Gram-negative, non-motile, capsulated, gas-producing rods found widely in nature and associated with urinary and respiratory infections in humans.
Infections with bacteria of the genus KLEBSIELLA.
A species of gram-negative bacteria causing URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS and SEPTICEMIA.
Enzymes found in many bacteria which catalyze the hydrolysis of the amide bond in the beta-lactam ring. Well known antibiotics destroyed by these enzymes are penicillins and cephalosporins.
A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock.
Gram-negative gas-producing rods found in feces of humans and other animals, sewage, soil, water, and dairy products.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
A group of beta-lactam antibiotics in which the sulfur atom in the thiazolidine ring of the penicillin molecule is replaced by a carbon atom. THIENAMYCINS are a subgroup of carbapenems which have a sulfur atom as the first constituent of the side chain.
Nonsusceptibility of bacteria to the action of the beta-lactam antibiotics. Mechanisms responsible for beta-lactam resistance may be degradation of antibiotics by BETA-LACTAMASES, failure of antibiotics to penetrate, or low-affinity binding of antibiotics to targets.
An enzyme system that catalyzes the fixing of nitrogen in soil bacteria and blue-green algae (CYANOBACTERIA). EC 1.18.6.1.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Solitary or multiple collections of PUS within the liver as a result of infection by bacteria, protozoa, or other agents.
The process in certain BACTERIA; FUNGI; and CYANOBACTERIA converting free atmospheric NITROGEN to biologically usable forms of nitrogen, such as AMMONIA; NITRATES; and amino compounds.
Gram-negative, capsulated, gas-producing rods found widely in nature. Both motile and non-motile strains exist. The species is closely related to KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE and is frequently associated with nosocomial infections
Infections with bacteria of the family ENTEROBACTERIACEAE.
Four-membered cyclic AMIDES, best known for the PENICILLINS based on a bicyclo-thiazolidine, as well as the CEPHALOSPORINS based on a bicyclo-thiazine, and including monocyclic MONOBACTAMS. The BETA-LACTAMASES hydrolyze the beta lactam ring, accounting for BETA-LACTAM RESISTANCE of infective bacteria.
Bacteria which lose crystal violet stain but are stained pink when treated by Gram's method.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Any infection which a patient contracts in a health-care institution.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
A group of broad-spectrum antibiotics first isolated from the Mediterranean fungus ACREMONIUM. They contain the beta-lactam moiety thia-azabicyclo-octenecarboxylic acid also called 7-aminocephalosporanic acid.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Semisynthetic, broad-spectrum antibacterial derived from CEPHALORIDINE and used especially for Pseudomonas and other gram-negative infections in debilitated patients.
Single or multiple areas of PUS due to bacterial infection within the hepatic parenchyma. It can be caused by a variety of BACTERIA, local or disseminated from infections elsewhere such as in APPENDICITIS; CHOLECYSTITIS; PERITONITIS; and after LIVER TRANSPLANTATION.
A parasexual process in BACTERIA; ALGAE; FUNGI; and ciliate EUKARYOTA for achieving exchange of chromosome material during fusion of two cells. In bacteria, this is a uni-directional transfer of genetic material; in protozoa it is a bi-directional exchange. In algae and fungi, it is a form of sexual reproduction, with the union of male and female gametes.
An enzyme that catalyzes the first step of histidine catabolism, forming UROCANIC ACID and AMMONIA from HISTIDINE. Deficiency of this enzyme is associated with elevated levels of serum histidine and is called histidinemia (AMINO ACID METABOLISM, INBORN ERRORS).
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by bacterial infections.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in the intestines of humans and a wide variety of animals, as well as in manure, soil, and polluted waters. Its species are pathogenic, causing urinary tract infections and are also considered secondary invaders, causing septic lesions at other sites of the body.
A non-heme iron-sulfur protein isolated from Clostridium pasteurianum and other bacteria. It is a component of NITROGENASE, which is active in nitrogen fixation, and consists of two subunits with molecular weights of 59.5 kDa and 50.7 kDa, respectively.
Infections caused by bacteria that show up as pink (negative) when treated by the gram-staining method.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Beta-lactam antibiotics that differ from PENICILLINS in having the thiazolidine sulfur atom replaced by carbon, the sulfur then becoming the first atom in the side chain. They are unstable chemically, but have a very broad antibacterial spectrum. Thienamycin and its more stable derivatives are proposed for use in combinations with enzyme inhibitors.
Gel electrophoresis in which the direction of the electric field is changed periodically. This technique is similar to other electrophoretic methods normally used to separate double-stranded DNA molecules ranging in size up to tens of thousands of base-pairs. However, by alternating the electric field direction one is able to separate DNA molecules up to several million base-pairs in length.
A granulomatous disease caused by KLEBSIELLA RHINOSCLEROMATIS infection. Despite its name, this disease is not limited to the nose and NASOPHARYNX but may affect any part of the RESPIRATORY TRACT, sometimes with extension to the lip and the skin.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that is frequently isolated from clinical specimens. Its most common site of infection is the urinary tract.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in the natural environment (soil, water, and plant surfaces) or as an opportunistic human pathogen.
Acetylene is not typically considered a medical term, but rather a chemical compound (C2H2) commonly used in industrial and laboratory settings for its high energy content and reactivity, which may have various applications in medicine such as wound healing and surgical procedures, but it is not a medical diagnosis or disease.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Semisynthetic thienamycin that has a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity against gram-negative and gram-positive aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, including many multiresistant strains. It is stable to beta-lactamases. Clinical studies have demonstrated high efficacy in the treatment of infections of various body systems. Its effectiveness is enhanced when it is administered in combination with CILASTATIN, a renal dipeptidase inhibitor.
Cyclic polypeptide antibiotic from Bacillus colistinus. It is composed of Polymyxins E1 and E2 (or Colistins A, B, and C) which act as detergents on cell membranes. Colistin is less toxic than Polymyxin B, but otherwise similar; the methanesulfonate is used orally.
A sugar alcohol formed by the reduction of ribose.
Infections with bacteria of the species ESCHERICHIA COLI.
Institutions with an organized medical staff which provide medical care to patients.
A semisynthetic cephamycin antibiotic resistant to beta-lactamase.
Semisynthetic broad-spectrum cephalosporin.
Non-susceptibility of an organism to the action of the cephalosporins.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in water, sewage, soil, meat, hospital environments, and on the skin and in the intestinal tract of man and animals as a commensal.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Semisynthetic, broad-spectrum, AMPICILLIN derived ureidopenicillin antibiotic proposed for PSEUDOMONAS infections. It is also used in combination with other antibiotics.
A chronic inflammatory condition affecting the axial joints, such as the SACROILIAC JOINT and other intervertebral or costovertebral joints. It occurs predominantly in young males and is characterized by pain and stiffness of joints (ANKYLOSIS) with inflammation at tendon insertions.
The lipopolysaccharide-protein somatic antigens, usually from gram-negative bacteria, important in the serological classification of enteric bacilli. The O-specific chains determine the specificity of the O antigens of a given serotype. O antigens are the immunodominant part of the lipopolysaccharide molecule in the intact bacterial cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Techniques used in studying bacteria.
A building block of penicillin, devoid of significant antibacterial activity. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of urea and water to carbon dioxide and ammonia. EC 3.5.1.5.
4-carbon straight chain aliphatic hydrocarbons substituted with two hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl groups cannot be on the same carbon atom.
Electrophoresis in which a pH gradient is established in a gel medium and proteins migrate until they reach the site (or focus) at which the pH is equal to their isoelectric point.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Bacteria which retain the crystal violet stain when treated by Gram's method.
A TETRACYCLINE analog, having a 7-dimethylamino and lacking the 5 methyl and hydroxyl groups, which is effective against tetracycline-resistant STAPHYLOCOCCUS infections.
Inflammatory responses of the epithelium of the URINARY TRACT to microbial invasions. They are often bacterial infections with associated BACTERIURIA and PYURIA.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria commonly isolated from clinical specimens (wound, burn, and urinary tract infections). It is also found widely distributed in soil and water. P. aeruginosa is a major agent of nosocomial infection.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
A genus of bacteria causing GRANULOMA INGUINALE and other granulomatous lesions.
In bacteria, a group of metabolically related genes, with a common promoter, whose transcription into a single polycistronic MESSENGER RNA is under the control of an OPERATOR REGION.
Direct nucleotide sequencing of gene fragments from multiple housekeeping genes for the purpose of phylogenetic analysis, organism identification, and typing of species, strain, serovar, or other distinguishable phylogenetic level.
A monocyclic beta-lactam antibiotic originally isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum. It is resistant to beta-lactamases and is used in gram-negative infections, especially of the meninges, bladder, and kidneys. It may cause a superinfection with gram-positive organisms.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria found in humans and other animals including MAMMALS; BIRDS; REPTILES; and AMPHIBIANS. It has also been isolated from SOIL and WATER as well as from clinical specimens such as URINE; THROAT; SPUTUM; BLOOD; and wound swabs as an opportunistic pathogen.
Polyhydric alcohols having no more than one hydroxy group attached to each carbon atom. They are formed by the reduction of the carbonyl group of a sugar to a hydroxyl group.(From Dorland, 28th ed)
Porins are protein molecules that were originally found in the outer membrane of GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA and that form multi-meric channels for the passive DIFFUSION of WATER; IONS; or other small molecules. Porins are present in bacterial CELL WALLS, as well as in plant, fungal, mammalian and other vertebrate CELL MEMBRANES and MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria found in soil, water, food, and clinical specimens. It is a prominent opportunistic pathogen for hospitalized patients.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP, L-glutamate, and NH3 to ADP, orthophosphate, and L-glutamine. It also acts more slowly on 4-methylene-L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 6.3.1.2.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
An enzyme that catalyzes the dehydration of 1,2-propanediol to propionaldehyde. EC 4.2.1.28.
A cephalosporin antibiotic.
Hospital department responsible for the administration and provision of diagnostic and therapeutic services for the urologic patient.
Using MOLECULAR BIOLOGY techniques, such as DNA SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; PULSED-FIELD GEL ELECTROPHORESIS; and DNA FINGERPRINTING, to identify, classify, and compare organisms and their subtypes.
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin derivative used parenterally. It is susceptible to gastric juice and penicillinase and may damage platelet function.
Clavulanic acid and its salts and esters. The acid is a suicide inhibitor of bacterial beta-lactamase enzymes from Streptomyces clavuligerus. Administered alone, it has only weak antibacterial activity against most organisms, but given in combination with other beta-lactam antibiotics it prevents antibiotic inactivation by microbial lactamase.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.
A method where a culturing surface inoculated with microbe is exposed to small disks containing known amounts of a chemical agent resulting in a zone of inhibition (usually in millimeters) of growth of the microbe corresponding to the susceptibility of the strain to the agent.
Monocyclic, bacterially produced or semisynthetic beta-lactam antibiotics. They lack the double ring construction of the traditional beta-lactam antibiotics and can be easily synthesized.
A broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.
A genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria found in soil and water. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs or irregular clumps, and sometimes in chains of varying lengths.
A specific HLA-B surface antigen subtype. Members of this subtype contain alpha chains that are encoded by the HLA-B*27 allele family.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
Glycosylated compounds in which there is an amino substituent on the glycoside. Some of them are clinically important ANTIBIOTICS.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Greece" is a country in southeastern Europe and not a medical term or condition. If you have any medical questions or need a definition related to medicine, I would be happy to help.
A group of derivatives of naphthyridine carboxylic acid, quinoline carboxylic acid, or NALIDIXIC ACID.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
Procedures for identifying types and strains of bacteria. The most frequently employed typing systems are BACTERIOPHAGE TYPING and SEROTYPING as well as bacteriocin typing and biotyping.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
The interference in synthesis of an enzyme due to the elevated level of an effector substance, usually a metabolite, whose presence would cause depression of the gene responsible for enzyme synthesis.
Reversibly catalyzes the oxidation of a hydroxyl group of sugar alcohols to form a keto sugar, aldehyde or lactone. Any acceptor except molecular oxygen is permitted. Includes EC 1.1.1.; EC 1.1.2. and EC 1.1.99.
A group of antibiotics that contain 6-aminopenicillanic acid with a side chain attached to the 6-amino group. The penicillin nucleus is the chief structural requirement for biological activity. The side-chain structure determines many of the antibacterial and pharmacological characteristics. (Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1065)
Anogenital ulcers caused by Calymmatobacterium granulomatis as distinguished from lymphogranuloma inguinale (see LYMPHOGRANULOMA VENEREUM) caused by CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS. Diagnosis is made by demonstration of typical intracellular Donovan bodies in crushed-tissue smears.
A semisynthetic cephalosporin analog with broad-spectrum antibiotic action due to inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis. It attains high serum levels and is excreted quickly via the urine.
Cephalosporinase is an enzyme produced by certain bacteria that can hydrolyze and confer resistance to cephalosporin antibiotics.
A technique for identifying individuals of a species that is based on the uniqueness of their DNA sequence. Uniqueness is determined by identifying which combination of allelic variations occur in the individual at a statistically relevant number of different loci. In forensic studies, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM of multiple, highly polymorphic VNTR LOCI or MICROSATELLITE REPEAT loci are analyzed. The number of loci used for the profile depends on the ALLELE FREQUENCY in the population.
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of a phenol sulfate to yield a phenol and sulfate. Arylsulfatase A, B, and C have been separated. A deficiency of arylsulfatases is one of the causes of metachromatic leukodystrophy (LEUKODYSTROPHY, METACHROMATIC). EC 3.1.6.1.
DNA elements that include the component genes and insertion site for a site-specific recombination system that enables them to capture mobile gene cassettes.
The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A metallic element with the atomic symbol Mo, atomic number 42, and atomic weight 95.94. It is an essential trace element, being a component of the enzymes xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and nitrate reductase. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A five-carbon sugar alcohol derived from XYLOSE by reduction of the carbonyl group. It is as sweet as sucrose and used as a noncariogenic sweetener.
The natural bactericidal property of BLOOD due to normally occurring antibacterial substances such as beta lysin, leukin, etc. This activity needs to be distinguished from the bactericidal activity contained in a patient's serum as a result of antimicrobial therapy, which is measured by a SERUM BACTERICIDAL TEST.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
The application of molecular biology to the answering of epidemiological questions. The examination of patterns of changes in DNA to implicate particular carcinogens and the use of molecular markers to predict which individuals are at highest risk for a disease are common examples.
Proteins isolated from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
A genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped enterobacteria that can use citrate as the sole source of carbon.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms occur in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. The species are either nonpathogenic or opportunistic pathogens.
Accumulation of purulent material in tissues, organs, or circumscribed spaces, usually associated with signs of infection.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Taiwan" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It is a country located in East Asia. If you have any questions related to healthcare or medical terms, I would be happy to help with those!
"Citrates, in a medical context, are compounds containing citric acid, often used in medical solutions for their chelating properties and as a part of certain types of nutritional support."
A family of signal transducing adaptor proteins that control the METABOLISM of NITROGEN. They are primarily found in prokaryotes.
Viruses whose hosts are bacterial cells.
A genus of gram-negative bacteria of the family MORAXELLACEAE, found in soil and water and of uncertain pathogenicity.
Thioglycosides are organic compounds consisting of a glycosyl group linked to a sulfur atom, often used in medicinal chemistry as antimicrobial, antiviral, and antifungal agents, or as enzyme inhibitors.
Discrete segments of DNA which can excise and reintegrate to another site in the genome. Most are inactive, i.e., have not been found to exist outside the integrated state. DNA transposable elements include bacterial IS (insertion sequence) elements, Tn elements, the maize controlling elements Ac and Ds, Drosophila P, gypsy, and pogo elements, the human Tigger elements and the Tc and mariner elements which are found throughout the animal kingdom.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms are associated with plants as pathogens, saprophytes, or as constituents of the epiphytic flora.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
The presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in water. This term is not restricted to pathogenic organisms.
Hospitals maintained by a university for the teaching of medical students, postgraduate training programs, and clinical research.
Genes which regulate or circumscribe the activity of other genes; specifically, genes which code for PROTEINS or RNAs which have GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION functions.
An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.

