A 36-amino acid peptide present in many organs and in many sympathetic noradrenergic neurons. It has vasoconstrictor and natriuretic activity and regulates local blood flow, glandular secretion, and smooth muscle activity. The peptide also stimulates feeding and drinking behavior and influences secretion of pituitary hormones.
Cell surface proteins that bind neuropeptide Y with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells.
A 36-amino acid peptide produced by the L cells of the distal small intestine and colon. Peptide YY inhibits gastric and pancreatic secretion.
Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.
Cell surface receptors that bind specific neuropeptides with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Many neuropeptides are also hormones outside of the nervous system.
A nucleus located in the middle hypothalamus in the most ventral part of the third ventricle near the entrance of the infundibular recess. Its small cells are in close contact with the ependyma.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
A secreted protein of approximately 131 amino acids that is related to AGOUTI SIGNALING PROTEIN and is also an antagonist of MELANOCORTIN RECEPTOR activity. It is expressed primarily in the HYPOTHALAMUS and the ADRENAL GLAND. As a paracrine signaling molecule, AGRP is known to regulate food intake and body weight. Elevated AGRP has been associated with OBESITY.
A neuropeptide of 29-30 amino acids depending on the species. Galanin is widely distributed throughout the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and INTESTINES. There are various subtypes of GALANIN RECEPTORS implicating roles of galanin in regulating FOOD INTAKE; pain perception; memory; and other neuroendocrine functions.
A 36-amino acid pancreatic hormone that is secreted mainly by endocrine cells found at the periphery of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS and adjacent to cells containing SOMATOSTATIN and GLUCAGON. Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), when administered peripherally, can suppress gastric secretion, gastric emptying, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and appetite. A lack of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) has been associated with OBESITY in rats and mice.
Agents that are used to stimulate appetite. These drugs are frequently used to treat anorexia associated with cancer and AIDS.
A 30-kDa protein synthesized primarily in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND and the HYPOTHALAMUS. It is also found in the skin and other peripheral tissues. Depending on species and tissues, POMC is cleaved by PROHORMONE CONVERTASES yielding various active peptides including ACTH; BETA-LIPOTROPIN; ENDORPHINS; MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONES; and others (GAMMA-LPH; CORTICOTROPIN-LIKE INTERMEDIATE LOBE PEPTIDE; N-terminal peptide of POMC or NPP).
A highly basic, 28 amino acid neuropeptide released from intestinal mucosa. It has a wide range of biological actions affecting the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems and is neuroprotective. It binds special receptors (RECEPTORS, VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL PEPTIDE).
An eleven-amino acid neurotransmitter that appears in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is involved in transmission of PAIN, causes rapid contractions of the gastrointestinal smooth muscle, and modulates inflammatory and immune responses.
The consumption of edible substances.
Calcitonin gene-related peptide. A 37-amino acid peptide derived from the calcitonin gene. It occurs as a result of alternative processing of mRNA from the calcitonin gene. The neuropeptide is widely distributed in neural tissue of the brain, gut, perivascular nerves, and other tissue. The peptide produces multiple biological effects and has both circulatory and neurotransmitter modes of action. In particular, it is a potent endogenous vasodilator.
Injections into the cerebral ventricles.
A molluscan neuroactive peptide which induces a fast excitatory depolarizing response due to direct activation of amiloride-sensitive SODIUM CHANNELS. (From Nature 1995; 378(6558): 730-3)
Peptide hormones produced by NEURONS of various regions in the HYPOTHALAMUS. They are released into the pituitary portal circulation to stimulate or inhibit PITUITARY GLAND functions. VASOPRESSIN and OXYTOCIN, though produced in the hypothalamus, are not included here for they are transported down the AXONS to the POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY before being released into the portal circulation.
Cell surface receptors that bind signalling molecules released by neurons and convert these signals into intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Neurotransmitter is used here in its most general sense, including not only messengers that act to regulate ion channels, but also those which act on second messenger systems and those which may act at a distance from their release sites. Included are receptors for neuromodulators, neuroregulators, neuromediators, and neurohumors, whether or not located at synapses.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Ingestion of a greater than optimal quantity of food.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
Behavioral responses or sequences associated with eating including modes of feeding, rhythmic patterns of eating, and time intervals.
A 16-kDa peptide hormone secreted from WHITE ADIPOCYTES. Leptin serves as a feedback signal from fat cells to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM in regulation of food intake, energy balance, and fat storage.
An essential amino acid that is physiologically active in the L-form.
A peptide of about 41 amino acids that stimulates the release of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. CRH is synthesized by neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, CRH stimulates the release of ACTH from the PITUITARY GLAND. CRH can also be synthesized in other tissues, such as PLACENTA; ADRENAL MEDULLA; and TESTIS.
Nucleus in the anterior part of the HYPOTHALAMUS.
Agents that are used to suppress appetite.
The lack or loss of APPETITE accompanied by an aversion to food and the inability to eat. It is the defining characteristic of the disorder ANOREXIA NERVOSA.
Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.
The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system.
Physiologic mechanisms which regulate or control the appetite and food intake.
Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
An aggregation of cells in the middle hypothalamus dorsal to the ventromedial nucleus and bordering the THIRD VENTRICLE.
A type of chromogranin which was initially characterized in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND. It is found in several species including human, rat, mouse, and others. Secretogranin II is an acidic protein of 559 to 586 amino acid residues that can stimulate DOPAMINE release from neurons and release of pituitary GONADOTROPINS.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Hormones secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND including those from the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), and the ill-defined intermediate lobe. Structurally, they include small peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins. They are under the regulation of neural signals (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) or neuroendocrine signals (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) from the hypothalamus as well as feedback from their targets such as ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANDROGENS; ESTROGENS.
A 13-amino acid peptide derived from proteolytic cleavage of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE, the N-terminal segment of ACTH. ACTH (1-13) is amidated at the C-terminal to form ACTH (1-13)NH2 which in turn is acetylated to form alpha-MSH in the secretory granules. Alpha-MSH stimulates the synthesis and distribution of MELANIN in MELANOCYTES in mammals and MELANOPHORES in lower vertebrates.
Natural recurring desire for food. Alterations may be induced by APPETITE DEPRESSANTS or APPETITE STIMULANTS.
Compounds with BENZENE fused to AZEPINES.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
A multi-function neuropeptide that acts throughout the body by elevating intracellular cyclic AMP level via its interaction with PACAP RECEPTORS. Although first isolated from hypothalamic extracts and named for its action on the pituitary, it is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. PACAP is important in the control of endocrine and homeostatic processes, such as secretion of pituitary and gut hormones and food intake.
Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.
Cell surface proteins that bind gastrointestinal hormones with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Most gastrointestinal hormones also act as neurotransmitters so these receptors are also present in the central and peripheral nervous systems.
The male sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and none of the female gametes in humans and in some other male-heterogametic species in which the homologue of the X chromosome has been retained.
A 28-amino acid, acylated, orexigenic peptide that is a ligand for GROWTH HORMONE SECRETAGOGUE RECEPTORS. Ghrelin is widely expressed but primarily in the stomach in the adults. Ghrelin acts centrally to stimulate growth hormone secretion and food intake, and peripherally to regulate energy homeostasis. Its large precursor protein, known as appetite-regulating hormone or motilin-related peptide, contains ghrelin and obestatin.
A subclass of purinergic P2Y receptors that have a preference for ATP and ADP. The activated P2Y1 receptor signals through the G-PROTEIN-coupled activation of PHOSPHOLIPASE C and mobilization of intracellular CALCIUM.
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
A system of NEURONS that has the specialized function to produce and secrete HORMONES, and that constitutes, in whole or in part, an ENDOCRINE SYSTEM or organ.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
The largest family of cell surface receptors involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION. They share a common structure and signal through HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEINS.
A peptide, of about 33 amino acids, secreted by the upper INTESTINAL MUCOSA and also found in the central nervous system. It causes gallbladder contraction, release of pancreatic exocrine (or digestive) enzymes, and affects other gastrointestinal functions. Cholecystokinin may be the mediator of satiety.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Area in the hypothalamus bounded medially by the mammillothalamic tract and the anterior column of the FORNIX (BRAIN). The medial edge of the INTERNAL CAPSULE and the subthalamic region form its lateral boundary. It contains the lateral hypothalamic nucleus, tuberomammillary nucleus, lateral tuberal nuclei, and fibers of the MEDIAL FOREBRAIN BUNDLE.
Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the INFERIOR HORN OF THE LATERAL VENTRICLE of the TEMPORAL LOBE. The amygdala is part of the limbic system.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.

Effects of stimulants of abuse on extrapyramidal and limbic neuropeptide Y systems. (1/1622)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), an apparent neuromodulating neuropeptide, has been linked to dopamine systems and dopamine-related psychotic disorders. Because of this association, we determined and compared the effects of psychotomimetic drugs on extrapyramidal and limbic NPY systems. We observed that phencyclidine, methamphetamine (METH), (+)methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and cocaine, but not (-)MDMA, similarly reduced the striatal content of NPY-like immunoreactivity from 54% (phencyclidine) to 74% [(+) MDMA] of control. The effects of METH on NPY levels in the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra were characterized in greater detail. We observed that METH decreased NPY levels in specific regions of the nucleus accumbens and the caudate, but had no effect on NPY in the globus pallidus or the substantia nigra. The dopamine D1 receptor antagonist SCH-23390 blocked these effects of METH, suggesting that NPY levels throughout the nucleus accumbens and the caudate are regulated through D1 pathways. The D2 receptor antagonist eticlopride did not appear to alter the METH effect, but this was difficult to determine because eticlopride decreased NPY levels by itself. A single dose of METH was sufficient to lower NPY levels, in some, but not all, regions examined. The effects on NPY levels after multiple METH administrations were substantially greater and persisted up to 48 h after treatment; this suggests that synthesis of this neuropeptide may be suppressed even after the drug is gone. These findings suggest that NPY systems may contribute to the D1 receptor-mediated effects of the psychostimulants.  (+info)

Divergent effects of intracerebroventricular and peripheral leptin administration on feeding and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y in lean and obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. (2/1622)

Leptin inhibits feeding and decreases body weight. It may act partly by inhibiting hypothalamic neurons that express neuropeptide Y, a powerful inducer of feeding and obesity. These neuropeptide Y neurons express the Ob-Rb leptin receptor and are overactive in the fatty (fa/fa) Zucker rat. The fa mutation affects the extracellular domain of the leptin receptor, but its impact on leptin action and neuropeptide Y neuronal activity is not fully known. We compared the effects of three doses of leptin given intracerebroventricularly and three doses of leptin injected intraperitoneally on food intake and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y mRNA, in lean and fatty Zucker rats. In lean rats, 4-h food intake was reduced in a dose-related fashion (P<0.01) by all intracerebroventricular leptin doses and by intraperitoneal doses of 300 and 600 microg/kg. Neuropeptide Y mRNA levels were reduced by 28% and 21% after the highest intracerebroventricular and intraperitoneal doses respectively (P<0. 01 for both). In fatty rats, only the highest intracerebroventricular leptin dose reduced food intake (by 22%; P<0. 01). Neuropeptide Y mRNA levels were 100% higher in fatty rats than in lean animals, and were reduced by 18% (P<0.01) after the highest intracerebroventricular leptin dose. Intraperitoneal injection had no effect on food intake and neuropeptide Y mRNA. The fa/fa Zucker rat is therefore less sensitive to leptin given intracerebroventricularly and particularly intraperitoneally, suggesting that the fa mutation interferes both with leptin's direct effects on neurons and its transport into the central nervous system. Obesity in the fa/fa Zucker rat may be partly due to the inability of leptin to inhibit hypothalamic neuropeptide Y neurons.  (+info)

