A field of study concerned with the principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages, especially those within and among closely related species. (Avise, J.C., Phylogeography: The History and Formation of Species. Harvard University Press, 2000)
The science dealing with the earth and its life, especially the description of land, sea, and air and the distribution of plant and animal life, including humanity and human industries with reference to the mutual relations of these elements. (From Webster, 3d ed)
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.
Cytochromes of the b group that have alpha-band absorption of 563-564 nm. They occur as subunits in MITOCHONDRIAL ELECTRON TRANSPORT COMPLEX III.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The change in gene frequency in a population due to migration of gametes or individuals (ANIMAL MIGRATION) across population barriers. In contrast, in GENETIC DRIFT the cause of gene frequency changes are not a result of population or gamete movement.
The genetic constitution of individuals with respect to one member of a pair of allelic genes, or sets of genes that are closely linked and tend to be inherited together such as those of the MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX.
The discipline studying genetic composition of populations and effects of factors such as GENETIC SELECTION, population size, MUTATION, migration, and GENETIC DRIFT on the frequencies of various GENOTYPES and PHENOTYPES using a variety of GENETIC TECHNIQUES.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of CHLOROPLASTS.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but there seems to be a misunderstanding as "South America" is not a medical term and cannot have a medical definition. It is a geographical term referring to the southern portion of the American continent, consisting of twelve independent countries and three territories of other nations.
An animal or plant species in danger of extinction. Causes can include human activity, changing climate, or change in predator/prey ratios.
Geological formations consisting of underground enclosures with access from the surface.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
Events and activities of the Earth and its structures.
The geographical area of Asia comprising KAZAKHSTAN; KYRGYZSTAN; TAJIKISTAN; TURKMENISTAN; and UZBEKISTAN. The desert region of Kara Kum (Qara Qum) is largely in Turkmenistan and the desert region of Kyzyl Kum (Kizil Kum or Qizil Qum), is in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p233, 590, 636)
A plant family of the order Sapindales, subclass Rosidae, class Magnoliopsida which is a small family of small trees and shrubs growing in arid and warm regions.
The splitting of an ancestral species into daughter species that coexist in time (King, Dictionary of Genetics, 6th ed). Causal factors may include geographic isolation, HABITAT geometry, migration, REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION, random GENETIC DRIFT and MUTATION.
A theorem in probability theory named for Thomas Bayes (1702-1761). In epidemiology, it is used to obtain the probability of disease in a group of people with some characteristic on the basis of the overall rate of that disease and of the likelihood of that characteristic in healthy and diseased individuals. The most familiar application is in clinical decision analysis where it is used for estimating the probability of a particular diagnosis given the appearance of some symptoms or test result.
Periodic movements of animals in response to seasonal changes or reproductive instinct. Hormonal changes are the trigger in at least some animals. Most migrations are made for reasons of climatic change, feeding, or breeding.
A process by which animals in various forms and stages of development are physically distributed through time and space.
While there isn't a specific medical definition for "North America," I can provide a geographical definition that is often used in public health and medical contexts: North America is the third largest continent by area, encompassing 23 independent states, including the United States, Canada, and Mexico, which are home to diverse populations, cultures, and ecosystems, and share common health-related challenges such as obesity, diabetes, and healthcare access disparities.
Central America is not a medical term, but a geographical region consisting of seven countries (Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama) that connect North America to South America, which may be relevant in medical contexts such as discussions of regional disease patterns, public health initiatives, or tropical medicine.
A variety of simple repeat sequences that are distributed throughout the GENOME. They are characterized by a short repeat unit of 2-8 basepairs that is repeated up to 100 times. They are also known as short tandem repeats (STRs).
Fish-eating carnivores of the family MUSTELIDAE, found on both hemispheres.
Scattered islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The chief islands are the Balearic Islands (belong to Spain; Majorca and Minorca are among these), Corsica (belongs to France), Crete (belongs to Greece), CYPRUS (a republic), the Cyclades, Dodecanese and Ionian Islands (belong to Greece), MALTA (a republic), Sardinia and SICILY (belong to Italy). (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p747)
The MEDITERRANEAN SEA, the MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS, and the countries bordering on the sea collectively.
The process of cumulative change over successive generations through which organisms acquire their distinguishing morphological and physiological characteristics.
The pattern of any process, or the interrelationship of phenomena, which affects growth or change within a population.
*Medical Definition:* 'Lizards' are not typically defined in the field of medicine, as they are a type of reptile and not a medical condition or healthcare-related concept; however, certain lizard species such as the Gila monster and beaded lizards possess venomous bites, which can lead to medical emergencies like envenomation requiring medical attention.
An autonomous region located in central Asia, within China.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the Old World MICE and RATS.
The name of two islands of the West Indies, separated by a narrow channel. Their capital is Basse-Terre. They were discovered by Columbus in 1493, occupied by the French in 1635, held by the British at various times between 1759 and 1813, transferred to Sweden in 1813, and restored to France in 1816. Its status was changed from colony to a French overseas department in 1946. Columbus named it in honor of the monastery of Santa Maria de Guadalupe in Spain. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p470 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p221)
An independent state in the West Indies. Its capital is Castries. It was probably discovered by Columbus in 1502 and first settled by the English in 1605. Contended for by the French and English in the 17th century, it was regarded as neutral in 1748 but changed hands many times in the wars of the 19th century. It became a self-governing state in association with Great Britain in 1967 and achieved independence in 1979. Columbus named it for the day on which he discovered it, the feast of St. Lucy, a Sicilian virgin martyr. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p1051 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p477)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest ocean in the world, covering an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers), and it is not a medical term.
Numerous islands in the Indian Ocean situated east of Madagascar, north to the Arabian Sea and east to Sri Lanka. Included are COMOROS (republic), MADAGASCAR (republic), Maldives (republic), MAURITIUS (parliamentary democracy), Pemba (administered by Tanzania), REUNION (a department of France), and SEYCHELLES (republic).
Genes that are located on the MITOCHONDRIAL DNA. Mitochondrial inheritance is often referred to as maternal inheritance but should be differentiated from maternal inheritance that is transmitted chromosomally.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but 'Europe' is a geographical continent and not a medical term; therefore, it doesn't have a medical definition.
A genus of SEA URCHINS in the family Arbaciidae. They have only one spheridium (stalked body) per ambulacral area (contains tube feet); most sea urchins have several spheridia per area.
The most diversified of all fish orders and the largest vertebrate order. It includes many of the commonly known fish such as porgies, croakers, sunfishes, dolphin fish, mackerels, TUNA, etc.
The species Panthera tigris, a large feline inhabiting Asia. Several subspecies exist including the Siberian tiger and Sumatran tiger.
The human male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans.
The detection of RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISMS by selective PCR amplification of restriction fragments derived from genomic DNA followed by electrophoretic analysis of the amplified restriction fragments.
The geographical designation for the countries of the MIDDLE EAST and the countries BANGLADESH; BHUTAN; INDIA; NEPAL; PAKISTAN; and SRI LANKA. (From Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed, 1993 & Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988)
The area that lies between continental North and South America and comprises the Caribbean Sea, the West Indies, and the adjacent mainland regions of southern Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Venezuela.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The geographic area of the northwestern region of the United States. The states usually included in this region are Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming.
Statistical interpretation and description of a population with reference to distribution, composition, or structure.
The largest of the continents. It was known to the Romans more specifically as what we know today as Asia Minor. The name comes from at least two possible sources: from the Assyrian asu (to rise) or from the Sanskrit usa (dawn), both with reference to its being the land of the rising sun, i.e., eastern as opposed to Europe, to the west. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p82 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p34)
A genus of aquatic newts in the Salamandridae family. During breeding season many Triturus males have a dorsal crest which also serves as an accessory respiratory organ. One of the common Triturus species is Triturus cristatus (crested newt).
A region, north-central Asia, largely in Russia. It extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic Ocean to central Kazakhstan and the borders of China and Mongolia.
The family of true frogs of the order Anura. The family occurs worldwide except in Antarctica.
A plant genus of the family POACEAE. The seed is one of the EDIBLE GRAINS used in millet cereals and in feed for birds and livestock (ANIMAL FEED). It contains diosgenin (SAPONINS).
Shrews are small, insectivorous mammals belonging to the family Soricidae, characterized by their pointed snouts, tiny eyes, and rapid movements.
Tracts of land completely surrounded by water.
The period of history before 500 of the common era.
Genes whose entire sequences are contained within other genes.
Functions constructed from a statistical model and a set of observed data which give the probability of that data for various values of the unknown model parameters. Those parameter values that maximize the probability are the maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters.
The geographical area of Africa comprising ALGERIA; EGYPT; LIBYA; MOROCCO; and TUNISIA. It includes also the vast deserts and oases of the Sahara. It is often referred to as North Africa, French-speaking Africa, or the Maghreb. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p856)
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Atlantic Ocean" is a geographical term referring to one of the world's five oceans, covering approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and separating the continents of Europe and Africa to the east from those of North and South America to the west. It doesn't have a direct medical definition, as it is not a medical term.
The protection, preservation, restoration, and rational use of all resources in the total environment.
Water containing no significant amounts of salts, such as water from RIVERS and LAKES.
A class of minute animals of the phylum Aschelminthes.
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial mollusks of the class Gastropoda. Most have an enclosing spiral shell, and several genera harbor parasites pathogenic to man.
One of the largest orders of mostly marine CRUSTACEA, containing over 10,000 species. Like AMPHIPODA, the other large order in the superorder Peracarida, members are shrimp-like in appearance, have sessile compound eyes, and no carapace. But unlike Amphipoda, they possess abdominal pleopods (modified as gills) and their bodies are dorsoventrally flattened.
A thick mass of ICE formed over large regions of land; RIVERS; LAKES; ponds; or SEAWATER.
A widely distributed order of perching BIRDS, including more than half of all bird species.
A multisubunit enzyme complex containing CYTOCHROME A GROUP; CYTOCHROME A3; two copper atoms; and 13 different protein subunits. It is the terminal oxidase complex of the RESPIRATORY CHAIN and collects electrons that are transferred from the reduced CYTOCHROME C GROUP and donates them to molecular OXYGEN, which is then reduced to water. The redox reaction is simultaneously coupled to the transport of PROTONS across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
A class in the phylum MOLLUSCA comprised of SNAILS and slugs. The former have coiled external shells and the latter usually lack shells.
An order of the Amphibia class which includes salamanders and newts. They are characterized by usually having slim bodies and tails, four limbs of about equal size (except in Sirenidae), and a reduction in skull bones.
The region of southwest Asia and northeastern Africa usually considered as extending from Libya on the west to Afghanistan on the east. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988)
A family of terrestrial carnivores with long, slender bodies, long tails, and anal scent glands. They include badgers, weasels, martens, FERRETS; MINKS; wolverines, polecats, and OTTERS.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of genetic processes or phenomena. They include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The Arctic Ocean and the lands in it and adjacent to it. It includes Point Barrow, Alaska, most of the Franklin District in Canada, two thirds of Greenland, Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Lapland, Novaya Zemlya, and Northern Siberia. (Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p66)
A set of statistical methods used to group variables or observations into strongly inter-related subgroups. In epidemiology, it may be used to analyze a closely grouped series of events or cases of disease or other health-related phenomenon with well-defined distribution patterns in relation to time or place or both.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
The family of carnivorous or omnivorous bears, having massive bodies, coarse heavy fur, relatively short limbs, and almost rudimentary tails.
The longterm manifestations of WEATHER. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
A body of water covering approximately one-fifth of the total ocean area of the earth, extending amidst Africa in the west, Australia in the east, Asia in the north, and Antarctica in the south. Including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, it constitutes the third largest ocean after the ATLANTIC OCEAN and the PACIFIC OCEAN. (New Encyclopaedia Britannica Micropaedia, 15th ed, 1990, p289)
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Chile" is not a medical concept or condition, it is a country located in South America. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer those!
The variety of all native living organisms and their various forms and interrelationships.
A country spanning from central Asia to the Pacific Ocean.
The process of leaving one's country to establish residence in a foreign country.
Any significant change in measures of climate (such as temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended period (decades or longer). It may result from natural factors such as changes in the sun's intensity, natural processes within the climate system such as changes in ocean circulation, or human activities.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A family of freshwater fish comprising the minnows or CARPS.
A family of hardbacked TICKS, in the subclass ACARI. Genera include DERMACENTOR and IXODES among others.
Large natural streams of FRESH WATER formed by converging tributaries and which empty into a body of water (lake or ocean).
Common name for perch-like fish of the family Cichlidae, belonging to the suborder Labroidei, order PERCIFORMES.
INSECTS of the order Coleoptera, containing over 350,000 species in 150 families. They possess hard bodies and their mouthparts are adapted for chewing.
The smallest continent and an independent country, comprising six states and two territories. Its capital is Canberra.
A climate which is typical of equatorial and tropical regions, i.e., one with continually high temperatures with considerable precipitation, at least during part of the year. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Order of mammals whose members are adapted for flight. It includes bats, flying foxes, and fruit bats.
The branch of science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their ENVIRONMENT, especially as manifested by natural cycles and rhythms, community development and structure, interactions between different kinds of organisms, geographic distributions, and population alterations. (Webster's, 3d ed)
The fluctuation of the ALLELE FREQUENCY from one generation to the next.
Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches.
A group of cold-blooded, aquatic vertebrates having gills, fins, a cartilaginous or bony endoskeleton, and elongated bodies covered with scales.
Specific regions that are mapped within a GENOME. Genetic loci are usually identified with a shorthand notation that indicates the chromosome number and the position of a specific band along the P or Q arm of the chromosome where they are found. For example the locus 6p21 is found within band 21 of the P-arm of CHROMOSOME 6. Many well known genetic loci are also known by common names that are associated with a genetic function or HEREDITARY DISEASE.
Number of individuals in a population relative to space.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
A phenotypically recognizable genetic trait which can be used to identify a genetic locus, a linkage group, or a recombination event.

