiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptor mutations in mice and men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. ... proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 [PCSK1], leptin receptor [LEPR] deficiencies). [131, 132] ...
TARGETING MISFOLDED MELANOCORTIN TYPE 4 RECEPTOR (MC4R) FOR THE TREATMENT OF FAMI. Lead researcher : Michel Bouvier ... DISSECTING 7 TRANSMEMBRANE RECEPTORS PATHWAYS THROUGH DESIGNED SEPARATION OF FUNCTION. Lead researcher : Michel Bouvier ... Use of cellular impedance to characterize ligand functional selectivity at G protein-coupled receptors Graduate : Stallaert, ... Conséquences fonctionnelles de mutations affectant le récepteur de la vasopressine de type 2 et implications thérapeutiques ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 35% * Leptin Receptors 30% * Pro-Opiomelanocortin 30% * Precision Medicine 25% ...
... proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1, and leptin receptor deficiencies). The selective 5-HT2C receptor agonist ... Melanocortin-4 receptor agonists are approved for weight management in patients with rare genetic conditions (ie, ... Recently, the FDA approved tirzepatide, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptor and GLP-1 receptor agonist ... Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists have been shown to promote weight loss in patients with or without type 2 diabetes and ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 90% * Pro-Opiomelanocortin 79% * Metabolome 69% * DNA Methylation 60% ...
Serotonin 2C receptor agonists improve type 2 diabetes via melanocortin-4 receptor signaling pathways. Cell Metabolism, 6 (5). ... Group by: Authors , Item Type , No Grouping. Jump to: A , B , C , D , F , G , H , J , K , L , M , N , O , P , R , S , T , V , W ... Somerville, Elizabeth M, Horwood, Julia M, Lee, Michelle D, Kennett, Guy A and Clifton, Peter G (2007) 5-HT2C receptor ... Mead, Andy N, Zamanillo, Daniel, Becker, Nadine and Stephens, David N (2007) AMPA-receptor GluR1 subunits are involved in the ...
Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 3 Medicine & Life Sciences 60% * Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 4 Medicine & Life Sciences 53% ... Injection of the melanocortin 3/4 receptor agonist melanotan-II into the paraventricular nucleus increased LSNA, mean arterial ... Injection of the melanocortin 3/4 receptor agonist melanotan-II into the paraventricular nucleus increased LSNA, mean arterial ... Injection of the melanocortin 3/4 receptor agonist melanotan-II into the paraventricular nucleus increased LSNA, mean arterial ...
A type V lesion in which the lipid core and other parts of the lesion are calcified may be referred to as type Vb. A type V ... Importantly, as with type IV lesions, type V lesions may develop fissures, hematoma, and/or thrombus (type VI lesion), and for ... When the new tissue is part of a lesion with a lipid core (type IV), this type of morphology may be referred to as ... With these lesions, arteries are variously narrowed, generally more than with type IV. ...
Next, groups of larvae mutant in nr3c1, nr3c2 (mineralocorticoid receptor), or mc2r (melanocortin receptor type 2; ... We focus on distinct actions of two dopamine receptor systems in the outer retina, a dopamine D4 receptor system that mediates ... Earlier research highlighted type III mRGC'scells and type II mRGC'smore recent ... studies refer to these as M1 cells (type III) and M2 cells (type II) based upon morphologic and ...
Evolution of melanocortin receptors in teleost fish: the melanocortin type 1 receptor. Y. Selz, I. Braasch, C. Hoffmann, C. ... Evolution of melanocortin receptors in teleost fish: the melanocortin type 1 receptor ...
... proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1 [PCSK1], or leptin receptor [LEPR] deficiency). ... Setmelanotide is a melanocortin-4 receptor agonist. MC4 receptors in the brain are involved in regulation of hunger, satiety, ... It is a selective beta-3 adrenergic receptor agonist. Activation of the beta-3 adrenergic receptor increases bladder capacity ... Arcalyst (rilonacept) - New indication for maintenance of remission of deficiency of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (DIRA) ...