Interactions between the neuropeptide Y system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. (3/1622)

The aim of this paper is to review the present knowledge of interactions between the neuropeptide Y (NPY) system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. On the basis of in vitro and in vivo studies of various animal species, we review the effects of NPY on all levels of HPA axis activity. We also describe the effects of glucocorticosteroids on the NPY system in the hypothalamus, including interactions between glucocorticosteroids and insulin. On the basis of available literature, we discuss the role of these interactions in the control of food intake and in the pathogenesis of obesity.  (+info)

Nonsaturable entry of neuropeptide Y into brain. (4/1622)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is found and is active both in the periphery and brain, but its crossing of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in either direction has not been measured. We used multiple time-regression analysis to determine that radioactively labeled NPY injected intravenously entered the brain much faster than albumin, with an influx constant of 2.0 x 10(-4) ml. g. -1. min-1. However, this rate of entry was not significantly changed by injection of 10 microgram/mouse of excess NPY, by leptin, or by food deprivation. HPLC showed that most of the NPY entering the brain was intact, and capillary depletion with and without washout showed that the NPY did not remain bound to endothelial cells or associated with vascular elements. Perfusion in a blood-free solution eliminated binding to serum proteins as an explanation for the lack of saturation. Efflux of labeled NPY from the brain occurred at the same rate as albumin, reflecting the normal rate of reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid. Thus NPY can readily enter the brain from blood by diffusion across the BBB.  (+info)

Characterization of nodular neuronal heterotopia in children. (5/1622)

Neuronal heterotopia are seen in various pathologies and are associated with intractable epilepsy. We examined brain tissue from four children with subcortical or periventricular nodular heterotopia of different aetiologies: one with severe epilepsy following focal brain trauma at 17 weeks gestation, one with hemimegalencephaly and intractable epilepsy, one with focal cortical dysplasia and intractable epilepsy, and one dysmorphic term infant with associated hydrocephalus and polymicrogyria. The connectivity of nodules was investigated using histological and carbocyanine dye (DiI) tracing techniques. DiI crystal placement adjacent to heterotopic nodules revealed numerous DiI-labelled fibres within a 2-3 mm radius of the crystals. Although we observed labelled fibres closely surrounding nodules, the majority did not penetrate them. Placement of DiI crystals within nodules also identified a limited number of projections out of the nodules and in one case there was evidence for connectivity between adjacent nodules. The cellular and neurochemical composition of nodules was also examined using immunohistochemistry for calretinin and neuropeptide Y (NPY), which are normally expressed in GABAergic cortical interneurons. Within heterotopic nodules from all cases, numerous calretinin-positive neurons were identified, along with a few cell bodies and many processes positive for NPY. Calretinin-positive neurons within nodules were less morphologically complex than those in the cortex, which may reflect incomplete differentiation into an inhibitory neuronal phenotype. There were also abnormal clusters of calretinin-positive cells in the overlying cortical plate, indicating that the migratory defect which produces heterotopic nodules also affects development of the cortex itself. Thus, heterotopic nodules consisting of multiple neuronal cell types are associated with malformation in the overlying cortical plate, and have limited connectivity with other brain regions. This abnormal development of connectivity may affect neuronal maturation and consequently the balance of excitation and inhibition in neuronal circuits, leading to their epileptogenic potential.  (+info)

The effects of age on human venous responsiveness to neuropeptide Y. (6/1622)

AIMS: Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a sympathetic neurotransmitter released with noradrenaline during sympathetic stimulation. Ageing has been shown to be associated with a reduction in alpha2 and beta-adrenoceptor mediated responses in veins, but it is not known whether NPY responsiveness is also altered with increasing age. METHODS: Using a dorsal hand vein technique, we examined NPY receptor responsiveness in 24 normal, healthy subjects (20-72 years; 10 males, 14 females). Graded infusions of NPY (25-2000 pmol min(-1)) were administered (5 min at each dose) into a dorsal hand vein. Venous distension at 45 mmHg was measured at 3-5 min of each infusion. Dose-response curves to NPY were constructed and the peak venoconstriction was calculated. RESULTS: Dose-dependent venoconstriction was seen in all but one subject. The peak venoconstriction observed with NPY was significantly and negatively correlated with the age of the normal subjects (r=-0.63, P<0.01). When subjects were ranked from youngest to oldest and divided into tertiles, (20-40 years, n = 8; 41-55 years, n = 8; 56-72 years, n = 8), mean dose-response curves were different with the oldest tertile being significantly less responsive (P<0.05). The peak venoconstriction observed (% of control) was 65.1+/-7.0, 46.5+/-9.4, and 24.4+/-4.8%, respectively. The oldest tertile had a significantly decreased peak venoconstriction compared with the youngest tertile (P<0.01). Infusion of NPY into a dorsal hand vein had no systemic effects on heart rate or blood pressure in any of the subjects studied. CONCLUSIONS: Hand vein responsiveness to exogenously infused NPY in normal subjects is decreased as age increases. The reduction of NPY-receptor-mediated responses with age may influence sympathetic nervous system control of the venous system with advancing age.  (+info)

The effect of the orexins on food intake: comparison with neuropeptide Y, melanin-concentrating hormone and galanin. (7/1622)

Orexin-A and orexin-B (the hypocretins) are recently described neuropeptides suggested to have a physiological role in the regulation of food intake in the rat. We compared the orexigenic effect of the orexins administered intracerebroventricular (ICV) with other known stimulants of food intake, one strong, neuropeptide Y (NPY), and two weaker, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and galanin. Orexin-A consistently stimulated food intake, but orexin-B only on occasions. Both peptides stimulated food intake significantly less than NPY, but to a similar extent to MCH (2 h food intake: NPY 3 nmol, 7.2+/-0.9 g vs saline, 1.5+/-0.2 g, P<0.001, MCH 3 nmol, 3.2+/-0.8 g vs saline, P<0.01, orexin-B 30 nmol, 2. 6+/-0.5 g vs saline, P=0.11) and to galanin (1 h food intake: galanin 3 nmol, 2.0+/-0.4 g vs saline, 0.8+/-0.2 g, P<0.05, orexin-A 3 nmol 2.2+/-0.4 g vs saline, P<0.01; 2 hour food intake: orexin-B 3 nmol, 2.4+/-0.3 g vs saline, 1.3+/-0.2 g, P<0.05). Following ICV orexin-A, hypothalamic c-fos, a maker of neuronal activation, was highly expressed in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), and the arcuate nucleus (P<0.005 for both). IntraPVN injection of orexin-A stimulated 2 h food intake by one gram (orexin-A 0.03 nmol, 1.6+/-0. 3 g vs saline, 0.5+/-0.3 g, P<0.005). These findings support the suggestion that the orexins stimulate food intake. However, this effect is weak and may cast doubt upon their physiological importance in appetite regulation in the rat.  (+info)

GABAergic neurons that contain neuropeptide Y selectively target cells with the neurokinin 1 receptor in laminae III and IV of the rat spinal cord. (8/1622)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is contained in a population of GABAergic interneurons in the spinal dorsal horn and, when administered intrathecally, can produce analgesia. We previously identified a strong monosynaptic link between substance P-containing primary afferents and cells in lamina III or IV with the neurokinin 1 (NK1) receptor. Because some of these cells belong to the spinothalamic tract, they are likely to have an important role in pain mechanisms. In this study, we used confocal microscopy to examine the input to lamina III/IV NK1 receptor-immunoreactive neurons from NPY-containing axons. All of the cells studied received a dense innervation from NPY-immunoreactive axons, and electron microscopy revealed that synapses were often present at points of contact. Most NPY-immunoreactive boutons were also GABAergic, which supports the suggestion that they are derived from local neurons. The association between NPY-containing axons and NK1 receptor-immunoreactive neurons was specific, because postsynaptic dorsal column neurons (which were located in laminae III-V but did not possess NK1 receptors) and lamina I neurons with the NK1 receptor received significantly fewer contacts from NPY-immunoreactive axons. In addition, the NK1 receptor-immunoreactive lamina III/IV cells received few contacts from nitric oxide synthase-containing axons (which belong to a different population of GABAergic dorsal horn neurons). The NPY-containing axons appeared to be targeted to the NK1 receptor-immunoreactive neurons themselves rather than to their associated substance P-immunoreactive inputs. The dense innervation of these cells by NPY-containing axons suggests that they may possess receptors for NPY and that activation of these receptors may contribute to NPY-mediated analgesia.  (+info)

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter and neuropeptide that is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is a member of the pancreatic polypeptide family, which includes peptide YY and pancreatic polypeptide. NPY plays important roles in various physiological functions such as energy balance, feeding behavior, stress response, anxiety, memory, and cardiovascular regulation. It is involved in the modulation of neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity, and neural development. NPY is synthesized from a larger precursor protein called prepro-NPY, which is post-translationally processed to generate the mature NPY peptide. The NPY system has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as obesity, depression, anxiety disorders, hypertension, and drug addiction.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that bind to and are activated by the neuropeptide Y neurotransmitter. NPY is a 36-amino acid peptide that plays important roles in various physiological functions, including appetite regulation, energy homeostasis, anxiety, depression, memory, and cardiovascular function.

There are five different subtypes of NPY receptors, namely Y1, Y2, Y4, Y5, and Y6 (also known as Y6-like). These receptors have distinct tissue distributions and signaling properties. The Y1, Y2, Y4, and Y5 receptors are widely expressed in the central nervous system and peripheral tissues, while the Y6 receptor is primarily found in the brainstem.

The activation of NPY receptors leads to a variety of intracellular signaling pathways, including the inhibition of adenylate cyclase, activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and modulation of ion channel activity. Dysregulation of NPY receptor function has been implicated in several diseases, such as obesity, hypertension, anxiety disorders, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, NPY receptors are considered promising targets for the development of therapeutic agents for these conditions.

Peptide YY (PYY) is a small peptide hormone consisting of 36 amino acids, that is released by the L cells in the intestinal epithelium in response to feeding. It is a member of the neuropeptide Y (NPY) family and plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and energy balance.

After eating, PYY is released into the circulation and acts on specific receptors in the hypothalamus to inhibit food intake. This anorexigenic effect of PYY is mediated by its ability to decrease gastric emptying, reduce intestinal motility, and increase satiety.

PYY has also been shown to have effects on glucose homeostasis, insulin secretion, and inflammation, making it a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic disorders.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that are used by neurons to communicate with each other and with other cells in the body. They are produced in the cell body of a neuron, processed from larger precursor proteins, and then transported to the nerve terminal where they are stored in secretory vesicles. When the neuron is stimulated, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the extracellular space.

Neuropeptides can act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, depending on their target receptors and the duration of their effects. They play important roles in a variety of physiological processes, including pain perception, appetite regulation, stress response, and social behavior. Some neuropeptides also have hormonal functions, such as oxytocin and vasopressin, which are produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream to regulate reproductive and cardiovascular function, respectively.

