A 36-amino acid pancreatic hormone that is secreted mainly by endocrine cells found at the periphery of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS and adjacent to cells containing SOMATOSTATIN and GLUCAGON. Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), when administered peripherally, can suppress gastric secretion, gastric emptying, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and appetite. A lack of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) has been associated with OBESITY in rats and mice.
Peptide hormones secreted into the blood by cells in the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS of the pancreas. The alpha cells secrete glucagon; the beta cells secrete insulin; the delta cells secrete somatostatin; and the PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
A 36-amino acid peptide produced by the L cells of the distal small intestine and colon. Peptide YY inhibits gastric and pancreatic secretion.
Cell surface proteins that bind neuropeptide Y with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells.
HORMONES secreted by the gastrointestinal mucosa that affect the timing or the quality of secretion of digestive enzymes, and regulate the motor activity of the digestive system organs.
A 29-amino acid pancreatic peptide derived from proglucagon which is also the precursor of intestinal GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDES. Glucagon is secreted by PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and plays an important role in regulation of BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration, ketone metabolism, and several other biochemical and physiological processes. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1511)
A 36-amino acid peptide present in many organs and in many sympathetic noradrenergic neurons. It has vasoconstrictor and natriuretic activity and regulates local blood flow, glandular secretion, and smooth muscle activity. The peptide also stimulates feeding and drinking behavior and influences secretion of pituitary hormones.
A group of islet cells (10-35%) which secrete PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE, a hormone that regulates APPETITE and FOOD INTAKE.
A nodular organ in the ABDOMEN that contains a mixture of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and EXOCRINE GLANDS. The small endocrine portion consists of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS secreting a number of hormones into the blood stream. The large exocrine portion (EXOCRINE PANCREAS) is a compound acinar gland that secretes several digestive enzymes into the pancreatic ductal system that empties into the DUODENUM.
A peptide hormone of about 27 amino acids from the duodenal mucosa that activates pancreatic secretion and lowers the blood sugar level. (USAN and the USP Dictionary of Drug Names, 1994, p597)
A 37-amino acid peptide derived from the C-terminal of GLICENTIN. It is mainly produced by the INTESTINAL L CELLS. Oxyntomodulin can reduce digestive secretions, delay gastric emptying, and reduced food intake.
A family of gastrointestinal peptide hormones that excite the secretion of GASTRIC JUICE. They may also occur in the central nervous system where they are presumed to be neurotransmitters.
A benign tumor of the pancreatic ISLET CELLS. Usually it involves the INSULIN-producing PANCREATIC BETA CELLS, as in INSULINOMA, resulting in HYPERINSULINISM.
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
A peptide of about 22-amino acids isolated from the DUODENUM. At low pH it inhibits gastric motor activity, whereas at high pH it has a stimulating effect.
A peptide, of about 33 amino acids, secreted by the upper INTESTINAL MUCOSA and also found in the central nervous system. It causes gallbladder contraction, release of pancreatic exocrine (or digestive) enzymes, and affects other gastrointestinal functions. Cholecystokinin may be the mediator of satiety.
The 10th cranial nerve. The vagus is a mixed nerve which contains somatic afferents (from skin in back of the ear and the external auditory meatus), visceral afferents (from the pharynx, larynx, thorax, and abdomen), parasympathetic efferents (to the thorax and abdomen), and efferents to striated muscle (of the larynx and pharynx).
Cell surface proteins that bind gastrointestinal hormones with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Most gastrointestinal hormones also act as neurotransmitters so these receptors are also present in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
Irregular microscopic structures consisting of cords of endocrine cells that are scattered throughout the PANCREAS among the exocrine acini. Each islet is surrounded by connective tissue fibers and penetrated by a network of capillaries. There are four major cell types. The most abundant beta cells (50-80%) secrete INSULIN. Alpha cells (5-20%) secrete GLUCAGON. PP cells (10-35%) secrete PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE. Delta cells (~5%) secrete SOMATOSTATIN.
Peptides derived from proglucagon which is also the precursor of pancreatic GLUCAGON. Despite expression of proglucagon in multiple tissues, the major production site of glucagon-like peptides (GLPs) is the INTESTINAL L CELLS. GLPs include glucagon-like peptide 1, glucagon-like peptide 2, and the various truncated forms.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A pancreatic beta-cell hormone that is co-secreted with INSULIN. It displays an anorectic effect on nutrient metabolism by inhibiting gastric acid secretion, gastric emptying and postprandial GLUCAGON secretion. Islet amyloid polypeptide can fold into AMYLOID FIBRILS that have been found as a major constituent of pancreatic AMYLOID DEPOSITS.
A synthetic pentapeptide that has effects like gastrin when given parenterally. It stimulates the secretion of gastric acid, pepsin, and intrinsic factor, and has been used as a diagnostic aid.
The consumption of edible substances.
A syndrome of abnormally low BLOOD GLUCOSE level. Clinical hypoglycemia has diverse etiologies. Severe hypoglycemia eventually lead to glucose deprivation of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM resulting in HUNGER; SWEATING; PARESTHESIA; impaired mental function; SEIZURES; COMA; and even DEATH.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Protein precursors, also known as proproteins or prohormones, are inactive forms of proteins that undergo post-translational modification, such as cleavage, to produce the active functional protein or peptide hormone.
A tumor that secretes VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL PEPTIDE, a neuropeptide that causes VASODILATION; relaxation of smooth muscles; watery DIARRHEA; HYPOKALEMIA; and HYPOCHLORHYDRIA. Vipomas, derived from the pancreatic ISLET CELLS, generally are malignant and can secrete other hormones. In most cases, Vipomas are located in the PANCREAS but can be found in extrapancreatic sites.
The amount of a substance secreted by cells or by a specific organ or organism over a given period of time; usually applies to those substances which are formed by glandular tissues and are released by them into biological fluids, e.g., secretory rate of corticosteroids by the adrenal cortex, secretory rate of gastric acid by the gastric mucosa.
A highly basic, 28 amino acid neuropeptide released from intestinal mucosa. It has a wide range of biological actions affecting the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems and is neuroprotective. It binds special receptors (RECEPTORS, VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL PEPTIDE).
Vagal denervation of that part of the STOMACH lined with acid-secreting mucosa (GASTRIC MUCOSA) containing the GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS. Since the procedure leaves the vagal branches to the antrum and PYLORUS intact, it circumvents gastric drainage required with truncal vagotomy techniques.
A specific decapeptide obtained from the skin of Hila caerulea, an Australian amphibian. Caerulein is similar in action and composition to CHOLECYSTOKININ. It stimulates gastric, biliary, and pancreatic secretion; and certain smooth muscle. It is used in paralytic ileus and as diagnostic aid in pancreatic malfunction.
Hydrochloric acid present in GASTRIC JUICE.
Glucose in blood.
The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.
The fluid containing digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas in response to food in the duodenum.
The evacuation of food from the stomach into the duodenum.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
A primary malignant neoplasm of the pancreatic ISLET CELLS. Usually it involves the non-INSULIN-producing cell types, the PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and the pancreatic delta cells (SOMATOSTATIN-SECRETING CELLS) in GLUCAGONOMA and SOMATOSTATINOMA, respectively.
Any substances taken in by the body that provide nourishment.
A slowly hydrolyzing muscarinic agonist with no nicotinic effects. Bethanechol is generally used to increase smooth muscle tone, as in the GI tract following abdominal surgery or in urinary retention in the absence of obstruction. It may cause hypotension, HEART RATE changes, and BRONCHIAL SPASM.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
One of the long-acting synthetic ANTIDIARRHEALS; it is not significantly absorbed from the gut, and has no effect on the adrenergic system or central nervous system, but may antagonize histamine and interfere with acetylcholine release locally.
The shortest and widest portion of the SMALL INTESTINE adjacent to the PYLORUS of the STOMACH. It is named for having the length equal to about the width of 12 fingers.