The melanocortin receptor type 4 (MC4R) gene is expressed in the hypothalamus and regulates energy intake and body weight. ... 4 pp.287-297 한국동물생명공학회(구 한국수정란이식학회) 한우에서 도축 전 혈청 호르몬 및 혈액 성분의 농도 변화가 거세우와 비거세우에서 공통적으로 나타난 현상은 도축 2개월 전에서 수송 직전 사이에 cortisol과 ... 4. 말레이시아 젖소정액 검역 통관을 위해서는 포괄적인 검역조건 대응으로 협의를 통한 검역조건 간소화가 필요하며, 수출 지속성 제고를 위해 국제협력사업과의 연계, 현지 에이전트 발굴을 통한 적극적인 참여 유도, 한류 등을 활용한 ... 한국국제농업개발학회지 제32권 4호 pp.408-414 한국국제농업개발학회 1. 말레이시아는 젖소 유전자원 개선을 위해 다수의 가축 사육 프로젝트를 지원해오고 있다. 그러나 소비자의 유제품 수요가 빠르게 늘어나는 ...
... melanocortin receptor activity; melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor activity (ortholog); INVOLVED IN positive regulation of ... melanocortin system pathway; ASSOCIATED WITH Acute-Phase Reaction; Kidney Reperfusion Injury; allergic contact dermatitis ( ... feeding behavior; regulation of feeding behavior; adenylate cyclase-activating G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway ( ... Inflamed phenotype of the mesenteric microcirculation of melanocortin type 3 receptor-null mice after ischemia-reperfusion.. ...
... we will consider obesity with special attention to adipocyte types, microbiota, and microbial products, LPS and bacteriocins. ... Leptin is a cell proliferation promotor and its receptors are present on several types of cancer cells. It promotes cyclin D1 ... Several genes have been shown to be involved in monofactorial obesity [25]. These include the leptin gene, Melanocortin 4 ... Increased IGF-1 and its receptor are closely associated with colorectal cancer. Both insulin and IGF-1 receptors promote ...
METHODS: GH and IGF-1 levels were assessed in wild-type and melanocortin-4 receptor knockout mice upon the development of diet- ... HMGB1 readily migrates into the extracellular matrix and binds to immune cell receptors to affect their function and ... METHODS: KRASG12D gene-expressing plasmid was delivered to the pancreas of wild type rats via pancreas-targeted hydrodynamic ... These complementary effects were canceled in melanocortin-4 receptor knockout mice, which diminished BDNF and CRH release ...
1999). High polymorphism at the human melanocortin 1 receptor locus. Genetics, 151, 1547‑1557.. Soejima, M., H. Tachida, T. ... Thelen, T.H. (1983). Minority type human mate preference. Social Biology, 30, 162-180.. Voight, B.F., S. Kudaravalli, X. Wen ... 20th century anthropological texts describe different physical types in the Czech Republic and neighborhood. Aside from the ... June 4, 2011 at 4:48:00 AM EDT Anonymous said... Holland:. However, the cranium is different from the face, and no rule says ...
  • Melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) is a melanocortin receptor that in humans is encoded by the MC4R gene. (wikipedia.org)
  • It encodes the MC4R protein, a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that binds α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH). (wikipedia.org)
  • Among the 16 genes, the analysis identified two for which rare mutations are known to cause monogenic obesity: MC4R and PCSK1 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1). (wikipedia.org)
  • In humans, partial loss of melanocortin receptor-4 (MC4R) activity is the most common monogenic correlate of obesity regardless of lifestyle. (duke.edu)
  • Following VSG, we analyzed body weight, food intake, glucose sensitivity, and macronutrient preference of wild-type and MC4R-deficient (Mc4r(+/-) and Mc4r(-/-)) rats compared with sham-operated controls. (duke.edu)
  • The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) is a seven, transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptor whose ligand, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), is a post-translational derivative of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). (psu.edu)
  • 4 receptor (MC4R) agonist setmelanotide as a treatment option in rare obesity syndromes. (eurospe.org)
  • 5 Mutations in leptin (LEP) and its receptor (LEPR), melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), prohormone convertase 1 (PCSK1), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 2 (NTRK2), and single-minded homolog 1 (SIM1) have all been shown to influence appetite and weight gain. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • 7,8 MC4R is a receptor in this axis, and POMC encodes the precursor polypeptide that acts on this receptor, which must first be processed by PCSK1. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • 5,9 BDNF, its receptor NTRK2, and SIM1 are known downstream targets of MC4R signaling, yet their exact actions are still being elucidated. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • Patients with mutations in MC4R have undergone weight loss surgery, including Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, sleeve gastrectomy, and gastric banding. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • 3 In patients with heterozygous MC4R mutations, reported results were comparable to wild type MC4R patients, with 60 percent excess weight loss reported following gastric bypass and 48 percent excess weight loss reported following gastric banding, although these results are from small cohorts. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • PMID 22869321 ] Common polymorphism near the MC4R gene is associated with type 2 diabetes: data from a meta-analysis of 123,373 individuals. (snpedia.com)
  • A well-studied example of this is melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R), mutations in which are the most common cause of human monogenic obesity. (inforang.com)
  • Obesity accelerated the age-related reduction of T-cell receptor (TCR) excision circle bearing peripheral lymphocytes, an index of recently generated T cells from thymus. (nih.gov)
  • Furthermore, the obesity induced by melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency also constricted the T-cell repertoire diversity, recapitulating the thymic defects observed with diet-induced obesity. (nih.gov)
  • In accordance with the above, MC4 receptor agonists have garnered interest as potential treatments for obesity and insulin resistance, while MC4 receptor antagonists have attracted interest as potential treatments for cachexia. (wikipedia.org)
  • Soon after the introduction of atypical antipsychotics, which antagonize serotonin receptors and dopamine D 2 receptors (D 2 R), numerous case reports appeared showing that the use of these drugs were associated with increased obesity and the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) ( 5 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • In patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are overweight or obese, antidiabetic medications that have additional actions to promote weight loss (such as glucagonlike peptide-1 [GLP-1] analogs or sodium-glucose-linked transporter-2 [SGLT-2] inhibitors) are suggested, in addition to the first-line agent for type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity, metformin. (medscape.com)
  • Recently, the FDA approved tirzepatide , glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptor and GLP-1 receptor agonist, for chronic weight maintenance in adults with obesity. (medscape.com)
  • In this review, we will consider obesity with special attention to adipocyte types, microbiota, and microbial products, LPS and bacteriocins. (heraldopenaccess.us)
  • Depression and obesity are strongly interrelated: The occurrence of one increases the risk of the other [4]. (heraldopenaccess.us)
  • Obesity is a prominent risk factor for Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, (NIDDM), which is also called diabetes mellitus type II. (heraldopenaccess.us)