There are hundreds of different neuropeptides that have been identified in the nervous system, and many of them have multiple functions and interact with other signaling molecules to modulate neural activity. Dysregulation of neuropeptide systems has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as chronic pain, addiction, depression, and anxiety.

Neuropeptide receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to neuropeptides, which are small signaling molecules made up of short chains of amino acids. These receptors play an important role in the nervous system by mediating the effects of neuropeptides on various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, pain perception, and hormone release.

Neuropeptide receptors are typically composed of seven transmembrane domains and are classified into several families based on their structure and function. Some examples of neuropeptide receptor families include the opioid receptors, somatostatin receptors, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptors.

When a neuropeptide binds to its specific receptor, it activates a signaling pathway within the cell that leads to various cellular responses. These responses can include changes in gene expression, ion channel activity, and enzyme function. Overall, the activation of neuropeptide receptors helps to regulate many important functions in the body, including mood, appetite, and pain sensation.

The arcuate nucleus is a part of the hypothalamus in the brain. It is involved in the regulation of various physiological functions, including appetite, satiety, and reproductive hormones. The arcuate nucleus contains two main types of neurons: those that produce neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein, which stimulate feeding and reduce energy expenditure; and those that produce pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine-and-amphetamine-regulated transcript, which suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure. These neurons communicate with other parts of the brain to help maintain energy balance and reproductive function.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Agouti-related protein (AGRP) is a neuropeptide that functions as an endogenous antagonist of melanocortin receptors, specifically MC3R and MC4R. It is expressed in the hypothalamus and plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance, body weight, and glucose homeostasis. AGRP increases food intake and decreases energy expenditure by inhibiting melanocortin signaling in the hypothalamus. Dysregulation of AGRP has been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Galanin is a neuropeptide, which is a type of small protein molecule that functions as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in the nervous system. It is widely distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems of vertebrates and plays important roles in various physiological functions, including modulation of pain perception, regulation of feeding behavior, control of circadian rhythms, and cognitive processes such as learning and memory.

Galanin is synthesized from a larger precursor protein called preprogalanin, which is cleaved into several smaller peptides, including galanin itself, galanin message-associated peptide (GMAP), and alarin. Galanin exerts its effects by binding to specific G protein-coupled receptors, known as the galanin receptor family, which includes three subtypes: GalR1, GalR2, and GalR3. These receptors are widely expressed in various tissues and organs, including the brain, spinal cord, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and cardiovascular system.

Galanin has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as chronic pain, depression, anxiety, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. As a result, there is ongoing research into the development of galanin-based therapies for these conditions.

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a hormone that is produced and released by the pancreas, specifically by the F cells located in the islets of Langerhans. It is a small protein consisting of 36 amino acids, and it plays a role in regulating digestive functions, particularly by inhibiting pancreatic enzyme secretion and gastric acid secretion.

PP is released into the bloodstream in response to food intake, especially when nutrients such as proteins and fats are present in the stomach. It acts on the brain to produce a feeling of fullness or satiety, which helps to regulate appetite and eating behavior. Additionally, PP has been shown to have effects on glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and energy balance.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential therapeutic uses of PP for a variety of conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Appetite stimulants are medications or substances that increase the desire to eat or improve appetite. They work by affecting brain chemicals, hormones, or other systems involved in regulating hunger and fullness. Some commonly used appetite stimulants include:

1. Megestrol acetate: a synthetic progestin hormone that is often prescribed for cancer-related weight loss and anorexia. It works by stimulating appetite and promoting weight gain.
2. Dronabinol: a synthetic form of THC, the active ingredient in marijuana. It is approved for treating AIDS-related anorexia and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting. Dronabinol can increase appetite and promote weight gain.
3. Corticosteroids: medications that mimic the effects of hormones produced by the adrenal gland. They can help improve appetite, but their long-term use is associated with significant side effects.
4. Cyproheptadine: an antihistamine medication that can also stimulate appetite. It is sometimes used off-label to treat appetite loss in various conditions, such as cancer or HIV/AIDS.
5. Ghrelin agonists: these are medications that mimic the effects of ghrelin, a hormone produced by the stomach that increases hunger and appetite. Currently, there are no FDA-approved ghrelin agonists for appetite stimulation, but research is ongoing.

It's important to note that while appetite stimulants can help improve food intake in some individuals, they may not be effective for everyone, and their use should be carefully monitored due to potential side effects and interactions with other medications. Always consult a healthcare professional before starting any new medication or supplement.

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor protein that gets cleaved into several biologically active peptides in the body. These peptides include adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), beta-lipotropin, and multiple opioid peptides such as beta-endorphin, met-enkephalin, and leu-enkephalin.

ACTH stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland, while beta-lipotropin has various metabolic functions. The opioid peptides derived from POMC have pain-relieving (analgesic) and rewarding effects in the brain. Dysregulation of the POMC system has been implicated in several medical conditions, including obesity, addiction, and certain types of hormone deficiencies.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a 28-amino acid polypeptide hormone that has potent vasodilatory, secretory, and neurotransmitter effects. It is widely distributed throughout the body, including in the gastrointestinal tract, where it is synthesized and released by nerve cells (neurons) in the intestinal mucosa. VIP plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions such as intestinal secretion, motility, and blood flow. It also has immunomodulatory effects and may play a role in neuroprotection. High levels of VIP are found in the brain, where it acts as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator and is involved in various cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and social behavior.

Substance P is an undecapeptide neurotransmitter and neuromodulator, belonging to the tachykinin family of peptides. It is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems and is primarily found in sensory neurons. Substance P plays a crucial role in pain transmission, inflammation, and various autonomic functions. It exerts its effects by binding to neurokinin 1 (NK-1) receptors, which are expressed on the surface of target cells. Apart from nociception and inflammation, Substance P is also involved in regulating emotional behaviors, smooth muscle contraction, and fluid balance.

The medical definition of "eating" refers to the process of consuming and ingesting food or nutrients into the body. This process typically involves several steps, including:

1. Food preparation: This may involve cleaning, chopping, cooking, or combining ingredients to make them ready for consumption.
2. Ingestion: The act of taking food or nutrients into the mouth and swallowing it.
3. Digestion: Once food is ingested, it travels down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is broken down by enzymes and acids to facilitate absorption of nutrients.
4. Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and transported to cells throughout the body for use as energy or building blocks for growth and repair.
5. Elimination: Undigested food and waste products are eliminated from the body through the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Eating is an essential function that provides the body with the nutrients it needs to maintain health, grow, and repair itself. Disorders of eating, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, can have serious consequences for physical and mental health.

Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neurotransmitter and vasodilator peptide that is widely distributed in the nervous system. It is encoded by the calcitonin gene, which also encodes calcitonin and catestatin. CGRP is produced and released by sensory nerves and plays important roles in pain transmission, modulation of inflammation, and regulation of blood flow.

CGRP exists as two forms, α-CGRP and β-CGRP, which differ slightly in their amino acid sequences but have similar biological activities. α-CGRP is found primarily in the central and peripheral nervous systems, while β-CGRP is expressed mainly in the gastrointestinal tract.

CGRP exerts its effects by binding to specific G protein-coupled receptors, which are widely distributed in various tissues, including blood vessels, smooth muscles, and sensory neurons. Activation of CGRP receptors leads to increased intracellular cyclic AMP levels, activation of protein kinase A, and subsequent relaxation of vascular smooth muscle, resulting in vasodilation.

CGRP has been implicated in several clinical conditions, including migraine, cluster headache, and inflammatory pain. Inhibition of CGRP signaling has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these disorders.

Intraventricular injections are a type of medical procedure where medication is administered directly into the cerebral ventricles of the brain. The cerebral ventricles are fluid-filled spaces within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This procedure is typically used to deliver drugs that target conditions affecting the central nervous system, such as infections or tumors.

Intraventricular injections are usually performed using a thin, hollow needle that is inserted through a small hole drilled into the skull. The medication is then injected directly into the ventricles, allowing it to circulate throughout the CSF and reach the brain tissue more efficiently than other routes of administration.

This type of injection is typically reserved for situations where other methods of drug delivery are not effective or feasible. It carries a higher risk of complications, such as bleeding, infection, or damage to surrounding tissues, compared to other routes of administration. Therefore, it is usually performed by trained medical professionals in a controlled clinical setting.

FMRFamide is not a medical term per se, but it is a neuropeptide that was first identified in the clam, Mytilus edulis. FMRFamide stands for Phe-Met-Arg-Phe-NH2, which are its five amino acid residues. It functions as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in various organisms, including humans. In mammals, related peptides are involved in the regulation of several physiological processes such as cardiovascular function, feeding behavior, and nociception (pain perception).

Hypothalamic hormones are a group of hormones that are produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the brain. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotional behavior.

The hypothalamus produces two main types of hormones: releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones. Releasing hormones stimulate the pituitary gland to release its own hormones, while inhibiting hormones prevent the pituitary gland from releasing hormones.

Some examples of hypothalamic hormones include:

* Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland.
* Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin, which regulate the release of growth hormone (GH) from the pituitary gland.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn regulate reproductive function.
* Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which regulates the stress response.
* Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) and prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), which regulate the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland, which is involved in lactation.

Overall, hypothalamic hormones play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis in the body by regulating various physiological processes.

Neurotransmitter receptors are specialized protein molecules found on the surface of neurons and other cells in the body. They play a crucial role in chemical communication within the nervous system by binding to specific neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that transmit signals across the synapse (the tiny gap between two neurons).

When a neurotransmitter binds to its corresponding receptor, it triggers a series of biochemical events that can either excite or inhibit the activity of the target neuron. This interaction helps regulate various physiological processes, including mood, cognition, movement, and sensation.

Neurotransmitter receptors can be classified into two main categories based on their mechanism of action: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors. Ionotropic receptors are ligand-gated ion channels that directly allow ions to flow through the cell membrane upon neurotransmitter binding, leading to rapid changes in neuronal excitability. In contrast, metabotropic receptors are linked to G proteins and second messenger systems, which modulate various intracellular signaling pathways more slowly.

Examples of neurotransmitters include glutamate, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine, among others. Each neurotransmitter has its specific receptor types, which may have distinct functions and distributions within the nervous system. Understanding the roles of these receptors and their interactions with neurotransmitters is essential for developing therapeutic strategies to treat various neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Hyperphagia is a medical term that describes excessive eating or increased appetite, often to the point of compulsive overeating. It's more than just a simple increase in hunger or appetite; it's characterized by consuming large amounts of food beyond what is needed for normal growth and health.

This condition can be associated with several medical conditions. For instance, it's a common symptom in Prader-Willi syndrome, a genetic disorder that affects appetite, growth, and cognitive development. It can also occur in certain types of brain injuries or disorders affecting the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that regulates hunger and fullness signals.

However, it's important to note that hyperphagia should not be confused with binge eating disorder, another eating disorder characterized by consuming large amounts of food in a short period of time, but without the feeling of loss of control that is typical of binge eating.

As always, if you or someone else is experiencing symptoms of hyperphagia, it's important to seek medical advice to identify and treat any underlying conditions.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:

* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain

Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.

