Either of two extremities of four-footed non-primate land animals. It usually consists of a FEMUR; TIBIA; and FIBULA; tarsals; METATARSALS; and TOES. (From Storer et al., General Zoology, 6th ed, p73)
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
A hypoperfusion of the BLOOD through an organ or tissue caused by a PATHOLOGIC CONSTRICTION or obstruction of its BLOOD VESSELS, or an absence of BLOOD CIRCULATION.
A front limb of a quadruped. (The Random House College Dictionary, 1980)
Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms.
The development of new BLOOD VESSELS during the restoration of BLOOD CIRCULATION during the healing process.
The flow of BLOOD through or around an organ or region of the body.
A condition characterized by abnormal posturing of the limbs that is associated with injury to the brainstem. This may occur as a clinical manifestation or induced experimentally in animals. The extensor reflexes are exaggerated leading to rigid extension of the limbs accompanied by hyperreflexia and opisthotonus. This condition is usually caused by lesions which occur in the region of the brainstem that lies between the red nuclei and the vestibular nuclei. In contrast, decorticate rigidity is characterized by flexion of the elbows and wrists with extension of the legs and feet. The causative lesion for this condition is located above the red nuclei and usually consists of diffuse cerebral damage. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p358)
Derangement in size and number of muscle fibers occurring with aging, reduction in blood supply, or following immobilization, prolonged weightlessness, malnutrition, and particularly in denervation.
Condition under normal Earth gravity where the force of gravity itself is not actually altered but its influence or effect may be modified and studied. (From ASGSB Bull 1992;5(2):27)
The domestic cat, Felis catus, of the carnivore family FELIDAE, comprising over 30 different breeds. The domestic cat is descended primarily from the wild cat of Africa and extreme southwestern Asia. Though probably present in towns in Palestine as long ago as 7000 years, actual domestication occurred in Egypt about 4000 years ago. (From Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed, p801)
A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.
A method of non-invasive, continuous measurement of MICROCIRCULATION. The technique is based on the values of the DOPPLER EFFECT of low-power laser light scattered randomly by static structures and moving tissue particulates.
The part of a limb or tail following amputation that is proximal to the amputated section.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The farthest or outermost projections of the body, such as the HAND and FOOT.
Maintenance of blood flow to an organ despite obstruction of a principal vessel. Blood flow is maintained through small vessels.
Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.
The minute vessels that connect the arterioles and venules.
The properties, processes, and behavior of biological systems under the action of mechanical forces.
Penetrating and non-penetrating injuries to the spinal cord resulting from traumatic external forces (e.g., WOUNDS, GUNSHOT; WHIPLASH INJURIES; etc.).
Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.
The main artery of the thigh, a continuation of the external iliac artery.
An involuntary movement or exercise of function in a part, excited in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the brain or spinal cord.
Diet modification and physical exercise to improve the ability of animals to perform physical activities.
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism whereby actin filaments slide inward among the myosin filaments.
Distinct regions of mesenchymal outgrowth at both flanks of an embryo during the SOMITE period. Limb buds, covered by ECTODERM, give rise to forelimb, hindlimb, and eventual functional limb structures. Limb bud cultures are used to study CELL DIFFERENTIATION; ORGANOGENESIS; and MORPHOGENESIS.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A partial or complete return to the normal or proper physiologic activity of an organ or part following disease or trauma.
Region of the back including the LUMBAR VERTEBRAE, SACRUM, and nearby structures.
Skeletal muscle fibers characterized by their expression of the Type I MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN isoforms which have low ATPase activity and effect several other functional properties - shortening velocity, power output, rate of tension redevelopment.
##### I apologize, but the term "turtles" is not a recognized medical term or concept. It is commonly referred to as a group of reptiles with a shell, and does not have any direct relevance to medical definition.
Skeletal muscle fibers characterized by their expression of the Type II MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN isoforms which have high ATPase activity and effect several other functional properties - shortening velocity, power output, rate of tension redevelopment. Several fast types have been identified.
Contractile tissue that produces movement in animals.
A nerve which originates in the lumbar and sacral spinal cord (L4 to S3) and supplies motor and sensory innervation to the lower extremity. The sciatic nerve, which is the main continuation of the sacral plexus, is the largest nerve in the body. It has two major branches, the TIBIAL NERVE and the PERONEAL NERVE.
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a peripheral part toward a nerve center.
Large, multinucleate single cells, either cylindrical or prismatic in shape, that form the basic unit of SKELETAL MUSCLE. They consist of MYOFIBRILS enclosed within and attached to the SARCOLEMMA. They are derived from the fusion of skeletal myoblasts (MYOBLASTS, SKELETAL) into a syncytium, followed by differentiation.
The physical state of supporting an applied load. This often refers to the weight-bearing bones or joints that support the body's weight, especially those in the spine, hip, knee, and foot.
Manner or style of walking.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
The restriction of the MOVEMENT of whole or part of the body by physical means (RESTRAINT, PHYSICAL) or chemically by ANALGESIA, or the use of TRANQUILIZING AGENTS or NEUROMUSCULAR NONDEPOLARIZING AGENTS. It includes experimental protocols used to evaluate the physiologic effects of immobility.
Disorders characterized by an abnormal reduction in muscle volume due to a decrease in the size or number of muscle fibers. Atrophy may result from diseases intrinsic to muscle tissue (e.g., MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY) or secondary to PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES that impair innervation to muscle tissue (e.g., MUSCULAR ATROPHY, SPINAL).
The region in the hindlimb of a quadruped, corresponding to the human ANKLE.
Treatment process involving the injection of fluid into an organ or tissue.
A departure from the normal gait in animals.
Fibers that arise from cell groups within the spinal cord and pass directly to the cerebellum. They include the anterior, posterior, and rostral spinocerebellar tracts, and the cuneocerebellar tract. (From Parent, Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, 9th ed, p607)
The larger subunits of MYOSINS. The heavy chains have a molecular weight of about 230 kDa and each heavy chain is usually associated with a dissimilar pair of MYOSIN LIGHT CHAINS. The heavy chains possess actin-binding and ATPase activity.
Expenditure of energy during PHYSICAL ACTIVITY. Intensity of exertion may be measured by rate of OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; HEAT produced, or HEART RATE. Perceived exertion, a psychological measure of exertion, is included.
Application of a ligature to tie a vessel or strangulate a part.
The resection or removal of the innervation of a muscle or muscle tissue.
Condition in which no acceleration, whether due to gravity or any other force, can be detected by an observer within a system. It also means the absence of weight or the absence of the force of gravity acting on a body. Microgravity, gravitational force between 0 and 10 -6 g, is included here. (From NASA Thesaurus, 1988)
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
The original member of the family of endothelial cell growth factors referred to as VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTORS. Vascular endothelial growth factor-A was originally isolated from tumor cells and referred to as "tumor angiogenesis factor" and "vascular permeability factor". Although expressed at high levels in certain tumor-derived cells it is produced by a wide variety of cell types. In addition to stimulating vascular growth and vascular permeability it may play a role in stimulating VASODILATION via NITRIC OXIDE-dependent pathways. Alternative splicing of the mRNA for vascular endothelial growth factor A results in several isoforms of the protein being produced.
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a nerve center toward a peripheral site. Such impulses are conducted via efferent neurons (NEURONS, EFFERENT), such as MOTOR NEURONS, autonomic neurons, and hypophyseal neurons.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
An activity in which the body is propelled by moving the legs rapidly. Running is performed at a moderate to rapid pace and should be differentiated from JOGGING, which is performed at a much slower pace.
Act of eliciting a response from a person or organism through physical contact.
The non-genetic biological changes of an organism in response to challenges in its ENVIRONMENT.