Genetic differentiation between resistance phenotypes in the phytophagous flea beetle, Phyllotreta nemorum. (1/1089)

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Sharp phylogeographic breaks and patterns of genealogical concordance in the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana. (2/1089)

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The diverse applications of cladistic analysis of molecular evolution, with special reference to nested clade analysis. (3/1089)

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Introgression in peripheral populations and colonization shape the genetic structure of the coastal shrub Armeria pungens. (4/1089)

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Seewis virus: phylogeography of a shrew-borne hantavirus in Siberia, Russia. (5/1089)

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Mitochondrial DNA variation in the malaria vector Anopheles minimus across China, Thailand and Vietnam: evolutionary hypothesis, population structure and population history. (6/1089)

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Disentangling phylogeography, polyploid evolution and taxonomy of a woodland herb (Veronica chamaedrys group, Plantaginaceae s.l.) in southeastern Europe. (7/1089)

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Frequency of multiple paternity in the spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias in the western north Atlantic. (8/1089)

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Phylogeography is not a medical term, but rather a subfield of biogeography and phylogenetics that investigates the spatial distribution of genealogical lineages and the historical processes that have shaped them. It uses genetic data to infer the geographic origins, dispersal routes, and demographic history of organisms, including pathogens and vectors that can affect human health.

In medical and public health contexts, phylogeography is often used to study the spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, influenza, or tuberculosis, by analyzing the genetic diversity and geographic distribution of pathogen isolates. This information can help researchers understand how diseases emerge, evolve, and move across populations and landscapes, which can inform disease surveillance, control, and prevention strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geography" is not a term that has a medical definition. Geography is a field of study that deals with the location and distribution of physical and cultural features on Earth's surface, as well as how humans interact with and affect those features. It is not a concept that is typically used in a medical context. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the genetic material present in the mitochondria, which are specialized structures within cells that generate energy. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is present in the cell nucleus and inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother.

MtDNA is a circular molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP. The remaining genes encode for rRNAs and tRNAs, which are necessary for protein synthesis within the mitochondria.

Mutations in mtDNA can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect any organ system in the body. These mutations can also be used in forensic science to identify individuals and establish biological relationships.

Cytochromes b are a group of electron transport proteins that contain a heme c group, which is the prosthetic group responsible for their redox activity. They play a crucial role in the electron transport chain (ETC) located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and in the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells.

The cytochromes b are part of Complex III, also known as the cytochrome bc1 complex or ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase, in the ETC. In this complex, they function as electron carriers between ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c, participating in the process of oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP.

There are multiple isoforms of cytochromes b found in various organisms, with different numbers of subunits and structures. However, they all share a common function as essential components of the electron transport chain, facilitating the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration and energy production.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Gene flow, also known as genetic migration or gene admixture, refers to the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another. It occurs when individuals reproduce and exchange genes with members of other populations through processes such as migration and interbreeding. This can result in an alteration of the genetic composition of both populations, increasing genetic diversity and reducing the differences between them. Gene flow is an important mechanism in evolutionary biology and population genetics, contributing to the distribution and frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) within and across populations.

A haplotype is a group of genes or DNA sequences that are inherited together from a single parent. It refers to a combination of alleles (variant forms of a gene) that are located on the same chromosome and are usually transmitted as a unit. Haplotypes can be useful in tracing genetic ancestry, understanding the genetic basis of diseases, and developing personalized medical treatments.

In population genetics, haplotypes are often used to study patterns of genetic variation within and between populations. By comparing haplotype frequencies across populations, researchers can infer historical events such as migrations, population expansions, and bottlenecks. Additionally, haplotypes can provide information about the evolutionary history of genes and genomic regions.

In clinical genetics, haplotypes can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or to predict an individual's response to certain medications. For example, specific haplotypes in the HLA gene region have been associated with increased susceptibility to certain autoimmune diseases, while other haplotypes in the CYP450 gene family can affect how individuals metabolize drugs.

Overall, haplotypes provide a powerful tool for understanding the genetic basis of complex traits and diseases, as well as for developing personalized medical treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup.

Population Genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with the genetic composition of populations and how this composition changes over time. It involves the study of the frequency and distribution of genes and genetic variations in populations, as well as the evolutionary forces that contribute to these patterns, such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection.

Population genetics can provide insights into a wide range of topics, including the history and relationships between populations, the genetic basis of diseases and other traits, and the potential impacts of environmental changes on genetic diversity. This field is important for understanding evolutionary processes at the population level and has applications in areas such as conservation biology, medical genetics, and forensic science.

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) refers to the genetic material present in the chloroplasts, which are organelles found in the cells of photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight energy and converting it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast DNA is circular and contains a small number of genes compared to the nuclear genome. It encodes for some of the essential components required for chloroplast function, including proteins involved in photosynthesis, transcription, and translation. The majority of chloroplast proteins are encoded by the nuclear genome and are imported into the chloroplast after being synthesized in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally in most plants, meaning that it is passed down from the maternal parent to their offspring through the egg cell. This mode of inheritance has been used in plant breeding and genetic engineering to introduce desirable traits into crops.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "South America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the southern portion of the Americas, which is a continent in the Western Hemisphere. South America is generally defined as including the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela, as well as the overseas departments and territories of French Guiana (France), and the Falkland Islands (UK).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help answer them for you.

An endangered species is a species of animal, plant, or other organism that is at risk of becoming extinct because its population is declining or threatened by changing environmental or demographic factors. This term is defined and used in the context of conservation biology and wildlife management to identify species that need protection and preservation efforts.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) maintains a "Red List" of species, categorizing them based on their extinction risk. The categories include "Critically Endangered," "Endangered," "Vulnerable," and "Near Threatened." A species is considered endangered if it meets certain criteria indicating that it faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

The primary causes for species to become endangered include habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, and introduction of invasive species. Conservation efforts often focus on protecting habitats, managing threats, and implementing recovery programs to help endangered species recover their populations and reduce the risk of extinction.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question as "caves" are not a medical term. A cave is a natural underground space that is large enough for a person to enter and can form in a variety of ways, such as the dissolution of limestone by acidic groundwater or the collapse of a volcanic tube. If you have any questions about geology or speleology (the study of caves), I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geological processes" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Geological processes refer to the natural events that shape the Earth's surface and interior over time, such as volcanic activity, plate tectonics, erosion, and sedimentation. These processes are studied within the field of geology. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Central Asia is a geographical region in Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east, and from Russia in the north to Afghanistan in the south. It includes the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.