Feeding behavior refers to the various actions and mechanisms involved in the intake of food and nutrition for the purpose of sustaining life, growth, and health. This complex process encompasses a coordinated series of activities, including:

1. Food selection: The identification, pursuit, and acquisition of appropriate food sources based on sensory cues (smell, taste, appearance) and individual preferences.
2. Preparation: The manipulation and processing of food to make it suitable for consumption, such as chewing, grinding, or chopping.
3. Ingestion: The act of transferring food from the oral cavity into the digestive system through swallowing.
4. Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food within the gastrointestinal tract to facilitate nutrient absorption and eliminate waste products.
5. Assimilation: The uptake and utilization of absorbed nutrients by cells and tissues for energy production, growth, repair, and maintenance.
6. Elimination: The removal of undigested material and waste products from the body through defecation.

Feeding behavior is regulated by a complex interplay between neural, hormonal, and psychological factors that help maintain energy balance and ensure adequate nutrient intake. Disruptions in feeding behavior can lead to various medical conditions, such as malnutrition, obesity, eating disorders, and gastrointestinal motility disorders.

Leptin is a hormone primarily produced and released by adipocytes, which are the fat cells in our body. It plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance and appetite by sending signals to the brain when the body has had enough food. This helps control body weight by suppressing hunger and increasing energy expenditure. Leptin also influences various metabolic processes, including glucose homeostasis, neuroendocrine function, and immune response. Defects in leptin signaling can lead to obesity and other metabolic disorders.

Arginine is an α-amino acid that is classified as a semi-essential or conditionally essential amino acid, depending on the developmental stage and health status of the individual. The adult human body can normally synthesize sufficient amounts of arginine to meet its needs, but there are certain circumstances, such as periods of rapid growth or injury, where the dietary intake of arginine may become necessary.

The chemical formula for arginine is C6H14N4O2. It has a molecular weight of 174.20 g/mol and a pKa value of 12.48. Arginine is a basic amino acid, which means that it contains a side chain with a positive charge at physiological pH levels. The side chain of arginine is composed of a guanidino group, which is a functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to three methyl groups.

In the body, arginine plays several important roles. It is a precursor for the synthesis of nitric oxide, a molecule that helps regulate blood flow and immune function. Arginine is also involved in the detoxification of ammonia, a waste product produced by the breakdown of proteins. Additionally, arginine can be converted into other amino acids, such as ornithine and citrulline, which are involved in various metabolic processes.

Foods that are good sources of arginine include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and legumes. Arginine supplements are available and may be used for a variety of purposes, such as improving exercise performance, enhancing wound healing, and boosting immune function. However, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking arginine supplements, as they can interact with certain medications and have potential side effects.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) is a hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small gland located in the brain. CRH plays a critical role in the body's stress response system.

When the body experiences stress, the hypothalamus releases CRH, which then travels to the pituitary gland, another small gland located at the base of the brain. Once there, CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland.

ACTH then travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress by regulating metabolism, immune function, and blood pressure, among other things.

Overall, CRH is an important part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which regulates many bodily functions related to stress response, mood, and cognition. Dysregulation of the HPA axis and abnormal levels of CRH have been implicated in various psychiatric and medical conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and Cushing's syndrome.

The Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus (PVN) is a nucleus in the hypothalamus, which is a part of the brain that regulates various autonomic functions and homeostatic processes. The PVN plays a crucial role in the regulation of neuroendocrine and autonomic responses to stress, as well as the control of fluid and electrolyte balance, cardiovascular function, and energy balance.

The PVN is composed of several subdivisions, including the magnocellular and parvocellular divisions. The magnocellular neurons produce and release two neuropeptides, oxytocin and vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone), into the circulation via the posterior pituitary gland. These neuropeptides play important roles in social behavior, reproduction, and fluid balance.

The parvocellular neurons, on the other hand, project to various brain regions and the pituitary gland, where they release neurotransmitters and neuropeptides that regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is responsible for the stress response. The PVN also contains neurons that produce corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a key neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of the HPA axis and the stress response.

Overall, the Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus is an essential component of the brain's regulatory systems that help maintain homeostasis and respond to stressors. Dysfunction of the PVN has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including hypertension, obesity, and mood disorders.

Appetite depressants are medications or substances that reduce or suppress feelings of hunger and appetite. They can be prescribed to treat various medical conditions, such as obesity or binge eating disorder, where weight loss is a recommended treatment goal. Some common appetite depressants include:

1. Phentermine: This medication works by stimulating the release of certain neurotransmitters in the brain that help suppress appetite and increase metabolism. It is often prescribed for short-term use (up to 12 weeks) as part of a comprehensive weight loss plan.

2. Diethylpropion: Similar to phentermine, diethylpropion stimulates the release of neurotransmitters that suppress appetite and increase metabolism. It is also prescribed for short-term use in treating obesity.

3. Naltrexone-bupropion (Contrave): This combination medication helps manage weight by reducing appetite and increasing feelings of fullness. Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that blocks the rewarding effects of food, while bupropion is an antidepressant that can help reduce cravings for high-calorie foods.

4. Lorcaserin (Belviq): This medication works by selectively activating serotonin receptors in the brain, which helps promote satiety and reduce appetite. It was withdrawn from the US market in 2020 due to concerns about its potential link to an increased risk of cancer.

5. Topiramate (Topamax): Although primarily used as an anticonvulsant, topiramate has also been found to have appetite-suppressing effects. It is often combined with phentermine in a single formulation (Qsymia) for the treatment of obesity.

6. Cannabis: Some studies suggest that cannabinoids, the active compounds in marijuana, may help reduce hunger and promote weight loss by interacting with the endocannabinoid system in the body. However, more research is needed to fully understand its potential as an appetite depressant.

It's important to note that appetite suppressants should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional and as part of a comprehensive weight management plan. These medications can have side effects and potential risks, so it's crucial to discuss their use with your doctor before starting any new treatment regimen.

Anorexia is a medical condition defined as a loss of appetite or aversion to food, leading to significant weight loss. It can be a symptom of various underlying causes, such as mental health disorders (most commonly an eating disorder called anorexia nervosa), gastrointestinal issues, cancer, infections, or side effects of medication. In this definition, we are primarily referring to anorexia as a symptom rather than the specific eating disorder anorexia nervosa.

Anorexia nervosa is a psychological eating disorder characterized by:

1. Restriction of energy intake leading to significantly low body weight (in context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical health)
2. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, or persistent behavior that interferes with weight gain
3. Disturbed body image, such as overvaluation of self-worth regarding shape or weight, or denial of the seriousness of low body weight

Anorexia nervosa has two subtypes: restricting type and binge eating/purging type. The restricting type involves limiting food intake without engaging in binge eating or purging behaviors (such as self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas). In contrast, the binge eating/purging type includes recurrent episodes of binge eating and compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain.

It is essential to differentiate between anorexia as a symptom and anorexia nervosa as a distinct psychological disorder when discussing medical definitions.

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or physical activity. It plays a crucial role in the "fight-or-flight" response by preparing the body for action through increasing heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and glucose availability.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is involved in regulating various functions of the nervous system, including attention, perception, motivation, and arousal. It also plays a role in modulating pain perception and responding to stressful or emotional situations.

In medical settings, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor medication to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) that can occur during septic shock, anesthesia, or other critical illnesses. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to improve blood pressure and perfusion of vital organs.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness, and it functions to produce appropriate physiological responses to perceived danger. It's often associated with the "fight or flight" response. The SNS uses nerve impulses to stimulate target organs, causing them to speed up (e.g., increased heart rate), prepare for action, or otherwise respond to stressful situations.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated due to stressful emotional or physical situations and it prepares the body for immediate actions. It dilates the pupils, increases heart rate and blood pressure, accelerates breathing, and slows down digestion. The primary neurotransmitter involved in this system is norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline).

Appetite regulation refers to the physiological and psychological processes that control and influence the desire to eat food. This complex system involves a variety of hormones, neurotransmitters, and neural pathways that work together to help maintain energy balance and regulate body weight. The hypothalamus in the brain plays a key role in appetite regulation by integrating signals from the digestive system, fat cells, and other organs to adjust feelings of hunger and fullness.

The hormones leptin and ghrelin are also important regulators of appetite. Leptin is released from fat cells and acts on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and promote weight loss, while ghrelin is produced in the stomach and stimulates appetite and promotes weight gain. Other factors that can influence appetite regulation include stress, emotions, sleep patterns, and cultural influences.

Abnormalities in appetite regulation can contribute to the development of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder, as well as obesity and other health problems. Understanding the mechanisms of appetite regulation is an important area of research for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Neurotransmitter agents are substances that affect the synthesis, storage, release, uptake, degradation, or reuptake of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron to another. These agents can be either agonists, which mimic the action of a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor, or antagonists, which block the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor without activating it. They are used in medicine to treat various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) is a collection of neurons located in the dorsomedial region of the hypothalamus, a part of the brain that regulates various autonomic and endocrine functions. The DMH plays a critical role in regulating several physiological processes, including feeding behavior, energy balance, body temperature, and circadian rhythms.

The neurons in the DMH release different neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, GABA, and neuropeptides, that modulate its functions. The DMH receives inputs from various brain regions, including the limbic system, which is involved in emotional processing, and the brainstem, which regulates autonomic functions.

The DMH also projects to several brain areas, such as the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVN), lateral hypothalamus, and other regions of the brainstem, forming a complex neural network that controls energy balance and feeding behavior. Dysfunction in the DMH has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and mood disorders.

Secretogranin II, also known as chromogranin A-like immunoreactivity or secretoneurin precursor, is a protein that belongs to the granin family. Granins are involved in neuroendocrine differentiation and are commonly used as markers for neuroendocrine tumors.

Secretogranin II is a 59 kDa protein that is synthesized as part of larger precursors, which undergo proteolytic processing to generate smaller bioactive peptides. These peptides have various functions, including modulation of neurotransmitter release and regulation of blood pressure.

Secretogranin II is primarily localized in secretory vesicles of neurons and endocrine cells, where it plays a role in the packaging, transport, and exocytosis of neurosecretory granules. It has been identified as a major component of dense-core vesicles, which store and release hormones and neuropeptides.

In summary, Secretogranin II is a protein involved in the biogenesis and secretion of neurosecretory granules in neurons and endocrine cells.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Pituitary hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls several other endocrine glands and regulates various bodily functions.

There are two main types of pituitary hormones: anterior pituitary hormones and posterior pituitary hormones, which are produced in different parts of the pituitary gland and have distinct functions.

Anterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Growth hormone (GH): regulates growth and metabolism.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
5. Prolactin: stimulates milk production in lactating women.
6. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

Posterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during lactation.
2. Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH): regulates water balance in the body by controlling urine production in the kidneys.

Overall, pituitary hormones play crucial roles in regulating growth, development, metabolism, reproductive function, and various other bodily functions. Abnormalities in pituitary hormone levels can lead to a range of medical conditions, such as dwarfism, acromegaly, Cushing's disease, infertility, and diabetes insipidus.