Pancreatic polypeptide hyperplasia causing watery diarrhea syndrome: a case report. (1/348)

Neuroendocrine tumours of the pancreas can secrete numerous peptides, leading to various recognizable clinical syndromes. The secretion of pancreatic polypeptide has been used as a marker for neuroendocrine tumours but is considered to be a biologically inert peptide. A 37-year-old woman had watery diarrhea syndrome from pancreatic polypeptide hyperplasia. Only 2 other reported cases in the literature have described pancreatic polypeptide hyperplasia; however, this is the first reported case in which the patient was successfully treated by surgical resection, with a 2-year follow-up. This report and review of the literature illustrate that pancreatic polypeptide hypersecretion may present as a clinical endocrinopathy.  (+info)

Counterregulation during spontaneous nocturnal hypoglycemia in prepubertal children with type 1 diabetes. (2/348)

OBJECTIVE: To examine counterregulatory responses during spontaneous nocturnal hypoglycemia in prepubertal children with type 1 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 29 prepubertal patients with type 1 diabetes underwent two overnight profiles. Data were analyzed from 16 children (median [range] 8.7 [5.9-12.9] years of age) with a night of hypoglycemia and a nonhypoglycemic night. Children hypoglycemic (< 3.5 mmol/l) on night 1 were given 25% extra carbohydrate as uncooked cornstarch with their usual evening snack on night 2 to avoid hypoglycemia. Glucose, growth hormone, and cortisol were measured every 15 min, catecholamines every 30 min, and glucagon, pancreatic polypeptide, insulin, and ketones every 60 min. A group of 15 healthy control subjects, aged 9.5 (5.6-12.1) years, underwent one overnight profile. RESULTS: Median duration of hypoglycemia was 225 (30-630) min, and glucose nadir was 2.0 (1.2-3.3) mmol/l. Insulin levels were not different on the two nights (P = 0.9, analysis of variance), but children with diabetes had higher insulin levels than normal control subjects between 2300 and 0300, maximal at 0200 (mean +/- SEM 57.4 +/- 5.7 vs. 31.6 +/- 5.0 pmol/l, P = 0.002). Peak epinephrine was higher on the night of hypoglycemia (0.98 [0.52-2.09] nmol/l) versus nonhypoglycemia (0.32 [0.21-0.62] nmol/l), P = 0.001, but norepinephrine (1.29 [1.07-2.64] vs. 1.26 [1.04-1.88] nmol/l, P = 0.5), glucagon (93 [64.2-125.6] vs. 100.5 [54.6-158] ng/l, P = 0.6), pancreatic polypeptide (410.2 [191-643.2] vs. 270.8 [158.2-777.8] ng/l, P = 0.5), and cortisol (513 [300-679] vs. 475 [235-739] nmol/l, P = 0.6) were not different. Glucose threshold for epinephrine release was very low, 1.9 +/- 0.2 mmol/l. There was a short-lived rise in growth hormone from 75-105 min after onset of hypoglycemia, maximal at 90 min (7.8 +/- 1.2 vs. 3.5 +/- 0.9 ng/ml, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The prolonged nature of nocturnal hypoglycemic episodes may be explained in part by defective counterregulation. The risk of nocturnal hypoglycemia needs to be reduced before intensification of insulin therapy can be contemplated in this age-group.  (+info)

NPY receptor subtype in the rabbit isolated ileum. (3/348)

1. The purpose of this work was to verify the hypothesis that the rabbit ileum is a selective preparation for the NPY Y5 receptor by using new selective antagonists recently synthesized. Spontaneous contractions of the rabbit isolated ileum were recorded and binding experiments were performed in cells expressing the human NPY Y1, Y2, Y4 or Y5 receptor subtype. 2. NPY analogues produced a concentration-dependent transient inhibition of the spontaneous contractions of the rabbit ileum with the following order of potency hPP > rPP > PYY > or = [Leu31,-Pro34]-NPY > NPY >> NPY13-36. Pre-exposure to rPP, PYY, [Leu31,Pro34]-NPY or NPY (but not NPY13-36) inhibited the effect of subsequent administration of hPP suggesting cross-desensitization of the preparation. The apparent affinity of the various agonists studied was correlated to the affinity reported for the human Y4 receptor subtype (and to a lesser extent for the rat Y4 subtype) but not to the affinity for the Y5 receptor subtype. 3. BIBO 3304, a selective NPY Y1 receptor antagonist, and CGP 71683A, a selective NPY Y5 receptor antagonist, did not affect the response to hPP. JCF 109, another NPY Y5 receptor antagonist, produced an inhibition of the response to hPP but only at the highest dose tested (10 microM) which also, by itself, produced intrinsic inhibitory effects. 4. 1229U91, a non-selective ligand for Y1, Y2, Y4 and Y5 receptors with high affinity toward the Y1 and Y4 receptor subtypes, produced a concentration-dependent transient inhibition of the spontaneous contractions of the rabbit ileum and a dose-dependent inhibition of the response to hPP (apparent pKB: 7.2). 5. These results suggest that in the rabbit ileum, the NPY receptor involved in the inhibition of the spontaneous contractile activity is a NPY Y4 receptor subtype.  (+info)

Plasma pancreatic polypeptide response to secretin. (4/348)

OBJECTIVE: Intravenously administered secretin stimulates pancreatic polypeptide (PP) release in patients with endocrine enteropancreatic tumors, but data in patients with nontumorous disorders are controversial. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the plasma PP pattern after secretin administration in healthy subjects and in patients with gastroduodenal diseases investigated for recurrent ulcer disease and/or hypergastrinemia. METHODS: Synthetic secretin was given as an intravenous bolus (2U/kg) in ten patients with Zollinger Ellison syndrome, ten with duodenal ulcer, ten with atropic gastritis and ten healthy volunteers. Blood samples were taken before and at regular intervals for 30min after secretin injection. Plasma PP and gastrin levels were measured by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: Secretin promptly and significantly (P<0.01) increased PP plasma levels in all groups of subjects without any differences in peak values. There were no significant correlations between PP and gastrin plasma levels. CONCLUSIONS: Secretin at pharmacological doses is a powerful stimulus for PP release.  (+info)

Binding characteristics of pancreatic polypeptide receptors on rat hepatic membranes. (5/348)

AIM: To study the binding characteristics of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) receptors on rat hepatic membranes. METHODS: 125I-PP suitable to study interaction between ligand and receptors were prepared. 125I-porcine PP and 125I-duck PP were used to study PP receptor binding in the controlled conditions. RESULTS: The binding of 125I-porcine PP to receptors on rat hepatic membranes was time- and temperature-dependent. The specific binding of 125I-porcine PP was inhibited by unlabeled porcine PP in a concentration-dependent manner, whereas duck PP was only partially inhibited in the high concentration (> 500 nmol.L-1). Scatchard analysis produced a curvilinear plot, suggesting multiple affinity binding sites, i.e., high-affinity and low-affinity with dissociation constants (Kd) 5.4 and 158 nmol.L-1, respectively. CONCLUSION: Rat hepatic membranes possessed specific PP receptors and porcine PP binding activity was much higher than that of duck PP.  (+info)

The role of nitric oxide in mediating pancreatic endocrine responses to insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in the conscious calf. (6/348)

The role of nitric oxide (NO) in mediating pancreatic endocrine responses to moderate hypoglycaemia has been investigated in conscious unrestrained calves. The synthesis of endogenous NO was inhibited by the administration of N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME; 100 mg kg-1 I.A.), while sodium nitroprusside was infused continuously (2-4 microg min-1 kg-1 I.V.) to mimic the tonic production of NO. This effectively abolished the rise in plasma pancreatic polypeptide (PP) concentration during moderate hypoglycaemia (0.7 nmol kg-1 insulin I.V.) and significantly reduced the response to more intense hypoglycaemia (2.0 nmol kg-1 insulin I. V.). In contrast, the glucagon response was not significantly affected in either group, although consistently higher plasma glucagon values were obtained in response to the higher dose of insulin following the administration of L-NAME. It is concluded that, in the absence of L-NAME, production of NO contributes to the PP response, but not the glucagon response to hypoglycaemia in this species under physiological conditions.  (+info)

Co-localization of neuroendocrine hormones in the human fetal pancreas. (7/348)

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: Co-localization of the four major pancreatic hormones, and also of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), peptide tyrosine tyrosine (PYY), secretin and neurotensin, has been studied in the endocrine pancreas of human fetuses at 16, 18 and 22 weeks of gestation. METHODS: Double and triple immunofluorescence stainings have been used. RESULTS: All three fetal pancreata contained cells that showed insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), IAPP, secretin and PYY immunoreactivity. Neurotensin cells were found in the youngest fetus and gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) in the two older fetuses. Co-localization of two hormones occurred in most of the endocrine cell types in the three fetuses examined, but three hormones occurred in only a few cells and especially in the youngest fetus. Somatostatin cells were the only cell type which was largely monohormonal. Our findings showed that there are two different co-localization patterns: insulin was co-localized mainly with IAPP and glucagon, while secretin and PYY occurred together with glucagon and PP. CONCLUSIONS: These data are the first to describe secretin and neurotensin in the fetal pancreas. Two different co-localization patterns could be distinguished: insulin, IAPP and glucagon, and glucagon, secretin, PP and PYY.  (+info)

Hepatocyte growth factor overexpression in the islet of transgenic mice increases beta cell proliferation, enhances islet mass, and induces mild hypoglycemia. (8/348)

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is produced in pancreatic mesenchyme-derived cells and in islet cells. In vitro, HGF increases the insulin content and proliferation of islets. To study the role of HGF in the islet in vivo, we have developed three lines of transgenic mice overexpressing mHGF using the rat insulin II promoter (RIP). Each RIP-HGF transgenic line displays clear expression of HGF mRNA and protein in the islet. RIP-mHGF mice are relatively hypoglycemic in post-prandial and fasting states compared with their normal littermates. They display inappropriate insulin production, striking overexpression of insulin mRNA in the islet, and a 2-fold increase in the insulin content in islet extracts. Importantly, beta cell replication rates in vivo are two to three times higher in RIP-HGF mice. This increase in proliferation results in a 2-3-fold increase in islet mass. Moreover, the islet number per pancreatic area was also increased by approximately 50%. Finally, RIP-mHGF mice show a dramatically attenuated response to the diabetogenic effects of streptozotocin. We conclude that the overexpression of HGF in the islet increases beta cell proliferation, islet number, beta cell mass, and total insulin production in vivo. These combined effects result in mild hypoglycemia and resistance to the diabetogenic effects of streptozotocin.  (+info)

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a hormone that is produced and released by the pancreas, specifically by the F cells located in the islets of Langerhans. It is a small protein consisting of 36 amino acids, and it plays a role in regulating digestive functions, particularly by inhibiting pancreatic enzyme secretion and gastric acid secretion.