  • The hyperphagia and resulting obesity manifesting in individuals with BBS are associated with impaired signaling in the central melanocortin pathway of the hypothalamus, which is a critical component in the control of energy intake and expenditure [ 11 , 12 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Investigation into the causes and pathogenesis of this pandemic have revealed several monogenic forms of obesity, including syndromic disorders, such as Prader Willi and Bardet Biedl syndromes and nonsyndromic disorders, which are largely confined to the leptin-melanocortin pathway. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • Liver and adipose (fat) tissues in the rodents showed no evidence of fatty liver disease, a complication related to poor diet, obesity and type 2 diabetes. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The familiar results of this stress are obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular complications. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Mouse models of cell type-specific cilia dysgenesis have subsequently demonstrated that ciliary defects restricted to specific hypothalamic neurons are sufficient to induce obesity and hyperphagia. (inforang.com)
  • A potential mechanism underlying hypothalamic neuron cilia-related obesity is impaired ciliary localization of G protein-coupled receptors involved in the regulation of appetite and energy metabolism. (inforang.com)
  • The research program focuses on the molecular mechanisms controlling the function of the largest family of drug targets, the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR). (umontreal.ca)
  • Most tmACs are principally controlled by G protein coupled receptors via direct activation by heterotrimeric G proteins either by direct connection between tmACs and the G s subunit or subunits [1]. (bioinf.org)
  • And agonists of the MC4 receptor such as melanotan II and PF-00446687, via activation of the central oxytocin system, have been found to promote pair bond formation in prairie voles and, due to these prosocial effects, have been suggested as possible treatments for social deficits in autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. (wikipedia.org)
  • In obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who require insulin therapy, at least one of the following is suggested: metformin, pramlintide, or GLP-1 agonists to mitigate associated weight gain due to insulin. (medscape.com)
  • Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) agonists have been shown to promote weight loss in patients with or without type 2 diabetes and are the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved for chronic weight management . (medscape.com)
  • Melanocortin-4 receptor agonists are approved for weight management in patients with rare genetic conditions (ie, proopiomelanocortin, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 1, and leptin receptor deficiencies). (medscape.com)
  • cAMP microdomains were first appreciated in the 1970s from the groups of Keely Hayes Brunton and others when they identified that different tmAC activating hormones (e.g. β-adrenergic receptor and prostaglandin E1 agonists) all led to cAMP elevation but each induced unique cellular events in cardiomyocytes e.g. only β-adrenergic activation induced improved contractility and glycogen rate of metabolism [12]. (bioinf.org)
  • Spontaneous alleles of a few key pigmentation loci are known to cause melanism in domestic or laboratory populations of mammals, but in natural populations, mutations at one gene, the melanocortin-1 receptor (Mc1r), have been implicated in the vast majority of cases, possibly due to its minimal pleiotropic effects. (gephebase.org)
  • To date, the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is the only gene identified that explains substantial phenotypic variance in human pigmentation. (ncl.ac.uk)
  • 6,7 Leptin is a hormone secreted by adipose tissue which, when bound to its receptor in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, signals satiety through the melanocortin axis. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • Blockade of paraventricular melanocortin 3/4 receptors with SHU9119 or ionotropic glutamate receptors with kynurenate, alone or together, each partially reversed the effects of leptin, implicating increased activation of glutamate and melanocortin 3/4 receptors. (elsevierpure.com)
  • PMID 21736789 ] A variant near the melanocortin-4 receptor gene regulates postprandial lipid metabolism in a healthy Caucasian population. (snpedia.com)
  • Evaluation of platelet reactivity during combined antiplatelet therapy in patients with stable coronary artery disease in relation to diabetes type 2 and the GPIIB/IIIA receptor gene polymorphism. (cdc.gov)
  • A Bayesian analysis for investigating the association between rs13266634 polymorphism in SLC30A8 gene and type 2 diabetes. (cdc.gov)
  • Glutathione S-transferases gene polymorphism influence on the age of diabetes type 2 onset. (cdc.gov)
  • This gene provides instructions for making a protein called the melanocortin 1 receptor, which is involved in the pathway that produces melanin. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Molecular defects of the ACTH receptor gene, consisting of point mutations, are described in approximately 25-40% of patients with FGD. (medscape.com)