Alpha-MSH (α-MSH) stands for alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone. It is a peptide hormone that is produced in the pituitary gland and other tissues in the body. Alpha-MSH plays a role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Melanin production: Alpha-MSH stimulates melanin production in the skin, which leads to skin tanning.
2. Appetite regulation: Alpha-MSH acts as a appetite suppressant by signaling to the brain that the stomach is full.
3. Inflammation and immune response: Alpha-MSH has anti-inflammatory effects and helps regulate the immune response.
4. Energy balance and metabolism: Alpha-MSH helps regulate energy balance and metabolism by signaling to the brain to increase or decrease food intake and energy expenditure.

Alpha-MSH exerts its effects by binding to melanocortin receptors, specifically MC1R, MC3R, MC4R, and MC5R. Dysregulation of alpha-MSH signaling has been implicated in various medical conditions, including obesity, anorexia nervosa, and certain skin disorders.

Appetite is the desire to eat or drink something, which is often driven by feelings of hunger or thirst. It is a complex process that involves both physiological and psychological factors. Physiologically, appetite is influenced by the body's need for energy and nutrients, as well as various hormones and neurotransmitters that regulate hunger and satiety signals in the brain. Psychologically, appetite can be affected by emotions, mood, stress levels, and social factors such as the sight or smell of food.

In medical terms, a loss of appetite is often referred to as anorexia, which can be caused by various factors such as illness, medication, infection, or psychological conditions like depression. On the other hand, an excessive or abnormal appetite is known as polyphagia and can be a symptom of certain medical conditions such as diabetes or hyperthyroidism.

It's important to note that while "anorexia" is a medical term used to describe loss of appetite, it should not be confused with the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, which is a serious mental health condition characterized by restrictive eating, distorted body image, and fear of gaining weight.

Benzazepines are a class of heterocyclic compounds that contain a benzene fused to a diazepine ring. In the context of pharmaceuticals, benzazepines refer to a group of drugs with various therapeutic uses, such as antipsychotics and antidepressants. Some examples of benzazepine-derived drugs include clozapine, olanzapine, and loxoprofen. These drugs have complex mechanisms of action, often involving multiple receptor systems in the brain.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide that belongs to the vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)/secretin/glucagon family. It was first isolated from the ovine hypothalamus and later found in various tissues and organs throughout the body, including the brain, pituitary gland, and peripheral nerves.

PACAP exists in two forms, PACAP-38 and PACAP-27, which differ in their length but share the same amino acid sequence at the N-terminus. PACAP exerts its effects through specific G protein-coupled receptors, including PAC1, VPAC1, and VPAC2 receptors, which are widely distributed throughout the body.

PACAP has a wide range of biological activities, including neurotrophic, neuroprotective, vasodilatory, and immunomodulatory effects. In the pituitary gland, PACAP stimulates adenylate cyclase activity, leading to an increase in intracellular cAMP levels, which in turn regulates the release of various hormones, including growth hormone, prolactin, and thyroid-stimulating hormone.

Overall, PACAP is a crucial neuropeptide involved in various physiological processes, and its dysregulation has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases, mood disorders, and cancer.

Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.

Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Gastrointestinal (GI) hormone receptors are specialized protein structures found on the surface of cells in the gastrointestinal tract. These receptors recognize and respond to specific hormones that are released by enteroendocrine cells in the GI tract. Examples of GI hormones include gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), motilin, and ghrelin.

When a GI hormone binds to its specific receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell function. These changes can include increased or decreased secretion of digestive enzymes, altered motility (movement) of the GI tract, and regulation of appetite and satiety.

Abnormalities in GI hormone receptors have been implicated in a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, including functional dyspepsia, irritable bowel syndrome, and obesity. Therefore, understanding the role of these receptors in GI physiology and pathophysiology is an important area of research.

The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in humans and many other animals, along with the X chromosome. The Y chromosome contains the genetic information that helps to determine an individual's sex as male. It is significantly smaller than the X chromosome and contains fewer genes.

The Y chromosome is present in males, who inherit it from their father. Females, on the other hand, have two X chromosomes, one inherited from each parent. The Y chromosome includes a gene called SRY (sex-determining region Y), which initiates the development of male sexual characteristics during embryonic development.

It is worth noting that the Y chromosome has a relatively high rate of genetic mutation and degeneration compared to other chromosomes, leading to concerns about its long-term viability in human evolution. However, current evidence suggests that the Y chromosome has been stable for at least the past 25 million years.

Ghrelin is a hormone primarily produced and released by the stomach with some production in the small intestine, pancreas, and brain. It is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite, promotes food intake, and contributes to the regulation of energy balance.

Ghrelin levels increase before meals and decrease after eating. In addition to its role in regulating appetite and meal initiation, ghrelin also has other functions, such as modulating glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, gastric motility, and cardiovascular function. Its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R), is found in various tissues throughout the body, indicating its wide range of physiological roles.

Purinergic P2Y1 receptors are a type of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that bind to purine nucleotides, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). These receptors play a role in various physiological processes, including platelet activation, smooth muscle contraction, and neurotransmission.

The P2Y1 receptor, in particular, is activated by ADP and has been shown to be involved in platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle contraction, and neuronal excitability. It signals through the Gq/11 family of G proteins, leading to the activation of phospholipase C-β (PLC-β) and the production of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG), which ultimately result in calcium mobilization and protein kinase C (PKC) activation.

In a medical context, P2Y1 receptors have been implicated in various pathological conditions, including thrombosis, hypertension, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, drugs that target these receptors may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of these conditions.

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Neurosecretory systems are specialized components of the nervous system that produce and release chemical messengers called neurohormones. These neurohormones are released into the bloodstream and can have endocrine effects on various target organs in the body. The cells that make up neurosecretory systems, known as neurosecretory cells, are found in specific regions of the brain, such as the hypothalamus, and in peripheral nerves.

Neurosecretory systems play a critical role in regulating many physiological processes, including fluid and electrolyte balance, stress responses, growth and development, reproductive functions, and behavior. The neurohormones released by these systems can act synergistically or antagonistically to maintain homeostasis and coordinate the body's response to internal and external stimuli.

Neurosecretory cells are characterized by their ability to synthesize and store neurohormones in secretory granules, which are released upon stimulation. The release of neurohormones can be triggered by a variety of signals, including neural impulses, hormonal changes, and other physiological cues. Once released into the bloodstream, neurohormones can travel to distant target organs, where they bind to specific receptors and elicit a range of responses.

Overall, neurosecretory systems are an essential component of the neuroendocrine system, which plays a critical role in regulating many aspects of human physiology and behavior.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

A peptide fragment is a short chain of amino acids that is derived from a larger peptide or protein through various biological or chemical processes. These fragments can result from the natural breakdown of proteins in the body during regular physiological processes, such as digestion, or they can be produced experimentally in a laboratory setting for research or therapeutic purposes.

Peptide fragments are often used in research to map the structure and function of larger peptides and proteins, as well as to study their interactions with other molecules. In some cases, peptide fragments may also have biological activity of their own and can be developed into drugs or diagnostic tools. For example, certain peptide fragments derived from hormones or neurotransmitters may bind to receptors in the body and mimic or block the effects of the full-length molecule.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a family of membrane receptors that play an essential role in cellular signaling and communication. These receptors possess seven transmembrane domains, forming a structure that spans the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. They are called "G-protein-coupled" because they interact with heterotrimeric G proteins upon activation, which in turn modulate various downstream signaling pathways.

When an extracellular ligand binds to a GPCR, it causes a conformational change in the receptor's structure, leading to the exchange of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) on the associated G protein's α subunit. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G protein into its α and βγ subunits, which then interact with various effector proteins to elicit cellular responses.

There are four main families of GPCRs, classified based on their sequence similarities and downstream signaling pathways:

1. Gq-coupled receptors: These receptors activate phospholipase C (PLC), which leads to the production of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 induces calcium release from intracellular stores, while DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC).
2. Gs-coupled receptors: These receptors activate adenylyl cyclase, which increases the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and subsequently activates protein kinase A (PKA).
3. Gi/o-coupled receptors: These receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP levels and modulating PKA activity. Additionally, they can activate ion channels or regulate other signaling pathways through the βγ subunits.
4. G12/13-coupled receptors: These receptors primarily activate RhoGEFs, which in turn activate RhoA and modulate cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility.

GPCRs are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and sensory perception. Dysregulation of GPCR function has been implicated in numerous diseases, making them attractive targets for drug development.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone that is produced in the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and in the brain. It is released into the bloodstream in response to food, particularly fatty foods, and plays several roles in the digestive process.

In the digestive system, CCK stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile into the small intestine to help digest fats. It also inhibits the release of acid from the stomach and slows down the movement of food through the intestines.

In the brain, CCK acts as a neurotransmitter and has been shown to have effects on appetite regulation, mood, and memory. It may play a role in the feeling of fullness or satiety after eating, and may also be involved in anxiety and panic disorders.

CCK is sometimes referred to as "gallbladder-stimulating hormone" or "pancreozymin," although these terms are less commonly used than "cholecystokinin."

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

The lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) is a region in the hypothalamus, which is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various autonomic functions and maintaining homeostasis. The LHA is located laterally to the third ventricle and contains several neuronal populations that are involved in diverse physiological processes such as feeding behavior, energy balance, sleep-wake regulation, and neuroendocrine function.

Some of the key neurons found in the LHA include orexin/hypocretin neurons, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) neurons, and agouti-related protein (AGRP) neurons. These neurons release neurotransmitters and neuropeptides that modulate various physiological functions, including appetite regulation, energy expenditure, and arousal. Dysfunction in the LHA has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as narcolepsy, obesity, and depression.

The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain, specifically in the anterior portion of the temporal lobes and near the hippocampus. It forms a key component of the limbic system and plays a crucial role in processing emotions, particularly fear and anxiety. The amygdala is involved in the integration of sensory information with emotional responses, memory formation, and decision-making processes.