PP is released into the bloodstream in response to food intake, especially when nutrients such as proteins and fats are present in the stomach. It acts on the brain to produce a feeling of fullness or satiety, which helps to regulate appetite and eating behavior. Additionally, PP has been shown to have effects on glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and energy balance.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential therapeutic uses of PP for a variety of conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Pancreatic hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen. The two main types of pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon, which are released by specialized cells called islets of Langerhans.

Insulin is produced by beta cells and helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) from the bloodstream. It also helps the body store excess glucose in the liver for later use.

Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and has the opposite effect of insulin. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver to raise blood sugar levels.

Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain balanced blood sugar levels and are essential for the proper functioning of the body's metabolism. Other hormones produced by the pancreas include somatostatin, which regulates the release of insulin and glucagon, and gastrin, which stimulates the production of digestive enzymes in the stomach.

Peptide YY (PYY) is a small peptide hormone consisting of 36 amino acids, that is released by the L cells in the intestinal epithelium in response to feeding. It is a member of the neuropeptide Y (NPY) family and plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and energy balance.

After eating, PYY is released into the circulation and acts on specific receptors in the hypothalamus to inhibit food intake. This anorexigenic effect of PYY is mediated by its ability to decrease gastric emptying, reduce intestinal motility, and increase satiety.

PYY has also been shown to have effects on glucose homeostasis, insulin secretion, and inflammation, making it a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic disorders.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that bind to and are activated by the neuropeptide Y neurotransmitter. NPY is a 36-amino acid peptide that plays important roles in various physiological functions, including appetite regulation, energy homeostasis, anxiety, depression, memory, and cardiovascular function.

There are five different subtypes of NPY receptors, namely Y1, Y2, Y4, Y5, and Y6 (also known as Y6-like). These receptors have distinct tissue distributions and signaling properties. The Y1, Y2, Y4, and Y5 receptors are widely expressed in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues, while the Y6 receptor is primarily found in the brainstem.

The activation of NPY receptors leads to a variety of intracellular signaling pathways, including the inhibition of adenylate cyclase, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and modulation of ion channel activity. Dysregulation of NPY receptor function has been implicated in several diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, anxiety disorders, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, NPY receptors are considered promising targets for the development of therapeutic agents for these conditions.

Gastrointestinal (GI) hormones are a group of hormones that are secreted by cells in the gastrointestinal tract in response to food intake and digestion. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including appetite regulation, gastric acid secretion, motility of the gastrointestinal tract, insulin secretion, and pancreatic enzyme release.

Examples of GI hormones include:

* Gastrin: Secreted by G cells in the stomach, gastrin stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach lining.
* Ghrelin: Produced by the stomach, ghrelin is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite and food intake.
* Cholecystokinin (CCK): Secreted by I cells in the small intestine, CCK promotes digestion by stimulating the release of pancreatic enzymes and bile from the liver. It also inhibits gastric emptying and reduces appetite.
* Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Produced by K cells in the small intestine, GIP promotes insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon release.
* Secretin: Released by S cells in the small intestine, secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes stomach acid in the duodenum.
* Motilin: Secreted by MO cells in the small intestine, motilin promotes gastrointestinal motility and regulates the migrating motor complex (MMC), which is responsible for cleaning out the small intestine between meals.

These hormones work together to regulate digestion and maintain homeostasis in the body. Dysregulation of GI hormones can contribute to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastroparesis, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and diabetes.

Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to regulate glucose levels in the blood by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream. This process helps to raise blood sugar levels when they are too low, such as during hypoglycemia.

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide that is derived from the preproglucagon protein. It works by binding to glucagon receptors on liver cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown.

In addition to its role in glucose regulation, glucagon has also been shown to have other physiological effects, such as promoting lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) and inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Glucagon is often used clinically in the treatment of hypoglycemia, as well as in diagnostic tests to assess pancreatic function.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter and neuropeptide that is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is a member of the pancreatic polypeptide family, which includes peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. NPY plays important roles in various physiological functions such as energy balance, feeding behavior, stress response, anxiety, memory, and cardiovascular regulation. It is involved in the modulation of neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity, and neural development. NPY is synthesized from a larger precursor protein called prepro-NPY, which is post-translationally processed to generate the mature NPY peptide. The NPY system has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as obesity, depression, anxiety disorders, hypertension, and drug addiction.

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)-secreting cells, also known as F cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. These cells produce and secrete the hormone pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive functions, including controlling the release of enzymes from the exocrine pancreas and modulating gastric emptying. PP-secreting cells are relatively rare, making up only about 1-3% of the total cell population in the islets of Langerhans. They are typically small and round, with a centrally located nucleus and few secretory granules. Changes in the number or function of these cells have been implicated in various gastrointestinal disorders, such as dumping syndrome and chronic pancreatitis.

The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.

Secretin is a hormone that is produced and released by the S cells in the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. It is released in response to the presence of acidic chyme (partially digested food) entering the duodenum from the stomach. Secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline secretions, which help neutralize the acidity of the chyme and create an optimal environment for enzymatic digestion in the small intestine.

Additionally, secretin also promotes the production of watery fluids from the liver, which aids in the digestion process. Overall, secretin plays a crucial role in maintaining the pH balance and facilitating proper nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Oxyntomodulin is a hormone that is produced and released by the intestines in response to food consumption. It is a 37-amino acid peptide, derived from the preproglucagon gene, which also encodes several other related peptides such as glucagon and GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1).

Oxyntomodulin has two primary effects on the body:

1. Incretin effect: Oxyntomodulin acts as an incretin hormone, which means that it enhances the secretion of insulin and inhibits the release of glucagon in response to a meal. This helps to regulate blood sugar levels and maintain metabolic homeostasis.
2. Appetite regulation: Oxyntomodulin also acts on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and promote weight loss. It does this by activating receptors in the brain that signal satiety, leading to a decrease in food intake.

Overall, oxyntomodulin plays an important role in regulating energy balance, glucose metabolism, and body weight.

Gastrins are a group of hormones that are produced by G cells in the stomach lining. These hormones play an essential role in regulating gastric acid secretion and motor functions of the gastrointestinal tract. The most well-known gastrin is known as "gastrin-17," which is released into the bloodstream and stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach lining.

Gastrins are stored in secretory granules within G cells, and their release is triggered by several factors, including the presence of food in the stomach, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and vagus nerve stimulation. Once released, gastrins bind to specific receptors on parietal cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium levels and the activation of enzymes that promote hydrochloric acid secretion.

Abnormalities in gastrin production can lead to several gastrointestinal disorders, including gastrinomas (tumors that produce excessive amounts of gastrin), which can cause severe gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcers. Conversely, a deficiency in gastrin production can result in hypochlorhydria (low stomach acid levels) and impaired digestion.

An islet cell adenoma is a rare, typically benign tumor that develops in the islets of Langerhans, which are clusters of hormone-producing cells in the pancreas. The islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including beta cells that produce insulin, alpha cells that produce glucagon, and delta cells that produce somatostatin.

Islet cell adenomas can cause various endocrine disorders depending on the type of hormone-producing cells involved. For example, if the tumor consists mainly of beta cells, it may secrete excessive amounts of insulin, leading to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Conversely, if the tumor is composed primarily of alpha cells, it may produce too much glucagon, resulting in hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) and a condition known as glucagonoma.

Islet cell adenomas are usually slow-growing and small but can become quite large in some cases. They are typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as CT scans or MRI, and hormone levels may be measured to determine the type of cells involved. Treatment options include surgical removal of the tumor, medication to manage hormonal imbalances, and, in rare cases, radiofrequency ablation or embolization.

Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:

* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain

Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.

Motilin is a hormone that is produced and released by specialized cells called endocrine cells, which are located in the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. Motilin plays an important role in regulating the movements of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as peristalsis.

Motilin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscle in the GI tract, which helps to move food and other contents through the digestive system. It is particularly important for initiating the "housekeeper" wave, also known as the migrating motor complex (MMC), which occurs during periods of fasting and helps to clear out any remaining undigested material from the stomach and small intestine.

Motilin has been studied as a potential target for the treatment of gastroparesis, a condition in which the stomach is unable to empty properly due to weak or abnormal contractions of the smooth muscle. Motilin agonists, which are drugs that bind to and activate motilin receptors, have been shown to improve gastric emptying in some people with gastroparesis.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone that is produced in the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and in the brain. It is released into the bloodstream in response to food, particularly fatty foods, and plays several roles in the digestive process.

In the digestive system, CCK stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile into the small intestine to help digest fats. It also inhibits the release of acid from the stomach and slows down the movement of food through the intestines.

In the brain, CCK acts as a neurotransmitter and has been shown to have effects on appetite regulation, mood, and memory. It may play a role in the feeling of fullness or satiety after eating, and may also be involved in anxiety and panic disorders.