  • BBS genes are required for leptin receptor (LEPR) trafficking, a key component of the melanocortin pathway. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Since the discovery of two leptin deficient children in 1997, investigations into these disorders have focused on the Leptin-Melanocortin pathway and its regulation of appetite and energy homeostasis. (bariatrictimes.com)
  • Conversely, although blockade of neuropeptide Y Y1 receptors in the paraventricular nucleus increased LSNA, mean arterial pressure, and heart rate, these responses were prevented by intracerebroventricular or arcuate nucleus injections of leptin, suggesting that, at least in part, leptin also increases sympathetic nerve activity by suppression of tonic neuropeptide Y inhibitory inputs from the arcuate nucleus. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Injection of the melanocortin 3/4 receptor agonist melanotan-II into the paraventricular nucleus increased LSNA, mean arterial pressure, and heart rate only after blockade of neuropeptide Y Y1 receptors. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Mutations in the MC2 receptor accessory protein (MRAP) are responsible for another estimated 15-20% of cases of FGD. (medscape.com)
  • these mutations may affect ACTH signal transduction, expression of the ACTH receptor, or differentiation of the adrenal cortex. (medscape.com)
  • Under normal conditions, leptin binds the leptin receptor on proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons, and POMC is then cleaved by the protein encoded by PCSK1 . (biomedcentral.com)
  • The structures of the receptor in complex with the agonist setmelanotide and the antagonist SHU9119 have been determined. (wikipedia.org)
  • Insulin resistance (IR) has been identified as a cardinal trigger of impaired glucose metabolism, T2D, and cardiovascular diseases [ 3 , 4 ]. (e-apem.org)
  • Thus, Zfx restrains the stress response and couples antigen receptor signaling to B cell expansion and maintenance during development and peripheral homeostasis. (gsea-msigdb.org)
  • The selective 5-HT 2C receptor agonist lorcaserin was approved by the FDA in 2012 but was taken off the market in 2020 because of potential cancer risk. (medscape.com)
  • Primary care diabetes 2020 9 15 (1): 4-9. (cdc.gov)
  • Endokrynologia Polska 2020 71 (4): 334-342. (cdc.gov)
  • Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and depression are significant public health and socioeconomic issues. (frontiersin.org)
  • Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and calcium channel blockers, rather than beta-adrenergic blockers, should be considered as first-line therapy for hypertension in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are obese. (medscape.com)
  • In recent decades, the world has seen expanding waistlines in expanding numbers, and with this, an increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome, a collection of risk factors predisposing toward cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). (bariatrictimes.com)
  • Association between PPARGC1A single nucleotide polymorphisms and increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among Iranian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. (cdc.gov)
  • Autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: A long-term follow-up study. (cdc.gov)
  • Novel hybrid compounds, opioid agonist+melanocortin 4 receptor antagonist, as efficient analgesics in mouse neuropathic pain model. (physiciansweekly.com)
  • The BLOOM-DM study was a 1-year RCT in Type 2 diabetics taking metformin or SU, or both, comparing placebo with 10 mg lorcaserin daily (q.d.) versus lorcaserin 10 mg twice daily (b.i.d. (medscape.com)
  • In middle-aged humans, progressive adiposity with or without type 2 diabetes also compromised thymic output. (nih.gov)
  • The MC4 receptor agonist bremelanotide (PT-141), sold under the brand name Vyleesi, was approved in the United States as a treatment for low sexual desire in women in 2019. (wikipedia.org)
  • Turkish journal of medical sciences 2019 08 49 (4): 1089-1094. (cdc.gov)
  • In mouse models, MC4 receptors have been found to be involved in feeding behaviour, the regulation of metabolism, sexual behaviour, and male erectile function. (wikipedia.org)
  • GLP-1 is a physiologic regulator of appetite and calorie intake, and the GLP-1 receptor is present in several areas of the brain involved in appetite regulation. (medscape.com)
  • The non-selective melanocortin receptor agonist afamelanotide (NDP-α-MSH) has been found to induce brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the rodent brain via activation of the MC4 receptor and mediate "intense" neurogenesis and cognitive recovery in an animal model of Alzheimer's disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • The effect of the selective human MC3 receptor agonist PG992 on high density human chondrocyte micromass cultures activated by IL-1beta. (westminster.ac.uk)
  • Additionally, other selective 5-HT 2C receptors were withdrawn from the market as well owing to unwanted effects, such as higher risk for cardiac valvular abnormalities . (medscape.com)