Antibiotic synergy and antagonism against clinical isolates of Klebsiella species. (1/765)

Minimal inhibitory concentrations of kanamycin, gentamicin, amikacin, cephalothin, and chloramphenicol were determined in Trypticase soy broth for 70 clinical isolates of Klebsiella species. Gentamicin and amikacin were the most active on a weight basis. Chloramphenicol was more active than kanamycin, and cephalothin was the least active of all. Studies using a microtiter modification of the checkerboard technique were performed to evaluate the comparative activity of the three aminoglycosides in combination with either chloramphenicol or cephalothin. The cephalothin-aminoglycoside combinations demonstrated synergy in >80% of the isolates tested. No antagonism was noted. The chloramphenicol-aminoglycoside combinations showed antagonism in 35 to 45% of the isolates tested. The data suggest that the chloramphenicol-aminoglycoside combinations be used with caution when treating serious infections where Klebsiella is a potential pathogen.  (+info)

Strength and regulation of the different promoters for chromosomal beta-lactamases of Klebsiella oxytoca. (2/765)

The two groups of chromosomal beta-lactamases from Klebsiella oxytoca (OXY-1 and OXY-2) can be overproduced 73- to 223-fold, due to point mutations in the consensus sequences of their promoters. The different versions of promoters from blaOXY-1 and blaOXY-2 were cloned upstream of the chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene of pKK232-8, and their relative strengths were determined in Escherichia coli and in K. oxytoca. The three different mutations in the OXY beta-lactamase promoters resulted in a 4- to 31-fold increase in CAT activity compared to that of the wild-type promoter. The G-->T transversion in the first base of the -10 consensus sequence caused a greater increase in the promoter strength of the wild-type promoter than the two other principal mutations (a G-to-A transition of the fifth base of the -10 consensus sequence and a T-to-A transversion of the fourth base of the -35 sequence). The strength of the promoter carrying a double mutation (transition in the Pribnow box and the transversion in the -35 hexamer) was increased 15- to 61-fold in comparison to that of the wild-type promoter. A change from 17 to 16 bp between the -35 and -10 consensus sequences resulted in a ninefold decrease of the promoter strength. The expression of the blaOXY promoter in E. coli differs from that in K. oxytoca, particularly for promoters carrying strong mutations. Furthermore, the blaOXY promoter appears not to be controlled by DNA supercoiling or an upstream curved DNA, but it is dependent on the gene copy number.  (+info)

Genetic characterization of resistance to extended-spectrum beta-lactams in Klebsiella oxytoca isolates recovered from patients with septicemia at hospitals in the Stockholm area. (3/765)

Two beta-lactamase gene regions were characterized by DNA sequencing in eight clinical isolates of Klebsiella oxytoca. The blaOXY-2a region encoded a beta-lactamase nearly identical to OXY-2 (one amino acid residue substituted) and conferred aztreonam and cefuroxime resistance on the K. oxytoca isolates. Overproduction of OXY-2a was caused by a G-to-A substitution of the fifth nucleotide in the -10 consensus sequence of blaOXY-2a. The blaOXY-1a was identified in a susceptible strain, and the OXY-1a enzyme differed from OXY-1 by two amino acid residues.  (+info)

Characterization and nucleotide sequence of a Klebsiella oxytoca cryptic plasmid encoding a CMY-type beta-lactamase: confirmation that the plasmid-mediated cephamycinase originated from the Citrobacter freundii AmpC beta-lactamase. (4/765)

Plasmid pTKH11, originally obtained by electroporation of a Klebsiella oxytoca plasmid preparation into Escherichia coli XAC, expressed a high level of an AmpC-like beta-lactamase. The enzyme, designated CMY-5, conferred resistance to extended-spectrum beta-lactams in E. coli; nevertheless, the phenotype was cryptic in the K. oxytoca donor. Determination of the complete nucleotide sequence of pTKH11 revealed that the 8,193-bp plasmid encoded seven open reading frames, including that for the CMY-5 beta-lactamase (blaCMY-5). The blaCMY-5 product was similar to the plasmidic CMY-2 beta-lactamase of K. pneumoniae and the chromosomal AmpC of Citrobacter freundii, with 99.7 and 97.0% identities, respectively; there was a substitution of phenylalanine in CMY-5 for isoleucine 105 in CMY-2. blaCMY-5 was followed by the Blc and SugE genes of C. freundii, and this cluster exhibited a genetic organization identical to that of the ampC region on the chromosome of C. freundii; these results confirmed that C. freundii AmpC was the evolutionary origin of the plasmidic cephamycinases. In the K. oxytoca host, the copy number of pTKH11 was very low and the plasmid coexisted with plasmid pNBL63. Analysis of the replication regions of the two plasmids revealed 97% sequence similarity in the RNA I transcripts; this result implied that the two plasmids might be incompatible. Incompatibility of the two plasmids might explain the cryptic phenotype of blaCMY-5 in K. oxytoca through an exclusion effect on pTKH11 by resident plasmid pNBL63.  (+info)

Use of microdilution panels with and without beta-lactamase inhibitors as a phenotypic test for beta-lactamase production among Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp., Citrobacter freundii, and Serratia marcescens. (5/765)

Over the past decade, a number of new beta-lactamases have appeared in clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae that, unlike their predecessors, do not confer beta-lactam resistance that is readily detected in routine antibiotic susceptibility tests. Because optimal methodologies are needed to detect these important new beta-lactamases, a study was designed to evaluate the ability of a panel of various beta-lactam antibiotics tested alone and in combination with beta-lactamase inhibitors to discriminate between the production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, AmpC beta-lactamases, high levels of K1 beta-lactamase, and other beta-lactamases in 141 isolates of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, Enterobacter cloacae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Citrobacter freundii, and Serratia marcescens possessing well-characterized beta-lactamases. The microdilution panels studied contained aztreonam, cefpodoxime, ceftazidime, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone, with and without 1, 2, and 4 microg of clavulanate per ml or 8 microg of sulbactam per ml and cefoxitin and cefotetan with and without 8 microg of sulbactam per ml. The results indicated that a minimum panel of five tests would provide maximum separation of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase high AmpC, high K1, and other beta-lactamase production in Enterobacteriaceae. These included cefpodoxime, cefpodoxime plus 4 microg of clavulanate per ml, ceftazidime, ceftriaxone, and ceftriaxone plus 8 microg of sulbactam per ml. Ceftriaxone plus 2 microg of clavulanate per ml could be substituted for cefpodoxime plus 4 microg of clavulanate per ml without altering the accuracy of the tests. This study indicated that tests with key beta-lactam drugs, alone and in combination with beta-lactamase inhibitors, could provide a convenient approach to the detection of a variety of beta-lactamases in members of the family Enterobacteriaceae.  (+info)

Ankylosing spondylitis in monozygotic twins: studies on immunological parameters. (6/765)

OBJECTIVE: To examine immunological parameters that might explain disease discordance in monozygotic twin pairs with ankylosing spondylitis (AS). METHODS: 11 monozygotic twin pairs (nine with AS, two with undifferentiated spondyloarthropathy) were investigated. The peripheral T cell receptor Vbeta repertoire was investigated using FACS analysis and 14 different Vbeta antibodies. In addition serum samples were tested for antibodies to Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, Candida albicans, Proteus mirabilis, and Escherichia coli. Peripheral blood lymphocyte reactivity against a number of bacteria was investigated by interferon gamma ELISPOT assays. RESULTS: Twins suffering from AS showed cellular hyporeactivity against K pneumoniae, S pyogenes, C albicans in the ELISPOT assays compared with healthy twins. In contrast with the antibody data, where no significant differences were observed between the two groups, AS concordant twins showed the most pronounced differences in their Vbeta repertoire on CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes. CONCLUSIONS: Cellular hyporeactivity of peripheral blood cells to bacterial antigens might reflect defective T cell responses allowing bacterial antigens to persist in diseased patients. There are probably other environmental factors that influence disease concordance.  (+info)

Membrane association and multimerization of secreton component pulC. (7/765)

The PulC component of the Klebsiella oxytoca pullulanase secretion machinery (the secreton) was found by subcellular fractionation to be associated with both the cytoplasmic (inner) and outer membranes. Association with the outer membrane was independent of other secreton components, including the outer membrane protein PulD (secretin). The association of PulC with the inner membrane is mediated by the signal anchor sequence located close to its N terminus. These results suggest that PulC forms a bridge between the two membranes that is disrupted when bacteria are broken open for fractionation. Neither the signal anchor sequence nor the cytoplasmic N-terminal region that precedes it was found to be required for PulC function, indicating that PulC does not undergo sequence-specific interactions with other cytoplasmic membrane proteins. Cross-linking of whole cells resulted in the formation of a ca. 110-kDa band that reacted with PulC-specific serum and whose detection depended on the presence of PulD. However, antibodies against PulD failed to react with this band, suggesting that it could be a homo-PulC trimer whose formation requires PulD. The data are discussed in terms of the possible role of PulC in energy transduction for exoprotein secretion.  (+info)

Molecular characterization of TEM-59 (IRT-17), a novel inhibitor-resistant TEM-derived beta-lactamase in a clinical isolate of Klebsiella oxytoca. (8/765)

A clinical isolate of Klebsiella oxytoca (Kox 443) was found to have a low-level resistance to broad-spectrum penicillins (MICs of amoxicillin and ticarcillin, 256 and 32 microg/ml, respectively), without substantial potentiation by 2 microg of clavulanic acid per ml (amoxicillin- and ticarcillin-clavulanate, 128 and 8 microg/ml, respectively), while being fully susceptible to cephalosporins and other beta-lactam antibiotics. These resistances were carried by a ca. 50-kb conjugative plasmid that encodes a single beta-lactamase with a pI of 5.6. Compared to TEM-2, this enzyme exhibited a 3- to 30-fold higher Km and a decreased maximal hydrolysis rate for beta-lactams; higher concentrations of suicide inactivators (5- to 500-fold higher concentrations giving a 50% reduction in hydrolysis) were required for inhibition. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed identity between the blaTEM gene of Kox 443 and the blaTEM-2 gene, except for a single A-to-G change at position 590, leading to the amino acid change from Ser-130 Gly. This mutation has not been reported previously in the TEM type beta-lactamases produced by clinical strains, and the novel enzyme was called TEM-59 (alternative name IRT-17). This is the first description of an inhibitor-resistant TEM-derived enzyme in the species K. oxytoca.  (+info)

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is a medical term that refers to a type of bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It's a gram-negative, encapsulated, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium that can be found in various environments, including soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals.

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause a range of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. It's a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and wound infections.

The bacterium is known for its ability to produce a polysaccharide capsule that makes it resistant to phagocytosis by white blood cells, allowing it to evade the host's immune system. Additionally, "Klebsiella pneumoniae" has developed resistance to many antibiotics, making infections caused by this bacterium difficult to treat and a growing public health concern.

Klebsiella infections are caused by bacteria called Klebsiella spp., with the most common species being Klebsiella pneumoniae. These gram-negative, encapsulated bacilli are normal inhabitants of the human gastrointestinal tract and upper respiratory tract but can cause various types of infections when they spread to other body sites.

Commonly, Klebsiella infections include:

1. Pneumonia: This is a lung infection that can lead to symptoms like cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and fever. It often affects people with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized.

2. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Klebsiella can cause UTIs, particularly in individuals with compromised urinary tracts, such as catheterized patients or those with structural abnormalities. Symptoms may include pain, burning during urination, frequent urges to urinate, and lower abdominal or back pain.

3. Bloodstream infections (bacteremia/septicemia): When Klebsiella enters the bloodstream, it can cause bacteremia or septicemia, which can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by an overwhelming immune response to infection. Symptoms may include fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and rapid breathing.

4. Wound infections: Klebsiella can infect wounds, particularly in patients with open surgical wounds or traumatic injuries. Infected wounds may display redness, swelling, pain, pus discharge, and warmth.

5. Soft tissue infections: These include infections of the skin and underlying soft tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses. Symptoms can range from localized redness, swelling, and pain to systemic symptoms like fever and malaise.

Klebsiella infections are increasingly becoming difficult to treat due to their resistance to multiple antibiotics, including carbapenems, which has led to the term "carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae" (CRE) or "carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae" (CRKP). These infections often require the use of last-resort antibiotics like colistin and tigecycline. Infection prevention measures, such as contact precautions, hand hygiene, and environmental cleaning, are crucial to controlling the spread of Klebsiella in healthcare settings.

"Klebsiella oxytoca" is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that is part of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a normal inhabitant of the human gastrointestinal tract and can be found in soil, water, and plants. In clinical settings, K. oxytoca can cause various types of infections, including pneumonia, bloodstream infections, wound infections, and urinary tract infections. It is known to produce a variety of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate certain antibiotics, making it resistant to some forms of treatment. Its identification is important for appropriate antimicrobial therapy and infection control measures.

Beta-lactamases are enzymes produced by certain bacteria that can break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. This enzymatic activity makes the bacteria resistant to these antibiotics, limiting their effectiveness in treating infections caused by these organisms.

Beta-lactamases work by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring, a structural component of these antibiotics that is essential for their antimicrobial activity. By breaking down this ring, the enzyme renders the antibiotic ineffective against the bacterium, allowing it to continue growing and potentially causing harm.

There are different classes of beta-lactamases (e.g., Ambler Class A, B, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and mechanisms for breaking down various beta-lactam antibiotics. The emergence and spread of bacteria producing these enzymes have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, making it increasingly challenging to treat infections caused by these organisms.

To overcome this issue, researchers have developed beta-lactamase inhibitors, which are drugs that can bind to and inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thus restoring the effectiveness of certain beta-lactam antibiotics. Examples of such combinations include amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn).

Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.

These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.

Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.

Enterobacter is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. These bacteria are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and are known to cause a variety of infections in humans, particularly in healthcare settings.

Enterobacter species are capable of causing a range of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and wound infections. They are often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. Infections with Enterobacter are typically treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against gram-negative bacteria.

It's worth noting that while Enterobacter species can cause infections, they are also a normal part of the microbiota found in the human gut and usually do not cause harm in healthy individuals. However, if the bacterium enters the bloodstream or other sterile sites in the body, it can cause infection and illness.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Carbapenems are a class of broad-spectrum beta-lactam antibiotics, which are used to treat severe infections caused by bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillins and cephalosporins but are more resistant to the enzymes produced by bacteria that can inactivate these other antibiotics. Carbapenems are often reserved for use in serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms, and they are typically given intravenously in a hospital setting. Examples of carbapenems include imipenem, meropenem, doripenem, and ertapenem.

Beta-lactam resistance is a type of antibiotic resistance in which bacteria have developed the ability to inactivate or circumvent the action of beta-lactam antibiotics. Beta-lactams are a class of antibiotics that include penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. They work by binding to and inhibiting the activity of enzymes called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are essential for bacterial cell wall synthesis.

Bacteria can develop beta-lactam resistance through several mechanisms:

1. Production of beta-lactamases: These are enzymes that bacteria produce to break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics. Some bacteria have acquired genes that encode for beta-lactamases that can hydrolyze and destroy the beta-lactam ring, rendering the antibiotic ineffective.
2. Alteration of PBPs: Bacteria can also develop mutations in their PBPs that make them less susceptible to beta-lactams. These alterations can reduce the affinity of PBPs for beta-lactams or change their conformation, preventing the antibiotic from binding effectively.
3. Efflux pumps: Bacteria can also develop efflux pumps that actively pump beta-lactam antibiotics out of the cell, reducing their intracellular concentration and limiting their effectiveness.
4. Biofilm formation: Some bacteria can form biofilms, which are communities of microorganisms that adhere to surfaces and are encased in a protective matrix. Biofilms can make bacteria more resistant to beta-lactams by preventing the antibiotics from reaching their targets.

Beta-lactam resistance is a significant public health concern because it limits the effectiveness of these important antibiotics. The overuse and misuse of beta-lactams have contributed to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, making it essential to use these antibiotics judiciously and develop new strategies to combat bacterial resistance.

Nitrogenase is not a medical term, but a biological term used in the field of microbiology and biochemistry. It refers to an enzyme complex found in certain bacteria and archaea that have the ability to fix nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere into ammonia (NH3), a form of nitrogen that can be utilized by plants and other organisms for growth and development. This process is known as biological nitrogen fixation, which is essential for maintaining the global nitrogen cycle and supporting life on Earth.

The medical field may refer to nitrogenase in relation to human health in the context of understanding the role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil fertility and their impact on agriculture and food production. However, there is no direct medical definition or application for nitrogenase.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

A liver abscess is a localized collection of pus within the liver tissue caused by an infection. It can result from various sources such as bacterial or amebic infections that spread through the bloodstream, bile ducts, or directly from nearby organs. The abscess may cause symptoms like fever, pain in the upper right abdomen, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss. If left untreated, a liver abscess can lead to serious complications, including sepsis and organ failure. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests like ultrasound or CT scan, followed by drainage of the pus and antibiotic treatment.

Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen gas (N2) in the air is converted into ammonia (NH3) or other chemically reactive forms, making it available to plants and other organisms for use as a nutrient. This process is essential for the nitrogen cycle and for the growth of many types of plants, as most plants cannot utilize nitrogen gas directly from the air.