CCK is sometimes referred to as "gallbladder-stimulating hormone" or "pancreozymin," although these terms are less commonly used than "cholecystokinin."

The vagus nerve, also known as the 10th cranial nerve (CN X), is the longest of the cranial nerves and extends from the brainstem to the abdomen. It has both sensory and motor functions and plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, speech, and sweating, among others.

The vagus nerve is responsible for carrying sensory information from the internal organs to the brain, and it also sends motor signals from the brain to the muscles of the throat and voice box, as well as to the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. The vagus nerve helps regulate the body's involuntary responses, such as controlling heart rate and blood pressure, promoting relaxation, and reducing inflammation.

Dysfunction in the vagus nerve can lead to various medical conditions, including gastroparesis, chronic pain, and autonomic nervous system disorders. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a therapeutic intervention that involves delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve to treat conditions such as epilepsy, depression, and migraine headaches.

Gastrointestinal (GI) hormone receptors are specialized protein structures found on the surface of cells in the gastrointestinal tract. These receptors recognize and respond to specific hormones that are released by enteroendocrine cells in the GI tract. Examples of GI hormones include gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), motilin, and ghrelin.

When a GI hormone binds to its specific receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell function. These changes can include increased or decreased secretion of digestive enzymes, altered motility (movement) of the GI tract, and regulation of appetite and satiety.

Abnormalities in GI hormone receptors have been implicated in a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, including functional dyspepsia, irritable bowel syndrome, and obesity. Therefore, understanding the role of these receptors in GI physiology and pathophysiology is an important area of research.

Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.

Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

The Islets of Langerhans are clusters of specialized cells within the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. These islets are named after Paul Langerhans, who first identified them in 1869. They constitute around 1-2% of the total mass of the pancreas and are distributed throughout its substance.

The Islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including:

1. Alpha (α) cells: These produce and release glucagon, a hormone that helps to regulate blood sugar levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver when blood sugar levels are low.
2. Beta (β) cells: These produce and release insulin, a hormone that promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose by cells throughout the body, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.
3. Delta (δ) cells: These produce and release somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon and helps regulate their secretion in response to changing blood sugar levels.
4. PP cells (gamma or γ cells): These produce and release pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive enzyme secretion and gastrointestinal motility.

Dysfunction of the Islets of Langerhans can lead to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, where insulin-producing beta cells are damaged or destroyed, leading to impaired blood sugar regulation.

Glucagon-like peptides (GLPs) are hormones that are produced in the intestines in response to food consumption. They belong to a class of hormones known as incretins, which play a role in regulating blood sugar levels by stimulating the pancreas to produce insulin and inhibiting the release of glucagon.

There are two main types of GLPs: GLP-1 and GLP-2. GLP-1 is secreted in response to meals and stimulates the pancreas to produce insulin, suppresses glucagon production, slows gastric emptying, and promotes satiety. GLP-2, on the other hand, promotes intestinal growth and improves nutrient absorption.

GLP-1 receptor agonists are a class of medications used to treat type 2 diabetes. They mimic the effects of natural GLP-1 by stimulating insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon release, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. These medications have been shown to improve blood sugar control, reduce body weight, and lower the risk of cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP), also known as amylin, is a 37-amino acid peptide co-secreted with insulin from pancreatic beta-cells in response to meals. It plays crucial roles in regulating glucose homeostasis by suppressing glucagon secretion, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. In type 2 diabetes, IAPP can form amyloid fibrils, which deposit in pancreatic islets, contributing to beta-cell dysfunction and death. This contributes to the progressive nature of type 2 diabetes.

Pentagastrin is a synthetic polypeptide hormone that stimulates the release of gastrin and hydrochloric acid from the stomach. It is used diagnostically to test for conditions such as Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, a rare disorder in which tumors in the pancreas or duodenum produce excessive amounts of gastrin, leading to severe ulcers and other digestive problems.

Pentagastrin is typically administered intravenously, and its effects are monitored through blood tests that measure gastric acid secretion. It is a potent stimulant of gastric acid production, and its use is limited to diagnostic purposes due to the risk of adverse effects such as nausea, flushing, and increased heart rate.

The medical definition of "eating" refers to the process of consuming and ingesting food or nutrients into the body. This process typically involves several steps, including:

1. Food preparation: This may involve cleaning, chopping, cooking, or combining ingredients to make them ready for consumption.
2. Ingestion: The act of taking food or nutrients into the mouth and swallowing it.
3. Digestion: Once food is ingested, it travels down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is broken down by enzymes and acids to facilitate absorption of nutrients.
4. Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and transported to cells throughout the body for use as energy or building blocks for growth and repair.
5. Elimination: Undigested food and waste products are eliminated from the body through the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Eating is an essential function that provides the body with the nutrients it needs to maintain health, grow, and repair itself. Disorders of eating, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, can have serious consequences for physical and mental health.

Hypoglycemia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally low level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Generally, hypoglycemia is defined as a blood glucose level below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), although symptoms may not occur until the blood sugar level falls below 55 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L).

Hypoglycemia can occur in people with diabetes who are taking insulin or medications that increase insulin production, as well as those with certain medical conditions such as hormone deficiencies, severe liver illnesses, or disorders of the adrenal glands. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include sweating, shaking, confusion, rapid heartbeat, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness or seizures.

Hypoglycemia is typically treated by consuming fast-acting carbohydrates such as fruit juice, candy, or glucose tablets to rapidly raise blood sugar levels. If left untreated, hypoglycemia can lead to serious complications, including brain damage and even death.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Protein precursors, also known as proproteins or prohormones, are inactive forms of proteins that undergo post-translational modification to become active. These modifications typically include cleavage of the precursor protein by specific enzymes, resulting in the release of the active protein. This process allows for the regulation and control of protein activity within the body. Protein precursors can be found in various biological processes, including the endocrine system where they serve as inactive hormones that can be converted into their active forms when needed.

A vipoma, also known as a verner morrison syndrome or a non-insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor, is a rare medical condition characterized by the excessive production and secretion of vasoactive intestinal peptides (VIP) from a functional neuroendocrine tumor in the pancreas. This leads to a series of symptoms known as watery diarrhea, hypokalemia, and acidosis (WDHA) syndrome due to the effects of VIP on the gastrointestinal system. Symptoms include severe watery diarrhea, dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and low blood pressure. Treatment typically involves surgical removal of the tumor, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and correct electrolyte abnormalities.

Secretory rate refers to the amount or volume of a secretion produced by a gland or an organ over a given period of time. It is a measure of the productivity or activity level of the secreting structure. The secretory rate can be quantified for various bodily fluids, such as saliva, sweat, digestive enzymes, hormones, or milk, depending on the context and the specific gland or organ being studied.

In clinical settings, measuring the secretory rate might involve collecting and analyzing samples over a certain duration to estimate the production rate of the substance in question. This information can be helpful in diagnosing conditions related to impaired secretion, monitoring treatment responses, or understanding the physiological adaptations of the body under different circumstances.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a 28-amino acid polypeptide hormone that has potent vasodilatory, secretory, and neurotransmitter effects. It is widely distributed throughout the body, including in the gastrointestinal tract, where it is synthesized and released by nerve cells (neurons) in the intestinal mucosa. VIP plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions such as intestinal secretion, motility, and blood flow. It also has immunomodulatory effects and may play a role in neuroprotection. High levels of VIP are found in the brain, where it acts as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator and is involved in various cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and social behavior.

A proximal gastric vagotomy is a surgical procedure that involves selectively cutting the vagus nerve (the tenth cranial nerve) close to its origin in the stomach. The vagus nerve plays an important role in controlling the motor functions and secretions of the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach.

In a proximal gastric vagotomy, the nerve branches that innervate the proximal part of the stomach are selectively cut, which reduces acid secretion from the stomach. This type of vagotomy is often performed as part of a surgical treatment for peptic ulcers, particularly those located in the upper part of the stomach or in the duodenum (the first section of the small intestine).

It's worth noting that there are different types of vagotomies, and the specific type used depends on the individual patient's needs and medical history. Other types of vagotomy include truncal vagotomy, selective vagotomy, and highly selective vagotomy. Each of these procedures has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of procedure depends on various factors such as the location and severity of the ulcer, the patient's overall health, and the risk of complications.

Ceruletide is a synthetic analog of the natural hormone cholecystokinin (CCK). It is a decapeptide with the following sequence: cyclo(D-Asp-Tic-Phe-Ser-Leu-Hand-Ala-Lys-Thr-Nle-NH2).

Ceruletide has several pharmacological actions, including stimulation of the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas, contraction of the gallbladder and sphincter of Oddi, and inhibition of gastric acid secretion. It is used in clinical medicine for diagnostic purposes to test the motor function of the biliary tract and to diagnose gastrointestinal motility disorders.

Ceruletide has also been investigated as a potential treatment for certain conditions such as pancreatitis, gallstones, and intestinal obstruction, but its use is limited due to its side effects, which include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea.

Gastric acid, also known as stomach acid, is a digestive fluid produced in the stomach. It's primarily composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl), and sodium chloride (NaCl). The pH of gastric acid is typically between 1.5 and 3.5, making it a strong acid that helps to break down food by denaturing proteins and activating digestive enzymes.