  • Here we describe a model system, SELective Expression and Controlled Transduction In Vivo (SELECTIV), that enables efficient and specific expression of transgenes by coupling adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors with Cre-inducible overexpression of the multi-serotype AAV receptor, AAVR. (nature.com)
  • Arena Pharmaceuticals, CA, USA), approved in June 2012 by the FDA but still under review by the EMA, is a selective agonist at the G-protein coupled 5HT 2c receptor. (medscape.com)
  • In particular her research is focused on how different cell types in the brain (neurons, microglia, astrocytes and endothelial cells) coordinate and interact to regulate these processes. (exeter.ac.uk)
  • Activation of this receptor has previously been shown to decrease hunger and increase satiety, [ 89 ] the mechanism of which has been proposed to be by increasing pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) expression with subsequent increased release of α-melanocyte stimulating hormone, which stimulates the anorexigenic melanocortin 4 receptor. (medscape.com)
  • Therefore, identification of novel endogenous targets for drug development may have beneficial properties ACTH4-10, a heptapeptide fragment derived from the hormone adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) modulates the inflammatory response in a corticosterone-independent manner, via agonism at melanocortin type 3 receptors (MC3-R) expressed on peritoneal macrophages. (westminster.ac.uk)
  • Enables hormone binding activity and melanocortin receptor activity. (mcw.edu)
  • tmACs provide an important link between hormonal (e.g. melanocortin revitalizing hormone) signals and intracellular processes. (bioinf.org)
  • One theory suggests that lipid over supply leads to defect in Insulin Receptor Substrate (IRS) through serine/threonine phosphorylation. (heraldopenaccess.us)
  • In 1977, Spark and Etzkorn proposed an etiology involving a defect at the ACTH receptor or a postreceptor site. (medscape.com)
  • The his- Bariatric surgery reduces the size of the stomach, increases tory of dietary supplements is full of success stories in terms the feeling of fullness, and reduces the amount of food intake.8 of efficacy, but this success is matched by tragedy with regard Different types of bariatric surgery include the following: to safety. (eddoctor24h.com)
  • However, direct use of 5-HT 2C receptor positive allosteric modulators in precision medicine is currently being studied. (medscape.com)
  • Antibodies directed against the soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) are highly specific markers for melanoma especially for lentigo maligna melanoma and are being described as "second generation" cancer diagnostics which are diagnostics that Kaempferol determine the 'state' of a cell and not just identify the cell type. (bioinf.org)
  • The development of transgenic mouse models that express genes of interest in specific cell types has transformed our understanding of basic biology and disease. (nature.com)
  • The type and amount of melanin in hair is determined by many genes, although little is known about most of them. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Our approach exploits the absolute dependence of AAV transduction on the expression of its receptor 22 , AAVR (also named KIAA0319L). (nature.com)
  • By directing AAV transduction through the regulated expression of its receptor, the approach provides precise control over which cells express the AAV-vectored transgene. (nature.com)
  • We hypothesized that AAV transgene expression could be targeted to specific tissues or cell types by selectively overexpressing AAVR. (nature.com)
  • T. J. Park, S. S. Choi, G. A. Gang, Y. Kim, High-Level Expression and Purification of the Second Transmembrane Domain of Wild-Type and Mutant Human Melanocortin-4 Receptor for Solid-State NMR Structural Studies, Protein Expression and Purification, Volume 62, (Issue 2), December 2008, Pages 139-145. (praiseworthyprize.org)
  • Genome-wide trans-ancestry meta-analysis provides insight into the genetic architecture of type 2 diabetes susceptibility. (snpedia.com)
  • Development and Standardization of an Improved Type 1 Diabetes Genetic Risk Score for Use in Newborn Screening and Incident Diagnosis. (cdc.gov)
  • This type of genetic change is described as loss-of-function. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The development, homeostasis and function of B lymphocytes involve multiple rounds of B cell receptor (BCR)-controlled proliferation and prolonged maintenance. (gsea-msigdb.org)
  • In addition, there is evidence that fatty acids interfere with very early stages of Glucose Transporter Type 4 (GLUT4) and hexokinase II activity [8]. (heraldopenaccess.us)
  • We demonstrate that transgenic AAVR overexpression greatly increases the efficiency of transduction of many diverse cell types, including muscle stem cells, which are normally refractory to AAV transduction. (nature.com)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Effect of vertical sleeve gastrectomy in melanocortin receptor 4-deficient rats. (duke.edu)