In the medical field, nitrogen fixation is not a commonly used term. However, in the context of microbiology and infectious diseases, some bacteria are capable of fixing nitrogen and this ability can contribute to their pathogenicity. For example, certain species of bacteria that colonize the human body, such as those found in the gut or on the skin, may be able to fix nitrogen and use it for their own growth and survival. In some cases, these bacteria may also release fixed nitrogen into the environment, which can have implications for the ecology and health of the host and surrounding ecosystems.

"Enterobacter aerogenes" is a species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and vegetation. In medical contexts, E. aerogenes is often considered an opportunistic pathogen, meaning it can cause infection in individuals with compromised immune systems or underlying health conditions.

E. aerogenes is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and is closely related to other pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. It is known for its ability to produce large amounts of gas, including carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, which can contribute to its virulence and make it difficult to identify using traditional biochemical tests.

E. aerogenes can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and wound infections. It is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of E. aerogenes isolates that are resistant to carbapenems, a class of antibiotics that are often used as a last resort for treating serious bacterial infections.

Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of gram-negative bacteria that are commonly found in the human gut and surrounding environment. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can occur when these bacteria enter parts of the body where they are not normally present, such as the bloodstream, urinary tract, or abdominal cavity.

Enterobacteriaceae infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection. For example:

* Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause symptoms such as frequent urination, pain or burning during urination, and lower abdominal pain.
* Bloodstream infections (bacteremia) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause fever, chills, and sepsis, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory response to infection.
* Pneumonia caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Intra-abdominal infections (such as appendicitis or diverticulitis) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits.

Enterobacteriaceae infections are typically treated with antibiotics, but the increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant strains of these bacteria has made treatment more challenging in recent years. Preventing the spread of Enterobacteriaceae in healthcare settings and promoting good hygiene practices can help reduce the risk of infection.

Beta-lactams are a class of antibiotics that include penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams. They contain a beta-lactam ring in their chemical structure, which is responsible for their antibacterial activity. The beta-lactam ring inhibits the bacterial enzymes necessary for cell wall synthesis, leading to bacterial death. Beta-lactams are commonly used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, urinary tract infections, and bone and joint infections. However, some bacteria have developed resistance to beta-lactams through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring and render the antibiotic ineffective. To overcome this resistance, beta-lactam antibiotics are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors, which protect the beta-lactam ring from degradation.

Gram-negative bacteria are a type of bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method, a standard technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.

The primary characteristic distinguishing Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria is the composition and structure of their cell walls:

1. Cell wall: Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer, making it more susceptible to damage and less rigid compared to Gram-positive bacteria.
2. Outer membrane: They possess an additional outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are endotoxins that can trigger strong immune responses in humans and animals. The outer membrane also contains proteins, known as porins, which form channels for the passage of molecules into and out of the cell.
3. Periplasm: Between the inner and outer membranes lies a compartment called the periplasm, where various enzymes and other molecules are located.

Some examples of Gram-negative bacteria include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, Shigella spp., and Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria are often associated with various infections, such as urinary tract infections, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Due to their complex cell wall structure, Gram-negative bacteria can be more resistant to certain antibiotics, making them a significant concern in healthcare settings.

Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.

MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.

MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.

Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.

Cross infection, also known as cross-contamination, is the transmission of infectious agents or diseases between patients in a healthcare setting. This can occur through various means such as contaminated equipment, surfaces, hands of healthcare workers, or the air. It is an important concern in medical settings and measures are taken to prevent its occurrence, including proper hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), environmental cleaning and disinfection, and safe injection practices.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the fungus Acremonium, originally isolated from seawater and cow dung. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillin and share a common four-membered beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure.

Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, meaning they are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

There are several generations of cephalosporins, each with different spectra of activity and pharmacokinetic properties. The first generation cephalosporins have a narrow spectrum of activity and are primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Second-generation cephalosporins have an expanded spectrum of activity that includes some Gram-negative organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. Third-generation cephalosporins have even broader spectra of activity and are effective against many resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Fourth-generation cephalosporins have activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are often reserved for the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Cephalosporins are generally well tolerated, but like penicillin, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Cross-reactivity between cephalosporins and penicillin is estimated to occur in 5-10% of patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Other potential adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), neurotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Ceftazidime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, leading to bacterial cell death. Ceftazidime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria.

It is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis, particularly when they are caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Ceftazidime is also commonly used in combination with other antibiotics to treat complicated abdominal infections, bone and joint infections, and hospital-acquired pneumonia.

Like all antibiotics, ceftazidime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and allergic reactions. It may also affect the kidneys and should be used with caution in patients with impaired renal function. Ceftazidime is available in both intravenous (IV) and oral forms.

A pyogenic liver abscess is a localized collection of pus within the liver parenchyma caused by an infectious process. It's typically characterized by the presence of a purulent material, which can be composed of white blood cells (neutrophils), necrotic debris, and microorganisms. The infection usually spreads to the liver through the hepatic blood vessels from a primary focus of infection elsewhere in the body, such as the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, or dental sources.

The most common causative organisms are Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Streptococcus species; however, anaerobes and fungi can also be responsible in certain populations. The clinical presentation of pyogenic liver abscess may include fever, chills, right upper quadrant abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and signs of systemic infection. Diagnosis is usually confirmed with imaging techniques such as ultrasound or CT scan, followed by aspiration and culture of the pus for identification of the causative organism(s) and antibiogram-guided antimicrobial therapy. Drainage of the abscess, either percutaneously or surgically, might be required in specific cases to ensure resolution and prevent recurrence.

Genetic conjugation is a type of genetic transfer that occurs between bacterial cells. It involves the process of one bacterium (the donor) transferring a piece of its DNA to another bacterium (the recipient) through direct contact or via a bridge-like connection called a pilus. This transferred DNA may contain genes that provide the recipient cell with new traits, such as antibiotic resistance or virulence factors, which can make the bacteria more harmful or difficult to treat. Genetic conjugation is an important mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance and other traits among bacterial populations.

Histidine Ammonia-Lyase (HAL) is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of the amino acid L-histidine into trans-urocanic acid, ammonia, and water. This reaction is a part of the histidine catabolism pathway in many organisms, including humans. The enzyme accomplishes this transformation by removing an ammonia group from the imidazole ring of L-histidine, resulting in the formation of trans-urocanic acid. Histidine Ammonia-Lyase plays a crucial role in histidine metabolism and has been studied for its potential implications in various physiological processes and diseases.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Bacterial pneumonia is a type of lung infection that's caused by bacteria. It can affect people of any age, but it's more common in older adults, young children, and people with certain health conditions or weakened immune systems. The symptoms of bacterial pneumonia can vary, but they often include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.

The most common type of bacteria that causes pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). Other types of bacteria that can cause pneumonia include Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Bacterial pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics, which are medications that kill bacteria. The specific type of antibiotic used will depend on the type of bacteria causing the infection. It's important to take all of the prescribed medication as directed, even if you start feeling better, to ensure that the infection is completely cleared and to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

In severe cases of bacterial pneumonia, hospitalization may be necessary for close monitoring and treatment with intravenous antibiotics and other supportive care.

'Proteus' doesn't have a specific medical definition itself, but it is related to a syndrome in medicine. Proteus syndrome is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the overgrowth of various tissues and organs in the body. The name "Proteus" comes from the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form at will, reflecting the diverse and ever-changing nature of this condition's symptoms.

People with Proteus syndrome experience asymmetric overgrowth of bones, skin, and other tissues, leading to abnormalities in body shape and function. The disorder can also affect blood vessels, causing benign tumors called hamartomas to develop. Additionally, individuals with Proteus syndrome are at an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer.

The genetic mutation responsible for Proteus syndrome is found in the AKT1 gene, which plays a crucial role in cell growth and division. This disorder is typically not inherited but instead arises spontaneously as a new mutation in the affected individual. Early diagnosis and management of Proteus syndrome can help improve patients' quality of life and reduce complications associated with the condition.

Molybdoferredoxin is not a widely recognized medical term, but it is a term used in biochemistry and molecular biology to describe a type of protein that contains molybdenum and iron-sulfur clusters as cofactors. These proteins are involved in various redox reactions in the body, particularly in the metabolism of certain amino acids, nucleotides, and other small molecules.

Molybdoferredoxins are found in many organisms, including bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (including humans). In humans, molybdoferredoxins play important roles in several metabolic pathways, such as the oxidation of sulfite to sulfate and the reduction of nitrate to nitrite.

Deficiencies or mutations in molybdoferredoxin-related genes can lead to various metabolic disorders, including molybdenum cofactor deficiency, a rare genetic disorder that affects multiple enzymes requiring molybdenum as a cofactor.

Gram-negative bacterial infections refer to illnesses or diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria, which are a group of bacteria that do not retain crystal violet dye during the Gram staining procedure used in microbiology. This characteristic is due to the structure of their cell walls, which contain a thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), proteins, and phospholipids.

The LPS component of the outer membrane is responsible for the endotoxic properties of Gram-negative bacteria, which can lead to severe inflammatory responses in the host. Common Gram-negative bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Proteus mirabilis, among others.

Gram-negative bacterial infections can cause a wide range of clinical syndromes, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, meningitis, and soft tissue infections. The severity of these infections can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the patient's immune status, the site of infection, and the virulence of the bacterial strain.

Effective antibiotic therapy is crucial for treating Gram-negative bacterial infections, but the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern. Therefore, accurate diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial stewardship are essential to ensure optimal patient outcomes and prevent further spread of resistance.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

Thienamycins are a group of antibiotics that are characterized by their beta-lactam structure. They belong to the class of carbapenems and are known for their broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many that are resistant to other antibiotics. Thienamycins inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which leads to bacterial cell death.

Thienamycin itself is not used clinically due to its instability, but several semi-synthetic derivatives of thienamycin have been developed and are used in the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Examples of thienamycin derivatives include imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem. These antibiotics are often reserved for the treatment of severe infections that are unresponsive to other antibiotics due to their potential to select for resistant bacteria and their high cost.

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) is a type of electrophoresis technique used in molecular biology to separate DNA molecules based on their size and conformation. In this method, the electric field is applied in varying directions, which allows for the separation of large DNA fragments that are difficult to separate using traditional gel electrophoresis methods.

The DNA sample is prepared by embedding it in a semi-solid matrix, such as agarose or polyacrylamide, and then subjected to an electric field that periodically changes direction. This causes the DNA molecules to reorient themselves in response to the changing electric field, which results in the separation of the DNA fragments based on their size and shape.

PFGE is a powerful tool for molecular biology research and has many applications, including the identification and characterization of bacterial pathogens, the analysis of genomic DNA, and the study of gene organization and regulation. It is also used in forensic science to analyze DNA evidence in criminal investigations.

Rhinoscleroma is a chronic, granulomatous infection that primarily affects the nasal mucosa. It's caused by the bacterium Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis (formerly named Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. rhinoscleromatis). The disease is characterized by the formation of firm, woody granulomas that can lead to destruction of the nasal structures and deformity of the nose if left untreated.

The infection typically progresses through three stages: catarrhal, granulomatous, and fibrotic. In the catarrhal stage, there is a persistent runny nose and nasal congestion. The granulomatous stage is characterized by the formation of nodules and plaques in the nasal passages, which can cause crusting, foul-smelling discharge, and difficulty breathing through the nose. In the fibrotic stage, the tissues of the nose become thickened, hardened, and scarred, leading to deformity and loss of function.

Rhinoscleroma is most commonly found in developing countries with poor socioeconomic conditions, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. It's more prevalent in populations with limited access to healthcare and clean water, as well as those living in overcrowded conditions. The disease primarily affects young adults and children, and it has a slight female predominance.

Treatment for rhinoscleroma typically involves long-term antibiotic therapy using agents such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, tetracyclines, or fluoroquinolones. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove scar tissue and restore nasal function. Preventive measures include improving living conditions, access to clean water, and early detection and treatment of the disease.

Proteus mirabilis is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil and water. In humans, P. mirabilis can be part of the normal gut flora but can also cause opportunistic infections, particularly in the urinary tract. It is known for its ability to produce urease, which can lead to the formation of urinary stones and blockages.

P. mirabilis infections are often associated with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, kidney disease, or urinary catheterization. Symptoms of a P. mirabilis infection may include fever, cloudy or foul-smelling urine, and pain or burning during urination. Treatment typically involves antibiotics that are effective against Gram-negative bacteria, although resistance to certain antibiotics is not uncommon in P. mirabilis isolates.

"Serratia" is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, motile bacilli that are commonly found in the environment, such as in water and soil. Some species, particularly "Serratia marcescens," can cause healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, wound infections, and bloodstream infections. These infections often occur in patients with compromised immune systems or who have been hospitalized for extended periods of time. Serratia species are resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging.

Acetylene is defined as a colorless, highly flammable gas with a distinctive odor, having the chemical formula C2H2. It is the simplest and lightest hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are bonded together by a triple bond. Acetylene is used as a fuel in welding and cutting torches, and it can also be converted into other chemicals, such as vinyl acetate and acetic acid. In medical terms, acetylene is not a substance that is commonly used or discussed.

Bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that consist of long chains of sugar molecules (monosaccharides) linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are produced and used by bacteria for various purposes such as:

1. Structural components: Bacterial polysaccharides, such as peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of bacterial cells. Peptidoglycan is a major component of the bacterial cell wall, while LPS forms the outer layer of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria.
2. Nutrient storage: Some bacteria synthesize and store polysaccharides as an energy reserve, similar to how plants store starch. These polysaccharides can be broken down and utilized by the bacterium when needed.
3. Virulence factors: Bacterial polysaccharides can also function as virulence factors, contributing to the pathogenesis of bacterial infections. For example, certain bacteria produce capsular polysaccharides (CPS) that surround and protect the bacterial cells from host immune defenses, allowing them to evade phagocytosis and persist within the host.
4. Adhesins: Some polysaccharides act as adhesins, facilitating the attachment of bacteria to surfaces or host cells. This is important for biofilm formation, which helps bacteria resist environmental stresses and antibiotic treatments.
5. Antigenic properties: Bacterial polysaccharides can be highly antigenic, eliciting an immune response in the host. The antigenicity of these molecules can vary between different bacterial species or even strains within a species, making them useful as targets for vaccines and diagnostic tests.

In summary, bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that serve various functions in bacteria, including structural support, nutrient storage, virulence factor production, adhesion, and antigenicity.

Bacterial capsules are slimy, gel-like layers that surround many types of bacteria. They are made up of polysaccharides, proteins, or lipopolysaccharides and are synthesized by the bacterial cell. These capsules play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenicity of bacteria as they help the bacteria to evade the host's immune system and promote their survival and colonization within the host. The presence of a capsule can also contribute to the bacteria's resistance to desiccation, phagocytosis, and antibiotics.

The chemical composition and structure of bacterial capsules vary among different species of bacteria, which is one factor that contributes to their serological specificity and allows for their identification and classification using methods such as the Quellung reaction or immunofluorescence microscopy.

Imipenem is an antibiotic medication that belongs to the class of carbapenems. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including pneumonia, sepsis, and skin infections. Imipenem works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to bacterial death.

Imipenem is often combined with another medication called cilastatin, which helps to prevent the breakdown of imipenem in the body and increase its effectiveness. The combination of imipenem and cilastatin is available under the brand name Primaxin.

Like other antibiotics, imipenem should be used with caution and only when necessary, as overuse can lead to antibiotic resistance. It is important to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully and complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished.

Colistin is an antibiotic that belongs to a class of drugs called polymyxins. It is primarily used to treat infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. Colistin works by disrupting the bacterial cell membrane and causing the bacterium to lose essential components, leading to its death.

Colistin can be administered intravenously or inhaled, depending on the type of infection being treated. It is important to note that colistin has a narrow therapeutic index, meaning that there is a small difference between the effective dose and the toxic dose. Therefore, it must be used with caution and under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.

Common side effects of colistin include kidney damage, nerve damage, and muscle weakness. It may also cause allergic reactions in some people. Colistin should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding unless the benefits outweigh the risks.

Ribitol is a sugar alcohol, specifically a pentitol, that is a reduced form of the pentose sugar ribose. It is found in some fruits and vegetables, and it can also be produced synthetically. In biochemistry, ribitol plays a role as a component of certain coenzymes and as a constituent of the structural polysaccharides in the cell walls of some bacteria. It has been used in research and medical applications, such as in the study of bacterial metabolism and in the development of potential drugs.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium E. coli, which can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific strain and site of infection. The majority of E. coli strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. However, some strains, particularly those that produce Shiga toxins, can cause severe illness.

E. coli infections can occur through various routes, including contaminated food or water, person-to-person contact, or direct contact with animals or their environments. Common symptoms of E. coli infections include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, complications such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur, which may lead to kidney failure and other long-term health problems.