The production of gastric acid is regulated by the enteric nervous system and several hormones. The primary function of gastric acid is to initiate protein digestion, activate pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin, and kill most ingested microorganisms. However, an excess or deficiency in gastric acid secretion can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders such as gastritis, ulcers, and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.

Pancreatic juice is an alkaline fluid secreted by the exocrine component of the pancreas, primarily containing digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and trypsin. These enzymes aid in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, respectively, in the small intestine during the digestion process. The bicarbonate ions present in pancreatic juice help neutralize the acidic chyme that enters the duodenum from the stomach, creating an optimal environment for enzymatic activity.

Gastric emptying is the process by which the stomach empties its contents into the small intestine. In medical terms, it refers to the rate and amount of food that leaves the stomach and enters the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. This process is regulated by several factors, including the volume and composition of the meal, hormonal signals, and neural mechanisms. Abnormalities in gastric emptying can lead to various gastrointestinal symptoms and disorders, such as gastroparesis, where the stomach's ability to empty food is delayed.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Carcinoma, islet cell, also known as pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor or pancreatic endocrine carcinoma, is a type of malignancy that arises from the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. These tumors can produce and release hormones such as insulin, glucagon, gastrin, and somatostatin, leading to various clinical syndromes depending on the specific hormone produced.

Islet cell carcinomas are relatively rare, accounting for less than 5% of all pancreatic malignancies. They can occur at any age but are more common in adults between 40 and 60 years old. The prognosis for islet cell carcinoma varies widely depending on the stage and grade of the tumor, as well as the presence or absence of metastases. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies.

A medical definition of 'food' would be:

"Substances consumed by living organisms, usually in the form of meals, which contain necessary nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. These substances are broken down during digestion to provide energy, build and repair tissues, and regulate bodily functions."

It's important to note that while this is a medical definition, it also aligns with common understanding of what food is.

Bethanechol is a parasympathomimetic drug, which means it stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system. This system is responsible for regulating many automatic functions in the body, including digestion and urination. Bethanechol works by causing the smooth muscles of the bladder to contract, which can help to promote urination in people who have difficulty emptying their bladder completely due to certain medical conditions such as surgery, spinal cord injury, or multiple sclerosis.

The medical definition of 'Bethanechol' is:

A parasympathomimetic agent that stimulates the muscarinic receptors of the autonomic nervous system, causing contraction of smooth muscle and increased secretion of exocrine glands. It is used to treat urinary retention and associated symptoms, such as those caused by bladder-neck obstruction due to prostatic hypertrophy or neurogenic bladder dysfunction. Bethanechol may also be used to diagnose urinary tract obstruction and to test the integrity of the bladder's innervation.

A peptide fragment is a short chain of amino acids that is derived from a larger peptide or protein through various biological or chemical processes. These fragments can result from the natural breakdown of proteins in the body during regular physiological processes, such as digestion, or they can be produced experimentally in a laboratory setting for research or therapeutic purposes.

Peptide fragments are often used in research to map the structure and function of larger peptides and proteins, as well as to study their interactions with other molecules. In some cases, peptide fragments may also have biological activity of their own and can be developed into drugs or diagnostic tools. For example, certain peptide fragments derived from hormones or neurotransmitters may bind to receptors in the body and mimic or block the effects of the full-length molecule.

Loperamide is an antidiarrheal medication that works by slowing down the movement of the intestines. This helps to increase the time between bowel movements and reduces the amount of liquid in stools, thereby helping to relieve diarrhea. It is available over-the-counter (OTC) and by prescription, depending on the strength and formulation.

Loperamide works by binding to opioid receptors in the gut, which helps to reduce the contractions of the intestines that can lead to diarrhea. It is important to note that loperamide should not be used for longer than 2 days without consulting a healthcare professional, as prolonged use can lead to serious side effects such as constipation, dizziness, and decreased alertness.

Loperamide is also known by its brand names, including Imodium, Pepto-Bismol Maximum Strength, and Kaopectate II. It is important to follow the instructions on the label carefully when taking loperamide, and to speak with a healthcare provider if you have any questions or concerns about using this medication.

The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine, immediately following the stomach. It is a C-shaped structure that is about 10-12 inches long and is responsible for continuing the digestion process that begins in the stomach. The duodenum receives partially digested food from the stomach through the pyloric valve and mixes it with digestive enzymes and bile produced by the pancreas and liver, respectively. These enzymes help break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into smaller molecules, allowing for efficient absorption in the remaining sections of the small intestine.