In response to emotionally charged stimuli, the amygdala can modulate various physiological functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and stress hormone release, via its connections to the hypothalamus and brainstem. Additionally, it contributes to social behaviors, including recognizing emotional facial expressions and responding appropriately to social cues. Dysfunctions in amygdala function have been implicated in several psychiatric and neurological conditions, such as anxiety disorders, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Neuropeptides Journal Neuropeptides reference website (a comprehensive neuropeptide database) Neuropeptides eBook series ... Expression of neuropeptides in the nervous system is diverse. Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and ... Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters in a single neuron, yielding a multitude of ... Once released, neuropeptides can diffuse widely to affect a broad range of targets. Neuropeptides are synthesized from large, ...
NPFF Neuropeptide FF (FLFQPQRFa) is a mammalian amidated neuropeptide originally isolated from bovine brain and characterized ... Panula P, Aarnisalo AA, Wasowicz K (1996). "Neuropeptide FF, a mammalian neuropeptide with multiple functions". Progress in ... "Entrez Gene: NPFF neuropeptide FF-amide peptide precursor". Waqas SF, Hoang AC, Lin YT, Ampem G, Azegrouz H, Balogh L, Thuróczy ... In humans, Neuropeptide FF peptides are encoded by the NPFF gene. Two genes encoding two different receptors (NPFF1 and NPFF2) ...
... (also known as neurokinin K), is a protein encoded by the TAC1 gene. It is an elongated derivative of the N- ... Like neurokinin A, neuropeptide K has been localized to sensory neurons and likely plays a role in regulating sensation. While ... In contrast with rat and cow brains, the human brain contains larger amounts of neuropeptide K. Dornan WA, Vink KL, Malen P, ... Takeda, Y; Krause, JE (Jan 1989). "Neuropeptide K potently stimulates salivary gland secretion and potentiates substance P- ...
... or preprotein L8 is a short human neuropeptide. Neuropeptide W acts as a ligand for two neuropeptide B/W ... There are two forms of neuropeptide W whose precursor is encoded by NPW gene. The 23-amino-acid form (neuropeptide W-23) is the ... "Neuropeptide W/neuropeptide B receptors , G protein-coupled receptors , IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY". www. ... "Neuropeptide W/neuropeptide B receptors , G protein-coupled receptors , IUPHAR/BPS Guide to PHARMACOLOGY". www. ...
A neuropeptide receptor is a type of peptide receptor which binds one or more neuropeptides. An example is the μ-opioid ... Neurotransmitter receptor Neuropeptide+receptor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) v t e ... v t e (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Neuropeptides, Receptors, All stub articles, ... receptor, which binds to and is activated by the neuropeptide β-endorphin. ...
... is a short biologically active peptide whose precursor in humans is encoded by the NBP gene. Neuropeptide B acts ... Neuropeptide B is thought to be associated with the regulation of feeding, neuroendocrine system, memory, learning and in the ... Hondo M, Ishii M, Sakurai T (2008). "The NPB/NPW neuropeptide system and its role in regulating energy homeostasis, pain, and ... Uniprot: Neuropeptide B precursor Portal: Biology (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Genes ...
... the common fruit fly has a neuropeptide that is similar to NPY, known as neuropeptide F. The levels of neuropeptide F are ... Neuropeptide Y is expressed in interneurons. NPY exerts most of its effects through Neuropeptide Y receptors, mainly Y1, Y2, Y4 ... Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a 36 amino-acid neuropeptide that is involved in various physiological and homeostatic processes in ... A study showed that neuropeptide Y can be used as a biosensor in early detection of childhood obesity The role of neuropeptide ...
... (NPS) is a neuropeptide found in human and mammalian brain, mainly produced by neurons in the amygdala and ... "Neuropeptide S: a neuropeptide promoting arousal and anxiolytic-like effects". Neuron. 43 (4): 487-97. doi:10.1016/j.neuron. ... "In vitro and in vivo pharmacological characterization of the neuropeptide s receptor antagonist [D-Cys(tBu)5]neuropeptide S". ... "Distribution of neuropeptide S receptor mRNA and neurochemical characteristics of neuropeptide S-expressing neurons in the rat ...
Cortistatin is a neuropeptide with strong structural similarity to somatostatin (both peptides belong to the same family). It ... Cortistatin (or more specifically cortistatin-17) is a neuropeptide that is expressed in inhibitory neurons of the cerebral ... "Entrez Gene: CORT cortistatin". Spier AD, de Lecea L (2001). "Cortistatin: a member of the somatostatin neuropeptide family ...
... , also known as pro-FMRFamide-related neuropeptide VF or RFamide-related peptide precursor, is a ... The propeptide is cleaved to form three other peptides, which are: Neuropeptide SF (NPSF) (RFRP-1) - agonist of the NPFF1 and ... Similarly to the avian GnIH neuropeptide, NPSF and NPVF have been found to potently inhibit gonadotropin secretion. Moreover, a ... Neuropeptide FF FMRFamide Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone Gonadotropin release inhibitor ...
Neuropeptide B/W receptor NPBWR1 NPBWR2 Neuropeptide FF receptor NPFFR1 NPFFR2 Neuropeptide S receptor NPSR1 Neuropeptide Y ... GPCR neuropeptide receptors are G-protein coupled receptors which bind various neuropeptides. Members include: ... International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology.[permanent dead link] Neuropeptide+Receptor at the U.S. National Library ... Larhammar D, Salaneck E (2004). "Molecular evolution of NPY receptor subtypes". Neuropeptides. 38 (4): 141-51. doi:10.1016/j. ...
There are five known mammalian neuropeptide Y receptors designated Y1 through Y5. Four neuropeptide Y receptors each encoded by ... Neuropeptide+Y+Receptor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) v t e (Protein pages needing a ... Neuropeptide Y receptors are a family of receptors belonging to class A G-protein coupled receptors and they are activated by ... Activated neuropeptide receptors release the Gi subunit from the heterotrimeric G protein complex. The Gi subunit in turn ...
Neuropeptide AF Neuropeptide FF Neuropeptide SF (RFRP-1) Neuropeptide VF (RFRP-3) BIBP-3226 (mixed NPFF1 / NPY1 antagonist) RF- ... neuropeptide+FF+receptor at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) v t e (Articles with short ... The Neuropeptide FF receptor family is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily containing two subtypes, NPFF1 ... Fang Q, Guo J, He F, Peng YL, Chang M, Wang R (September 2006). "In vivo inhibition of neuropeptide FF agonism by BIBP3226, an ...
"Neuropeptide S: a neuropeptide promoting arousal and anxiolytic-like effects". Neuron. 43 (4): 487-97. doi:10.1016/j.neuron. ... "Neuropeptide S: a neuropeptide promoting arousal and anxiolytic-like effects". Neuron. 43 (4): 487-97. doi:10.1016/j.neuron. ... "Entrez Gene: NPSR1 neuropeptide S receptor 1". Xu YL, Reinscheid RK, Huitron-Resendiz S, Clark SD, Wang Z, Lin SH, Brucher FA, ... The neuropeptide S receptor (NPSR) is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily of integral membrane proteins ...
Neuropeptide Y receptor type 2 (Y2R) is a member of the neuropeptide Y receptor family of G-protein coupled receptors, that in ... Neuropeptide Y (endogenous agonist, non subtype selective) Neuropeptide Y fragment 13-36 (NPY2 selective agonist) Peptide YY ... Uddman R, Möller S, Nilsson T, Nyström S, Ekstrand J, Edvinsson L (May 2002). "Neuropeptide Y Y1 and neuropeptide Y Y2 ... "Entrez Gene: NPY2R neuropeptide Y receptor Y2". Murphy KG, Dhillo WS, Bloom SR (Dec 2006). "Gut peptides in the regulation of ...
... , also known as NPFF1 is a human protein, encoded by the NPFFR1 gene. Neuropeptide FF receptor GRCh38 ... "Entrez Gene: NPFFR1 neuropeptide FF receptor 1". Bonini JA, Jones KA, Adham N, et al. (2001). "Identification and ... "Neuropeptide FF Receptors: NPFF1". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... 2000). "New neuropeptides containing carboxy-terminal RFamide and their receptor in mammals". Nat. Cell Biol. 2 (10): 703-8. ...
Neuropeptide Y receptor type 5 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NPY5R gene. Neuropeptide Y (endogenous agonist, ... "Entrez Gene: NPY5R neuropeptide Y receptor Y5". Kakui N, Tanaka J, Tabata Y, Asai K, Masuda N, Miyara T, Nakatani Y, Ohsawa F, ... "Neuropeptide Y Receptors: Y5". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... Lutz CM, Richards JE, Scott KL, Sinha S, Yang-Feng TL, Frankel WN, Thompson DA (Dec 1997). "Neuropeptide Y receptor genes ...
Neuropeptide Y1 bound to antagonist BMS-193835) 5ZBQ (Neuropeptide Y1 bound to antagonist UR-MK299) Neuropeptide Y receptor ... Neuropeptide Y receptor type 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NPY1R gene. Neuropeptide Y (endogenous agonist, ... Uddman R, Möller S, Nilsson T, Nyström S, Ekstrand J, Edvinsson L (May 2002). "Neuropeptide Y Y1 and neuropeptide Y Y2 ... "Entrez Gene: NPY1R neuropeptide Y receptor Y1". Yang Z, Han S, Keller M, Kaiser A, Bender BJ, Bosse M, Burkert K, Kögler LM, ...
The pheromone biosynthesis activation neuropeptide (PBAN) is a neurohormone (member of the PBAN/pyrokinin neuropeptide family) ... However, the receptor of this neuropeptide has been already cloned. The receptor belongs to the G-protein coupled receptors, ... Rafaeli, Ada (2009). "Pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN): Regulatory role and mode of action". General and ... Articles with short description, Short description is different from Wikidata, Pheromones, Neuropeptides). ...
... , also known as NPFF2 is a human protein encoded by the NPFFR2 gene. Neuropeptide FF receptor GRCh38 ... "Entrez Gene: NPFFR2 neuropeptide FF receptor 2". Cikos S, Gregor P, Koppel J (1999). "Sequence and tissue distribution of a ... "Neuropeptide FF Receptors: NPFF2". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... 2000). "Receptor for the pain modulatory neuropeptides FF and AF is an orphan G protein-coupled receptor". J. Biol. Chem. 275 ( ...
Putative neuropeptide Y receptor type 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NPY6R gene. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ... "Entrez Gene: NPY6R neuropeptide Y receptor Y6 (pseudogene)". Rose PM, Lynch JS, Frazier ST, et al. (1997). "Molecular genetic ... Starbäck P, Wraith A, Eriksson H, Larhammar D (2000). "Neuropeptide Y receptor gene y6: multiple deaths or resurrections?". ... "Inactivation of a novel neuropeptide Y/peptide YY receptor gene in primate species". J Biol Chem. 271 (44): 27217-20. doi: ...
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Neuropeptide Y, Ghrelin and Leptin/Ghrelin ratio in Obesogenesis: Leptin Hormone, Neuropeptide Y, Ghrelin and Leptin/Ghrelin ... "Neuropeptide Y Receptors: Y4". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical ... Pancreatic polypeptide receptor 1, also known as Neuropeptide Y receptor type 4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ... Pancreatic polypeptide Neuropeptide Y (endogenous agonist, non subtype selective) Peptide YY GR-231,118 (mixed NPY1 antagonist ...
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Tachykinins are a family of neuropeptides that share the same hydrophobic C-terminal region with the amino acid sequence Phe-X- ... Part I: ligands and mechanisms of cellular activation". Neuropeptides. 31 (6): 537-563. doi:10.1016/S0143-4179(97)90001-9. PMID ...
Neuropeptides. 16 (1): 51-55. doi:10.1016/0143-4179(90)90029-X. PMID 2174522. S2CID 25646937. Benedetti F, Amanzio M, Maggi G ( ...
Neuropeptides Journal Neuropeptides reference website (a comprehensive neuropeptide database) Neuropeptides eBook series ... Expression of neuropeptides in the nervous system is diverse. Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and ... Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters in a single neuron, yielding a multitude of ... Once released, neuropeptides can diffuse widely to affect a broad range of targets. Neuropeptides are synthesized from large, ...
Mice that lack neuropeptide Y (NPY) or NPY receptor type 5 (NPY5R) fail to prefer food odours over pheromones after fasting, ... Attraction to food odours is enhanced in mice that are experiencing hunger through a mechanism involving neuropeptide Y. ... Mice that lack neuropeptide Y (NPY) or NPY receptor type 5 (NPY5R) fail to prefer food odours over pheromones after fasting, ... Neuropeptide Y in the medial habenula alleviates migraine-like behaviors through the Y1 receptor *Chunxiao Yang ...