Preventing E. coli infections involves practicing good hygiene, cooking meats thoroughly, avoiding cross-contamination of food during preparation, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, and avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and juices. Prompt medical attention is necessary if symptoms of an E. coli infection are suspected to prevent potential complications.

A hospital is a healthcare facility where patients receive medical treatment, diagnosis, and care for various health conditions, injuries, or diseases. It is typically staffed with medical professionals such as doctors, nurses, and other healthcare workers who provide round-the-clock medical services. Hospitals may offer inpatient (overnight) stays or outpatient (same-day) services, depending on the nature of the treatment required. They are equipped with various medical facilities like operating rooms, diagnostic equipment, intensive care units (ICUs), and emergency departments to handle a wide range of medical situations. Hospitals may specialize in specific areas of medicine, such as pediatrics, geriatrics, oncology, or trauma care.

Cefoxitin is a type of antibiotic known as a cephamycin, which is a subclass of the larger group of antibiotics called cephalosporins. Cephalosporins are bactericidal agents that inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to and disrupting the function of penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs).

Cefoxitin has a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including many strains that are resistant to other antibiotics. It is commonly used to treat infections caused by susceptible organisms such as:

* Staphylococcus aureus (including methicillin-resistant S. aureus or MRSA)
* Streptococcus pneumoniae
* Escherichia coli
* Klebsiella spp.
* Proteus mirabilis
* Bacteroides fragilis and other anaerobic bacteria

Cefoxitin is available in both intravenous (IV) and intramuscular (IM) formulations, and it is typically administered every 6 to 8 hours. The drug is generally well tolerated, but potential side effects include gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting, as well as allergic reactions, including rash, pruritus, and anaphylaxis.

It's important to note that the use of antibiotics should be based on the results of bacterial cultures and susceptibility testing whenever possible, to ensure appropriate therapy and minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Cefotaxime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefotaxime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Cefotaxime is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It may also be used to prevent infections during surgery or in people with weakened immune systems. The drug is administered intravenously or intramuscularly, and its dosage depends on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Like all antibiotics, cefotaxime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious allergic reactions or damage to the kidneys or liver. It is important to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking this medication.

Cephalosporin resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to resist the antibacterial effects of cephalosporins, a group of widely used antibiotics. These drugs work by interfering with the bacterial cell wall synthesis, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth and reproduction. However, some bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive in the presence of cephalosporins.

There are several ways in which bacteria can become resistant to cephalosporins. One common mechanism is through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring structure of cephalosporins and other related antibiotics. This makes the drugs ineffective against the bacteria.

Another mechanism of resistance involves changes in the bacterial cell membrane or the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that prevent the binding of cephalosporins to their target sites. These changes can occur due to genetic mutations or the acquisition of new genes through horizontal gene transfer.

Cephalosporin resistance is a significant public health concern, as it can limit the treatment options for bacterial infections and increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics are major drivers of antibiotic resistance, including cephalosporin resistance. Therefore, it is essential to use these drugs judiciously and follow proper infection prevention and control measures to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.

'Enterobacter cloacae' is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. They are part of the family Enterobacteriaceae and can cause various types of infections in humans, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions.

E. cloacae is known to be an opportunistic pathogen, which means that it typically does not cause disease in healthy people but can take advantage of a weakened host to cause infection. It can cause a range of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia (bloodstream infections), and wound infections.

E. cloacae is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of E. cloacae isolates that are resistant to carbapenems, a class of antibiotics that are typically reserved for treating serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. This has led to concerns about the potential for untreatable infections caused by this organism.

Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Piperacillin is a type of antibiotic known as a semisynthetic penicillin that is used to treat a variety of infections caused by bacteria. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

Piperacillin has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many strains that are resistant to other antibiotics. It is often used in combination with other antibiotics, such as tazobactam, to increase its effectiveness against certain types of bacteria.

Piperacillin is typically administered intravenously in a hospital setting and is used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, sepsis, and abdominal or urinary tract infections. As with all antibiotics, it should be used only when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Ankylosing spondylitis is a type of inflammatory arthritis that primarily affects the spine, although other joints can also be involved. It causes swelling in the spinal joints (vertebrae) that can lead to stiffness and pain. Over time, some of these joints may grow together, causing new bone formation and resulting in a rigid spine. This fusion of the spine is called ankylosis.

The condition typically begins in the sacroiliac joints, where the spine connects to the pelvis. From there, it can spread up the spine and potentially involve other areas of the body such as the eyes, heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal system.

Ankylosing spondylitis has a strong genetic link, with most people carrying the HLA-B27 gene. However, not everyone with this gene will develop the condition. It primarily affects males more often than females and tends to start in early adulthood.

Treatment usually involves a combination of medication, physical therapy, and exercise to help manage pain, maintain mobility, and prevent deformity. In severe cases, surgery may be considered.

"O antigens" are a type of antigen found on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The "O" in O antigens stands for "outer" membrane. These antigens are composed of complex carbohydrates and can vary between different strains of the same species of bacteria, which is why they are also referred to as the bacterial "O" somatic antigens.

The O antigens play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenesis of many Gram-negative bacteria, as they help the bacteria evade the host's immune system by changing the structure of the O antigen, making it difficult for the host to mount an effective immune response against the bacterial infection.

The identification and classification of O antigens are important in epidemiology, clinical microbiology, and vaccine development, as they can be used to differentiate between different strains of bacteria and to develop vaccines that provide protection against specific bacterial infections.

Bacteriological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and study of bacteria. These techniques are essential in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and research. Here are some common bacteriological techniques:

1. **Sterilization**: This is a process that eliminates or kills all forms of life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Common sterilization methods include autoclaving (using steam under pressure), dry heat (in an oven), chemical sterilants, and radiation.

2. **Aseptic Technique**: This refers to practices used to prevent contamination of sterile materials or environments with microorganisms. It includes the use of sterile equipment, gloves, and lab coats, as well as techniques such as flaming, alcohol swabbing, and using aseptic transfer devices.

3. **Media Preparation**: This involves the preparation of nutrient-rich substances that support bacterial growth. There are various types of media, including solid (agar), liquid (broth), and semi-solid (e.g., stab agar). The choice of medium depends on the type of bacteria being cultured and the purpose of the investigation.

4. **Inoculation**: This is the process of introducing a bacterial culture into a medium. It can be done using a loop, swab, or needle. The inoculum should be taken from a pure culture to avoid contamination.

5. **Incubation**: After inoculation, the bacteria are allowed to grow under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition. This process is called incubation.

6. **Staining and Microscopy**: Bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, they need to be stained and observed under a microscope. Gram staining is a common method used to differentiate between two major groups of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

7. **Biochemical Tests**: These are tests used to identify specific bacterial species based on their biochemical characteristics, such as their ability to ferment certain sugars, produce particular enzymes, or resist certain antibiotics.

8. **Molecular Techniques**: Advanced techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing can provide more precise identification of bacteria. They can also be used for genetic analysis and epidemiological studies.

Remember, handling microorganisms requires careful attention to biosafety procedures to prevent accidental infection or environmental contamination.

Penicillanic acid is not a term that has a widely accepted or established medical definition in the context of human medicine or clinical practice. It is a chemical compound that is a derivative of penicillin, an antibiotic produced by certain types of mold. Penicillanic acid is a breakdown product of penicillin and is not itself used as a medication.

In chemistry, penicillanic acid is a organic compound with the formula (CH3)2C6H5COOH. It is a derivative of benzene and has a carboxylic acid group and a five-membered ring containing a sulfur atom and a double bond, which is a characteristic feature of penicillin and its derivatives.

It's important to note that while penicillanic acid may have relevance in the context of chemistry or microbiology research, it does not have a direct medical definition or application in clinical medicine.

Urease is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In medicine, urease is often associated with certain bacterial infections, such as those caused by Helicobacter pylori, which can produce large amounts of this enzyme. The presence of urease in these infections can lead to increased ammonia production, contributing to the development of gastritis and peptic ulcers.

Butylene glycols are a type of organic compounds that belong to the class of diols, which are chemical compounds containing two hydroxyl groups. Specifically, butylene glycols are composed of a four-carbon chain with two hydroxyl groups located on adjacent carbon atoms.

There are two isomeric forms of butylene glycol: 1,2-butanediol and 1,3-butanediol.

* 1,2-Butanediol (also known as 1,2-butylene glycol) has the hydroxyl groups on the first and second carbon atoms of the chain. It is a colorless, viscous liquid that is used as a solvent, humectant, and antifreeze in various industrial and cosmetic applications.
* 1,3-Butanediol (also known as 1,3-butylene glycol) has the hydroxyl groups on the first and third carbon atoms of the chain. It is also a colorless, viscous liquid that is used as a solvent, humectant, and antifreeze in various industrial and cosmetic applications.

Butylene glycols are generally considered to be safe for use in cosmetics and other consumer products, although they may cause skin irritation or allergic reactions in some individuals. They are also used as intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals, such as polyesters and polyurethanes.

Isoelectric focusing (IEF) is a technique used in electrophoresis, which is a method for separating proteins or other molecules based on their electrical charges. In IEF, a mixture of ampholytes (molecules that can carry both positive and negative charges) is used to create a pH gradient within a gel matrix. When an electric field is applied, the proteins or molecules migrate through the gel until they reach the point in the gradient where their net charge is zero, known as their isoelectric point (pI). At this point, they focus into a sharp band and stop moving, resulting in a highly resolved separation of the different components based on their pI. This technique is widely used in protein research for applications such as protein identification, characterization, and purification.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

Culture media is a substance that is used to support the growth of microorganisms or cells in an artificial environment, such as a petri dish or test tube. It typically contains nutrients and other factors that are necessary for the growth and survival of the organisms being cultured. There are many different types of culture media, each with its own specific formulation and intended use. Some common examples include blood agar, which is used to culture bacteria; Sabouraud dextrose agar, which is used to culture fungi; and Eagle's minimum essential medium, which is used to culture animal cells.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Gram-positive bacteria are a type of bacteria that stain dark purple or blue when subjected to the Gram staining method, which is a common technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This staining method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.

The key characteristic that distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria from other types, such as Gram-negative bacteria, is the presence of a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining process. Additionally, Gram-positive bacteria lack an outer membrane found in Gram-negative bacteria.

Examples of Gram-positive bacteria include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Bacillus subtilis. Some Gram-positive bacteria can cause various human diseases, while others are beneficial or harmless.

Minocycline is an antibiotic medication that belongs to the tetracycline class. Medically, it is defined as a semisynthetic derivative of tetracycline and has a broader spectrum of activity compared to other tetracyclines. It is bacteriostatic, meaning it inhibits bacterial growth rather than killing them outright.

Minocycline is commonly used to treat various infections caused by susceptible bacteria, including acne, respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and sexually transmitted diseases. Additionally, it has been found to have anti-inflammatory properties and is being investigated for its potential use in treating neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease.

As with all antibiotics, minocycline should be taken under the guidance of a healthcare professional, and its usage should be based on the results of bacterial culture and sensitivity testing to ensure its effectiveness against the specific bacteria causing the infection.

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) are defined as the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, typically bacteria, in any part of the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, resulting in infection and inflammation. The majority of UTIs are caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, but other organisms such as Klebsiella, Proteus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, and Enterococcus can also cause UTIs.

UTIs can be classified into two types based on the location of the infection:

1. Lower UTI or bladder infection (cystitis): This type of UTI affects the bladder and urethra. Symptoms may include a frequent and urgent need to urinate, pain or burning during urination, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, and discomfort in the lower abdomen or back.

2. Upper UTI or kidney infection (pyelonephritis): This type of UTI affects the kidneys and can be more severe than a bladder infection. Symptoms may include fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and pain in the flanks or back.

UTIs are more common in women than men due to their shorter urethra, which makes it easier for bacteria to reach the bladder. Other risk factors for UTIs include sexual activity, use of diaphragms or spermicides, urinary catheterization, diabetes, and weakened immune systems.

UTIs are typically diagnosed through a urinalysis and urine culture to identify the causative organism and determine the appropriate antibiotic treatment. In some cases, imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan may be necessary to evaluate for any underlying abnormalities in the urinary tract.

"Pseudomonas aeruginosa" is a medically important, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is widely found in the environment, such as in soil, water, and on plants. It's an opportunistic pathogen, meaning it usually doesn't cause infection in healthy individuals but can cause severe and sometimes life-threatening infections in people with weakened immune systems, burns, or chronic lung diseases like cystic fibrosis.

P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants due to its intrinsic resistance mechanisms and the acquisition of additional resistance determinants. It can cause various types of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, dermatitis, and severe bloodstream infections known as sepsis.

The bacterium produces a variety of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenicity, such as exotoxins, proteases, and pigments like pyocyanin and pyoverdine, which aid in iron acquisition and help the organism evade host immune responses. Effective infection control measures, appropriate use of antibiotics, and close monitoring of high-risk patients are crucial for managing P. aeruginosa infections.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

'Calymmatobacterium' is a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are typically found as part of the normal microbiota in the skin and mucous membranes of some animals. The most well-known species in this genus is Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, which is the causative agent of granuloma inguinale (also known as donovanosis), a sexually transmitted infection that primarily affects the genital area and causes painful ulcers and granulomas.

Calymmatobacterium species are fastidious organisms, meaning they have specific growth requirements and can be difficult to culture in the laboratory. They are typically transmitted through direct contact with infected tissue or bodily fluids, and infection can lead to a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection and the immune status of the host.

In addition to granuloma inguinale, Calymmatobacterium species have also been associated with other diseases in animals, including respiratory tract infections and skin lesions in dogs and cats. However, their role as primary pathogens in these contexts is not well-established.

An operon is a genetic unit in prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) consisting of a cluster of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule, which then undergoes translation to produce multiple proteins. This genetic organization allows for the coordinated regulation of genes that are involved in the same metabolic pathway or functional process. The unit typically includes promoter and operator regions that control the transcription of the operon, as well as structural genes encoding the proteins. Operons were first discovered in bacteria, but similar genetic organizations have been found in some eukaryotic organisms, such as yeast.

Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) is a standardized method used in microbiology to characterize and identify bacterial isolates at the subspecies level. It is based on the sequencing of several (usually 7-10) housekeeping genes, which are essential for the survival of the organism and have a low rate of mutation. The sequence type (ST) is determined by the specific alleles present at each locus, creating a unique profile that can be used to compare and cluster isolates into clonal complexes or sequence types. This method provides high-resolution discrimination between closely related strains and has been widely adopted for molecular epidemiology, infection control, and population genetics studies of bacterial pathogens.

Aztreonam is a monobactam antibiotic, which is a type of antibacterial drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria. It works by interfering with the ability of bacterial cells to form cell walls, leading to their death. Aztreonam is specifically active against certain types of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli.

Aztreonam is available in various forms, including injectable solutions and inhaled powder, for use in different clinical settings. It is often used to treat serious infections that have not responded to other antibiotics or that are caused by bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Like all antibiotics, aztreonam can cause side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headache. It may also cause allergic reactions in some people, particularly those with a history of allergies to other antibiotics. It is important to use aztreonam only as directed by a healthcare provider and to report any unusual symptoms or side effects promptly.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

'Citrobacter freundii' is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that is commonly found in the environment, including water, soil, and plants. It is also part of the normal gut flora in humans and animals. The bacterium can cause various types of infections in people with weakened immune systems, such as newborns, the elderly, and those with chronic diseases. Infections caused by 'Citrobacter freundii' may include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and wound infections. Proper identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing are crucial for effective treatment of these infections.

Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are carbohydrates that are chemically similar to sugar but have a different molecular structure. They occur naturally in some fruits and vegetables, but most sugar alcohols used in food products are manufactured.

The chemical structure of sugar alcohols contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) instead of a hydrogen and a ketone or aldehyde group, which makes them less sweet than sugar and have fewer calories. They are not completely absorbed by the body, so they do not cause a rapid increase in blood glucose levels, making them a popular sweetener for people with diabetes.

Common sugar alcohols used in food products include xylitol, sorbitol, mannitol, erythritol, and maltitol. They are often used as sweeteners in sugar-free and low-sugar foods such as candy, chewing gum, baked goods, and beverages.

However, consuming large amounts of sugar alcohols can cause digestive symptoms such as bloating, gas, and diarrhea, due to their partial absorption in the gut. Therefore, it is recommended to consume them in moderation.

Porins are a type of protein found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. They form water-filled channels, or pores, that allow small molecules such as ions, nutrients, and waste products to pass through the otherwise impermeable outer membrane. Porins are important for the survival of gram-negative bacteria, as they enable the selective transport of essential molecules while providing a barrier against harmful substances.