... (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas. It regulates pancreatic secretion ... Pancreatic Polypeptide". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24. Pancreatic+polypeptide at ... The secretion of pancreatic polypeptide may be increased by pancreatic tumours (insulin, glucagon), by Verner-Morrison syndrome ... Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits pancreatic secretion of fluid, bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes. It also stimulates gastric ...
... are most active and secrete more pancreatic polypeptide after a meal with high protein, fasting, ... Pancreatic polypeptide cells (PP cells), or formerly as gamma cells (γ-cells), or F cells, are cells in the pancreatic islets ( ... Pancreatic polypeptide cells are one of the most poorly understood cells in the pancreas. This is due to a number of reasons, ... Once it is produced, pancreatic polypeptide is shown to be a 36 amino acid long peptide that can be sent out to different areas ...
... , also known as Neuropeptide Y receptor type 4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ... "Entrez Gene: PPYR1 pancreatic polypeptide receptor 1". Al-hussaniy HA, AL-Biati HA (2022-12-02). "The Role of Leptin Hormone, ... Pancreatic polypeptide Neuropeptide Y (endogenous agonist, non subtype selective) Peptide YY GR-231,118 (mixed NPY1 antagonist ... December 1995). "Cloning of a human receptor of the NPY receptor family with high affinity for pancreatic polypeptide and ...
... is a linear polypeptide consisting of 34 amino acids with structural homology to NPY and pancreatic polypeptide. The PP-fold ... Sandström O, El-Salhy M (February 2002). "Ontogeny and the effect of aging on pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY". Peptides ... December 1995). "Cloning of a human receptor of the NPY receptor family with high affinity for pancreatic polypeptide and ... Ekblad E, Sundler F (February 2002). "Distribution of pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY". Peptides. 23 (2): 251-261. doi: ...
Other hormones produced include somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, amylin and ghrelin. Rare and slow growing carcinoid and ... Pancreatic enteroendocrine cells are located in the islets of Langerhans and produce most importantly the hormones insulin and ... and stimulate exocrine pancreatic secretion. Also called Delta cells, D cells secrete somatostatin. found in crypts of the ... "Nutrient-dependent secretion of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide from primary murine K cells". Diabetologia. 52 (2 ...
Depression by cholinergic blockade of pancreatic-polypeptide concentrations in plasma". Gastroenterology. 76 (1): 14-9. doi: ... "Synchronous oscillations in the basal secretion of pancreatic-polypeptide and gastric acid. ...
Some of these include Gastrin, Bombesin, Avian Pancreatic Polypeptide, and cholecystokinin. These can prevent or stimulate the ...
Glicentin-related pancreatic polypeptide (GRPP, 21-50) Oxyntomodulin (OXY or OXM, 53-89) Glucagon (53-81) Glucagon-like peptide ... Amino acid sequences of pancreatic polypeptide, oxyntomodulin, and two glucagon-like peptides". The Journal of Biological ... Genes on human chromosome 2, Pancreatic hormones, Precursor proteins). ...
Amino acid sequences of pancreatic polypeptide, oxyntomodulin, and two glucagon-like peptides". The Journal of Biological ... Glucagon/gastric inhibitory polypeptide/secretin/vasoactive intestinal peptide hormones are a family of evolutionarily related ... One such hormone, glucagon, is widely distributed and produced in the alpha-cells of pancreatic islets. It affects glucose ... ADCYAP1; GCG; GHRH; GIP; SCT; VIP; Mutt V (1988). "Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and related peptides. Isolation and ...
"Cloning and functional expression of cDNAs encoding human and rat pancreatic polypeptide receptors". Proceedings of the ...
... islet amyloid polypeptide (amylin), which kills pancreatic β-cells in type-2 diabetes; transthyretin (TTR), which causes ... Molecular tweezers inhibit islet amyloid polypeptide assembly and toxicity by a new mechanism, ACS Chem. Biol. 2015; 10: 1555- ...
Other functions of motilin include increasing the release of pancreatic polypeptide and somatostatin. Erythromycin and related ... They named this polypeptide "Motilin." Motilin has 22 amino acids and molecular weight of 2698 Daltons. In extract from human ... Motilin is a 22-amino acid polypeptide hormone in the motilin family that, in humans, is encoded by the MLN gene. Motilin is ... The first molecular form is the polypeptide of 22 amino acids. The second form, on the other hand, is larger and contains the ...
April 2011). "Long-acting lipidated analogue of human pancreatic polypeptide is slowly released into circulation". Journal of ... Peptide therapeutics are peptides or polypeptides (oligomers or short polymers of amino acids) which are used to for the ... Thorens B (September 1992). "Expression cloning of the pancreatic beta cell receptor for the gluco-incretin hormone glucagon- ...
F cells which make pancreatic polypeptide, and D1 cells, about which little is known. The names of the cell types vary with ... While being stored in pancreatic beta cells, proinsulin includes both insulin and C-peptide, which is freed before insulin ...
"Characterization of an amidated form of pancreatic polypeptide from the daddy sculpin (Cottus scorpius)". Regulatory Peptides. ... Nguyen, TM; Wright JR, Jr; Nielsen, PF; Conlon, JM (1995). "Characterization of the pancreatic hormones from the Brockmann body ... in the studies of diabetes mellitus is that its endocrine cells are separated from the pancreatic exocrine tissue and can be ... "Structural characterization of peptides derived from prosomatostatins I and II isolated from the pancreatic islets of two ...
Most islet cell tumors secrete pancreatic polypeptide, the clinical significance of which is unknown. Gastrin is secreted by ... Pancreatic islet cell tumors are today the major cause of death in persons with MEN-1. Tumors occur in 60-80% of persons with ... All of these are rare in MEN 1.[citation needed]Nonfunctioning pancreatic tumors also occur in patients with MEN 1 and may be ... which may inactivate pancreatic lipase, leading to diarrhea and steatorrhea. Increased gastrin secretion also leads to peptic ...
"Molecular characterization of a second mouse pancreatic polypeptide receptor and its inactivated human homologue". J Biol Chem ...
... and chromosomal localization of the human pancreatic islet glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor". Diabetes. 44 ... Gastric inhibitory polypeptide, also called glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, is a 42-amino acid polypeptide ... The gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor (GIP-R), also known as the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor, ... gastric+inhibitory+polypeptide+receptor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) This article ...
... and pancreatic polypeptide. During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the ... Five weeks later, the pancreatic alpha and beta cells have begun to emerge. Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the ... As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during ... On the other hand, the stable fetal serum glucose levels could be attributed to the absence of pancreatic signaling initiated ...
... and pancreatic polypeptide. During the early stages of fetal development, the number of pancreatic alpha cells outnumbers the ... An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells. Juxtacrine ... Five weeks later, the pancreatic alpha and beta cells have begun to emerge. Reaching eight to ten weeks into development, the ... As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during ...
... and pancreatic polypeptide receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics ... and pancreatic polypeptide receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics ...
... peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. These receptors are involved in the control of a diverse set of behavioral processes ... and pancreatic polypeptide receptors". Pharmacol. Rev. 50 (1): 143-50. PMID 9549761. Heilig M (August 2004). "The NPY system in ...
"Isolation and partial characterization of pancreatic polypeptide-like material in the brain of the blowfly Calliphora vomitoria ... be structurally analogous to a prominent mammalian hormone and it raises the possibility of these insulin-like or polypeptide- ...
December 1993). "Pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide: first three-dimensional structure of a member of the mammalian trefoil ... "Shallow" knots in which the tail of the polypeptide chain only passes through a loop by a few residues are uncommon, but "deep ... spasmolytic polypeptide (SP) (TFF2), a protein of about 115 residues that inhibits gastrointestinal motility and gastric acid ...
... and pancreatic polypeptide inhibition of identified green fluorescent protein-expressing GABA neurons in the hypothalamic ... and pancreatic polypeptide receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 50 (1): 143-150. PMID 9549761. Acuna-Goycolea C, Tamamaki N, ...
... is a biologically active pancreatic polypeptide 32-35 with gastrointestinal functions. Thr-Arg-Pro-Arg, Thr-Lys-Pro-Lys, Thr- ...
... delta cells which secrete somatostatin and the PP-cells which secrete pancreatic polypeptide. Pancreatic progenitor cells have ... PP-cells produce pancreatic polypeptide which is a regulator of endocrine and exocrine secretions in the pancreas and gut. ... Pancreatic progenitor cells are Nkx2.2+/Nkx6.1+/P48+ cells. Endocrine progenitor cells develop from Pancreatic Progenitor cells ... Pancreatic polypeptide) precursor cells and later PP-cells. Endocrine progenitors are also responsible for forming epsilon ...
... and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice ... Beta cell - Beta cells (β cells) are a type of cell found in pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete insulin. Beta cells ... into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum ...
... a novel early-response gene transcriptionally induced by pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide in a pancreatic ...
The pancreas also secretes vasoactive intestinal peptide and pancreatic polypeptide. Enterochromaffin cells of the pancreas ... forming the main pancreatic duct. Usually, the duct of the dorsal bud regresses, leaving the main pancreatic duct. Pancreatic ... the main pancreatic duct and a smaller accessory pancreatic duct run through the body of the pancreas. The main pancreatic duct ... The dorsal pancreatic bud forms the neck, body, and tail of the developed pancreas, and the ventral pancreatic bud forms the ...
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas. It regulates pancreatic secretion ... Pancreatic Polypeptide". Essentials of Human Physiology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-24. Pancreatic+polypeptide at ... The secretion of pancreatic polypeptide may be increased by pancreatic tumours (insulin, glucagon), by Verner-Morrison syndrome ... Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits pancreatic secretion of fluid, bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes. It also stimulates gastric ...
where to buy 59763-91-6(PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE, HUMAN).Also offer free database of 59763-91-6(PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE, HUMAN) ... Physical properties of Pancreatic polypeptide: (1)ACD/LogP: 7.99; (2)# of Rule of 5 Violations: 1; (3)ACD/LogD (pH 5.5): 6.95 ... The Pancreatic polypeptide, with CAS registry number 59763-91-6, belongs to the following product category: peptide. It has the ... The PolyPeptide Laboratories Group is committed to total customer satisfaction. With more than 50 years of experience and ...
View and buy high quality Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) from Tocris Bioscience. NPY Y4 agonist; involved in gastrointestinal ... Biological Activity for Pancreatic Polypeptide (human). Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) is an endogenous high affinity agonist ... Keywords: Pancreatic Polypeptide (human), Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) supplier, NPY, Y4, agonist, involved, gastrointestinal ... Reviews for Pancreatic Polypeptide (human). There are currently no reviews for this product. Be the first to review Pancreatic ...