Mitochondria-controlled neuropeptide release induces oxidative stress resistance. *Florian Ullrich. 1 Nature Structural & ... Ullrich, F. Mitochondria-controlled neuropeptide release induces oxidative stress resistance. Nat Struct Mol Biol 28, 411 (2021 ... Mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide positively regulates neuropeptide secretion during diet-induced activation of the oxidative ...
... Am Rev Respir Dis. 1991 Nov;144(5):1187-98. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm/144.5.1187. ...
Buy Perricone MD Neuropeptide Night Cream online at SkinStore with free shipping! We have a great range of Perricone MD Skin ... Neuropeptides: Uniting Surface Cells to Fight Wrinkles. owerful, protein-like building blocks offer the ultimate visible ... Neuropeptides: Uniting Surface Cells to Fight Wrinkles. owerful, protein-like building blocks offer the ultimate visible ...
J:14597 Allen JM, et al., Ontogeny of a novel peptide, neuropeptide Y (NPY) in rat brain. Brain Res. 1984 Jun 11;303(1):197-200 ...
Temperature and neuropeptide modulation alter ePSP and AP-induced calcium spread in the LG neuropil. A, The LG soma was ... 2001) Neuropeptides are ubiquitous chemical mediators: using the stomatogastric nervous system as a model system. J Exp Biol ... Temperature and neuropeptide modulation change ePSP and antidromic AP amplitudes. A, Top, Representative example of the average ... To assess whether neuropeptide modulation increases electrical spread, we bath applied 1 μM CabTRP Ia and compared the ...
Neuropeptide Firming & Illuminating Under-Eye Cream from Perricone MD US. Read genuine and unbiased product reviews from our ... Neuropeptide Firming & Illuminating Under-Eye Cream. Customer Reviews Neuropeptide Firming & Illuminating Under-Eye Cream ... I have tried all your eye treatments and I cant find anything that works like the original Neuropeptide. I used it for years ... I have used Perricone religiously for at least 15 years and the original neuropeptide eye cream was the most effective in ...
An important neuropeptide PACAP, belonging to VIP/secretin/glucagon family has roles in stimulating adenylate cyclase. We offer ... PACAP-27 is a neuropeptide originally isolated from bovine hypothalamus but is also found in humans and rats. It shows ... PACAP and VIP are two multifunctional neuropeptides modulating innate and adaptive immunity. VIP/PACAP protect T cells from ... is a 38-amino acid peptide discovered as an ovine hypothalamic neuropeptide. ...
tachykinin, precursor 1 (substance K, substance P, neurokinin 1, neurokinin 2, neuromedin L, neurokinin alpha, neuropeptide K, ... Gamma Neuropeptide Rabbit - Gentaur.com - Product info ... Gentaur Neuropeptide Y antiserum host rabbit test Catalog ...
Tacrine treatment modifies cerebrospinal fluid neuropeptide levels in Alzheimers disease.. Author(s): Minthon L, Edvinsson L, ... This article was to evaluate whether THA treatment induced neuropeptide alteration in DAT before and after 1 year on oral THA ...
... suggest that supplementation with BAB has a significant effect on body weight via regulation of hypothalamic neuropeptides. ... Effects of black adzuki bean (Vigna angularis, Geomguseul) extract on body composition and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression ... which are anorexigenic neuropeptides that suppress food intake. Furthermore, mRNA expression levels of ObRb, a gene related to ... extract on body composition and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression in Sprague Dawley rats (Rattus norvegicus) fed a high-fat ...
Plasma neuropeptides in hyperthyroidism. *Mark. Erfurth, E M LU ; Ekman, R and Ahrén, B LU (1990) In Thyroidology 2(2). p.59-63 ... Plasma levels of the neuropeptides, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP, neuropeptide Y (NPY), calcitonin gene-related ... Plasma levels of the neuropeptides, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP, neuropeptide Y (NPY), calcitonin gene-related ... Neuropeptide Y/blood, Neuropeptides/blood, Peptides/blood, Substance P/blood, Thyroidectomy, Thyroxine/pharmacology, ...
FlyNap (triethylamine) is commonly used to anesthetize Drosophila melanogaster fruit flies. The purpose of this study was to determine whether triethylamine is a suitable anesthetic agent for research into circulatory physiology and immune competence in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae). Recovery experiments showed that mosquitoes awaken from traditional cold anesthesia in less than 7 minutes, but that recovery from FlyNap anesthesia does not begin for several hours. Relative to cold anesthesia, moderate exposures to FlyNap induce an increase in the heart rate, a decrease in the percentage of the time the heart contracts in the anterograde direction, and a decrease in the frequency of heartbeat directional reversals. Experiments employing various combinations of cold and FlyNap anesthesia then showed that cold exposure does not affect basal heart physiology, and that the differences seen between the cold and the FlyNap groups are due to a FlyNap-induced alteration of heart physiology.
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors are members of a G protein coupled receptor superfamily and they mediate a variety of ...
A new non-invasive biodegradable neuropeptide nanoparticulate system for a brain delivery of peptides via nasal spray to the ... Enhancement of CNS neuropeptide delivery and site specific bioavailability of CNS neuropeptide ... Currently no neuropeptides are being used to treat CNS disorders due to their lack of BBB penetration and rapid metabolism in ... Biodegradable Neuropeptide Nanoparticles (TRH) is found to be effective in alleviation of depression and epilepsy but its entry ...
C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide in contrast to full-length neuropeptide semax exhibits no neuroprotective effect in ... TY - JOUR T1 - C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide in contrast to full-length neuropeptide semax exhibits no neuroprotective ... C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide in contrast to full-length neuropeptide semax exhibits no neuroprotective effect in ... "C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro Tripeptide in Contrast to Full-length Neuropeptide Semax Exhibits No Neuroprotective Effect in ...
Here, we propose that neuropeptide Y (NPY) nerves are key regulators of cancer-nerve interaction.We used in vitro models for ... Neuropeptide Y nerve paracrine regulation of prostate cancer oncogenesis and therapy resistance.. Oct 8, 2020 ... Here, we propose that neuropeptide Y (NPY) nerves are key regulators of cancer-nerve interaction.. We used in vitro models for ...
Ethological principles predict the neuropeptides co-opted to influence parenting. View ORCID ProfileChristopher B. Cunningham, ... Ethological principles predict the neuropeptides co-opted to influence parenting Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a ...
The effect of Neuropeptide Y on Sympathetically-Induced Constriction of Forearm Resistance Vessels in Man S Larkin; S Larkin ... S Larkin, N Benjamin, J Clarke, D Webb, G Davies, A Maseri; The effect of Neuropeptide Y on Sympathetically-Induced ...
The Neuropeptide Allatostatin A Regulates Metabolism and Feeding Decisions in Drosophila. I: Scientific Reports. 2015 ; Bind 5. ... The Neuropeptide Allatostatin A Regulates Metabolism and Feeding Decisions in Drosophila. Julie Lilith Hentze, Mikael A. ... The Neuropeptide Allatostatin A Regulates Metabolism and Feeding Decisions in Drosophila. Scientific Reports. 2015;5:11680. doi ... The Neuropeptide Allatostatin A Regulates Metabolism and Feeding Decisions in Drosophila. / Hentze, Julie Lilith; Carlsson, ...
... cytokine and neuropeptide activity in cancer patients and carers Daisy Fancourt1, 2, 3, Aaron Williamon1, ... Singing modulates mood, stress, cortisol, cytokine and neuropeptide activity in cancer patients and carers. Daisy Fancourt1, 2 ... And, we also included the neuropeptides oxytocin and β-endorphin which have been implicated in social bonding and feelings of ... Overall, across all three groups, the results showed a significant decrease in cortisol and neuropeptide levels accompanied by ...
... and its interaction with the neuropeptide, neuromedin U (NmU). MATERIAL AND METHODS:LINC01555 expression in SW620 and HCT116 ... The Long Noncoding RNA, LINC01555, Promotes Invasion and Metastasis of Colorectal Cancer by Activating the Neuropeptide, ...
neuropeptide FF. NPAF. neuropeptide AF. NPSF. neuropeptide SF. CNS. central nervous system. RACE. rapid amplification of cDNA ... Gene for Pain Modulatory Neuropeptide NPFF: Induction in Spinal Cord by Noxious Stimuli. Ferdinand S. Vilim, Antti A. Aarnisalo ... Gene for Pain Modulatory Neuropeptide NPFF: Induction in Spinal Cord by Noxious Stimuli. Ferdinand S. Vilim, Antti A. Aarnisalo ... Gene for Pain Modulatory Neuropeptide NPFF: Induction in Spinal Cord by Noxious Stimuli. Ferdinand S. Vilim, Antti A. Aarnisalo ...
Allergy and Immunology/*trends, Animals, Dendritic Cells/*physiology, Humans, Immune System/physiology, Neuropeptides/* ... Neuropeptides should therefore be included in the conceptual framework of the immune regulation of T cell function by dendritic ... Immunologists getting nervous: neuropeptides, dendritic cells and T cell activation. Publication. Publication. Respiratory ... These neuropeptides are released not only from nerve endings but also from inflammatory immune cells such as monocytes, ...
Neuropeptide Y, Porcine CAS 83589-17-7 - Find MSDS or SDS, a COA, data sheets and more information. ... We are offering Neuropeptide Y, Human (Cat. No. 05-23-2005) as a possible alternative. Please read the alternative product ... Neuropeptide Y, Porcine MSDS (material safety data sheet) or SDS, CoA and CoQ, dossiers, brochures and other available ...
Overexpression of neuropeptide Y decreases responsiveness to neuropeptide Y. Neuropeptides 2020;79: 101979. ... The aim of the present study was to investigate the usefulness of multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) and neuropeptide Y (NPY ... Levetiracetam; Oxcarbazepine; Children with epilepsy; Multidrug resistance protein 1; Neuropeptide Y; Efficacy Abstract. ... Woldbye DPD, Gøtzsche CR, Klemp K, Berezin V, Bock E. Neuropeptide Y-derived peptides. 2018. https://www.patentsencyclopedia. ...
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors belong to the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily and have important roles in food intake, ... Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors belong to the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily and have important roles in food intake, ...
Food Sensation Modulates Locomotion by Dopamine and Neuropeptide Signaling in a Distributed Neuronal Network. ... Food Sensation Modulates Locomotion by Dopamine and Neuropeptide Signaling in a Distributed Neuronal Network. AUTHORS. Oranth A ... In the absence of food, AVK interneurons release FLP-1 neuropeptides that inhibit motorneurons to regulate body posture and ... The DVA interneuron antagonizes signaling from AVK by releasing cholecystokinin-like neuropeptides that potentiate cholinergic ...
Here, we report deficits in secretory granule (SG) abundance and bioactive neuropeptide production upon loss of MAGEL2 in ... Importantly, loss of MAGEL2 in mice, NGN2-induced neurons, and human patients led to reduced neuropeptide production. Thus, ... Loss of MAGEL2 in Prader-Willi syndrome leads to decreased secretory granule and neuropeptide production. ... Loss of MAGEL2 in Prader-Willi syndrome leads to decreased secretory granule and neuropeptide production. ...
  • Neuropeptides typically bind to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) to modulate neural activity and other tissues like the gut, muscles, and heart. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most neuropeptides act on G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors are members of a G protein coupled receptor superfamily and they mediate a variety of physiological responses including feeding and vasoconstriction. (neuromics.com)
  • Neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptors belong to the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily and have important roles in food intake, anxiety and cancer biology(1,2). (uni-regensburg.de)
  • Indeed, neuropeptides act on neural substrates such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), tyrosine-kinase receptors , insuline-like peptides and also ion channels . (sb-peptide.com)