There are different types of porins, classified based on their structure and function. Some examples include:

1. General porins (also known as nonspecific porins): These are the most common type of porins and form large, water-filled channels that allow passive diffusion of small molecules up to 600-700 Da in size. They typically have a trimeric structure, with three identical or similar subunits forming a pore in the membrane.
2. Specific porins: These porins are more selective in the molecules they allow to pass through and often have smaller pores than general porins. They can be involved in the active transport of specific molecules or ions, requiring energy from the cell.
3. Autotransporters: While not strictly considered porins, autotransporter proteins share some structural similarities with porins and are involved in the transport of protein domains across the outer membrane. They consist of an N-terminal passenger domain and a C-terminal translocator domain, which forms a β-barrel pore in the outer membrane through which the passenger domain is transported.

Porins have attracted interest as potential targets for antibiotic development, as they play crucial roles in bacterial survival and virulence. Inhibiting porin function or blocking the pores could disrupt essential processes in gram-negative bacteria, providing a new approach to treating infections caused by these organisms.

"Serratia marcescens" is a medically significant species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, motile bacillus bacteria that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is commonly found in soil, water, and in the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. The bacteria are known for their ability to produce a red pigment called prodigiosin, which gives them a distinctive pink color on many types of laboratory media.

"Serratia marcescens" can cause various types of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, wound infections, and bacteremia (bloodstream infections). It is also known to be an opportunistic pathogen, which means that it primarily causes infections in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with chronic illnesses or who are undergoing medical treatments that suppress the immune system.

In healthcare settings, "Serratia marcescens" can cause outbreaks of infection, particularly in patients who are hospitalized for extended periods of time. It is resistant to many commonly used antibiotics, which makes it difficult to treat and control the spread of infections caused by this organism.

In addition to its medical significance, "Serratia marcescens" has also been used as a model organism in various areas of microbiological research, including studies on bacterial motility, biofilm formation, and antibiotic resistance.

Glutamate-ammonia ligase, also known as glutamine synthetase, is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in nitrogen metabolism. It catalyzes the formation of glutamine from glutamate and ammonia in the presence of ATP, resulting in the conversion of ammonia to a less toxic form. This reaction is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance in the body and for the synthesis of various amino acids, nucleotides, and other biomolecules. The enzyme is widely distributed in various tissues, including the brain, liver, and muscle, and its activity is tightly regulated through feedback inhibition by glutamine and other metabolites.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Propanediol Dehydratase is not a medical term per se, but rather a biochemical term. It refers to an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of 1,2-propanediol (also known as propylene glycol) into propionaldehyde and water in the metabolic pathway known as the glycerol/propanediol utilization (GUD) system.

The reaction catalyzed by Propanediol Dehydratase is:
(CH3)2CH(OH)CH2OH → CH3CH2CHO + H2O

This enzyme is found in certain bacteria and archaea that are capable of utilizing 1,2-propanediol as a carbon source for growth. Deficiency or absence of this enzyme can affect the metabolic capabilities of these microorganisms.

Cephalothin is a type of antibiotic known as a first-generation cephalosporin. It is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and urinary tract infections.

Cephalothin works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. It binds to specific proteins in the bacterial cell wall, causing the wall to become unstable and ultimately leading to the death of the bacterium.

Like other antibiotics, cephalothin is only effective against certain types of bacteria, and it should be used under the direction of a healthcare professional. It is important to take the full course of treatment as directed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of developing antibiotic resistance.

Common side effects of cephalothin include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. More serious side effects may include allergic reactions, kidney damage, and seizures. It is important to inform your healthcare provider of any medical conditions you have or medications you are taking before starting treatment with cephalothin.

The Urology Department in a hospital is a specialized unit that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and management of benign and malignant medical and surgical disorders of the male and female urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra) and the male reproductive system. Urologists are the physicians who typically work in this department and have completed additional training and fellowship focused on subspecialties such as endourology, laparoscopy, pediatric urology, urologic oncology, reconstructive urology, and female urology. The Urology Department may also include specialized nurses, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and other healthcare professionals who work together to provide comprehensive care for patients with urological conditions.

Molecular typing is a laboratory technique used to identify and characterize specific microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, at the molecular level. This method is used to differentiate between strains of the same species based on their genetic or molecular differences. Molecular typing techniques include methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA), and whole genome sequencing (WGS). These techniques allow for high-resolution discrimination between strains, enabling epidemiological investigations of outbreaks, tracking the transmission of pathogens, and studying the evolution and population biology of microorganisms.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form a cell wall, which is necessary for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die. Carbenicillin is effective against a wide range of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and is often used to treat serious infections caused by these organisms. It is administered orally or intravenously, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Carbenicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to

Clavulanic acid is a type of beta-lactamase inhibitor, which is a compound that is used to increase the effectiveness of certain antibiotics. It works by preventing the breakdown of beta-lactam antibiotics (such as penicillins and cephalosporins) by bacterial enzymes called beta-lactamases. This allows the antibiotic to remain active against the bacteria for a longer period of time, increasing its ability to kill the bacteria and treat the infection.

Clavulanic acid is often combined with amoxicillin in a medication called Augmentin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections. It may also be used in other combinations with other beta-lactam antibiotics.

Like all medications, clavulanic acid can have side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. It may also cause allergic reactions in some people, particularly those who are allergic to penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics. It is important to follow the instructions of a healthcare provider when taking clavulanic acid or any medication.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

Gene expression regulation in bacteria refers to the complex cellular processes that control the production of proteins from specific genes. This regulation allows bacteria to adapt to changing environmental conditions and ensure the appropriate amount of protein is produced at the right time.

Bacteria have a variety of mechanisms for regulating gene expression, including:

1. Operon structure: Many bacterial genes are organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule. The expression of these genes can be coordinately regulated by controlling the transcription of the entire operon.
2. Promoter regulation: Transcription is initiated at promoter regions upstream of the gene or operon. Bacteria have regulatory proteins called sigma factors that bind to the promoter and recruit RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into RNA. The binding of sigma factors can be influenced by environmental signals, allowing for regulation of transcription.
3. Attenuation: Some operons have regulatory regions called attenuators that control transcription termination. These regions contain hairpin structures that can form in the mRNA and cause transcription to stop prematurely. The formation of these hairpins is influenced by the concentration of specific metabolites, allowing for regulation of gene expression based on the availability of those metabolites.
4. Riboswitches: Some bacterial mRNAs contain regulatory elements called riboswitches that bind small molecules directly. When a small molecule binds to the riboswitch, it changes conformation and affects transcription or translation of the associated gene.
5. CRISPR-Cas systems: Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas systems for adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids. These systems incorporate short sequences from foreign DNA into their own genome, which can then be used to recognize and cleave similar sequences in invading genetic elements.

Overall, gene expression regulation in bacteria is a complex process that allows them to respond quickly and efficiently to changing environmental conditions. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms can provide insights into bacterial physiology and help inform strategies for controlling bacterial growth and behavior.

Disk diffusion antimicrobial susceptibility tests, also known as Kirby-Bauer tests, are laboratory methods used to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics against a specific bacterial strain. This test provides a simple and standardized way to estimate the susceptibility or resistance of a microorganism to various antibiotics.

In this method, a standardized inoculum of the bacterial suspension is spread evenly on the surface of an agar plate. Antibiotic-impregnated paper disks are then placed on the agar surface, allowing the diffusion of the antibiotic into the agar. After incubation, the zone of inhibition surrounding each disk is measured. The size of the zone of inhibition correlates with the susceptibility or resistance of the bacterial strain to that specific antibiotic.

The results are interpreted based on predefined criteria established by organizations such as the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) or the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). These interpretive criteria help categorize the susceptibility of the bacterial strain into one of three categories: susceptible, intermediate, or resistant.

It is important to note that disk diffusion tests have limitations and may not always accurately predict clinical outcomes. However, they remain a valuable tool in guiding empirical antibiotic therapy and monitoring antimicrobial resistance trends.

Monobactams are a type of antibiotics that contain a single bacterial cell wall-binding component, known as a monocyclic beta-lactam. Aztreonam is an example of a monobactam that is used clinically to treat various infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, including some strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Monobactams work by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for building the bacterial cell wall, leading to bacterial death. They are not affected by beta-lactamases, which are enzymes produced by some bacteria that can inactivate other types of beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins and cephalosporins.

Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory, urinary, and skin infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase, which is an enzyme necessary for bacterial replication and transcription. This leads to bacterial cell death. Ciprofloxacin is available in oral and injectable forms and is usually prescribed to be taken twice a day. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and headache. It may also cause serious adverse reactions such as tendinitis, tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, and central nervous system effects. It is important to note that ciprofloxacin should not be used in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to fluoroquinolones and should be used with caution in patients with a history of seizures, brain injury, or other neurological conditions.

'Azotobacter' is a genus of free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria commonly found in soil and water. These bacteria are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, a process known as nitrogen fixation, which can then be used by plants for growth. The name 'Azotobacter' comes from the Greek words "azoto," meaning without life, and "bakterion," meaning little rod.

The bacteria are characterized by their ability to form cysts or thick-walled resting stages that allow them to survive in unfavorable conditions such as dryness or high temperatures. They are also known for their large size, typically ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 micrometers in diameter, and their motility, which is powered by a single polar flagellum.

'Azotobacter' species are important contributors to the nitrogen cycle in soil and play a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility. They have also been studied for their potential use in various industrial applications, such as the production of biofuels, bioplastics, and enzymes.

HLA-B27 antigen is a type of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) found on the surface of white blood cells. HLAs are proteins that help the body's immune system distinguish its own cells from foreign substances such as viruses and bacteria.

HLA-B27 is a specific type of HLA-B antigen, which is part of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. The presence of HLA-B27 antigen can be inherited from parents to their offspring.

While most people with the HLA-B27 antigen do not develop any health problems, this antigen is associated with an increased risk of developing certain inflammatory diseases, particularly spondyloarthritis, a group of disorders that affect the joints and spine. Examples of these conditions include ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and enteropathic arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel disease. However, not everyone with HLA-B27 will develop these diseases, and many people without the antigen can still develop spondyloarthritis.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

Aminoglycosides are a class of antibiotics that are derived from bacteria and are used to treat various types of infections caused by gram-negative and some gram-positive bacteria. These antibiotics work by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, which inhibits protein synthesis and ultimately leads to bacterial cell death.

Some examples of aminoglycosides include gentamicin, tobramycin, neomycin, and streptomycin. These antibiotics are often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat severe infections, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections.

Aminoglycosides can have serious side effects, including kidney damage and hearing loss, so they are typically reserved for use in serious infections that cannot be treated with other antibiotics. They are also used topically to treat skin infections and prevent wound infections after surgery.

It's important to note that aminoglycosides should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to antibiotic resistance and further health complications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Greece" is not a medical term or concept. Greece is a country located in southeastern Europe, known for its rich history, culture, and contributions to various fields including philosophy, politics, arts, and sciences. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I'd be happy to help.

Quinolones are a class of antibacterial agents that are widely used in medicine to treat various types of infections caused by susceptible bacteria. These synthetic drugs contain a chemical structure related to quinoline and have broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Quinolones work by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV enzymes, which are essential for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, and repair.

The first quinolone antibiotic was nalidixic acid, discovered in 1962. Since then, several generations of quinolones have been developed, with each generation having improved antibacterial activity and a broader spectrum of action compared to the previous one. The various generations of quinolones include:

1. First-generation quinolones (e.g., nalidixic acid): Primarily used for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.
2. Second-generation quinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, norfloxacin): These drugs have improved activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and are used to treat a wider range of infections, including respiratory, gastrointestinal, and skin infections.
3. Third-generation quinolones (e.g., levofloxacin, sparfloxacin, grepafloxacin): These drugs have enhanced activity against Gram-positive bacteria, including some anaerobes and atypical organisms like Legionella and Mycoplasma species.
4. Fourth-generation quinolones (e.g., moxifloxacin, gatifloxacin): These drugs have the broadest spectrum of activity, including enhanced activity against Gram-positive bacteria, anaerobes, and some methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains.

Quinolones are generally well-tolerated, but like all medications, they can have side effects. Common adverse reactions include gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), headache, and dizziness. Serious side effects, such as tendinitis, tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, and QT interval prolongation, are less common but can occur, particularly in older patients or those with underlying medical conditions. The use of quinolones should be avoided or used cautiously in these populations.

Quinolone resistance has become an increasing concern due to the widespread use of these antibiotics. Bacteria can develop resistance through various mechanisms, including chromosomal mutations and the acquisition of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes. The overuse and misuse of quinolones contribute to the emergence and spread of resistant strains, which can limit treatment options for severe infections caused by these bacteria. Therefore, it is essential to use quinolones judiciously and only when clinically indicated, to help preserve their effectiveness and prevent further resistance development.

Bacterial fimbriae are thin, hair-like protein appendages that extend from the surface of many types of bacteria. They are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces, other cells, or extracellular structures. Fimbriae enable bacteria to adhere to host tissues and form biofilms, which contribute to bacterial pathogenicity and survival in various environments. These protein structures are composed of several thousand subunits of a specific protein called pilin. Some fimbriae can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, initiating the process of infection and colonization.

Bacterial typing techniques are methods used to identify and differentiate bacterial strains or isolates based on their unique characteristics. These techniques are essential in epidemiological studies, infection control, and research to understand the transmission dynamics, virulence, and antibiotic resistance patterns of bacterial pathogens.

There are various bacterial typing techniques available, including:

1. **Bacteriophage Typing:** This method involves using bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to identify specific bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to particular phages.
2. **Serotyping:** It is a technique that differentiates bacterial strains based on the antigenic properties of their cell surface components, such as capsules, flagella, and somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens.
3. **Biochemical Testing:** This method uses biochemical reactions to identify specific metabolic pathways or enzymes present in bacterial strains, which can be used for differentiation. Commonly used tests include the catalase test, oxidase test, and various sugar fermentation tests.
4. **Molecular Typing Techniques:** These methods use genetic markers to identify and differentiate bacterial strains at the DNA level. Examples of molecular typing techniques include:
* **Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE):** This method uses restriction enzymes to digest bacterial DNA, followed by electrophoresis in an agarose gel under pulsed electrical fields. The resulting banding patterns are analyzed and compared to identify related strains.
* **Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST):** It involves sequencing specific housekeeping genes to generate unique sequence types that can be used for strain identification and phylogenetic analysis.
* **Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS):** This method sequences the entire genome of a bacterial strain, providing the most detailed information on genetic variation and relatedness between strains. WGS data can be analyzed using various bioinformatics tools to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), gene deletions or insertions, and other genetic changes that can be used for strain differentiation.

These molecular typing techniques provide higher resolution than traditional methods, allowing for more accurate identification and comparison of bacterial strains. They are particularly useful in epidemiological investigations to track the spread of pathogens and identify outbreaks.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

Enzyme repression is a type of gene regulation in which the production of an enzyme is inhibited or suppressed, thereby reducing the rate of catalysis of the chemical reaction that the enzyme facilitates. This process typically occurs when the end product of the reaction binds to the regulatory protein, called a repressor, which then binds to the operator region of the operon (a group of genes that are transcribed together) and prevents transcription of the structural genes encoding for the enzyme. Enzyme repression helps maintain homeostasis within the cell by preventing the unnecessary production of enzymes when they are not needed, thus conserving energy and resources.

Sugar alcohol dehydrogenases (SADHs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the interconversion between sugar alcohols and sugars, which involves the gain or loss of a pair of electrons, typically in the form of NAD(P)+/NAD(P)H. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism of sugar alcohols, which are commonly found in various plants and some microorganisms.

Sugar alcohols, also known as polyols, are reduced forms of sugars that contain one or more hydroxyl groups instead of aldehyde or ketone groups. Examples of sugar alcohols include sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, and erythritol. SADHs can interconvert these sugar alcohols to their corresponding sugars through a redox reaction that involves the transfer of hydrogen atoms.

The reaction catalyzed by SADHs is typically represented as follows:

R-CH(OH)-CH2OH + NAD(P)+ ↔ R-CO-CH2OH + NAD(P)H + H+

where R represents a carbon chain, and CH(OH)-CH2OH and CO-CH2OH represent the sugar alcohol and sugar forms, respectively.

SADHs are widely distributed in nature and have been found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. These enzymes have attracted significant interest in biotechnology due to their potential applications in the production of sugar alcohols and other value-added products. Additionally, SADHs have been studied as targets for developing novel antimicrobial agents, as inhibiting these enzymes can disrupt the metabolism of certain pathogens that rely on sugar alcohols for growth and survival.

Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.

Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:

1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.

Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.