These results indicate that pancreatic polypeptide is capable of acting centrally in the brain to stimulate gastric acid and ... The present study was carried out to investigate the central effects of pancreatic polypeptide on gastric secretion and gastric ... Intracisternal injection of rat pancreatic polypeptide (62.5, 250, and 1000 ng/rat) into pylorus-ligated rats resulted in a ... In contrast, intraperitoneal injection of even higher doses of pancreatic polypeptide (250, 1000, and 2500 ng/rat) failed to ...
Dive into the research topics of Pancreatic polypeptide.. Together they form a unique fingerprint. ...
Description: A sandwich ELISA kit for detection of Pancreatic Polypeptide from Human in samples from blood, serum, plasma, cell ... Description: A sandwich ELISA kit for detection of Pancreatic Polypeptide from Human in samples from blood, serum, plasma, cell ... Description: A competitive Inhibition ELISA kit for detection of Pancreatic Polypeptide from Human in samples from blood, serum ... Description: A competitive Inhibition ELISA kit for detection of Pancreatic Polypeptide from Human in samples from blood, serum ...
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP). Pancreatic polypeptide is produced by the pancreas and helps control the release of other ... pancreatic polypeptide.. Hormones. Hormones are the bodys chemical messages that travel in the blood to other tissues or ... Pancreatic NET (pNET). The location of the primary tumour (where the NET started) is the pancreas. ...
84 Pancreatic polypeptide is also secreted from the endocrine pancreas. Pancreatic polypeptide regulates gastric motility, ... Systemic administration of pancreatic polypeptide reduces food intake and weight gain.85 The anorectic effect of pancreatic ... Characterization of the effects of pancreatic polypeptide in the regulation of energy balance. Gastroenterology 2003; 124: 1325 ... ARC, arcuate nucleus; CCK, cholecystokinin; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; IL-6, interleukin-6; PP, pancreatic polypeptide; ...
... pancreatic polypeptide; peptide YY; polyunsaturated fatty acid; proopiomelanocortin; saturated fatty acid; visual analog scale ...
National Rise of Primary Pancreatic Carcinoid Tumors: Comparison to Functional and Nonfunctional Pancreatic Neuroendocrine ... and several polypeptide hormones. These tumors can metastasize to bone and may be associated with atypical carcinoid syndrome, ... Pancreatic Neuroendocrine (Islet Cell) Tumor Imaging * Systemic Treatment of Metastatic Gastroenteropancreatic Neuroendocrine ... Kelemen D, Horváth OP, Juhász Z, Vajda P, Pintér A. Pancreatic carcinoid in childhood. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2009 Aug. 19 (4):268 ...
Pancreatic polypeptide; PYY: Peptide YY. ...
Primary pancreatic α, β, δ, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells are reliable cell models for diabetes research. However, the ... Discrimination of Single Living Rat Pancreatic α, β, δ, and Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) Cells Using Raman Spectroscopy Xi Rong ... "Discrimination of Single Living Rat Pancreatic α, β, δ, and Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) Cells Using Raman Spectroscopy," Appl. ... It has been speculated that primary pancreatic α, β, δ, and PP cells can be identified and separated from each other according ...
Also inhibits the secretion of pancreatic polypeptide.[13]. A large number of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulate the ... Pancreatic islets, the lighter tissue among the darker, acinar pancreatic tissue, hemalum-eosin stain. ... The pancreatic islets constitute 1-2% of the pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow.[2][3] The pancreatic islets ... The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (hormone-producing) ...
Gut hormones, such as peptide YY, pancreatic polypeptide, glucagon-like peptide-1, oxyntomodulin, and ghrelin, are modulated by ... Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP). PP is secreted from PP cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans in response to a meal. ... Pancreatic Polypeptide-Fold Peptides. The PP-fold family comprises neuropeptide Y (NPY), peptide YY (PYY), and pancreatic ... R. L. Batterham, C. W. Le Roux, M. A. Cohen et al., "Pancreatic polypeptide reduces appetite and food intake in humans," The ...
The Role of Pancreatic Polypeptide in T3cDM. Dana Andersen. 4:20 p.m.. Summary/Keynote Lecture. 4:35 p.m.. Genomic Associations ... Pancreatic Cancer: The Problem. Margaret Tempero. Session 2: Chronic Pancreatitis as a Risk Factor for PDAC. Moderator/ ... Radiologic and Cytogenetic Detection of Pre-malignant Pancreatic Lesions. Mimi Canto. 9:15 a.m.. Follow-up or Resection of ... The etiology of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is poorly understood, and treatment is largely ineffectual because of ...
Development of Dual-Aptamers for Constructing Sandwich-Type Pancreatic Polypeptide Assay. ACS Sensors 2017, 2 (2) , 308-315. ... Nanotechnology and pancreatic cancer management: State of the art and further perspectives. World Journal of Gastrointestinal ... Nanoparticle-enabled blood tests for early detection of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Cancer Letters 2020, 470 , 191-196. ... Personalized Graphene Oxide-Protein Corona in the Human Plasma of Pancreatic Cancer Patients. Frontiers in Bioengineering and ...
Orexin Neurons Express a Functional Pancreatic Polypeptide Y4 Receptor Rebecca E. Campbell, M. Susan Smith, Summer E. Allen, ...
Pancreatic polypeptide controls energy homeostasis via Npy6r signaling in the suprachiasmatic nucleus in mice. Cell Metab. 19, ... a) In situ hybridization histochemistry showing the expression of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (Vip) mRNA in the ...
Pancreatic Polypeptide/PP Antibody. NB100-1793. Goat Polyclonal Species Human, Mouse, Rat. Applications Flow, IB, ICC/IF ...
pancreatic polypeptide. Delayed gastric emptying occurs in up to 50% of patients with chronic diabetes and is associated with ... Adrian TE, Bloom SR, Bryant MG, et al. Distribution and release of human pancreatic polypeptide. Gut1976;17:940-4. ... Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) response to food in type I diabetics with and without diabetic autonomic neuropathy. ... Loba JM, Saryusz-Wolska M, Czupryniak L, et al. Pancreatic polypeptide secretion in diabetic patients with delayed gastric ...
ACTH, gastrin, βhCG, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, serotonin, histamine, tachykinins. *Parathyroid tumor - calcium and ... Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide secreting tumor (VIPoma) (~2%) - Verner-Morrison syndrome *Watery diarrhea, hypokalemia, ... Insulinoma and other pancreatic tumors - chromogranin A, glucagon, serum insulin, and C-peptide levels ...
L-cell, glucagon-like peptide and pancreatic polypeptide/peptide YY-producing tumor. ...
Learn about Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Neoplasms (pNENs), including symptoms, causes, and treatments. If you or a loved one is ... PPoma secrete pancreatic polypeptide, but usually do not cause any discernable symptoms. ... Pancreatic cancer as a general term usually refers to pancreatic adenocarcinoma, an aggressive malignant cancer with a poor ... When eventually diagnosed, a pancreatic adenocarcinoma may be advanced. Symptoms that can be associated with pancreatic ...
Rectal carcinoid tumors often produce polypeptides (PPs), polypeptide Y, neuropeptide Y, and other peptides, but none of the ... Pancreatic Neuroendocrine (Islet Cell) Tumor Imaging * Thymic Tumors * Systemic Treatment of Metastatic Gastroenteropancreatic ...
Glucagon, catecholamine and pancreatic polypeptide secretion in type I diabetic recipients of pancreas allografts. J Clin ... animals underwent a hyperglycemic-pancreatic clamp where both insulin and glucagon were replaced at basal levels with an ...
Insulin / Gastrin / Glucagon / Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) / Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) / Somatostatin / Secretin / ...
Dysregulated autophagy in pancreatic β cells due to hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and inflammation is associated with ... Dysregulated autophagy in pancreatic β-cells due to hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and inflammation is associated with ... Autophagy defends pancreatic β cells from human islet amyloid polypeptide-induced toxicity. J. Clin. Invest. 124, 3489-3500. ... 2014). Human IAPP-induced pancreatic β cell toxicity and its regulation by autophagy. J. Clin. Invest. 124, 3634-3644. doi: ...
Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) Pancreatic Polypeptide Hormone Pancreatic Prohormone Pharm Action. Gastrointestinal Agents. ... A lack of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) has been associated with OBESITY in rats and mice.. Terms. Pancreatic Polypeptide ... It is the precursor of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) and a pancreatic C-terminal peptide or pancreatic icosapeptide.. Terms. ... Pancreatic Polypeptide Preferred Concept UI. M0015804. Registry Number. 59763-91-6. Scope Note. A 36-amino acid pancreatic ...
Pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide (PSP): III. Pharmacology of a new porcine pancreatic polypeptide with spasmolytic and ... 1H NMR-based determination of the secondary structure of porcine pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide: one of a new family of & ... Expression of the breast cancer associated gene pS2 and the pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide gene (hSP) in diffuse type of ... The amino acid sequence of pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide. 1985, Pubmed Thim, A surprising sequence homology. 1988, Pubmed ...
Extracellular vesicles from human pancreatic islets suppress human islet amyloid polypeptide amyloid formation. Proc Natl Acad ...
  • Hormones produced within the gut which can be measured in the blood - vasoactive intestinal peptide, gastrin, glucagon, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • A 36-amino acid pancreatic hormone that is secreted mainly by endocrine cells found at the periphery of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS and adjacent to cells containing SOMATOSTATIN and GLUCAGON . (nih.gov)
  • Other endocrine cell types ( producing somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide) are also found in close association with the bile-duct-derived β cells, but exocrine pancreatic tissue is not present. (bath.ac.uk)
  • The alpha (or A) cells secrete the hormone glucagon , the beta (or B) cells secrete insulin , the delta (or D) cells secrete somatostatin , and the pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide . (daviddarling.info)
  • The secretion of pancreatic polypeptide may be increased by pancreatic tumours (insulin, glucagon), by Verner-Morrison syndrome, and by gastrinoma Polypeptide-p Pancreas List of human cell types derived from the germ layers Boel E, Schwartz TW, Norris KE, Fiil NP (April 1984). (wikipedia.org)
  • The pancreatic effects of the "twincretin" tirzepatide (Mounjaro) appear to depend at least as much on the drug's agonist activity on the glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) receptor as on its glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor activity. (medscape.com)
  • The investigators also determined which incretin receptor plays the major role in stimulating glucagon secretion from isolated human pancreatic islet cells. (medscape.com)
  • GIP receptor agonism appears important for inducing both insulin and glucagon secretion from isolated human pancreatic islet cells. (medscape.com)
  • Hypoglycemia is a real risk, but the balance of evidence (for example, with respect to pancreatitis with dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors or with glucagon -like polypeptide-1 agonists) from the follow-up studies suggests that there isn't much, if any, signal for safety problems. (medscape.com)
  • It regulates pancreatic secretion activities, and also impacts liver glycogen storage and gastrointestinal secretion. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] Pancreatic polypeptide regulates pancreatic secretion activities by both endocrine and exocrine tissues. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits pancreatic secretion of fluid, bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes. (wikipedia.org)