The medical definition of Central Asia may refer to the epidemiology, healthcare systems, or health issues specific to this region. For example, Central Asia has a high prevalence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, hepatitis, and HIV/AIDS, due to various factors including poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and mobility of populations. In addition, non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes are also becoming more prevalent in Central Asia, partly due to lifestyle changes such as unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, and tobacco use.

Overall, the medical definition of Central Asia encompasses the unique health challenges and healthcare systems that exist within this geographical region.

Zygophyllaceae is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in botany. It refers to the family name of a group of flowering plants commonly known as "caltrop family" or "creosote bush family." The plants in this family are primarily found in arid and semi-arid regions worldwide.

Some members of Zygophyllaceae have been used in traditional medicine, but it is essential to note that the use of any plant for medicinal purposes should be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as not all plants are safe or effective for treating medical conditions.

Genetic speciation is not a widely used term in the scientific literature, but it generally refers to the process by which new species arise due to genetic differences and reproductive isolation. This process can occur through various mechanisms such as mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection, or chromosomal changes that lead to the accumulation of genetic differences between populations. Over time, these genetic differences can result in the development of reproductive barriers that prevent interbreeding between the populations, leading to the formation of new species.

In other words, genetic speciation is a type of speciation that involves the evolution of genetic differences that ultimately lead to the formation of new species. It is an essential concept in the field of evolutionary biology and genetics, as it explains how biodiversity arises over time.

Bayes' theorem, also known as Bayes' rule or Bayes' formula, is a fundamental principle in the field of statistics and probability theory. It describes how to update the probability of a hypothesis based on new evidence or data. The theorem is named after Reverend Thomas Bayes, who first formulated it in the 18th century.

In mathematical terms, Bayes' theorem states that the posterior probability of a hypothesis (H) given some observed evidence (E) is proportional to the product of the prior probability of the hypothesis (P(H)) and the likelihood of observing the evidence given the hypothesis (P(E|H)):

Posterior Probability = P(H|E) = [P(E|H) x P(H)] / P(E)

Where:

* P(H|E): The posterior probability of the hypothesis H after observing evidence E. This is the probability we want to calculate.
* P(E|H): The likelihood of observing evidence E given that the hypothesis H is true.
* P(H): The prior probability of the hypothesis H before observing any evidence.
* P(E): The marginal likelihood or probability of observing evidence E, regardless of whether the hypothesis H is true or not. This value can be calculated as the sum of the products of the likelihood and prior probability for all possible hypotheses: P(E) = Σ[P(E|Hi) x P(Hi)]

Bayes' theorem has many applications in various fields, including medicine, where it can be used to update the probability of a disease diagnosis based on test results or other clinical findings. It is also widely used in machine learning and artificial intelligence algorithms for probabilistic reasoning and decision making under uncertainty.

Animal migration is a seasonal movement of animals from one place to another, typically over long distances, to find food, reproduce, or escape harsh conditions. This phenomenon is observed in various species, including birds, mammals, fish, and insects. The routes and destinations of these migrations are often genetically programmed and can be quite complex. Animal migration has important ecological consequences and is influenced by factors such as climate change, habitat loss, and human activities.

I'm not a medical professional, but I can tell you that the term "animal distribution" is not typically used in medical definitions. It is more commonly used in ecology and wildlife biology to refer to the pattern or manner in which animals are spatially arranged or distributed in their environment. If you have any concerns related to health or medicine, it would be best to consult a healthcare professional for accurate information.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "North America" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the third largest continent in the world, which includes countries such as the United States, Canada, and Mexico, among others. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health topics, I'd be happy to help with those!

Central America is a geographical region that connects North America and South America. It is made up of seven countries: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The eastern coast of Central America is bordered by the Caribbean Sea, while the western coast is bordered by the Pacific Ocean.

The region is characterized by its diverse geography, which includes lowland rainforests, volcanic mountain ranges, and coastal plains. It is also home to a wide range of plant and animal species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.

Culturally, Central America is a melting pot of indigenous, African, and European influences. The region has a rich history of Mayan civilization, as well as Spanish colonialism. Today, the countries of Central America have diverse economies, with agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism being major industries.

Microsatellite repeats, also known as short tandem repeats (STRs), are repetitive DNA sequences made up of units of 1-6 base pairs that are repeated in a head-to-tail manner. These repeats are spread throughout the human genome and are highly polymorphic, meaning they can have different numbers of repeat units in different individuals.

Microsatellites are useful as genetic markers because of their high degree of variability. They are commonly used in forensic science to identify individuals, in genealogy to trace ancestry, and in medical research to study genetic diseases and disorders. Mutations in microsatellite repeats have been associated with various neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease and fragile X syndrome.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. The term "otters" refers to a group of aquatic mammals, and it does not have a medical definition. If you are referring to a medical term that may sound similar, please provide more context or check the spelling.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mediterranean Islands" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. The Mediterranean Sea is surrounded by many countries and islands, including Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and numerous Greek islands, among others. If you're looking for medical information related to these areas, I would need more specificity. However, if you're interested in general health statistics or demographic data related to these islands, I could try to provide some relevant information.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mediterranean Region" is not a term with a specific medical definition. The Mediterranean Region typically refers to the geographical area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including countries in Southern Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. However, in a medical context, it might refer to the study of diseases or health characteristics typical of certain populations in this region. For example, the "Mediterranean diet" is a popular term in nutrition and medicine, referring to the traditional eating habits in Mediterranean countries, which are associated with numerous health benefits. If you're looking for medical information related to a specific aspect of the Mediterranean Region or its population, please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate response.

Biological evolution is the change in the genetic composition of populations of organisms over time, from one generation to the next. It is a process that results in descendants differing genetically from their ancestors. Biological evolution can be driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. These processes can lead to changes in the frequency of alleles (variants of a gene) within populations, resulting in the development of new species and the extinction of others over long periods of time. Biological evolution provides a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on Earth and is supported by extensive evidence from many different fields of science, including genetics, paleontology, comparative anatomy, and biogeography.

Population dynamics, in the context of public health and epidemiology, refers to the study of the changes in size and structure of a population over time, as well as the factors that contribute to those changes. This can include birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, aging, and other demographic characteristics. Understanding population dynamics is crucial for planning and implementing public health interventions, such as vaccination programs or disease prevention strategies, as they allow researchers and policymakers to identify vulnerable populations, predict future health trends, and evaluate the impact of public health initiatives.

I apologize for any confusion, but "lizards" is not a term used in medical definition. Lizards are a group of scaled reptiles constituting the order Squamata, characterized by having skin covered with overlapping scales, external ears, and movable eyelids. They are found worldwide in a variety of habitats, ranging from desert to tropical environments. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I'd be happy to help!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tibet" is not a medical term. It is a region in Asia that is currently under the political control of China, although it has a distinct cultural and historical heritage. Tibet is geographically located in the Tibetan Plateau, which is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of over 14,000 feet (4,267 meters) above sea level.

If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer them for you!

'Murinae' is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic classification used in biology, specifically for a subfamily of rodents that includes mice, rats, and several related species. The term 'Murinae' comes from the family Muridae, which is the largest family of mammals, containing over 700 species.

The misconception might arise because medical professionals sometimes use common names for various animals or organisms in their diagnoses, treatments, or research. However, it is essential to clarify that 'Murinae' is a scientific classification and not a medical term.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Guadeloupe" is not a medical term. It is actually an overseas region and department of France, located in the Caribbean Sea. Guadeloupe is an archipelago consisting of several islands, with a total land area of approximately 1,700 square kilometers (656 square miles) and a population of around 400,000 people.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer them for you.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Saint Lucia" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in the Caribbean region of North America. Saint Lucia is an independent sovereign state and a member of the Commonwealth. The official language is English. The capital city is Castries.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help. Please provide me with the term you would like defined.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest single body of saltwater on Earth, extending from the Arctic in the north to the Antarctic in the south. It covers an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers).

If you're looking for a medical term or definition, I'd be happy to help with that as well. Could you please provide more context?

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Indian Ocean Islands" is a geographical term referring to the islands located in the Indian Ocean, and not a medical term. However, I can provide some general information about these islands.

The Indian Ocean Islands include a diverse group of island nations and territories, such as Madagascar, Maldives, Seychelles, Mauritius, Comoros, Réunion (a French territory), and the British Indian Ocean Territory (including the Chagos Archipelago). These islands have unique ecosystems and diverse cultures, with flora and fauna that are often endemic to each island. Some of these islands face challenges in terms of healthcare access, resources, and infrastructure due to their remote locations and smaller populations.

Mitochondrial genes are a type of gene that is located in the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) found in the mitochondria, which are small organelles present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). Mitochondria are responsible for generating energy for the cell through a process called oxidative phosphorylation.

The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule that contains 37 genes, including 13 genes that encode for proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation, 22 genes that encode for transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and 2 genes that encode for ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). Mutations in mitochondrial genes can lead to a variety of inherited mitochondrial disorders, which can affect any organ system in the body and can present at any age.

Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited, meaning that it is passed down from the mother to her offspring through the egg cell. This is because during fertilization, only the sperm's nucleus enters the egg, while the mitochondria remain outside. As a result, all of an individual's mitochondrial DNA comes from their mother.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Europe" is a geographical and political designation, rather than a medical one. It refers to the continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Europe is made up of approximately 50 countries, depending on how one defines a "country."

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help answer them!

"Arbacia" is a genus of sea urchins belonging to the family Arbaciidae. Sea urchins are marine animals with a hard, spiny shell and a soft body inside. The term "Arbacia" refers to a specific group of sea urchins that share certain characteristics, such as the shape and structure of their spines and teeth.

Here is a medical definition of "Arbacia":

"A genus of marine echinoids of the family Arbaciidae, characterized by a large test (shell) with a flat or concave base, long slender spines, and strong jaws. Some species are found in shallow waters, while others inhabit deeper ocean environments."

It's worth noting that "Arbacia" is not commonly used in medical contexts, but rather in biological and ecological ones. However, understanding the basic biology and classification of marine organisms can be useful for healthcare professionals who work with patients who are exposed to or affected by marine environments.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Perciformes" is not a medical term. It is a term used in the field of biology, specifically in taxonomy and ichthyology (the study of fish). Perciformes is an order of ray-finned bony fishes that includes over 10,000 species, making it the largest order of vertebrates. Examples of fish within this order include perch, sea bass, sunfish, and tuna.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tigers" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to the largest cat species in the world, found primarily in Asia. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try and help with those!