Rescue of diabetes-related impairment of angiogenesis by intramuscular gene therapy with adeno-VEGF. (1/4207)

Diabetes is a major risk factor for coronary and peripheral artery diseases. Although diabetic patients often present with advanced forms of these diseases, it is not known whether the compensatory mechanisms to vascular ischemia are affected in this condition. Accordingly, we sought to determine whether diabetes could: 1) impair the development of new collateral vessel formation in response to tissue ischemia and 2) inhibit cytokine-induced therapeutic neovascularization. Hindlimb ischemia was created by femoral artery ligation in nonobese diabetic mice (NOD mice, n = 20) and in control C57 mice (n = 20). Hindlimb perfusion was evaluated by serial laser Doppler studies after the surgery. In NOD mice, measurement of the Doppler flow ratio between the ischemic and the normal limb indicated that restoration of perfusion in the ischemic hindlimb was significantly impaired. At day 14 after surgery, Doppler flow ratio in the NOD mice was 0.49+/-0.04 versus 0.73+/-0.06 for the C57 mice (P< or =0.005). This impairment in blood flow recovery persisted throughout the duration of the study with Doppler flow ratio values at day 35 of 0.50+/-0.05 versus 0.90+/-0.07 in the NOD and C57 mice, respectively (P< or =0.001). CD31 immunostaining confirmed the laser Doppler data by showing a significant reduction in capillary density in the NOD mice at 35 days after surgery (302+/-4 capillaries/mm2 versus 782+/-78 in C57 mice (P< or =0.005). The reduction in neovascularization in the NOD mice was the result of a lower level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the ischemic tissues, as assessed by Northern blot, Western blot and immunohistochemistry. The central role of VEGF was confirmed by showing that normal levels of neovascularization (compared with C57) could be achieved in NOD mice that had been supplemented for this growth factor via intramuscular injection of an adenoviral vector encoding for VEGF. We conclude that 1) diabetes impairs endogenous neovascularization of ischemic tissues; 2) the impairment in new blood vessel formation results from reduced expression of VEGF; and 3) cytokine supplementation achieved by intramuscular adeno-VEGF gene transfer restores neovascularization in a mouse model of diabetes.  (+info)

Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-3 correct osteopetrosis in mice with osteopetrosis mutation. (2/4207)

Although young mice homozygous for the osteopetrosis (op) mutation usually developed prominent osteopetrosis, its severity was markedly reduced in aged op/op mice. This age-associated reversal of osteopetrosis was accompanied by the expansion of bone marrow cavities and increased numbers of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive cells and of macrophages in the bone marrow. The TRAP-positive cells were mononuclear and developed ruffled borders and numerous vesicles, vacuoles, and granules. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay demonstrated a significant elevation of serum granulocyte/ macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin (IL)-3 levels in the aged op/op mice. To examine whether GM-CSF and/or IL-3 could correct osteopetrosis in young op/op mice, 5 ng of recombinant murine (rm)GM-CSF and/or 100 ng of rmIL-3 were injected daily into young op/op mice. In these treated young op/op mice, the bone marrow cavities were expanded significantly at 2 weeks after administration, associated with significantly increased numbers of TRAP-positive cells and bone marrow macrophages. TRAP-positive cells increased in number with days after injection. These results suggest that GM-CSF and IL-3 induce the development of osteoclasts to correct osteopetrosis in the op/op mice with aging.  (+info)

Specific and innervation-regulated expression of the intermediate filament protein nestin at neuromuscular and myotendinous junctions in skeletal muscle. (3/4207)

The intermediate filament proteins nestin, vimentin, and desmin show a specific temporal expression pattern during the development of myofibers from myogenic precursor cells. Nestin and vimentin are actively expressed during early developmental stages to be later down-regulated, vimentin completely and nestin to minimal levels, whereas desmin expression begins later and is maintained in mature myofibers, in which desmin participates in maintaining structural integrity. In this study we have analyzed the expression levels and distribution pattern of nestin in intact and denervated muscle in rat and in human. Nestin immunoreactivity was specifically and focally localized in the sarcoplasm underneath neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and in the vicinity of the myotendinous junctions (MTJs), ie, in regions associated with acetylcholine receptors (AChRs). This association prompted us to analyze nestin in neurogenically and myogenically denervated muscle. Immunoblot analysis disclosed a marked overall increase of accumulated nestin protein. Similar to the extrajunctional redistribution of AChRs in denervated myofibers, nestin immunoreactivity extended widely beyond the NMJ region. Re-innervation caused complete reversion of these changes. Our study demonstrates that the expression levels and distribution pattern of nestin are regulated by innervation, ie, signal transduction into myofibers.  (+info)

The mechanism of the increasing action of TA-993, a new 1,5- benzothiazepine derivative, on limb blood flow in anesthetized dogs: selective suppression of sympathetic nerve activity. (4/4207)

TA-993, (-)-cis-3-acetoxy-5-(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl)-2, 3-di-hydro-8-methyl-2-(4-methylphenyl)-1,5-benzothiazepin-4(5H)one maleate, a new 1,5-benzothiazepine derivative with l-cis configuration, has a unique and selective increasing action on limb blood flow with little influence on arterial pressure besides an antiplatelet action. We studied the mechanism of increasing action of TA-993 on limb blood flow in anesthetized dogs. In a canine blood-perfused hindlimb preparation with a donor dog, TA-993 (100 microg/kg i.v.) did not increase femoral blood flow when administered to the donor dog, but did when administered to a recipient dog. TA-993 did not show the increasing action on femoral blood flow in the presence of hexamethonium or phentolamine, whereas it did in the presence of propranolol or atropine. TA-993 also showed a weak increasing effect on heart rate, which was inhibited by any one of these blockers. TA-993 (300 microg/kg i.v.) did not alter the phenylephrine (1-100 ng/kg i.a.)- or the talipexole (3-100 ng/kg i.a.)-induced increase in perfusion pressure in an autoperfused hindlimb. These results suggest that the increasing action of TA-993 on limb blood flow is mediated by the sympathetic nervous system but that the adrenergic receptors are not likely to be the central point of action of this new agent. There is a possibility that the mechanism of the increasing action on heart rate is different from that of its increasing action on limb blood flow.  (+info)