  • The areas of importance for neuropeptide studies include structure, localization within tissues, interaction with their receptors, including ion channels, and physiological function. (sb-peptide.com)
  • Since allopregnanolone (ALLO) elicits anxiolytic-like action and increases neuropeptide Y Y1 (NPY Y1) receptors gene expression in the amygdala, we were interested in studying the involvement of NPY Y1 receptors in the anxiolytic-like actions of ALLO. (aston.ac.uk)
  • Neuropeptide Growth Factor Serum delivers intelligent Biomimetic Peptides into the skin, which work to mimic the function of growth factors in the skin. (skininc.com)
  • A new non-invasive biodegradable neuropeptide nanoparticulate system for a brain delivery of peptides via nasal spray to the olfactory tissue. (yissum.co.il)
  • Neuropeptides FF (NPFF), AF (NPAF), and SF (NPSF) are homologous amidated peptides that were originally identified on the basis of similarity to the molluscan neuropeptide FMRF-amide. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Neuropeptide NPSF (SQAFLFQPQRF-NH2) is part of the FMRFamide-related peptides family. (sb-peptide.com)
  • However, there are unique challenges associated with neuropeptide studies stemming from the highly variable molecular sizes of the peptides, low in vivo concentrations, high degree of structural diversity and large number of isoforms. (sb-peptide.com)
  • As a result, much effort has been focused on developing new techniques for studying neuropeptides, as well as novel applications directed towards learning more about these endogenous peptides. (sb-peptide.com)
  • A peritracheal neuropeptide system in insects: release of myomodulin-like peptides at ecdysis. (neurostresspep.eu)
  • PACAP38 , derived from a 176-amino acid precursor (preproPACAP), is a 38-amino acid peptide discovered as an ovine hypothalamic neuropeptide. (eurogentec.com)
  • This study investigated the effect of black adzuki bean (BAB) extract on body composition and hypothalamic neuropeptide expression in Sprague Dawley rats (Rattus norvegicus) fed a high-fat diet. (nih.gov)
  • These results suggest that supplementation with BAB has a significant effect on body weight via regulation of hypothalamic neuropeptides. (nih.gov)
  • Its identification raised the possibility that gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is not the sole hypothalamic neuropeptide that directly influences pituitary gonadotrophin release. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These populations include the orexigenic neuropeptide Y (NPY) and anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons that have projections to key neurons in other hypothalamic nuclei and higher brain centers in order to orchestrate the feeding responses. (researchgate.net)
  • The term "neuropeptide" was first used in the 1970s by David de Wied, who studied the effects of the peptide hormones ACTH, MSH, and vasopressin on learning and memory. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plasma levels of the neuropeptides, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP, neuropeptide Y (NPY), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), substance P, and galanin were determined in 15 hyperthyroid patients before and at 3 occassions during 38 weeks of treatment. (lu.se)
  • In this commentary, the contribution of various neuropeptides such as substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide and somatostatin to the regulation of T cell activation is discussed. (eur.nl)
  • L 152804 is a selective non-peptide neuropeptide Y Y5 receptor antagonist (Ki = 26 nM). (csnpharm.cn)
  • Neuropeptide receptor affinity is in the nanomolar to micromolar range while neurotransmitter affinity is in the micromolar to millimolar range. (wikipedia.org)
  • Mice that lack neuropeptide Y (NPY) or NPY receptor type 5 (NPY5R) fail to prefer food odours over pheromones after fasting, and hunger-dependent food-odour attraction is restored by cell-specific NPY rescue in AGRP neurons. (nature.com)
  • Neuropeptides are chemical messengers made up of small chains of amino acids that are synthesized and released by neurons. (wikipedia.org)
  • The DVA interneuron antagonizes signaling from AVK by releasing cholecystokinin-like neuropeptides that potentiate cholinergic neurons, in response to dopaminergic neurons that sense food. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • Neuropeptides are small signaling molecules produced and released by neurons engaged in many physiological functions. (sb-peptide.com)
  • Here, we provide evidence that the Drosophila neuropeptide Allatostatin A (AstA) regulates AKH and DILP signaling. (ruc.dk)
  • Drosophila neuropeptides in regulation of physiology and behavior. (neurostresspep.eu)
  • Neuropeptides should therefore be included in the conceptual framework of the immune regulation of T cell function by dendritic cells. (eur.nl)
  • Dopaminergic regulation of food-related behavior, via similar neuropeptides, may be conserved in mammals. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • Neuropeptide NPSF has shown an important role in pain regulation and plays a role of anti-opiate . (sb-peptide.com)
  • Moreover, neuropeptide NPSF seems to be implicate in variety of physiological processes such as food intake , insulin release , blood pressure regulation and electrolyte balance . (sb-peptide.com)
  • Neuropeptides are one of the most diverse classes of signaling molecules and have attracted great interest over the years owing to their roles in regulation of a wide range of physiological processes. (sb-peptide.com)
  • Actions of neuropeptides result in slow-onset , long-lasting modulation of synaptic transmission . (sb-peptide.com)
  • Our results confirm the evolutionary conservation of NPFF, NPAF, and NPSF neuropeptide expression in mammalian brain. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Neuropeptide NPSF (SQAFLFQPQRF-NH2) is useful in opioid research . (sb-peptide.com)
  • There are over 100 known neuropeptides, representing the largest and most diverse class of signaling molecules in the nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Compared to classical neurotransmitter signaling, neuropeptide signaling is more sensitive. (wikipedia.org)
  • For example, neuropeptide F/neuropeptide Y signaling is structurally and functionally conserved between insects and mammals. (wikipedia.org)
  • PACAP and VIP are two multifunctional neuropeptides modulating innate and adaptive immunity . (eurogentec.com)
  • Neuropeptide Y gene polymorphisms and chronic kidney disease progression. (bvsalud.org)
  • PACAP-27 is a neuropeptide originally isolated from bovine hypothalamus but is also found in humans and rats. (eurogentec.com)
  • Portions of this work were previously presented in abbreviated fashion in the following abstracts: Vilim FS and Ziff E (1995) Cloning of the neuropeptide NPFF and NPAF precursor from bovine, rat, mouse, and human. (aspetjournals.org)
  • The expression of AGRP mRNA significantly decreased in the BAB groups, and treatment with BAB-2 resulted in a marked induction of the mRNA expression of POMC and CART, which are anorexigenic neuropeptides that suppress food intake. (nih.gov)
  • Our findings demonstrate that a substance-P-related neuropeptide can boost dendritic electrical spread to maintain neuronal activity when perturbed and reveals key neurophysiological components of neuropeptide actions that support pattern generation in temperature-compromised conditions. (jneurosci.org)
  • These neuropeptides are released not only from nerve endings but also from inflammatory immune cells such as monocytes, dendritic cells, eosinophils and mast cells. (eur.nl)
  • Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells. (bvsalud.org)
  • Are Neuropeptide-Reactive T Cells behind Narcolepsy? (cdc.gov)
  • Neuropeptide Y enhances olfactory mucosa responses to odorant in hungry rats. (nature.com)
  • Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a neurotransmitter expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems , which is involved in regulating a multitude of physiological processes ranging from arterial pressure , energy balance, the immune response and inflammation and renal electrolyte transport. (bvsalud.org)
  • Currently no neuropeptides are being used to treat CNS disorders due to their lack of BBB penetration and rapid metabolism in nearly all tissue compartments. (yissum.co.il)
  • Neuropeptides are synthesized from large precursor proteins which are cleaved and post-translationally processed then packaged into dense core vesicles. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptides are synthesized from large, inactive precursor proteins called prepropeptides. (wikipedia.org)
  • Panula P, Nieminen M, Aarnisalo AA, Lintunen M, Karhunen T, Vilim FS, Ziff E and Karlstedt K (1996) Expression of neuropeptide FF precursor in rat CNS. (aspetjournals.org)
  • I have used Perricone religiously for at least 15 years and the original neuropeptide eye cream was the most effective in firming and maintaining "rested" appearance. (perriconemd.com)
  • Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a 36 amino-acid neuropeptide that is involved in various physiological and homeostatic processes in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. (assaysolution.com)
  • Expression of neuropeptides in the nervous system is diverse. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptides in eating disorders. (bvsalud.org)
  • Several neuropeptides affect the distinct disorders of PEM, oedematous and sleep-wake cycle [6] and a role for gamma- non-oedematous, Heird's preferred terms aminobutyric acid (GABA) transmission for kwashiorkor and marasmus respectively has been hypothesized [7]. (who.int)
  • Almost all neuropeptides bind to GPCRs, inducing second messenger cascades to modulate neural activity on long time-scales. (wikipedia.org)
  • In insects, proctolin was the first neuropeptide to be isolated and sequenced. (wikipedia.org)
  • Evidence shows that neuropeptides are released after high-frequency firing or bursts, distinguishing dense core vesicle from synaptic vesicle release. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptides are often co-released with other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters, yielding a diversity of effects depending on the combination of release. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptide release can also be specific. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the absence of food, AVK interneurons release FLP-1 neuropeptides that inhibit motorneurons to regulate body posture and velocity, thereby promoting dispersal. (vanderbilt.edu)
  • In the present study, sensory irritants are characterized by the stimulation of neuropeptide release from sensory nerves in the nasal mucosa, while pulmonary irritants are characterized by recruitment of PMN into bronchoalveolar airspaces, elevation of breathing frequency, and neuropeptide release from sensory fibers innervating the epithelium of the conducting airways. (cdc.gov)
  • Biodegradable Neuropeptide Nanoparticles (TRH) is found to be effective in alleviation of depression and epilepsy but its entry into brain is limited due to its hydrophilic nature and large size as these properties make it unsuitable to pass through BBB. (yissum.co.il)
  • The aim of the present study was to investigate the usefulness of multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) levels in predicting the efficacy of levetiracetam (LEV) plus oxcarbazepine (OXC) treatment administered to children with epilepsy and to determine their prognosis. (usp.br)
  • The first neuropeptide, Substance P, was discovered by Ulf von Euler and John Gaddum in 1931. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, the cellular actions neuropeptides elicit to support temperature-robust activity remain unknown. (jneurosci.org)
  • This article was to evaluate whether THA treatment induced neuropeptide alteration in DAT before and after 1 year on oral THA treatment. (druglib.com)
  • Tacrine treatment modifies cerebrospinal fluid neuropeptide levels in Alzheimer's disease. (druglib.com)
  • Before and after 11 (+/- 4), 24 (+/- 6) and 38 (+/- 5) weeks of treatment, plasma neuropeptide levels were analysed. (lu.se)
  • In contrast, the mean plasma levels of the other measured neuropeptides did not differ from those in the controls. (lu.se)
  • Similar methods were used to identify other neuropeptides in the early 1950s, such as vasopressin and oxytocin. (wikipedia.org)
  • Neuropeptides support skin's barrier and hydration via a unique chemical structure. (skinstore.com)