Human Y chromosomes are one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the X chromosome). They are found in the 23rd pair of human chromosomes and are significantly smaller than the X chromosome.

The Y chromosome is passed down from father to son through the paternal line, and it plays a crucial role in male sex determination. The SRY gene (sex-determining region Y) on the Y chromosome initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

In addition to the SRY gene, the human Y chromosome contains several other genes that are essential for sperm production and male fertility. However, the Y chromosome has a much lower gene density compared to other chromosomes, with only about 80 protein-coding genes, making it one of the most gene-poor chromosomes in the human genome.

Because of its small size and low gene density, the Y chromosome is particularly susceptible to genetic mutations and deletions, which can lead to various genetic disorders and male infertility. Nonetheless, the Y chromosome remains a critical component of human genetics and evolution, providing valuable insights into sex determination, inheritance patterns, and human diversity.

Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis is a molecular biology technique used for DNA fingerprinting, genetic mapping, and population genetics studies. It is based on the selective amplification of restriction fragments from a total digest of genomic DNA, followed by separation and detection of the resulting fragments using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.

In AFLP analysis, genomic DNA is first digested with two different restriction enzymes, one that cuts frequently (e.g., EcoRI) and another that cuts less frequently (e.g., MseI). The resulting fragments are then ligated to adapter sequences that provide recognition sites for PCR amplification.

Selective amplification of the restriction fragments is achieved by using primers that anneal to the adapter sequences and contain additional selective nucleotides at their 3' ends. This allows for the amplification of a subset of the total number of restriction fragments, resulting in a pattern of bands that is specific to the DNA sample being analyzed.

The amplified fragments are then separated by size using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by staining with a fluorescent dye. The resulting banding pattern can be used for various applications, including identification of genetic differences between individuals, detection of genomic alterations in cancer cells, and analysis of population structure and diversity.

Overall, AFLP analysis is a powerful tool for the study of complex genomes and has been widely used in various fields of biology, including plant and animal breeding, forensic science, and medical research.

"Western Asia" is a geographical region that is defined by the United Nations as one of the five sub-regions within the larger continent of Asia. It is also known as "Southwestern Asia" or the "Middle East." The UN definition includes the following countries:

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Cyprus
* Georgia
* Iraq
* Israel
* Jordan
* Kuwait
* Lebanon
* Oman
* State of Palestine
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Syria
* Turkey
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen
* Islamic Republic of Iran (but sometimes considered part of Central Asia)

It is important to note that there are different definitions and interpretations of what constitutes "Western Asia" or the "Middle East," and some sources may include or exclude certain countries. Additionally, it's worth noting that cultural, historical, and political factors also play a role in defining this region, and the boundaries between Western Asia and other regions such as Central Asia, South Asia, and North Africa can be fluid and contested.

The Caribbean Region, also known as the Caribbean Basin or simply the Caribbean, is a geographical area that includes the Caribbean Sea and its surrounding islands and coasts. It is located in the tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean, southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and North America, east of Central America, and south of the Greater Antilles.

The region consists of more than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs, and cays, which are divided into three main groups: the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles, and the Lucayan Archipelago (which includes the Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands). The Caribbean Region also includes the coasts of several countries in North, Central, and South America that border the Caribbean Sea.

The Caribbean Region is known for its diverse cultures, rich history, and unique biodiversity. It is home to a wide range of ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, rainforests, and dry forests, which support a variety of plant and animal species, many of which are found nowhere else in the world.

The Caribbean Region is also an important economic and political area, with several countries and territories that have strong ties to each other and to the United States, Canada, and Europe. Tourism, fishing, agriculture, and shipping are major industries in the region, and many of its islands serve as popular destinations for travelers from around the world.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Northwestern United States" is not a term that has a medical definition. It generally refers to a geographical region in the US, consisting of states like Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and sometimes Montana and Wyoming. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Demography is the statistical study of populations, particularly in terms of size, distribution, and characteristics such as age, race, gender, and occupation. In medical contexts, demography is often used to analyze health-related data and trends within specific populations. This can include studying the prevalence of certain diseases or conditions, identifying disparities in healthcare access and outcomes, and evaluating the effectiveness of public health interventions. Demographic data can also be used to inform policy decisions and allocate resources to address population health needs.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Asia" is not a medical term. It is the largest continent in the world, comprising about 30% of the Earth's total land area and containing around 60% of the world's current human population. It is divided into several regions, including Northern Asia (Siberia), Eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan), Southern Asia (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives), Southeastern Asia (Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Brunei), and Western Asia (Middle East).

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Triturus" is not a medical term. It is actually the genus name for newts that are native to Europe. These newts belong to the family Salamandridae and are known for their ability to regenerate various body parts. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or healthcare, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Siberia" is not a medical term. It's a geographical region in Russia, known for its harsh, cold climate and vast wilderness. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I'd be happy to help answer those!

"Ranidae" is not a medical term. It is a biological term that refers to a family of frogs and toads, commonly known as "true frogs." These amphibians are characterized by their long legs, webbed feet, and the ability to live both in water and on land. Some examples of ranids include the American bullfrog and the green frog.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Panicum" is not a medical term. It is the name of a genus of plants, including many types of grasses, commonly known as panicgrass or switchgrass. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "shrews" is not a medical term. It is a common name used in zoology to refer to small mammals that are part of the family Soricidae and the suborder Soricomorpha. Shrews are insectivores, distantly related to moles and hedgehogs. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help!

I am not aware of a standard medical definition for the term "islands." In general, an island is a landmass that is surrounded by water. In a medical context, it might be used to describe isolated areas or structures within the body, such as islands of Langerhans in the pancreas which are clusters of cells that produce hormones like insulin. However, I would need more specific context to provide an accurate definition related to medicine.

I'm not a medical professional, but the term "History, Ancient" is not a medical term per se. However, in a broader context, it could refer to the study of ancient medical practices, theories, and beliefs that existed in civilizations prior to the Middle Ages or Classical Antiquity. This might include the examination of ancient texts, artifacts, and archaeological evidence to understand how illnesses were treated and viewed in these historical periods. It forms an essential part of the evolution of medical knowledge and practices over time.

"Nested genes" is not a widely recognized or formally defined term in genetics or molecular biology. It may refer to a situation where one gene is completely contained within the intron (non-coding region) of another gene. This phenomenon is also known as "gene-within-a-gene" or "overlapping genes."

In some cases, nested genes can be transcribed together as a single transcript, which then undergoes alternative splicing to produce different mature mRNAs (messenger RNA) for each gene. This allows for the efficient use of genetic material and increases the genetic complexity of an organism without requiring additional DNA sequences.

However, it is important to note that the study of nested genes is still a developing area of research, and the mechanisms and functional significance of this phenomenon are not yet fully understood.

"Likelihood functions" is a statistical concept that is used in medical research and other fields to estimate the probability of obtaining a given set of data, given a set of assumptions or parameters. In other words, it is a function that describes how likely it is to observe a particular outcome or result, based on a set of model parameters.

More formally, if we have a statistical model that depends on a set of parameters θ, and we observe some data x, then the likelihood function is defined as:

L(θ | x) = P(x | θ)

This means that the likelihood function describes the probability of observing the data x, given a particular value of the parameter vector θ. By convention, the likelihood function is often expressed as a function of the parameters, rather than the data, so we might instead write:

L(θ) = P(x | θ)

The likelihood function can be used to estimate the values of the model parameters that are most consistent with the observed data. This is typically done by finding the value of θ that maximizes the likelihood function, which is known as the maximum likelihood estimator (MLE). The MLE has many desirable statistical properties, including consistency, efficiency, and asymptotic normality.

In medical research, likelihood functions are often used in the context of Bayesian analysis, where they are combined with prior distributions over the model parameters to obtain posterior distributions that reflect both the observed data and prior knowledge or assumptions about the parameter values. This approach is particularly useful when there is uncertainty or ambiguity about the true value of the parameters, as it allows researchers to incorporate this uncertainty into their analyses in a principled way.

Northern Africa is a geographical region that broadly consists of the countries of the African Transverse, which are Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Western Sahara. Sometimes, it may also include Sudan, South Sudan, and Mauritania. This region is characterized by its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlas Mountains, as well as its unique cultural and historical heritage. Northern Africa has a diverse climate, with a hot, dry desert climate in the interior and a milder, wetter climate along the coasts. The major languages spoken in this region include Arabic, Berber, and French.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

An "ecosystem" is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a concept that is more commonly used in the fields of ecology and environmental science. However, I can provide you with the general ecological definition of an ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment, including both biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic factors (climate, soil, water, and air). These interactions create a complex network of relationships that form the foundation of ecological processes, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

While there is no direct medical definition for an ecosystem, understanding the principles of ecosystems can have important implications for human health. For example, healthy ecosystems can provide clean air and water, regulate climate, support food production, and offer opportunities for recreation and relaxation, all of which contribute to overall well-being. Conversely, degraded ecosystems can lead to increased exposure to environmental hazards, reduced access to natural resources, and heightened risks of infectious diseases. Therefore, maintaining the health and integrity of ecosystems is crucial for promoting human health and preventing disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Atlantic Ocean" is a geographical term referring to one of the five oceans on Earth. It doesn't have a medical definition. The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean, covering approximately 20% of the Earth's surface. It stretches from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, alternatively, to the Antarctica region) in the south, and is bounded by the Americas to the west and Europe and Africa to the east.

The conservation of natural resources refers to the responsible use and management of natural resources, such as water, soil, minerals, forests, and wildlife, in a way that preserves their availability for future generations. This may involve measures such as reducing waste and pollution, promoting sustainable practices, protecting habitats and ecosystems, and engaging in careful planning and decision-making to ensure the long-term sustainability of these resources. The goal of conservation is to balance the needs of the present with the needs of the future, so that current and future generations can continue to benefit from the many goods and services that natural resources provide.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fresh Water" is not a medical term. It is a term used to describe water that contains low concentrations of dissolved salts and other dissolved minerals. It is distinguished from saline water, which includes saltwater found in the ocean and brackish water found in estuaries. Fresh water is essential for many biological processes and is the primary source of water for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial use.