Granuloma inguinale, also known as donovanosis, is a chronic bacterial infection that primarily affects the genital area, although it can spread to other parts of the body. It is caused by the bacterium Klebsiella granulomatis (formerly called Calymmatobacterium granulomatis). The infection results in painless, progressive ulcerative lesions that bleed easily and may cause significant scarring if left untreated.

The medical definition of Granuloma inguinale is:

A sexually transmitted infection caused by the intracellular bacterium Klebsiella granulomatis (formerly Calymmatobacterium granulomatis). The infection typically presents as painless, beefy-red, granulomatous ulcers or nodules in the genital, inguinal, and perianal regions. The lesions may bleed easily and can cause significant scarring if left untreated. Granuloma inguinale is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas, such as parts of India, Papua New Guinea, central Australia, southern Africa, and the Caribbean. Diagnosis is typically made by identifying Donovan bodies (intracellular bacterial inclusions) in tissue smears or biopsy specimens. Treatment usually involves antibiotics such as azithromycin, doxycycline, or ciprofloxacin for several weeks to ensure complete eradication of the infection.

Cefazolin is a type of antibiotic known as a cephalosporin, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria are not able to grow and multiply, and are eventually destroyed by the body's immune system.

Cefazolin is commonly used to treat infections of the skin, bones, joints, heart, lungs, and urinary tract. It may also be used to prevent infection during surgery. Like all antibiotics, cefazolin is only effective against certain types of bacteria, so it is important to know the specific type of bacteria causing an infection before using this medication.

Cefazolin is usually given as an injection into a vein or muscle, and may be administered in a hospital setting or at home with proper training. The dosage and duration of treatment will depend on the severity and location of the infection, as well as the patient's overall health status.

As with any medication, cefazolin can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headache, and rash. In rare cases, it may also cause serious side effects such as allergic reactions, kidney damage, or abnormal blood clotting. It is important to report any unusual symptoms to a healthcare provider promptly.

It is essential to complete the full course of treatment with cefazolin, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.

A cephalosporinase is an enzyme that can break down and inactivate cephalosporins, a group of antibiotics commonly used to treat various bacterial infections. Bacteria that produce this enzyme are referred to as "cephalosporin-resistant" or "cephalosporinase-producing" organisms. The production of cephalosporinases by bacteria can lead to treatment failures and make infections more difficult to manage.

Cephalosporins are broad-spectrum antibiotics, which means they can be effective against a wide range of bacterial species. However, some bacteria have developed resistance mechanisms, such as the production of cephalosporinases, to counteract their effects. These enzymes hydrolyze the beta-lactam ring in cephalosporins, rendering them ineffective.

There are different classes of cephalosporinases (e.g., Ambler classes A, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and substrate profiles. Some cephalosporinases can hydrolyze a broader range of cephalosporins than others, leading to varying degrees of resistance.

To overcome cephalosporinase-mediated resistance, alternative antibiotics or combinations of antibiotics may be used. Additionally, the development of new cephalosporins with improved stability against these enzymes is an ongoing area of research in the field of antimicrobial drug discovery.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique used to identify and compare the unique genetic makeup of individuals by analyzing specific regions of their DNA. This method is based on the variation in the length of repetitive sequences of DNA called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs), which are located at specific locations in the human genome and differ significantly among individuals, except in the case of identical twins.

The process of DNA fingerprinting involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying targeted regions using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then separating and visualizing the resulting DNA fragments through electrophoresis. The fragment patterns are then compared to determine the likelihood of a match between two samples.

DNA fingerprinting has numerous applications in forensic science, paternity testing, identity verification, and genealogical research. It is considered an essential tool for providing strong evidence in criminal investigations and resolving disputes related to parentage and inheritance.

Arylsulfatases are a group of enzymes that play a role in the breakdown and recycling of complex molecules in the body. Specifically, they catalyze the hydrolysis of sulfate ester bonds in certain types of large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).

There are several different types of arylsulfatases, each of which targets a specific type of sulfate ester bond. For example, arylsulfatase A is responsible for breaking down sulfate esters in a GAG called cerebroside sulfate, while arylsulfatase B targets a different GAG called dermatan sulfate.

Deficiencies in certain arylsulfatases can lead to genetic disorders. For example, a deficiency in arylsulfatase A can cause metachromatic leukodystrophy, a progressive neurological disorder that affects the nervous system and causes a range of symptoms including muscle weakness, developmental delays, and cognitive decline. Similarly, a deficiency in arylsulfatase B can lead to Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome, a rare genetic disorder that affects the skeleton, eyes, ears, heart, and other organs.

Integrons are genetic elements that can capture, integrate and express mobile gene cassettes, which are circular DNA molecules containing one or more antibiotic resistance genes. Integrons consist of an integrase gene (intI), a recombination site (attI), and a promoter region that drives the expression of integrated gene cassettes. They play a significant role in the spread and dissemination of antibiotic resistance among bacterial populations, as they can facilitate the acquisition and exchange of resistance genes between different bacteria. Integrons are commonly found on plasmids and transposons, which are mobile genetic elements that can move between different bacterial species, further contributing to the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance.

Anaerobiosis is a state in which an organism or a portion of an organism is able to live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen (O2). In biological contexts, "anaerobe" refers to any organism that does not require oxygen for growth, and "aerobe" refers to an organism that does require oxygen for growth.

There are two types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes, which cannot tolerate the presence of oxygen and will die if exposed to it; and facultative anaerobes, which can grow with or without oxygen but prefer to grow in its absence. Some organisms are able to switch between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depending on the availability of oxygen, a process known as "facultative anaerobiosis."

Anaerobic respiration is a type of metabolic process that occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen. In this process, organisms use alternative electron acceptors other than oxygen to generate energy through the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration. Examples of alternative electron acceptors include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.

Anaerobic metabolism is less efficient than aerobic metabolism in terms of energy production, but it allows organisms to survive in environments where oxygen is not available or is toxic. Anaerobic bacteria are important decomposers in many ecosystems, breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment. In the human body, anaerobic bacteria can cause infections and other health problems if they proliferate in areas with low oxygen levels, such as the mouth, intestines, or deep tissue wounds.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Molybdenum" is not a medical term. It is an element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42 on the periodic table. Molybdenum is used in various industries, including medicine, for example in the production of surgical instruments and some prosthetics due to its strength and resistance to corrosion. However, it is not a term used to describe a medical condition or bodily process. If you have any questions related to elements and their uses in medicine, I'd be happy to help with those!

Xylitol is a type of sugar alcohol used as a sugar substitute in various food and dental products. It has a sweet taste similar to sugar but with fewer calories and less impact on blood sugar levels, making it a popular choice for people with diabetes or those looking to reduce their sugar intake. Xylitol is also known to have dental benefits, as it can help prevent tooth decay by reducing the amount of bacteria in the mouth that cause cavities.

Medically speaking, xylitol is classified as a carbohydrate and has a chemical formula of C5H12O5. It occurs naturally in some fruits and vegetables, but most commercial xylitol is produced from corn cobs or other plant materials through a process called hydrogenation. While generally considered safe for human consumption, it can have a laxative effect in large amounts and may be harmful to dogs, so it's important to keep it out of reach of pets.

Blood bactericidal activity refers to the ability of an individual's blood to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. This is an important aspect of the body's immune system, as it helps to prevent infection and maintain overall health. The bactericidal activity of blood can be influenced by various factors, including the presence of antibodies, white blood cells (such as neutrophils), and complement proteins.

In medical terms, the term "bactericidal" specifically refers to an agent or substance that is capable of killing bacteria. Therefore, when we talk about blood bactericidal activity, we are referring to the collective ability of various components in the blood to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. This is often measured in laboratory tests as a way to assess a person's immune function and their susceptibility to infection.

It's worth noting that not all substances in the blood are bactericidal; some may simply inhibit the growth of bacteria without killing them. These substances are referred to as bacteriostatic. Both bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents play important roles in maintaining the body's defense against infection.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Molecular epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology that uses laboratory techniques to identify and analyze the genetic material (DNA, RNA) of pathogens or host cells to understand their distribution, transmission, and disease associations in populations. It combines molecular biology methods with epidemiological approaches to investigate the role of genetic factors in disease occurrence and outcomes. This field has contributed significantly to the identification of infectious disease outbreaks, tracking the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, understanding the transmission dynamics of viruses, and identifying susceptible populations for targeted interventions.

Bacterial outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are a type of protein found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. The outer membrane is a unique characteristic of gram-negative bacteria, and it serves as a barrier that helps protect the bacterium from hostile environments. OMPs play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and selective permeability of the outer membrane. They are involved in various functions such as nutrient uptake, transport, adhesion, and virulence factor secretion.

OMPs are typically composed of beta-barrel structures that span the bacterial outer membrane. These proteins can be classified into several groups based on their size, function, and structure. Some of the well-known OMP families include porins, autotransporters, and two-partner secretion systems.

Porins are the most abundant type of OMPs and form water-filled channels that allow the passive diffusion of small molecules, ions, and nutrients across the outer membrane. Autotransporters are a diverse group of OMPs that play a role in bacterial pathogenesis by secreting virulence factors or acting as adhesins. Two-partner secretion systems involve the cooperation between two proteins to transport effector molecules across the outer membrane.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial OMPs is essential for developing new antibiotics and therapies that target gram-negative bacteria, which are often resistant to conventional treatments.

Citrobacter is a genus of facultatively anaerobic, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including water, soil, and the gastrointestinal tracts of animals and humans. Members of this genus are capable of fermenting various sugars and producing acid and gas as end products. Some species of Citrobacter have been associated with human diseases, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. Infections caused by Citrobacter can include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and meningitis.

"Escherichia" is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. The most well-known species in this genus is "Escherichia coli," or "E. coli," which is a normal inhabitant of the human gut and is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination in water and food. Some strains of E. coli can cause illness, however, including diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and meningitis. Other species in the genus "Escherichia" are less well-known and are not typically associated with disease.

An abscess is a localized collection of pus caused by an infection. It is typically characterized by inflammation, redness, warmth, pain, and swelling in the affected area. Abscesses can form in various parts of the body, including the skin, teeth, lungs, brain, and abdominal organs. They are usually treated with antibiotics to eliminate the infection and may require drainage if they are large or located in a critical area. If left untreated, an abscess can lead to serious complications such as sepsis or organ failure.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Taiwan" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of an island nation located in East Asia. The official name of the country is the Republic of China (ROC). If you have any medical questions or inquiries, I would be happy to help answer those for you!

Citrates are the salts or esters of citric acid, a weak organic acid that is naturally found in many fruits and vegetables. In a medical context, citrates are often used as a buffering agent in intravenous fluids to help maintain the pH balance of blood and other bodily fluids. They are also used in various medical tests and treatments, such as in urine alkalinization and as an anticoagulant in kidney dialysis solutions. Additionally, citrate is a component of some dietary supplements and medications.

PII nitrogen regulatory proteins are a type of signal transduction protein involved in the regulation of nitrogen metabolism in bacteria and archaea. They are named "PII" because they contain two identical subunits, each with a molecular weight of approximately 12 kilodaltons. These proteins play a crucial role in sensing and responding to changes in the energy status and nitrogen availability within the cell.

The PII protein is composed of three domains: the T-domain, which binds ATP and ADP; the N-domain, which binds 2-oxoglutarate (an indicator of carbon and nitrogen status); and the B-domain, which is involved in signal transduction. The PII protein can exist in different conformational states depending on whether it is bound to ATP or ADP, and this affects its ability to interact with downstream effectors.

One of the primary functions of PII proteins is to regulate the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glutamate to glutamine. When nitrogen is abundant, PII proteins bind to GS and stimulate its activity, promoting the assimilation of ammonia into organic compounds. Conversely, when nitrogen is scarce, PII proteins dissociate from GS, allowing it to be inhibited by other regulatory proteins.

PII proteins can also interact with other enzymes and regulators involved in nitrogen metabolism, such as nitrogenase, uridylyltransferase/uridylyl-removing enzyme (UT/UR), and transcriptional regulators. Through these interactions, PII proteins help to coordinate the cell's response to changes in nitrogen availability and energy status, ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively.

Bacteriophages, often simply called phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. They consist of a protein coat, called the capsid, that encases the genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA. Bacteriophages are highly specific, meaning they only infect certain types of bacteria, and they reproduce by hijacking the bacterial cell's machinery to produce more viruses.

Once a phage infects a bacterium, it can either replicate its genetic material and create new phages (lytic cycle), or integrate its genetic material into the bacterial chromosome and replicate along with the bacterium (lysogenic cycle). In the lytic cycle, the newly formed phages are released by lysing, or breaking open, the bacterial cell.

Bacteriophages play a crucial role in shaping microbial communities and have been studied as potential alternatives to antibiotics for treating bacterial infections.

'Acinetobacter' is a genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including water, soil, and healthcare settings. They are known for their ability to survive in a wide range of temperatures and pH levels, as well as their resistance to many antibiotics.

Some species of Acinetobacter can cause healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients who are hospitalized, have weakened immune systems, or have been exposed to medical devices such as ventilators or catheters. These infections can include pneumonia, bloodstream infections, wound infections, and meningitis.

Acinetobacter baumannii is one of the most common species associated with human infection and is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, making it a significant public health concern. Infections caused by Acinetobacter can be difficult to treat and may require the use of last-resort antibiotics.

Preventing the spread of Acinetobacter in healthcare settings is important and includes practices such as hand hygiene, environmental cleaning, and contact precautions for patients with known or suspected infection.

Thioglycosides are organic compounds that contain a sulfur atom (sulfur-sulfur bond) linked to a glycosyl group. They are structurally similar to glycosides, but instead of having an oxygen atom linking the sugar moiety to the aglycone, they have a sulfur atom. Thioglycosides are often used in glycobiology research as inhibitors of glycosidases or as substrates for glycosyltransferases. They also have applications in the pharmaceutical industry as anti-microbial and anti-cancer agents.

DNA transposable elements, also known as transposons or jumping genes, are mobile genetic elements that can change their position within a genome. They are composed of DNA sequences that include genes encoding the enzymes required for their own movement (transposase) and regulatory elements. When activated, the transposase recognizes specific sequences at the ends of the element and catalyzes the excision and reintegration of the transposable element into a new location in the genome. This process can lead to genetic variation, as the insertion of a transposable element can disrupt the function of nearby genes or create new combinations of gene regulatory elements. Transposable elements are widespread in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes and are thought to play a significant role in genome evolution.

Erwinia is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are primarily plant pathogens. They are part of the Enterobacteriaceae family and can be found in soil, water, and plant surfaces. Some species of Erwinia cause diseases in plants such as fireblight in apples and pears, soft rot in a wide range of vegetables, and bacterial leaf spot in ornamental plants. They can infect plants through wounds or natural openings and produce enzymes that break down plant tissues, causing decay and wilting.

It's worth noting that Erwinia species are not typically associated with human or animal diseases, except for a few cases where they have been reported to cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Water microbiology is not a formal medical term, but rather a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms found in water. It involves the identification, enumeration, and characterization of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other microscopic organisms present in water sources such as lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater, drinking water, and wastewater.

In a medical context, water microbiology is relevant to public health because it helps to assess the safety of water supplies for human consumption and recreational activities. It also plays a critical role in understanding and preventing waterborne diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can lead to illnesses such as diarrhea, skin infections, and respiratory problems.

Water microbiologists use various techniques to study water microorganisms, including culturing, microscopy, genetic analysis, and biochemical tests. They also investigate the ecology of these organisms, their interactions with other species, and their response to environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and nutrient availability.

Overall, water microbiology is a vital field that helps ensure the safety of our water resources and protects public health.

A "University Hospital" is a type of hospital that is often affiliated with a medical school or university. These hospitals serve as major teaching institutions where medical students, residents, and fellows receive their training and education. They are equipped with advanced medical technology and resources to provide specialized and tertiary care services. University hospitals also conduct research and clinical trials to advance medical knowledge and practices. Additionally, they often treat complex and rare cases and provide a wide range of medical services to the community.

Regulator genes are a type of gene that regulates the activity of other genes in an organism. They do not code for a specific protein product but instead control the expression of other genes by producing regulatory proteins such as transcription factors, repressors, or enhancers. These regulatory proteins bind to specific DNA sequences near the target genes and either promote or inhibit their transcription into mRNA. This allows regulator genes to play a crucial role in coordinating complex biological processes, including development, differentiation, metabolism, and response to environmental stimuli.

There are several types of regulator genes, including:

1. Constitutive regulators: These genes are always active and produce regulatory proteins that control the expression of other genes in a consistent manner.
2. Inducible regulators: These genes respond to specific signals or environmental stimuli by producing regulatory proteins that modulate the expression of target genes.
3. Negative regulators: These genes produce repressor proteins that bind to DNA and inhibit the transcription of target genes, thereby reducing their expression.
4. Positive regulators: These genes produce activator proteins that bind to DNA and promote the transcription of target genes, thereby increasing their expression.
5. Master regulators: These genes control the expression of multiple downstream target genes involved in specific biological processes or developmental pathways.