The contribution of extraneuronal uptake to the trachea-blood vessel selectivity of beta-adrenoceptor stimulants in vitro in guinea-pigs. (5/4207)

1 The potencies relative to isoprenaline of isoetharine, tertiary butyl noradrenaline, salbutamol, orciprenaline, Me 506, rimiterol, fenoterol, carbuterol and terbutaline on isolated preparations of guinea-pig trachea and blood vessels (perfused hind limb) were determined. All the compounds were selective for trachea and selectivity values, i.e. relative potency on trachea divided by relative potency on hind limb, ranged from 2.3 to 21.4. 2 Responses to isoprenaline (the reference compound), tertiary butyl noradrenaline and isoetharine were potentiated on trachea by 50 muM phenoxybenzamine (PHB) and by other inhibitors of extraneuronal uptake (ENU). Under these conditions the selectivity values of all the compounds was close to unity. 3 Selectivity values were also close to unity if they were calculated from data obtained without ENU inhibition, provided that only those compounds not potentiated by PHB on trachea were used. 4 It is proposed that the trachea-blood vessel selectivity shown by beta-adrenoceptor stimulants can be caused by the influence of ENU upon them, rather than by their ability to distinguish between two beta2-adrenoceptors. 5 The suggestion that differences exist between beta2-adrenoceptors in respiratory and vascular smooth muscle is not supported by the in vitro experiments described.  (+info)

Source of inappropriate receptive fields in cortical somatotopic maps from rats that sustained neonatal forelimb removal. (6/4207)

Previously this laboratory demonstrated that forelimb removal at birth in rats results in the invasion of the cuneate nucleus by sciatic nerve axons and the development of cuneothalamic cells with receptive fields that include both the forelimb-stump and the hindlimb. However, unit-cluster recordings from primary somatosensory cortex (SI) of these animals revealed few sites in the forelimb-stump representation where responses to hindlimb stimulation also could be recorded. Recently we reported that hindlimb inputs to the SI forelimb-stump representation are suppressed functionally in neonatally amputated rats and that GABAergic inhibition is involved in this process. The present study was undertaken to assess the role that intracortical projections from the SI hindlimb representation may play in the functional reorganization of the SI forelimb-stump field in these animals. The SI forelimb-stump representation was mapped during gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-receptor blockade, both before and after electrolytic destruction of the SI hindlimb representation. Analysis of eight amputated rats showed that 75.8% of 264 stump recording sites possessed hindlimb receptive fields before destruction of the SI hindlimb. After the lesions, significantly fewer sites (13.2% of 197) were responsive to hindlimb stimulation (P < 0.0001). Electrolytic destruction of the SI lower-jaw representation in four additional control rats with neonatal forelimb amputation did not significantly reduce the percentage of hindlimb-responsive sites in the SI stump field during GABA-receptor blockade (P = 0.98). Similar results were obtained from three manipulated rats in which the SI hindlimb representation was silenced temporarily with a local cobalt chloride injection. Analysis of response latencies to sciatic nerve stimulation in the hindlimb and forelimb-stump representations suggested that the intracortical pathway(s) mediating the hindlimb responses in the forelimb-stump field may be polysynaptic. The mean latency to sciatic nerve stimulation at responsive sites in the GABA-receptor blocked SI stump representation of neonatally amputated rats was significantly longer than that for recording sites in the hindlimb representation [26.3 +/- 8.1 (SD) ms vs. 10.8 +/- 2.4 ms, respectively, P < 0.0001]. These results suggest that hindlimb input to the SI forelimb-stump representation detected in GABA-blocked cortices of neonatally forelimb amputated rats originates primarily from the SI hindlimb representation.  (+info)

Role of the Bicoid-related homeodomain factor Pitx1 in specifying hindlimb morphogenesis and pituitary development. (7/4207)