Rotifera is a phylum of microscopic, mostly freshwater animals. They are characterized by having a ciliated corona or crown surrounding the mouth, which they use for capturing food particles. Rotifers have a diverse range of body forms, but most have a rotund or sac-like body. Some species have a protective shell called a lorica. The size of rotifers ranges from 50 to 2,000 micrometers in length. They are important members of the zooplankton community and play a significant role in the decomposition and nutrient cycling in aquatic ecosystems.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "snails" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to a large group of land and sea-dwelling mollusks that have coiled shells and move slowly by means of a muscular foot. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help! Just let me know what you're looking for.

Isopoda is an order of crustaceans characterized by having a body that is usually laterally compressed, a pair of antennae, and seven pairs of legs (periopods) along the thorax. They are commonly known as "isopods" and include various familiar forms such as woodlice, pill bugs, and sea slaters. Isopods vary in size from less than a millimeter to over 50 centimeters in length. Some isopod species are terrestrial, while others are freshwater or marine dwellers. Medical relevance of isopods is limited, but some species can be vectors for diseases or parasites affecting fish and other aquatic animals.

I am not aware of a medical definition for the term "Ice Cover." The term "ice" is used in a medical context to refer to a solid piece of frozen urine that can form in the urinary tract, but "cover" does not have a specific medical meaning in this context. If you are looking for information about frostbite or cold-related injuries, I would be happy to help with that. Frostbite is a medical condition caused by exposure to extreme cold, often resulting in damage or destruction of the skin and underlying tissues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Passeriformes" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in biology, specifically an order of birds that includes over half of all bird species. Passeriformes are often referred to as perching birds or songbirds because many of them have specialized feet for perching on branches and a wide variety of vocalization capabilities. Examples of Passeriformes include sparrows, finches, robins, and crows.

Electron Transport Complex IV is also known as Cytochrome c oxidase. It is the last complex in the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells. This complex contains 13 subunits, two heme groups (a and a3), and three copper centers (A, B, and C).

In the electron transport chain, Complex IV receives electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to molecular oxygen, reducing it to water. This process is accompanied by the pumping of protons across the membrane, contributing to the generation of a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase (Complex V). The overall reaction catalyzed by Complex IV can be summarized as follows:

4e- + 4H+ + O2 → 2H2O

Defects in Cytochrome c oxidase can lead to various diseases, including mitochondrial encephalomyopathies and neurodegenerative disorders.

Gastropoda is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in biology. It refers to a large and diverse class of mollusks, commonly known as snails and slugs. These animals are characterized by a single, spiral-shaped shell that they carry on their backs (in the case of snails) or an internal shell (in the case of some slugs).

While Gastropoda is not a medical term per se, it's worth noting that certain species of gastropods can have medical relevance. For instance, some types of marine snails produce toxins that can be harmful or even fatal to humans if ingested. Additionally, some species of slugs and snails can serve as intermediate hosts for parasites that can infect humans, such as rat lungworms (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), which can cause a form of meningitis known as eosinophilic meningoencephalitis.

Urodela is not a medical term, but a taxonomic category in the field of biology. It refers to a group of amphibians commonly known as newts and salamanders. These creatures are characterized by their slender bodies, moist skin, and four legs. They undergo a process of metamorphosis during their development, transitioning from an aquatic larval stage to a terrestrial adult stage.

While not a medical term itself, understanding the biology and ecology of Urodela can be relevant in fields such as environmental health and toxicology, where these animals may serve as indicators of ecosystem health or potential subjects for studying the effects of pollutants on living organisms.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Middle East" is not a medical term. It is a geographical region that includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and others. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Mustelidae is not a medical term, but a biological term referring to a family of mammals that includes weasels, badgers, otters, ferrets, and wolverines. These animals are characterized by their elongated bodies, short legs, and specialized scent glands used for marking territory and communication. While the study of these animals is not typically within the scope of medical science, understanding the biology and behavior of various species can have implications for public health, conservation efforts, and ecological research.

Genetic models are theoretical frameworks used in genetics to describe and explain the inheritance patterns and genetic architecture of traits, diseases, or phenomena. These models are based on mathematical equations and statistical methods that incorporate information about gene frequencies, modes of inheritance, and the effects of environmental factors. They can be used to predict the probability of certain genetic outcomes, to understand the genetic basis of complex traits, and to inform medical management and treatment decisions.

There are several types of genetic models, including:

1. Mendelian models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of simple genetic traits that follow Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Examples include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.
2. Complex trait models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of complex traits that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
3. Population genetics models: These models describe the distribution and frequency of genetic variants within populations over time. They can be used to study evolutionary processes, such as natural selection and genetic drift.
4. Quantitative genetics models: These models describe the relationship between genetic variation and phenotypic variation in continuous traits, such as height or IQ. They can be used to estimate heritability and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to trait variation.
5. Statistical genetics models: These models use statistical methods to analyze genetic data and infer the presence of genetic associations or linkage. They can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or traits.

Overall, genetic models are essential tools in genetics research and medical genetics, as they allow researchers to make predictions about genetic outcomes, test hypotheses about the genetic basis of traits and diseases, and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

The Arctic region is not a medical term per se, but it is a geographical and environmental term that can have health-related implications. The Arctic is defined as the region surrounding the North Pole, encompassing the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Greenland (Denmark), Russia, the United States (Alaska), Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. It is characterized by its cold climate, permafrost, and unique ecosystems.

Exposure to the harsh Arctic environment can pose significant health risks, such as hypothermia, frostbite, and other cold-related injuries. Additionally, the Arctic region has been impacted by climate change, leading to changes in the distribution of wildlife, which can have implications for food security and infectious disease transmission.

Therefore, while not a medical term itself, understanding the Arctic regions and their unique environmental and health challenges is important in fields such as wilderness medicine, environmental health, and public health.

Cluster analysis is a statistical method used to group similar objects or data points together based on their characteristics or features. In medical and healthcare research, cluster analysis can be used to identify patterns or relationships within complex datasets, such as patient records or genetic information. This technique can help researchers to classify patients into distinct subgroups based on their symptoms, diagnoses, or other variables, which can inform more personalized treatment plans or public health interventions.

Cluster analysis involves several steps, including:

1. Data preparation: The researcher must first collect and clean the data, ensuring that it is complete and free from errors. This may involve removing outlier values or missing data points.
2. Distance measurement: Next, the researcher must determine how to measure the distance between each pair of data points. Common methods include Euclidean distance (the straight-line distance between two points) or Manhattan distance (the distance between two points along a grid).
3. Clustering algorithm: The researcher then applies a clustering algorithm, which groups similar data points together based on their distances from one another. Common algorithms include hierarchical clustering (which creates a tree-like structure of clusters) or k-means clustering (which assigns each data point to the nearest centroid).
4. Validation: Finally, the researcher must validate the results of the cluster analysis by evaluating the stability and robustness of the clusters. This may involve re-running the analysis with different distance measures or clustering algorithms, or comparing the results to external criteria.

Cluster analysis is a powerful tool for identifying patterns and relationships within complex datasets, but it requires careful consideration of the data preparation, distance measurement, and validation steps to ensure accurate and meaningful results.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

Ursidae is not a medical term, but rather a taxonomic category in biology. It refers to the family of mammals that includes bears. The order of these animals is Carnivora, and Ursidae is one of the eight families within this order.

The members of Ursidae are characterized by their large size, stocky bodies, strong limbs, and a plantigrade posture (walking on the entire sole of the foot). They have a keen sense of smell and most species have a diet that varies widely based on what's available in their environment.

While not directly related to medical terminology, understanding various biological classifications can be helpful in medical fields such as epidemiology or zoonotic diseases, where knowing about different animal families can provide insight into potential disease carriers or transmission patterns.

Climate, in the context of environmental science and medicine, refers to the long-term average of weather conditions (such as temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, and other meteorological elements) in a given region over a period of years to decades. It is the statistical description of the weather patterns that occur in a particular location over long periods of time.

In medical terms, climate can have significant impacts on human health, both physical and mental. For example, extreme temperatures, air pollution, and ultraviolet radiation levels associated with certain climates can increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, heat-related illnesses, and skin cancer. Similarly, changes in climate patterns can affect the distribution and prevalence of infectious diseases, such as malaria and Lyme disease.

Climate change, which refers to significant long-term changes in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years, can have even more profound impacts on human health, including increased rates of heat-related illnesses and deaths, worsening air quality, and altered transmission patterns of infectious diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Indian Ocean" is not a medical concept or condition. It is a geographical term referring to the third largest of the world's five oceans, situated between southeastern Africa, the Southern Asian landmass, and Australia. It is bounded on the north by the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, on the west by eastern Africa, on the east by the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, and Australia, and on the south by the Southern Ocean or Antarctica.

If you have any medical questions or terms you would like defined, I'd be happy to help!

I apologize for any confusion, but "Chile" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in South America, known for its long and narrow geography, diverse landscapes, and rich cultural heritage. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Biodiversity is the variety of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in an ecosystem. It also includes the variety of genes within a species and the variety of ecosystems (such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and oceans) that exist in a region or on Earth as a whole. Biodiversity is important for maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems, providing resources and services such as food, clean water, and pollination, and contributing to the discovery of new medicines and other useful products. The loss of biodiversity can have negative impacts on the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide, and can threaten the survival of species and the livelihoods of people who depend on them.

I am not aware of a specific medical definition for the term "China." Generally, it is used to refer to:

1. The People's Republic of China (PRC), which is a country in East Asia. It is the most populous country in the world and the fourth largest by geographical area. Its capital city is Beijing.
2. In a historical context, "China" was used to refer to various dynasties and empires that existed in East Asia over thousands of years. The term "Middle Kingdom" or "Zhongguo" (中国) has been used by the Chinese people to refer to their country for centuries.
3. In a more general sense, "China" can also be used to describe products or goods that originate from or are associated with the People's Republic of China.

If you have a specific context in which you encountered the term "China" related to medicine, please provide it so I can give a more accurate response.

Emigration is the process of leaving one's country of origin or habitual residence to settle in another country. It involves giving up the rights and privileges associated with citizenship in the country of origin and acquiring new rights and responsibilities as a citizen or resident of the destination country. Emigrants are people who choose to leave their native land to live elsewhere, often driven by factors such as economic opportunities, political instability, or conflict.