Regulator genes are essential for maintaining proper gene expression patterns and ensuring normal cellular function. Mutations in regulator genes can lead to various diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and metabolic dysfunctions.

Nitrogen is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is an element that is crucial to medicine and human life.

In a medical context, nitrogen is often mentioned in relation to gas analysis, respiratory therapy, or medical gases. Nitrogen (N) is a colorless, odorless, and nonreactive gas that makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential element for various biological processes, such as the growth and maintenance of organisms, because it is a key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

In some medical applications, nitrogen is used to displace oxygen in a mixture to create a controlled environment with reduced oxygen levels (hypoxic conditions) for therapeutic purposes, such as in certain types of hyperbaric chambers. Additionally, nitrogen gas is sometimes used in cryotherapy, where extremely low temperatures are applied to tissues to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation.

However, it's important to note that breathing pure nitrogen can be dangerous, as it can lead to unconsciousness and even death due to lack of oxygen (asphyxiation) within minutes.

... is named after German-Swiss microbiologist Edwin Klebs (1834-1913). Carl Friedlander described Klebsiella bacillus ... Wikispecies has information related to Klebsiella. Klebsiella article from eMedicine.com (Articles with short description, ... and new techniques were followed to construct vaccines against Klebsiella. However, currently, no Klebsiella vaccine has been ... In plant systems, Klebsiella can be found in a variety of plant hosts. K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca are able to fix atmospheric ...
Enterobacter Infections at eMedicine "Klebsiella aerogenes". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 548. Type strain of Klebsiella aerogenes at ... Klebsiella aerogenes is a nosocomial, pathogenic bacterium that causes opportunistic infections of most types. Infections are ... Klebsiella aerogenes, previously known as Enterobacter aerogenes, is a Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, catalase-positive, ... and Klebsiella mobilis Bascomb et al. 1971 (Approved Lists 1980) share the same nomenclatural type (ATCC 13048) on the Approved ...
... was described as a species of Klebsiella distinct from its closely related species Klebsiella pneumoniae ... Klebsiella variicola is a species of bacteria which was originally identified as a benign endosymbiont in plants, but has since ... Like other Klebsiella species, K. variicola is gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-motile, and covered by a polysaccharide capsule. ... Klebsiella variicola is known to associate with a number of different plants including banana trees, sugarcane and has been ...
... is a pathogenic gram-negative bacterium in the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is gas-producing, non-motile ... Klebsiella huaxiensis is characterized by being negative for malonate, urease, ornithine decarboxylase, and the Voges-Proskauer ... "Klebsiella Huaxiensis Sp. Nov., Recovered from Human Urine." International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology ... Hu, Yiyi; Wei, Li; Feng, Yu; Xie, Yi; Zong, Zhiyong (February 2019). "Klebsiella huaxiensis sp. nov., recovered from human ...
... is a species of bacteria in the genus Klebsiella and is one of the nine species in the Klebsiella ... Yang, J., Long, H., Hu, Y., Feng, Y., McNally, A., & Zong, Z. (2022). Klebsiella oxytoca complex: Update on taxonomy, ... Klebsiella michiganensis sp. nov., a new bacterium isolated from a tooth brush holder. Current Microbiology, 66(1), 72-78. ...
Klebsiella Infection (emedicine.com) Klebsiella Genome Projects from Genomes OnLine Database Klebsiella pneumoniae-Associated ... "Klebsiella species - GOV.UK". www.gov.uk. Retrieved 13 January 2017. Klebsiella Infections at eMedicine Li B, Zhao Y, Liu C, ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Klebsiella pneumoniae. Scholia has a topic profile for Klebsiella pneumoniae. Virtual ... O antigen seroepidemiology of Klebsiella clinical isolates and implications for immunoprophylaxis of Klebsiella infections. ...
Klebsiella+oxytoca at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Type strain of Klebsiella oxytoca ... "Nosocomial Outbreak of Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase-Producing Klebsiella oxytoca in Austria". Antimicrobial Agents and ... Klebsiella oxytoca is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is closely related to K. pneumoniae, from which it is ... Klebsiella oxytoca has shown promise in industrial ethanol fuel production, and is referenced as being used to produce hydrogen ...
... is Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium of the genus Klebsiella known to cause the sexually transmitted ... Stoner BP (2018-01-01). "Klebsiella granulomatis: Granuloma Inguinale". In Long SS, Prober CG, Fischer M (eds.). Principles and ... 1-4. doi:10.1016/b978-008055232-3.60880-3. ISBN 978-0-08-055232-3. "Klebsiella granulomatis". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 39824. v t ...
Jabri E, Carr MB, Hausinger RP, Karplus PA (May 19, 1995). "The crystal structure of urease from Klebsiella aerogenes". Science ... Martin PR, Hausinger RP (Oct 5, 1992). "Site-directed mutagenesis of the active site cysteine in Klebsiella aerogenes urease". ... X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) studies of Canavalia ensiformis (jack bean), Klebsiella aerogenes and Sporosarcina ... Klebsiella spp., Morganella, Providencia, and possibly Serratia spp. Brucella Staphylococcus saprophyticus Staphylococcus ...
Klebsiella spp., Lactobacillus spp., Methanobacterium spp., Brevundimonas bullata, Paracoccus spp. and Luteimonas aestuarri ...
Klebsiella spp., and Enterobacter spp. Chromosomal events, specially gene amplification, seem also to be relevant to this ...
Nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms such as Halomonas sp., Paracoccus sp., Klebsiella sp., Slackia sp., and ...
strain CF8 (65 kDa) and a Rhodococcus sp.-Klebsiella sp. mixed-culture consortium. The heterotrimer is noted as being similar ... CBB1 and in several species within the genera Alcaligenes, Rhodococcus, and Klebsiella. Caffeine dehydrogenase found in ... 8-trimethylallantoin by resting cells in a Rhodococcus and Klebsiella mixed culture. Caffeine (1,3,7-trimethylxanthine), the ...
Klebsiella sp. Major bacteria resistant to cefoxitin include: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Enterococci Listeria ...
"Klebsiella pneumoniae". www.jic.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2007-10-17. Iwo Watanabe, "Biological Nitrogen Fixation ... Nif regulon (Klebsiella pneumoniae) Spaink, Herman P (1998). The Rhizobiaceae: Molecular Biology of Model Plant-Associated ... Examples of nif gene structure and regulation in different diazotrophs include: Klebsiella pneumoniae-a free-living anaerobic ...
Klebsiella species. Pseudomonas cepacia, a.k.a. Burkholderia cepacia. Nocardia. Fungi Aspergillus species. Aspergillus has a ...
They are able to grow at an optimal temperature of 37 Celsius grade but also 41 °C. Conversely to Klebsiella pneumoniae, R. ... "Klebsiella electrica". LPSN. Registry-Migration.Gbif.Org (2021). GBIF Secretariat (ed.). "Raoultella electrica Kimura et al., ... gyrA and parC genes from this species and those of others species from Klebsiella and Raoultella demonstrated that it belongs ... to Raoultella and confirmed the classification of this genus in a distinct cluster from Klebsiella. The pathogenic potential of ...
... most Klebsiella sp., Neisseria sp., Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella ureae, Proteus mirabilis, P. penneri, Pseudomonas sp., ... Klebsiella oxytoca, Proteus sp. (not P. mirabilis and P. penneri), Plesiomonas shigelloides, Pasteurella multocida, Pasteurella ...
Klebsiella, Citrobacter). The assay is intended to be an indicator of fecal contamination; more specifically of E. coli which ...
Klebsiella planticola Monnet D, Freney J (April 1994). "Method for differentiating Klebsiella planticola and Klebsiella ... Drancourt, M; Bollet, C; Carta, A; Rousselier, P (2001). "Phylogenetic analyses of Klebsiella species delineate Klebsiella And ... Klebsiella cf. planticola B43 - Encyclopedia of Life. EOL (2011-09-28). Retrieved on 2011-10-21. "2010 Annual Checklist :: ... Holmes, M. T.; Ingham, E. R.; Doyle, J. D.; Hendricks, C. W. (1999-01-03). "Effects of Klebsiella planticola SDF20 on soil ...
Klebsiella granulomatis infection is most popularly known as "donovanosis" in medical community. University College Cork (was ... The scientific name was ultimately changed to Klebsiella granulomatis based on the phylogenetic relationship with the genus ... Richens, John (2006). "Donovanosis and Klebsiella spp.". In Stephen Gillespie; Peter M. Hawkey (eds.). Principles and Practice ... and Klebsiella granulomatis as that of donovanosis. The son of a judge in India, he was born in Calcutta and completed his ...
Alan Ebringer (8 November 2012). Ankylosing spondylitis and Klebsiella. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 19. ISBN 978-1- ...
Klebsiella and Proteus spp., are frequently associated with stone disease. The presence of Gram positive bacteria such as ... A urine pH of 8.5 or 9.0 is indicative of a urea-splitting organism, such as Proteus, Klebsiella, or Ureaplasma urealyticum; ... Escherichia coli is the single most common microorganism, followed by Klebsiella and Proteus spp., to cause urinary tract ... Klebsiella (11%), Pseudomonas (11%), the fungal pathogen Candida albicans (9%), and Enterococcus (7%) among others. Urinary ...
Barus, T.; Hanjaya, I.; Sadeli, J.; Lay, B. W.; Suwanto, A.; Yulandi, A. (2013). "Genetic Diversity of Klebsiella spp. Isolated ...
ISBN 978-0-8385-8529-0. "Klebsiella pneumoniae in Healthcare Settings". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 19 February ... Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Staphylococcus aureus, ...
In Klebsiella pneumoniae the cystathionine β-synthase is encoded by mtcB, while the γ-lyase is encoded by mtcC. Humans are ... Seiflein, T. A.; Lawrence, J. G. (2006). "Two Transsulfurylation Pathways in Klebsiella pneumoniae". Journal of Bacteriology. ...
Other commonly implicated bacteria include Streptococcus pyogenes, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella ... Klebsiella spp., Clostridium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Bacteroides spp. and the fungi Candida spp. are all capable of such a ...
Schembri MA, Blom J, Krogfelt KA, Klemm P (August 2005). "Capsule and fimbria interaction in Klebsiella pneumoniae". Infection ... Dorman MJ, Feltwell T, Goulding DA, Parkhill J, Short FL (November 2018). "Klebsiella pneumoniae Defined by density-TraDISort ... "Role of bacterial capsule in local and systemic inflammatory responses of mice during pulmonary infection with Klebsiella ... Neisseria meningitidis Klebsiella pneumoniae Haemophilus influenzae Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella Acinetobacter baumannii ...
Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain SQ1, Klebsiella sp. strain ABR11, Klebsiella oxytoca TauN1, Agrobacterium sp. strain ABR2, and ...
... was a Danish physician and bacteriologist whose dissertation Om Klebsiella (About Klebsiella) was the first scientific study ... Her thesis Om Klebsiella (1956) was one of the first scientific papers addressing the presence of bacterial cross-infection. ... Works include: Ørskov, Ida (1956). Om Klebsiella: en oversigt (in Danish). Busck. Ørskov, Frits; Ørskov, Ida (September 1975 ... leading to a national Salmonella Centre and an international Klebsiella Centre. In 1968, she was appointed overlæge (head of ...
The genus Klebsiella belongs to the tribe Klebsiellae, a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The organisms are named after ... Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Klebsiella granulomatis. Organisms previously known as Klebsiella ozaenae and ... encoded search term (Klebsiella Infections) and Klebsiella Infections What to Read Next on Medscape ... Klebsiella Infections. Updated: Dec 07, 2022 * Author: Shahab Qureshi, MD, FACP; Chief Editor: Michael Stuart Bronze, MD more ...
Detection of the blaKPC Gene Encoding Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase by Real-Time PCR. 12.5.4.1−12.5.4.10. ... Multiplex Real-Time PCR Detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae Carbapenemase (KPC) and New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) genes ...
Klebsiella is named after German-Swiss microbiologist Edwin Klebs (1834-1913). Carl Friedlander described Klebsiella bacillus ... Wikispecies has information related to Klebsiella. Klebsiella article from eMedicine.com (Articles with short description, ... and new techniques were followed to construct vaccines against Klebsiella. However, currently, no Klebsiella vaccine has been ... In plant systems, Klebsiella can be found in a variety of plant hosts. K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca are able to fix atmospheric ...
The genus Klebsiella belongs to the tribe Klebsiellae, a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae. The organisms are named after ... encoded search term (Klebsiella Infections) and Klebsiella Infections What to Read Next on Medscape ... Klebsiella Infections Clinical Presentation. Updated: Dec 07, 2022 * Author: Shahab Qureshi, MD, FACP; Chief Editor: Michael ... Epidemiological study of klebsiella infection in the special care baby unit of a London hospital. J Clin Pathol. 1980 Apr. 33(4 ...
Cytidine deaminase1,4-DIETHYLENE DIOXIDEZINC ION
To download a certificate of origin for Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop (49473), enter the lot number exactly as it appears ... To download a certificate of analysis for Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop (49473), enter the lot number exactly as it ... The certificate of analysis for that lot of Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop (49473) is not currently available online. ... The certificate of origin for that lot of Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop (49473) is not currently available online. ...
Abstract Klebsiella is an organism that causes many infections. These infections can take the form of sepsis, urinary tract ... In klebsiella sepsis, its obvious that the reason for sepsis is the klebsiella infection in the body like klebsiella pneumonia ... Many klebsiella infections are designated as fatal and difficult to treat. If we talk about klebsiella sepsis then it is most ... Now lets discuss klebsiella induced sepsis in detail. Introduction. First of all we should understand the exact meaning of the ...
Detection of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) production in non-Klebsiella pneumoniae Enterobacteriaceae isolates by ... High prevalence of Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-mediated resistance in K. pneumoniae isolates from Egypt ... Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemases (KPCs) are Ambler class A plasmid-encoded enzymes that are capable of hydrolyzing all beta ... Prévalence élevée de la résistance de Klebsiella pneumoniae médiée par les carbapénèmases dans des isolats de K. pneumoniae en ...
Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (Schroeter) Trevisan Depositors. E.R. Squibb & Sons, Inc. ... The certificate of origin for that lot of Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (Schroeter) Trevisan (9997) is not currently ... To download a certificate of analysis for Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (Schroeter) Trevisan (9997), enter the lot ... The certificate of analysis for that lot of Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae (Schroeter) Trevisan (9997) is not ...
... as well as related potentially pathogenic strains from genuses such as Klebsiella and Staphylococcus) thrive in a wheat-based ...
Bacteria; Pseudomonadota; Gammaproteobacteria; Enterobacterales; Enterobacteriaceae; Klebsiella/Raoultella group; Klebsiella. ... Complete Genome Sequence of Klebsiella pneumoniae Strain ATCC 43816 KPPR1, a Rifampin-Resistant Mutant Commonly Used in Animal ...
Klebsiella pneumoniae). Find diseases associated with this biological target and compounds tested against it in bioassay ...
Over 24 babies have died following the Klebsiella outbreak at Thelle Mogoerane Regional Hospital in Vosloorus on Gautengs East ... Klebsiella outbreak kills over 24 babies in Vosloorus. 10 September 2018, 4:56 PM , ... Over 24 babies have died following the Klebsiella outbreak at Thelle Mogoerane Regional Hospital in Vosloorus on Gautengs East ...
Tag: Klebsiella oxytoca. Altered Antibiogram of Klebsiella oxytoca using The Trivedi Effect®. Klebsiella oxytoca is primarily a ... Characterization of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of Biofield Treated Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella oxytoca. Klebsiella ... Klebsiella spp. are ubiquitous in environment [1], but K. oxytoca can be cultured from intestines of healthy humans and animals ... Categories Health, MicrobiologyTags Biofield Treatment, Energy Transmission, Guruji Mahendra Trivedi, Klebsiella oxytoca, ...
CCUG59935 - Klebsiella grimontii, Deposit Date: 2010-06-29
CCUG26509 - Klebsiella oxytoca, Deposit Date: 1990-04-11
Discover the impact of the mucoid phenotype on antibiotic resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Explore the prevalence, ... Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen of medical importance and the capsule and mucoid phenotype in this organism ... Klebsiella pneumoniae is a gram negative bacteria and an opportunistic pathogen. In humans K. pneumoniae is an important ... 2011) Klebsiella pneumoniae Outer Membrane Porins OmpK35 and OmpK36 Play Roles in Both Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence. ...
Tani Y, Tiwana H, Hukuda S et al (1997) Antibodies to Klebsiella, Proteus and HLA-B27 peptides in Japanese patients with ... Cock, I.E., van Vuuren, S.F. The potential of selected South African plants with anti-Klebsiella activity for the treatment and ... Welsh J, Avakian H, Cowling P et al (1980) Ankylosing spondylitis, HLA-B27 and Klebsiella. I: cross-reactivity studies with ... Blankenberg-Sprenkels SD, Fielder M, Feltkamp TW et al (1998) Antibodies to Klebsiella pneumoniae in Dutch patients with ...
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Klebsiella mastitis vaccine with Siderophore Receptor and Porin technology helps keep cows healthy and productive ... For vaccination of healthy cattle 22 months or older against mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae. Dosage: 2 ml subcut. ... For vaccination of healthy cattle 22 months or older against mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae. ... For vaccination of healthy cattle 22 months or older against mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae. ...