  • It is the antagonist of cholecystokinin and opposes pancreatic secretion stimulated by cholecystokinin. (wikipedia.org)
  • The administration of atropine, the vagotomy, blocks pancreatic polypeptide secretion after meals. (wikipedia.org)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Stimulation of gastric secretion and enhanced gastric mucosal damage following central administration of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) in rats. (duke.edu)
  • The present study was carried out to investigate the central effects of pancreatic polypeptide on gastric secretion and gastric ulcer formation in conscious rats. (duke.edu)
  • Intracisternal injection of rat pancreatic polypeptide (62.5, 250, and 1000 ng/rat) into pylorus-ligated rats resulted in a dose-dependent stimulation of gastric acid and pepsin secretion. (duke.edu)
  • In contrast, intraperitoneal injection of even higher doses of pancreatic polypeptide (250, 1000, and 2500 ng/rat) failed to increase gastric secretion. (duke.edu)
  • These results indicate that pancreatic polypeptide is capable of acting centrally in the brain to stimulate gastric acid and pepsin secretion through a vagal, muscarinic pathway and in so doing exerts an ulcerogenic action on the gastric mucosa. (duke.edu)
  • Also inhibits the secretion of pancreatic polypeptide . (wikipedia.org)
  • Pharmacology of a new porcine pancreatic polypeptide with spasmolytic and gastric acid secretion inhibitory effects. (xenbase.org)
  • Pertussis toxin uncoupling-based studies have shown that Gαi and Gαo can inhibit insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • The researchers determined which incretin receptor (GLP-1 or GIP) tirzepatide uses to stimulate insulin secretion in isolated human pancreatic islet cells from donors. (medscape.com)
  • International Union of Pharmacology recommendations for the nomenclature of neuropeptide Y, peptide YY, and pancreatic polypeptide receptors. (tocris.com)
  • The PP-fold family comprises neuropeptide Y (NPY), peptide YY (PYY), and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). They are composed of a chain of 36 amino acids residue and share amino acid homology, amidated C-terminal ends. (hindawi.com)
  • It is the precursor of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) and a pancreatic C-terminal peptide or pancreatic icosapeptide. (nih.gov)
  • Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • The syndrome results from vasoactive substances (including serotonin , bradykinin, histamine, prostaglandins, polypeptide hormones) secreted by the tumor, which is typically a metastatic intestinal carcinoid. (msdmanuals.com)
  • 1 A new paper 1 reports on how the loss of autophagy along with beta cell expression of IAPP (amyloid islet polypeptide, also called amylin), a 37 amino acid protein coexpressed and released by pancreatic beta cells along with insulin, results in the death (apoptosis) of beta cells. (life-enhancement.com)
  • Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a polypeptide secreted by PP cells in the endocrine pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • It has a similar structure to neuropeptide Y. Pancreatic polypeptide is synthesised and secreted by PP cells (also known as gamma cells or F cells) of the pancreatic islets of the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans . (wikipedia.org)
  • [1] The pancreatic islets constitute 1-2% of the pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow. (wikipedia.org)
  • [2] [3] The pancreatic islets are arranged in density routes throughout the human pancreas, and are important in the metabolism of glucose . (wikipedia.org)
  • :928 Each islet is separated from the surrounding pancreatic tissue by a thin fibrous connective tissue capsule which is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout the rest of the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because the beta cells in the pancreatic islets are selectively destroyed by an autoimmune process in type 1 diabetes , clinicians and researchers are actively pursuing islet transplantation as a means of restoring physiological beta cell function, which would offer an alternative to a complete pancreas transplant or artificial pancreas . (wikipedia.org)
  • Pancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms (pNENs) are an increasingly common group of malignancies that arise within the endocrine tissue of the pancreas. (rarediseases.org)
  • What cells of the pancreas secrete pancreatic polypeptide? (histology-world.com)
  • Expression is particularly high in the pancreas where it is thought to play a role in the differentiation of pancreatic beta cells. (embl.de)
  • The protein secreted in the pancreas and that which interacts with the hypothalamus to regulate appetite is referred to as pancreatic polypeptide. (curehows.com)
  • Cancer that starts in the pancreas is called pancreatic cancer. (medicinenet.com)
  • Blood was sampled for ghrelin, growth hormone (GH), and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) levels. (bmj.com)
  • Polypeptide hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells that regulates carbohydrate homeostasis. (drugfuture.com)
  • Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) is an endogenous high affinity agonist for human NPY Y 4 receptor (K i = 0.056 nM). (tocris.com)
  • It has been recognized that the cytoarchitecture of pancreatic islets differs between species. (wikipedia.org)
  • Electrical activity of pancreatic islets has been studied using patch clamp techniques. (wikipedia.org)
  • The beta cells of the pancreatic islets secrete insulin , and so play a significant role in diabetes . (wikipedia.org)
  • Results: STZ treatment induced more severe pathological alterations in the pancreatic islets and T1DM symptoms in α-syn-overexpressing mice than in wild-type mice, at one month and three months after STZ injections. (lu.se)
  • Genetic analysis has recently identified four pancreatic cancer subtypes -- squamous, pancreatic progenitor, aberrantly differentiated endocrine exocrine (ADEX), and immunogenic. (medicinenet.com)
  • The involvement of autophagy in the development of diabetes is corroborated by affecting the physiology and role of pancreatic β cells and the homeostasis of glucose. (frontiersin.org)
  • Endocrinologically active tumors of the diffuse peripheral endocrine or paracrine system (neuroendocrine tumors) produce various amines and polypeptides with corresponding symptoms and signs, including carcinoid syndrome. (msdmanuals.com)
  • This precursor is cleaved to produce pancreatic polypeptide, pancreatic icosapeptide, and a 5- to 7- amino-acid oligopeptide. (wikipedia.org)
  • Oestrogen-induced pS2 protein is similar to pancreatic spasmolytic polypeptide and the kringle domain. (xenbase.org)
  • pancreatic polypeptide and amylin as discussed below. (curehows.com)
  • A number of pS2 similar peptides, designated as P-domain peptides, have been described, notably the porcine ( PSP ), murine ( mSP ), and human (hSP) spasmolytic polypeptides, which correspond to duplicated pS2 proteins. (xenbase.org)
  • Resonance Group, Chemical of the globular proteins bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) and Center, Lund University ubiquitin in aqueous solution. (lu.se)
  • This stimulatory effect of centrally administered pancreatic polypeptide was completely blocked by vagotomy and by pretreatment with atropine. (duke.edu)
  • Symptoms and signs of pancreatic cancer in its late stage include weight loss and back pain . (medicinenet.com)
  • Approximately 95 percent of pancreatic malignancies are adenocarcinomas, for which the prognoses are in general worse than the prognosis of G1- and G2 pNENs. (rarediseases.org)
  • Most pancreatic cancers are adenocarcinomas. (medicinenet.com)
  • Pancreatic polypeptide consists of 36 amino acids. (wikipedia.org)
  • A secreted polypeptide of about 100 amino acids, depending on the species, from the PANCREASE . (nih.gov)
  • If you know of a relevant reference for Pancreatic Polypeptide (human), please let us know . (tocris.com)
  • Currently there are no citations for Pancreatic Polypeptide (human). (tocris.com)
  • Do you know of a great paper that uses Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) from Tocris? (tocris.com)
  • Be the first to review Pancreatic Polypeptide (human) and earn rewards! (tocris.com)
  • Have you used Pancreatic Polypeptide (human)? (tocris.com)
  • Description: A competitive inhibition quantitative ELISA assay kit for detection of Human Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) in samples from serum, plasma or other biological fluids. (maracpe.org)
  • Description: Quantitativesandwich ELISA kit for measuring Human Pancreatic Polypeptide, PP in samples from serum, plasma. (maracpe.org)
  • Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Human Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP). (maracpe.org)
  • Description: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the Double-antibody Sandwich method for detection of Human Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) in samples from n/a with no significant corss-reactivity with analogues from other species. (maracpe.org)
  • elevated human chorionic gonadotropin and pancreatic polypeptide levels are occasionally present with carcinoids. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Primary pancreatic α, β, δ, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) cells are reliable cell models for diabetes research. (optica.org)
  • A pancreatic islet, showing beta cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dysregulated autophagy in pancreatic β cells due to hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and inflammation is associated with diabetes and accompanied by dysregulated autophagy in insulin target tissues and the progression of diabetic complications. (frontiersin.org)
  • A lack of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) has been associated with OBESITY in rats and mice. (nih.gov)
  • Plasma pancreatic polypeptide has been shown to be reduced in conditions associated with increased food intake and elevated in anorexia nervosa. (wikipedia.org)
  • 6 An alternative, more gut specific, assessment of autonomic tone is by measurement of plasma pancreatic polypeptide (PP) in response to sham feeding. (bmj.com)
  • With respect to cancers ( pancreatic cancer , bladder cancer , cancers associated with insulin), the follow-up studies (to the extent that they have been done) suggest that there is probably no signal. (medscape.com)
  • Previously, we have elucidated the potential of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in facilitating PD progression, involving aggregation of both alpha-synuclein (α-syn) and islet amyloid polypeptide in the pancreatic and brain tissues. (lu.se)
  • Pancreatic cancer as a general term usually refers to pancreatic adenocarcinoma, an aggressive malignant cancer with a poor prognosis. (rarediseases.org)
  • Few patients diagnosed with pancreatic cancer have identifiable risk factors. (medicinenet.com)
  • Pancreatic cancer is highly lethal because it grows and spreads rapidly and often is diagnosed in its late stages. (medicinenet.com)
  • Pancreatic cancer may be difficult to diagnose until late in its course. (medicinenet.com)
  • In some cases, painless jaundice may be a symptom of early pancreatic cancer that can be cured with surgery. (medicinenet.com)
  • Chemotherapy for metastatic pancreatic cancer can extend the life and improve the quality of life, but it rarely cures the patient. (medicinenet.com)
  • Patients diagnosed with pancreatic cancer are encouraged to seek out clinical trials that will ultimately improve pancreatic cancer treatment. (medicinenet.com)
  • Many organizations exist to help provide information and support for patients and families fighting pancreatic cancer. (medicinenet.com)
  • In addition, peripheral administration of polypeptide has been shown to decrease food intake in rodents. (wikipedia.org)
  • When pancreatic polypeptide is administered, there is 25% reduction in energy intake within 24 hours. (curehows.com)
  • The small bile ducts which connec between the cystic duct and liver are the ducts of Luschka The duct of Wirsung is the pancreatic duct. (histology-world.com)