Immigration, on the other hand, is the process of entering and settling in a new country with the intention of becoming a permanent resident or citizen. Immigrants are individuals who come from another country to live in a new place, often seeking better job opportunities, education, or quality of life. They must comply with the immigration laws and regulations of the host country and may be required to undergo medical examinations, background checks, and other screening processes before being granted permission to enter and reside in the country.

In summary, emigration refers to leaving one's home country, while immigration refers to entering and settling in a new country.

Climate change, as defined medically, refers to the long-term alterations in the statistical distribution of weather patterns caused by changes in the Earth's climate system. These changes can have significant impacts on human health and wellbeing.

Medical professionals are increasingly recognizing the importance of addressing climate change as a public health issue. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified climate change as one of the greatest threats to global health in the 21st century, with potential impacts including increased heat-related mortality, more frequent and severe natural disasters, changes in the distribution of infectious diseases, and decreased food security.

Climate change can also exacerbate existing health disparities, as vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, low-income communities, and those with chronic medical conditions are often disproportionately affected by its impacts. As a result, addressing climate change is an important public health priority, and medical professionals have a critical role to play in advocating for policies and practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote adaptation to the changing climate.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Cyprinidae is a family of fish that includes carps, minnows, and barbs. It is the largest family of freshwater fish, with over 2,400 species found worldwide, particularly in Asia and Europe. These fish are characterized by their lack of teeth on the roof of their mouths and have a single dorsal fin. Some members of this family are economically important as food fish or for aquarium trade.

Ixodidae is a family of arachnids commonly known as hard ticks. Here's a more detailed medical definition:

Ixodidae is a family of tick species, also known as hard ticks, which are obligate ectoparasites of many different terrestrial vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. They have a hard, shield-like structure on their dorsal surface called the scutum, and a prominent mouthpart called the hypostome, which helps them anchor themselves onto their host's skin during feeding.

Hard ticks are vectors of various bacterial, viral, and protozoan diseases that can affect both humans and animals. Some of the diseases transmitted by Ixodidae include Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, babesiosis, and tularemia.

Ixodidae species have a complex life cycle that involves three developmental stages: larva, nymph, and adult. Each stage requires a blood meal from a host to progress to the next stage or to reproduce. The length of the life cycle varies depending on the species and environmental conditions but can take up to several years to complete.

Proper identification and control of Ixodidae populations are essential for preventing tick-borne diseases and protecting public health.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rivers" is not a medical term or concept. It is a geographical term referring to large, flowing bodies of water that usually empty into a sea or an ocean. If you have any medical questions or terms you would like defined, I'd be happy to help!

Cichlids are a family (Cichlidae) of freshwater and brackish fish that include several well-known aquarium species. They are found primarily in tropical regions of Africa, Central America, and South America. Cichlids exhibit a wide range of body shapes, sizes, colors, and behaviors, making them popular among aquarists. Some cichlid species are also important sources of food in their native habitats. It is worth noting that cichlids are not typically classified as having medical relevance, but rather they are studied for their ecological, evolutionary, and ornamental significance.

"Beetles" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to insects belonging to the order Coleoptera, which is one of the largest orders in the class Insecta. Beetles are characterized by their hardened forewings, known as elytra, which protect their hind wings and body when not in use for flying.

There are many different species of beetles found all over the world, and some can have an impact on human health. For example, certain types of beetles, such as bed bugs and carpet beetles, can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some people. Other beetles, like the Colorado potato beetle, can damage crops and lead to economic losses for farmers. However, it is important to note that most beetles are not harmful to humans and play an essential role in ecosystems as decomposers and pollinators.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Australia" is not a medical term or concept. It is the world's largest island and smallest continent, located in the Southern Hemisphere, surrounded by the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is composed of many diverse ecosystems, including deserts, rainforests, and coastal areas, and is home to a wide variety of unique plant and animal species.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer them for you!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "tropical climate" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term that refers to the climate of tropical regions, which are located around the equator. These regions are characterized by high temperatures and consistent rainfall throughout the year.

However, it's worth noting that certain environmental factors, such as climate, can have an impact on human health. For instance, tropical climates can contribute to the spread of certain diseases, like malaria and dengue fever, due to the presence of mosquitoes that thrive in warm, wet environments. But a "tropical climate" itself is not a medical condition or diagnosis.

Chiroptera is the scientific order that includes all bat species. Bats are the only mammals capable of sustained flight, and they are distributed worldwide with the exception of extremely cold environments. They vary greatly in size, from the bumblebee bat, which weighs less than a penny, to the giant golden-crowned flying fox, which has a wingspan of up to 6 feet.

Bats play a crucial role in many ecosystems as pollinators and seed dispersers for plants, and they also help control insect populations. Some bat species are nocturnal and use echolocation to navigate and find food, while others are diurnal and rely on their vision. Their diet mainly consists of insects, fruits, nectar, and pollen, although a few species feed on blood or small vertebrates.

Unfortunately, many bat populations face significant threats due to habitat loss, disease, and wind turbine collisions, leading to declining numbers and increased conservation efforts.

Ecology is not a medical term, but rather a term used in the field of biology. It refers to the study of the relationships between living organisms and their environment. This includes how organisms interact with each other and with their physical surroundings, such as climate, soil, and water. Ecologists may study the distribution and abundance of species, the flow of energy through an ecosystem, and the effects of human activities on the environment. While ecology is not a medical field, understanding ecological principles can be important for addressing public health issues related to the environment, such as pollution, climate change, and infectious diseases.

Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that causes changes in the frequency of alleles (versions of a gene) in a population due to random sampling. It occurs when the sample size is small, and therefore the genetic variation may not reflect the population's genetic diversity as a whole. This can lead to the loss of certain alleles and an increase in others, even if those alleles are not necessarily advantageous or disadvantageous. Genetic drift can be a significant factor in shaping the genetic composition of small, isolated populations and can result in the fixation (complete loss or gain) of particular alleles over time.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "trees" is not a medical term. It is a common term used in various fields, including biology, ecology, and dendrology, to refer to a woody perennial plant with a single stem or trunk that supports branches and leaves in most species.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, please provide more context so I can offer an accurate and helpful response.

I believe there may be a misunderstanding in your question. The term "fishes" is not typically used in a medical context. "Fish" or "fishes" refers to any aquatic organism belonging to the taxonomic class Actinopterygii (bony fish), Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays), or Agnatha (jawless fish).

However, if you are referring to a condition related to fish or consuming fish, there is a medical issue called scombroid fish poisoning. It's a foodborne illness caused by eating spoiled or improperly stored fish from the Scombridae family, which includes tuna, mackerel, and bonito, among others. The bacteria present in these fish can produce histamine, which can cause symptoms like skin flushing, headache, diarrhea, and itchy rash. But again, this is not related to the term "fishes" itself but rather a condition associated with consuming certain types of fish.

A genetic locus (plural: loci) is a specific location on a chromosome where a particular gene or DNA sequence is found. It is the precise position where a specific genetic element, such as a gene or marker, is located on a chromsomere. This location is defined in terms of its relationship to other genetic markers and features on the same chromosome. Genetic loci can be used in linkage and association studies to identify the inheritance patterns and potential relationships between genes and various traits or diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "population density" is actually a term used in population geography and epidemiology, rather than medical terminology. It refers to the number of people living in a specific area or region, usually measured as the number of people per square mile or square kilometer.

However, understanding population density can be important in public health and medicine because it can influence various factors related to health outcomes and healthcare delivery, such as:

1. Disease transmission rates: Higher population densities can facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, particularly those that are transmitted through close contact between individuals.
2. Access to healthcare services: Areas with lower population density might have fewer healthcare resources and providers available, making it more challenging for residents to access necessary medical care.
3. Health disparities: Population density can contribute to health inequities, as urban areas often have better access to healthcare, education, and economic opportunities than rural areas, leading to differences in health outcomes between these populations.
4. Environmental factors: Higher population densities might lead to increased pollution, noise, and other environmental hazards that can negatively impact health.

Therefore, while "population density" is not a medical definition per se, it remains an essential concept for understanding various public health and healthcare issues.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

Genetic markers are specific segments of DNA that are used in genetic mapping and genotyping to identify specific genetic locations, diseases, or traits. They can be composed of short tandem repeats (STRs), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), or variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). These markers are useful in various fields such as genetic research, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and breeding programs. They can help to track inheritance patterns, identify genetic predispositions to diseases, and solve crimes by linking biological evidence to suspects or victims.