Antimicrobial activity against Klebsiella pneumoniae MTCC 109 by paper disk diffusion method. ...
Mathematical modeling; Klebsiella pneumoniae; extended spectrum beta lactamases (ESBL) Cite This Article. Bagkur, C., Guler, E ... Klebsiella pneumoniae is one of the significant microorganisms causing major public health problems by acquiring resistance to ... As a matter of course, recoveries from Klebsiella infections were seen to be the most effective way of limiting the spread. It ... Near Future Perspective of ESBL-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains Using Mathematical Modeling. Cemile Bagkur1,*, Emrah ...
ABSTRACT The main mechanism of quinolone resistance in Klebsiella (K) pneumoniae is caused by mutation of porin-related ... The main mechanism of quinolone resistance in Klebsiella (K) pneumoniae is caused by mutation of porin-related proteins and ... Mutation and Efflux System are Responsible for Ciprofloxacin Resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae ...
Klebsiella pneumoniae is responsible for severe infections and stands out for its high resistance to antibiotics. ... PHAXIAMs anti-Klebsiella pneumoniae phages to enter pre-clinical development to assess their efficacy in lung, blood and ... Our anti-Klebsiella phages will thus complement an already extended phage portfolio for the clinical indications we are ... Klebsiella pneumoniae (K. pneumoniae) causes a wide range of infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, ...
Evaluation of phenotypic methods for the detection of KPC carbapenemases in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Rev. argent. microbiol. [ ...
... hypervirulent strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae are real and very dangerous - but those threats have been taken out of context ... Deadly Klebsiella Plague from China Poses Public Health Threat to U.S.-Mostly Fiction!. Posted on March 5, 2018. by Rich Buhler ... Deadly Klebsiella Plague from China Poses Public Health Threat to U.S.-Mostly Fiction!. Summary of eRumor:. The deadly ... Given that Klebsiella pneumoniae poses a real, serious public health threat - but the threat has been taken out of context by ...
Tags: abstract, antibiotics, canada, carbapenem, drug resistance, escherichia coli, fatal case, klebsiella pneumoniae, ndm-1, ... New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase in Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, Canada (Emerg Infect Dis., abstract, edited) [ ... New Delhi Metallo-β-Lactamase in Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli, Canada. Michael R. Mulvey, Jennifer M. Grant, ... Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli isolates harboring New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) were ...
A Klebsiella pneumoniae was isolated from a creek in Southern California. Disk diffusion test determined the strain is ... Pathogenic Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause respiratory and urinary tract infections and the presence of resistance genes may ...
  • The majority of human Klebsiella infections are caused by K. pneumoniae, followed by K. oxytoca. (wikipedia.org)
  • Klebsiella is an organism that causes many infections. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Since 2011 a global explosion of klebsiella infections has been reported and most importantly this bacteria is resistant to a large number of broad spectrum antibiotics. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Many klebsiella infections are designated as fatal and difficult to treat. (selfgrowth.com)
  • In klebsiella sepsis, it's obvious that the reason for sepsis is the klebsiella infection in the body like klebsiella pneumonia, abdominal infections, klebsiella urinary tract infection and blood stream infection. (selfgrowth.com)
  • ABSTRACT The emergence and rapid spread of antibiotic-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates harbouring the blaKPC gene that encodes for carbapenemase production have complicated the management of patient infections. (who.int)
  • RÉSUMÉ L'émergence et la propagation rapide des souches de Klebsiella pneumoniae résistantes aux antibiotiques et porteuses du gène blaKPC codant la production de carbapénèmases ont compliqué la prise en charge des infections des patients. (who.int)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae is one of the significant microorganisms causing major public health problems by acquiring resistance to antibiotics and acting as an opportunistic pathogen of healthcare-associated infections. (techscience.com)
  • As a matter of course, recoveries from Klebsiella infections were seen to be the most effective way of limiting the spread. (techscience.com)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae ( K. pneumoniae ) causes a wide range of infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bacteremia and liver abscesses, and mainly infects immunocompromised people. (krqe.com)
  • Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) has become a major cause of nosocomial infections and posed challenges on clinical treatments. (pacb.com)
  • Multidrug resistant (MDR) Klebsiella pneumoniae is a major cause of healthcare-associated infections around the world, with attendant high rates of morbidity and mortality. (ibm.com)
  • Mortality in KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae bloodstream infections: a changing landscape. (bvsalud.org)
  • Infections caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae are a major public health threat. (edu.au)
  • Comparative Analysis of Regulatory Elements between Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae by Genome-Wide Transcription Start Site Profiling. (ucsd.edu)
  • Genome-wide transcription start site (TSS) profiles of the enterobacteria Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were experimentally determined through modified 5' RACE followed by deep sequencing of intact primary mRNA. (ucsd.edu)
  • Streptococcus species, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella species accounted for the vast majority of both mono- and polymicrobial findings in both blood and local abscess cultures. (lu.se)
  • Klebsiella is a genus of Gram-negative, oxidase-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide-based capsule. (wikipedia.org)
  • similipneumoniae K. grimontii K. variicola Klebsiella bacteria tend to be rounder and thicker than other members of the family Enterobacteriaceae. (wikipedia.org)
  • In modern, the sepsis is managed using broad spectrum antibiotics but in klebsiella sepsis the choice of antibiotic is to be done with precaution as the bacteria is resistant to multiple antibiotics.Along with antibiotics intravenous fluid is also administered to correct the perfusion abnormalities with corticosteroids injection to reduce inflammation. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae is a gram negative bacteria and an opportunistic pathogen. (scirp.org)
  • To measure the ability of predatory bacteria to reduce microbial burden in vivo, we introduced sublethal concentrations of Klebsiella pneumoniae into the lungs of rats via intranasal inoculation and followed with multiple doses of predatory bacteria over24 h. (dtic.mil)
  • Klebsiella , Enterobacter , and Serratia bacteria reside in the intestine of many healthy people and rarely cause infection in them. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Rarely, Klebsiella bacteria cause pneumonia in people who live outside a health care facility (in the community), usually in people with an alcohol use disorder, older people, people with diabetes, or people with a weakened immune system. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Then Klebsiella bacteria are able to multiply and produce the toxin. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Klebsiella species are found everywhere in nature. (wikipedia.org)
  • The species of Klebsiella are all gram-negative and usually non-motile. (wikipedia.org)
  • Klebsiella species are known to also infect a variety of other animals, both as normal flora and opportunistic pathogens. (wikipedia.org)
  • Klebsiella species have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of ankylosing spondylitis and other spondyloarthropathies. (wikipedia.org)
  • In humans K. pneumoniae is an important species of medical importance of the genus Klebsiella and is found as saprophyte in the nasopharynx and in the gastrointestinal tract. (scirp.org)
  • Some encapsulated Klebsiella species form glistening mucoid colonies of viscid consistency. (scirp.org)
  • Thirty-four extracts from 13 South African plant species traditionally used for the treatment of inflam mation were investigated for their ability to control a microbial trigger for ankylosing spondylitis ( Klebsiella pneumoniae ). (springer.com)
  • The most prevalent HAI are the Klebsiella species. (ecco-ibd.eu)
  • One species of Klebsiella produces a toxin that can cause inflammation of the colon and bleeding (hemorrhagic colitis) after antibiotics are taken. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Umar, U. , Anagor, S. , Aliyu, A. and Suleiman, A. (2016) Hypermucoviscosity in Clinical Isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae Correlates with High Multiple Antibiotic Resistance (MAR) Index. (scirp.org)
  • Clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae producing NDM-1 carbapenemase from India (n = 22), the United Kingdom (n = 13), and Sweden (n = 4) were subjected to multilocus sequence typing (MLST), automated repetitive sequence-based PCR (rep-PCR), serotyping, virulence gene screening, and plasmid replicon typing. (uea.ac.uk)
  • Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli isolates harboring New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) were isolated from a patient who had returned to Canada from India. (flutrackers.com)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, and Klebsiella granulomatis . (medscape.com)
  • To download a certificate of analysis for Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop ( 49473 ), enter the lot number exactly as it appears on your product label or packing slip. (atcc.org)
  • The certificate of analysis for that lot of Klebsiella oxytoca (Flugge) Lautrop ( 49473 ) is not currently available online. (atcc.org)
  • Klebsiella oxytoca is primarily a health care associated nosocomial pathogen acquired from the environmental sources. (oregonstate.edu)
  • Klebsiella oxytoca ( K. oxytoca ) is a Gram-negative pathogen, cylindrical rod shaped, non-motile in nature, and belongs to Enterobacteriaceae family. (oregonstate.edu)
  • K. oxytoca initially named as Aerobacter aerogens , which was identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae, but recent report classified it as K. oxytoca , on the basis of indole-positive test and ability to grow on melezitose, not in 3-hydroxybutyrate [2]. (oregonstate.edu)
  • Detection of NDM-1 and VIM Genes in Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates from a Tertiary Health-Care Center in Kathmandu, Nepal. (tropmedres.ac)
  • Klebsiella pneumonia showing consolidations and fibrosis in anteroposterior view of lungs in X-ray and sputum test in this case. (selfgrowth.com)
  • The polymer with optimal composition alleviates Klebsiella pneumonia lung infection without inducing damage to major organs. (ibm.com)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae shows increasing emergence of multidrug-resistant lineages, including strains resistant to all available antimicrobial drugs. (cdc.gov)
  • In this study, we report a degradable guanidinium-functionalized polycarbonate with unexpected antimicrobial activity and selectivity towards MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae. (ibm.com)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae with antimicrobial resistance profile is currently a good example of a hospital-acquired pathogen that frequently causes colonization and infection, with high rates of morbidity and mortality, and na increase in the cost of the healthcare system. (fiocruz.br)
  • Understanding the dynamics of the circulation of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bactéria, using complex Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates as a model, by Geographic Information System (GIS) with spatio-temporal statistics, within a hospital unit, is na innovation that may help to improve the prevention and control of antimicrobial resistance. (fiocruz.br)
  • We here describe the epidemiology of carbapenem-non-susceptible Acinetobacter baumannii (CNAB), Klebsiella pneumoniae (CNKP) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CNPA) in two ICUs in the National Referral Hospital in Jakarta, Indonesia. (eur.nl)
  • The genus Klebsiella belongs to the tribe Klebsiellae, a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae.The organisms are named after Edwin Klebs, a 19th century German microbiologist. (medscape.com)
  • Klebsiella can grow on ordinary lab medium and do not have special growth requirements, like the other members of Enterobacteriaceae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Taxonomy browser (Klebsiella sp. (nih.gov)
  • New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase in Klebsiella pnemoniae and Escherichia coli, Canada. (flutrackers.com)
  • Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona: CARB-ES-19 Multicenter Study of Carbapenemase-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli From All Spanish Provinces Reveals Interregional Spread of High-Risk Clones Such as ST307/OXA-48 and ST512/KPC-3. (ub.edu)
  • CARB-ES-19 Multicenter Study of Carbapenemase-Producing Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli From All Spanish Provinces Reveals Interregional Spread of High-Risk Clones Such as ST307/OXA-48 and ST512/KPC-3. (ub.edu)
  • Members of the Klebsiella genus typically express 2 types of antigens on their cell surface. (medscape.com)
  • The members of the genus Klebsiella are a part of the human and animal's normal flora in the nose, mouth and intestines. (wikipedia.org)
  • Organisms previously known as Klebsiella ozaenae and Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis are considered nonfermenting subspecies of K pneumoniae that have characteristic clinical manifestations. (medscape.com)
  • A Klebsiella ozaenae nitrilase converts the herbicide bromoxynil (3,5-dibromo-4 hydroxybenzo-nitrile) to 3,6-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzoic acid to adegraded non-herbicidal product. (cbd.int)
  • Sepsis is termed as the body's extreme reaction to any infection (in this case reaction to klebsiella infection) and extreme reaction requires emergency medical attention. (selfgrowth.com)
  • In this study, the structures of the polymers were optimized for the treatment of MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae lung infection. (ibm.com)
  • Taken together, pBut_20 is promising for treating MDR Klebsiella pneumoniae lung infection in vivo. (ibm.com)
  • Ashayeri-Panah M, Feizabadi MM, Eftekhar F (2014) Correlation of multi-drug resistance, integron and blaESBL gene carriage with genetic fingerprints of extended-spectrum β-lactamase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae . (springer.com)
  • The main mechanism of quinolone resistance in Klebsiella (K) pneumoniae is caused by mutation of porin-related proteins and efflux pumps. (uwi.edu)
  • As it turns out, the drug-resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae has been building since at least 2013. (truthorfiction.com)
  • Characterization of an NDM-19-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae strain harboring 2 resistance plasmids from China. (pacb.com)
  • First, we couldn't find any confirmed cases of the new, hypervirulent, highly transmissible form of Klebsiella pneumoniae reported in the United States. (truthorfiction.com)
  • Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae , particularly carbapenem-resistant strains (CR- Kp ) causing high mortality and morbidity, are critical concerns[ 1 ]. (biorxiv.org)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen of medical importance and the capsule and mucoid phenotype in this organism are considered as requisite virulence determinants. (scirp.org)
  • Complete Genome Sequence of Klebsiella pneumoniae Strain ATCC 43816 KPPR1, a Rifampin-Resistant Mutant Commonly Used in Animal, Genetic, and Molecular Biology Studies. (genome.jp)
  • If we talk about klebsiella sepsis then it is most common in immunocompromised populations like patients suffering from cancer, diabetes, children and others. (selfgrowth.com)
  • In this article our main focus will remain on klebsiella induced sepsis. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Now let's discuss klebsiella induced sepsis in detail. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Baines M, Ebringer A, Avakian H et al (1990) The use of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and radiobinding assay to investigate the cross-reactivity of Klebsiella antigens and HLA-B27 in ankylosing spondylitis patients and healthy controls. (springer.com)
  • It's a new strain of Klebsiella pneumoniae, and an outbreak caused five deaths in China in 2016. (truthorfiction.com)
  • However, currently, no Klebsiella vaccine has been licensed for use in the US. (wikipedia.org)
  • Klebsiella abdominal pain, mild diarrhea, and increased level of C-reactive protein (13 pneumoniae- fatigue. (cdc.gov)
  • Blankenberg-Sprenkels SD, Fielder M, Feltkamp TW et al (1998) Antibodies to Klebsiella pneumoniae in Dutch patients with ankylosing spondylitis and acute anterior uveitis and to Proteus mirabilis in rheumatoid arthritis. (springer.com)
  • Over 24 babies have died following the Klebsiella outbreak at Thelle Mogoerane Regional Hospital in Vosloorus on Gauteng's East Rand. (sabcnews.com)
  • Deadly Klebsiella Plague from China Poses Public Health Threat to U.S.-Mostly Fiction! (truthorfiction.com)
  • Given that Klebsiella pneumoniae poses a real, serious public health threat - but the threat has been taken out of context by scammers trying to sell cures that don't appear to exist, we're calling this rumor "mostly fiction. (truthorfiction.com)
  • Faecal and tissue samples were used for Klebsiella haemolysin gene ( khe) analysis using RT-PCR. (ecco-ibd.eu)
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae can be fatal, but they're typically sensitive to antibiotics. (truthorfiction.com)
  • Search & Browse klebsiella spp. (cdc.gov)
  • Klebsiella chronic genital ulcerative disease presents as a firm papule or subcutaneous nodule that later ulcerates. (medscape.com)
  • Evaluation of phenotypic methods for the detection of KPC carbapenemases in Klebsiella pneumoniae. (scielo.org.ar)
  • This scanning electron micrograph (SEM) reveals some of the ultrastructural morphologic features of Klebsiella pneumoniae. (medscape.com)
  • But scammers have tried to cash in on that threat by making false claims about "the deadly Klebsiella plague from China," and their ability to treat it. (truthorfiction.com)