The term phylogeography was first used by John Avise in his 1987 work Intraspecific Phylogeography: The Mitochondrial DNA ... Phylogeography has also proven to be useful in understanding the origin and dispersal patterns of our own species, Homo sapiens ... Phylogeography integrates biogeography and genetics to study in greater detail the lineal history of a species in context of ... Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the past to present geographic ...
Knowles, LL; Maddison, WP (December 2002). "Statistical phylogeography". Molecular Ecology. 11 (12): 2623-2635. doi:10.1046/j. ...
Luo, S.-J.; Johnson, W. E.; Smith, J. L. D.; O'Brien, S. J. (2010). "What is a tiger? Genetics and phylogeography" (PDF). In ...
Phylogeography: Dejong, R. J.; Morgan, J. A.; Wilson, W. D.; Al-Jaser, M. H.; Appleton, C. C.; Coulibaly, G.; d'Andrea, P. S.; ... "Phylogeography of Biomphalaria glabrata and B. Pfeifferi, important intermediate hosts of Schistosoma mansoni in the New and ...
... and clarify their phylogeography". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 148: 106823. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106823. PMID ...
... and clarify their phylogeography". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 148: 106823. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2020.106823. PMID ...
Phylogeography Biogeography Parks, DH; Porter M; Churcher S; Wang S; Blouin C; Whalley J; Brooks S; Beiko RG (2009). "GenGIS: A ... Since its release, GenGIS has been used to investigate the phylogeography of viruses and bacteriophages, bacteria, and ...
Nielsen R, Beaumont MA (March 2009). "Statistical inferences in phylogeography". Molecular Ecology. 18 (6): 1034-1047. doi: ...
169-170 Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Gómez-Prieto, P.; Ruiz-de-Valle, V. (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
S2CID 46892185 Audio recordings from Xeno-canto v t e "PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF FINCHES AND SPARROWS". (CS1 German-language sources ( ... Phylogeography of finches and sparrows. Animal Genetics", New York, NY: USA: Nova Pub. Förschler, M.I.; Kalko, E.K.V. (2007). " ...
2001). "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches" (PDF). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 ... Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches" (PDF). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 (8): ...
Lemey P, Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Suchard MA (September 2009). "Bayesian phylogeography finds its roots". PLOS Computational ... phylogeography) and the higher-order structure of genomes. Any attempt at ancestral reconstruction begins with a phylogeny. In ... Several software packages also reconstruct phylogeography. BEAST (Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis by Sampling Trees) provides ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
Beati, Lorenza; Klompen, Hans (7 January 2019). "Phylogeography of Ticks (Acari: Ixodida)". Annual Review of Entomology. 64 (1 ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ...
199-200 Giebel 1877, p. 35 Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches" (PDF). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 (8): ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Gómez-Prieto, P.; Ruiz-de-Valle, V. (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics (PDF ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
Lemey P, Rambaut A, Welch JJ, Suchard MA (August 2010). "Phylogeography takes a relaxed random walk in continuous space and ... Lemey P, Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Suchard MA (September 2009). Fraser C (ed.). "Bayesian phylogeography finds its roots". PLOS ...
2001). "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches" (PDF). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 ... Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Gomez-Prieto, pablo; Ruiz-Del-Valle, Valentin (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Gómez-Prieto, P.; Ruiz-de-Valle, V. (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Gómez-Prieto, P.; Ruiz-de-Valle, V. (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics (PDF ... phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144- ...
2001). "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 (8): ... Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). Phylogeography of Finches and Sparrows. Nova Science Publishers. ...
Arnaiz-Villena, Antonio; Gomez-Prieto, Pablo; Ruiz-del-Valle, Valentin (2010). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". In ...
Lemey P, Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Suchard MA (September 2009). "Bayesian phylogeography finds its roots". PLOS Computational ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A.; Gómez-Prieto, P.; Ruiz-de-Valle, V. (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ... "Phylogeography of crossbills, bullfinches, grosbeaks, and rosefinches" (PDF). Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 58 (8): ...
Phylogeography of Southern European Refugia. Springer. pp. 118-121. ISBN 978-1-4020-49033. Hickey, Kieran (May 2003). "Wolf - ...
Arnaiz-Villena, A; Gómez-Prieto P; Ruiz-de-Valle V (2009). "Phylogeography of finches and sparrows". Animal Genetics. Nova ...
The term phylogeography was first used by John Avise in his 1987 work Intraspecific Phylogeography: The Mitochondrial DNA ... Phylogeography has also proven to be useful in understanding the origin and dispersal patterns of our own species, Homo sapiens ... Phylogeography integrates biogeography and genetics to study in greater detail the lineal history of a species in context of ... Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the past to present geographic ...
... ... Comparative phylogeography reveals deep lineages and regional evolutionary hotspots in the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts. ...
... two other genera of sea urchins in which phylogeography has been studied. Nevertheless, the mtDNA phylogeography of Diadema ... H. A. Lessios, B. D. Kessing, and J. S. Pearse "POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIATION IN TROPICAL SEAS: GLOBAL PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF ... H. A. Lessios, B. D. Kessing, J. S. Pearse "POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIATION IN TROPICAL SEAS: GLOBAL PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE ... POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPECIATION IN TROPICAL SEAS: GLOBAL PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA URCHIN DIADEMA. ...
Multilocus analysis of phylogeography and population history is a powerful tool for understanding the origin, dispersal, and ... June Y. Lee and Scott V. Edwards "Divergence Across Australias Carpentarian Barrier: Statistical Phylogeography of the Red- ... June Y. Lee, Scott V. Edwards "Divergence Across Australias Carpentarian Barrier: Statistical Phylogeography of the Red-Backed ... Divergence Across Australias Carpentarian Barrier: Statistical Phylogeography of the Red-Backed Fairy Wren (Malurus ...
... BMC Genet. 2003 Oct 16:4:15. doi: ...
Phylogeography and conservation genetics of waders Thesis event information Date and time of the thesis defence Fri 08.04.2016 ...
Buy Phylogeography of California (9780520278875): An Introduction: NHBS - Kristina A Schierenbeck, University of California ... Phylogeography of California examines the evolution of ancient, recent, native, and migratory taxa to elucidate major and minor ... Phylogeography of California also interprets evolutionary history in a geological context and reviews new and emerging ... Readers will appreciate Phylogeography of Californias analysis of research that helps assess one of the major challenges of ...
Cornils, A. (2011): Molecular phylogeography and ecology of small antarctic Calanoida (Copepoda) , SPP 1158 coordination ... Molecular phylogeography and ecology of small antarctic Calanoida (Copepoda) Cornils, Astrid ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003 ...
Data from: Phylogeography and support vector machine classification of colour variation in panther chameleons. Grbic, Djordje, ... 2015). Data from: Phylogeography and support vector machine classification of colour variation in panther chameleons [Dataset ... Data and code for "Phylogeography and Support Vector Machine Classification of Colour Variation in Panther Chameleons". The ... We perform here an integrative analysis of molecular phylogeography and colour variation after collecting high-resolution ...
MOLECULAR PHYLOGEOGRAPHY. ; 16S RRNA. In: Amphibia-Reptilia In: Volume 28: Issue 1 Publisher: Brill E-ISSN: 1568-5381 Print ... Molecular phylogeography of the Chinese lacertids of the genus Eremias (Lacertidae) based on 16S rRNA mitochondrial DNA ... Molecular phylogeography of the Chinese lacertids of the genus Eremias (Lacertidae) based on 16S rRNA mitochondrial DNA ... Molecular phylogeography of the Chinese lacertids of the genus Eremias (Lacertidae) based on 16S rRNA mitochondrial DNA ...
Background The scalloped hammerhead shark, Sphyrna lewini, is a large endangered predator with a circumglobal distribution, observed in the open ocean but linked ontogenetically to coastal embayments for parturition and juvenile development. A previous survey of maternal (mtDNA) markers demonstrated strong genetic partitioning overall (global ΦST = 0.749) and significant population separations across oceans and between discontinuous continental coastlines. Methodology/Principal Findings We surveyed the same global range with increased sample coverage (N = 403) and 13 microsatellite loci to assess the male contribution to dispersal and population structure. Biparentally inherited microsatellites reveal low or absent genetic structure across ocean basins and global genetic differentiation (FST = 0.035) over an order of magnitude lower than the corresponding measures for maternal mtDNA lineages (ΦST = 0.749). Nuclear allelic richness and heterozygosity are high throughout the Indo-Pacific, while
The genetic diversity, phylogeography and morphology of Elphidiidae (Foraminifera) in the Northeast Atlantic. *Mark ... Benthic foraminifera, Elphidiidae, Northeast Atlantic, Phylogeography, Protist diversity, Taxonomy. in Marine Micropaleontology ... Phylogeography; Protist diversity; Taxonomy}}, language = {{eng}}, month = {{12}}, pages = {{1--23}}, publisher = {{Elsevier ... series = {{Marine Micropaleontology}}, title = {{The genetic diversity, phylogeography and morphology of Elphidiidae ( ...
Phylogeography can highlight the drivers of H5N1 emergence and spread. This knowledge can be used to target public health ... Phylogeography models of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) suggest Ash Sharqiyah as the origin of virus spread, however ... For Egypt, future work should focus on using data about vaccination and live bird markets in phylogeography models to study ... 226 HA and 92 NA sequences with an emphasis on the H5N1 2.2.1.1 strains in Egypt using a Bayesian discrete phylogeography ...
Hi,. I am starting with R and I have done a haplotype network with the package pegas. Now, I would like to do some tests to determine if there is segregation between different groups. I have a matrix of mtDNA sequences (in DNAbin format) and I have seen that the best tests for this case are AMOVA and Фst coefficient. I would like to receive confirmation that I am right and how I could do these tests. I have tried diff_stats(alignment_genind) but when I write phi_st = TRUE I get this error: (alignment_genind ,- as.genind.DNAbin(x=alignmentSpain, pop=pops)). diff_stats(alignment_genind, phi_st = TRUE). Warning messages: 1: In within_dists/(as.numeric(pop.freqs) * 2) : longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length 2: In within_dists/(as.numeric(pop.freqs) * 2) : longer object length is not a multiple of shorter object length. Thanks in advance,. Nuria.. ...
Morphometrics and Phylogeography of the Cave-Obligate Land Snail Helicodiscus barri (Gastropoda, Stylommatophora, ... Gladstone, Nicholas Scott, "Morphometrics and Phylogeography of the Cave-Obligate Land Snail Helicodiscus barri (Gastropoda, ...
or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. ...
Phylogeography and ecology of bumble bees on Kolguev Island, a remote European Arctic landmass. ZooKeys 1122: 19. DOI: 10.3897/ ... polaris from North Greenland with comments on its general biology and phylogeography. Polar Biology 44: 2209. DOI: 10.1007/ ...
Life History Aspects and Phylogeography of Exyra semicrocea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and their Implications for Pitcher Plant ...
Phylogeography: spanning the ecology-evolution continuum. Research output: Contribution to journal › Journal article › Research ... Phylogeography,. with its focus on Quaternary interactions within and between populations, can help elucidate the processes ... First, phylogeography can help clarify the roles of isolation, niche conservatism and environmental stability. in generating ... Second, phylogeography can help isolate the effects of Quaternary. dispersal limitation from other factors driving community ...
Phylogeography [1] is a young and fast-growing field that analyses the geographical distribution of genealogical lineages. It ... Emerson, Brent C. and Hewitt, Godfrey M. (2005) Phylogeography. Current Biology, 15 (10). R367-R371. ISSN 1879-0445 ...
The main focus of this thesis work is to elucidate the phylogeography of O. rufipogon by determining the patterns of genetic ... The main focus of this thesis work is to elucidate the phylogeography of O. rufipogon by determining the patterns of genetic ... Huang, Pu, "Phylogeography of Oryza rufipogon: History, Demography and Climate Change" (2013). Arts & Sciences Electronic ...
Animals Dengue Dengue Virus Genome, Viral Genotype Humans Molecular Sequence Data Phylogeny Phylogeography Research Serotyping ... "Phylogeography of Dengue Virus Serotype 4, Brazil, 2010-2011" 18, no. 11 (2012). Nunes, Marcio Roberto Teixeira et al. " ... "Phylogeography of Dengue Virus Serotype 4, Brazil, 2010-2011" vol. 18, no. 11, 2012. Export RIS Citation Information.. ... 2012). Phylogeography of Dengue Virus Serotype 4, Brazil, 2010-2011. 18(11). Nunes, Marcio Roberto Teixeira et al. " ...
Phylogeography and Subspecies Assessment of Vicuñas in Chile and Bolivia Utilizing mtDNA and Microsatellite Markers: ... "Phylogeography and Subspecies Assessment of Vicuñas in Chile and Bolivia Utilizing mtDNA and Microsatellite Markers: ...
... the field of phylogeography is concerned with the geograp ... the field of phylogeography is concerned with the geographic ... Marine fishes - Fish genetics: Phylogeography. Transarctic interchange between the North Pacific and North Atlantic - Fish ... Phylogeography. Whereas population structure is defined by differences in allele (or haplotype) frequencies, the field of ... Home , , The Diversity of Fishes: Biology Evolution and Ecology , Fish genetics: Phylogeography ...
Population genetic structure and phylogeography. ConStruct analyses indicated that the additions of the fourth and sixth layers ... Halbritter DA, Storer CG, Kawahara AY, Daniels JC (2019) Phylogeography and population genetics of pine butterflies: Sky ...
Phylogeography. As part of the MHUA specimen collection, we have been also storing amphibians and reptiles tissues for genetic ... Comparative phylogeography of pitvipers suggests a consensus of ancient Middle American highland biogeography. Journal of ... Phylogeography of the Central American lancehead Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae). PloS ONE 12(11): e0187969. https://doi. ...
New Paper: Trapped in desert springs: phylogeography of Australian desert spring snails. Posted on June 28, 2012 by Corri Baker ... The paper titled Trapped in desert springs: phylogeography of Australian desert spring snails investigates the ...
phylogeography bayesian model choice phylogenetics diversification biogeography approximate bayesian computation evolution ... phylogeography bayesian model choice phylogenetics diversification biogeography approximate bayesian computation evolution ...
  • The term phylogeography was first used by John Avise in his 1987 work Intraspecific Phylogeography: The Mitochondrial DNA Bridge Between Population Genetics and Systematics. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2007. Mitochondrial and chloroplast phylogeography of Picea crassifolia Kom. (kib.ac.cn)
  • 1987. Intraspecific phylogeography: the mitochondrial DNA bridge between population genetics and systematics. (marineornithology.org)
  • An explicit focus on a species' biogeography/biogeographical past sets phylogeography apart from classical population genetics and phylogenetics. (wikipedia.org)
  • Phylogeography takes a population genetics and phylogenetic perspective on biogeography. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2009. Comparative phylogeography of pitvipers suggests a consensus of ancient Middle American highland biogeography. (grupoherpetologicodeantioquia.org)
  • This appears to be happening with our new review of the phylogeographic literature from the lower Central American Neotropics, entitled "Phylogeography and biogeography of the lower Central American Neotropics: diversification between two continents and between two seas" (Bagley & Johnson 2014, Biological Reviews ). (rbind.io)
  • Comparative phylogeography reveals disti. (deu.edu.tr)
  • The theories of modern phylogeography are based on the assumption that the biological evolution and geographical changes are synchronized [ 9 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We analyzed 226 HA and 92 NA sequences with an emphasis on the H5N1 2.2.1.1 strains in Egypt using a Bayesian discrete phylogeography approach. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We perform here an integrative analysis of molecular phylogeography and colour variation after collecting high-resolution colour photographs and blood samples from 324 F. pardalis individuals in locations spanning the whole species distribution. (datadryad.org)
  • Phylogeography [1] is a young and fast-growing field that analyses the geographical distribution of genealogical lineages. (uea.ac.uk)
  • Here, I'd like to discuss how to analyze phylogeographic data with MIGRATE-N (hereafter 'MIGRATE')… and incorporate the analyses into phylogeography studies. (rbind.io)
  • If you are trying to add a MIGRATE analysis to a phylogeography project, then you've probably already done this to identify the appropriate models to use in phylogenetic analyses to make trees using your data. (rbind.io)
  • We then continue with analyses of variation within species for genetic identification of individuals, parents, populations and analyses inferring the evolutionary history of species (phylogeography). (lu.se)
  • Phylogeography of California examines the evolution of ancient, recent, native, and migratory taxa to elucidate major and minor evolutionary events that shaped the distribution, radiation, and speciation of the biota of California. (nhbs.com)
  • Phylogeography provides a valuable framework for assessing the existence of allopatric phases during speciation and, as a result, improves our ability to identify signatures of divergent natural selection associated with ecological divergence. (edu.au)
  • We study ecological speciation and phylogeography of freshwater and marine fishes from the Pampas, Patagonia, Amazonia, Gulf of California and Australia. (edu.au)
  • Multilocus analysis of phylogeography and population history is a powerful tool for understanding the origin, dispersal, and geographic structure of species over time and space. (bioone.org)
  • Phylogeography is a field that focuses on the geographical lineages of species such as vertebrates or viruses [ 10 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Phylogeography, with its focus on Quaternary interactions within and between populations, can help elucidate the processes acting between the evolutionary time-scales on which species arise and the ecological time-scales on which members of an assemblage interact with each other and their environment. (ku.dk)
  • Third, phylogeography can help identify key processes leading to and resulting from extinction events, including the population dynamics of species range reduction and its effects on the strength and temporal flexibility of networks of species interactions. (ku.dk)
  • With the survey of the workss familial fluctuations and phylogeography, we can acquire a better position on the workss evolutionary history and can happen solutions to protect the endangered species. (graduateway.com)
  • Phylogeography of temperate plant species with the focus on Central Europe Hana Daneck Charles University Prague Faculty of Science Department of Botany Supervisor: Prof. RNDr. (cuni.cz)
  • Phylogeography of California also interprets evolutionary history in a geological context and reviews new and emerging phylogeographic patterns. (nhbs.com)
  • Readers will appreciate Phylogeography of California 's analysis of research that helps assess one of the major challenges of phylogeographic studies: understanding changes in population structures shaped by geological and geographical processes. (nhbs.com)
  • Schierenbeck provides a survey of the phylogeography of the flora and fauna of California's diverse biota by major organismal groups and supports scholars and researchers who are asking probing questions about evolutionary diversification in a region defined by both physical and political boundaries. (nhbs.com)
  • Here, we highlight three areas where integration of phylogeography with ecological and evolutionary approaches can provide new insights into key questions. (ku.dk)
  • Gladstone, Nicholas Scott, "Morphometrics and Phylogeography of the Cave-Obligate Land Snail Helicodiscus barri (Gastropoda, Stylommatophora, Helicodiscidae). (tennessee.edu)
  • Second, phylogeography can help isolate the effects of Quaternary dispersal limitation from other factors driving community assembly and spatial turnover. (ku.dk)
  • First, phylogeography can help clarify the roles of isolation, niche conservatism and environmental stability in generating patterns of alpha- and beta-diversity. (ku.dk)
  • The main focus of this thesis work is to elucidate the phylogeography of O. rufipogon by determining the patterns of genetic variation across geographical space. (wustl.edu)
  • A method (or class of methods) that stems from statistical population genetics and is useful in phylogeography involves using coalescent gene genealogy samplers to estimate parameters based on variation across a huge number of gene trees representing estimates of probable ancestral patterns. (rbind.io)
  • And the second part of phylogeography is what we can do with these phylogenetic trees, or genealogies, once we've obtained them. (cdc.gov)
  • Further, the most important aspects of phylogeography of European temperate plant taxa are discussed. (cuni.cz)
  • Phylogeography of Angelica nitida (Apiaceae), an endemic to the QinghaiTibet Plateau[J]. Plant Diversity, 2013, 35(4): 505-512. (kib.ac.cn)
  • The paper titled 'Trapped in desert springs: phylogeography of Australian desert spring snails' investigates the phylogeographical history and determines the time-scale of population divergence of hydrobiid freshwater snails (genus Trochidrobia) inhabiting groundwater springs in the Australian desert. (edu.au)
  • June Y. Lee and Scott V. Edwards "Divergence Across Australia's Carpentarian Barrier: Statistical Phylogeography of the Red-Backed Fairy Wren ( Malurus melanocephalus )," Evolution 62(12), 3117-3134, (1 December 2008). (bioone.org)
  • Recent approaches have taken a stronger statistical approach to phylogeography than was done initially. (wikipedia.org)
  • The Mitogenome Relationships and Phylogeography of Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica). (bvsalud.org)
  • Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the past to present geographic distributions of genealogical lineages. (wikipedia.org)
  • By 2000, Avise generated a seminal review of the topic in book form, in which he defined phylogeography as the study of the "principles and processes governing the geographic distributions of genealogical lineages. (wikipedia.org)
  • From the above observations, population distinction is influenced by phylogeography, and therefore there are familial impetuss among the works populations. (graduateway.com)
  • For Egypt, future work should focus on using data about vaccination and live bird markets in phylogeography models to study their impact on H5N1 diffusion within the country. (biomedcentral.com)
  • There has been a growing interest in phylogeography of zoonotic RNA viruses [ 11 - 13 ] because of their often shorter genomes and rapid evolution compared to other infectious agents [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • One thing that makes this a great time to be involved in phylogeography is the exploding amount of data and quantitative methods available to workers. (rbind.io)
  • Lower Central America phylogeography: review paper gets 100 views in 2 days on Academia.edu! (rbind.io)
  • Phylogeography can highlight the drivers of H5N1 emergence and spread. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Phylogeography and historical demography of the cyprinid fish Diptychus maculatus (subfamily Schizothoracinae) are evaluated across three river systems in the Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and Tien Shan range: the Indus River, Tarim River and Ili River. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Zoonotic disease nidality describes the phe- www.shermantraps.com/) at 8 sites across Lassa fever-en- nomenon in which geographic occurrence of a zoonotic demic and -nonendemic areas in Nigeria (Figure 1). (cdc.gov)
  • Phylogeography models of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) suggest Ash Sharqiyah as the origin of virus spread, however the support is weak based on Kullback-Leibler values of 0.09 for HA and 0.01 for NA. (biomedcentral.com)
  • As a country in which Lassa fever is en- virus (LASV). (cdc.gov)