Pitx1 is a Bicoid-related homeodomain factor that exhibits preferential expression in the hindlimb, as well as expression in the developing anterior pituitary gland and first branchial arch. Here, we report that Pitx1 gene-deleted mice exhibit striking abnormalities in morphogenesis and growth of the hindlimb, resulting in a limb that exhibits structural changes in tibia and fibula as well as patterning alterations in patella and proximal tarsus, to more closely resemble the corresponding forelimb structures. Deletion of the Pitx1 locus results in decreased distal expression of the hindlimb-specific marker, the T-box factor, Tbx4. On the basis of similar expression patterns in chick, targeted misexpression of chick Pitx1 in the developing wing bud causes the resulting limb to assume altered digit number and morphogenesis, with Tbx4 induction. We hypothesize that Pitx1 serves to critically modulate morphogenesis, growth, and potential patterning of a specific hindlimb region, serving as a component of the morphological and growth distinctions in forelimb and hindlimb identity. Pitx1 gene-deleted mice also exhibit reciprocal abnormalities of two ventral and one dorsal anterior pituitary cell types, presumably on the basis of its synergistic functions with other transcription factors, and defects in the derivatives of the first branchial arch, including cleft palate, suggesting a proliferative defect in these organs analogous to that observed in the hindlimb.  (+info)

Trigeminal and carotid body inputs controlling vascular resistance in muscle during post-contraction hyperaemia in cats. (8/4207)

1. In anaesthetized cats, the effects of stimulation of the receptors in the nasal mucosa and carotid body chemoreceptors on vascular resistance in hindlimb skeletal muscle were studied to see whether the responses were the same in active as in resting muscle. The measurements of vascular resistance were taken, first, in resting muscle, and second, in the immediate post-contraction hyperaemic phase that followed a 30 s period of isometric contractions. 2. Stimulation of the receptors in the nasal mucosa caused reflex apnoea and vasoconstriction in muscle. The latter response was attenuated when the test was repeated during post-contraction hyperaemia. 3. Stimulations of the carotid bodies were made during a period of apnoea evoked reflexly by electrical stimulation of both superior laryngeal nerves. This apnoea prevented any effects of changes in respiration on the carotid body reflex vascular responses. Stimulation of the carotid bodies evoked hindlimb muscle vasoconstriction. In the post-contraction hyperaemic period, the response was reduced or abolished. A similar attenuation of the reflex vasoconstrictor responses occurred in decentralized muscles stimulated through their motor roots in the cauda equina. 4. Evidence is presented that the attenuation of the vasoconstrictor responses evoked by the two reflexes is a phenomenon localized to the contracting muscles themselves resulting from an interaction between sympathetic neuronal activity and the local production of metabolites. 5. The results are discussed in relation to the metabolic needs of tissues in relation to asphyxial defence mechanisms such as occur in the diving response.  (+info)

A hindlimb, also known as a posterior limb, is one of the pair of extremities that are located distally to the trunk in tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates) and include mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. In humans and other primates, hindlimbs are equivalent to the lower limbs, which consist of the thigh, leg, foot, and toes.

The primary function of hindlimbs is locomotion, allowing animals to move from one place to another. However, they also play a role in other activities such as balance, support, and communication. In humans, the hindlimbs are responsible for weight-bearing, standing, walking, running, and jumping.

In medical terminology, the term "hindlimb" is not commonly used to describe human anatomy. Instead, healthcare professionals use terms like lower limbs or lower extremities to refer to the same region of the body. However, in comparative anatomy and veterinary medicine, the term hindlimb is still widely used to describe the corresponding structures in non-human animals.

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

Ischemia is the medical term used to describe a lack of blood flow to a part of the body, often due to blocked or narrowed blood vessels. This can lead to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients in the tissues, which can cause them to become damaged or die. Ischemia can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, legs, and intestines. Symptoms of ischemia depend on the location and severity of the blockage, but they may include pain, cramping, numbness, weakness, or coldness in the affected area. In severe cases, ischemia can lead to tissue death (gangrene) or organ failure. Treatment for ischemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blocked blood flow, such as through medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

A forelimb is a term used in animal anatomy to refer to the upper limbs located in the front of the body, primarily involved in movement and manipulation of the environment. In humans, this would be equivalent to the arms, while in quadrupedal animals (those that move on four legs), it includes the structures that are comparable to both the arms and legs of humans, such as the front legs of dogs or the forepaws of cats. The bones that make up a typical forelimb include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Locomotion, in a medical context, refers to the ability to move independently and change location. It involves the coordinated movement of the muscles, bones, and nervous system that enables an individual to move from one place to another. This can include walking, running, jumping, or using assistive devices such as wheelchairs or crutches. Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of human mobility and is often assessed in medical evaluations to determine overall health and functioning.

Physiologic neovascularization is the natural and controlled formation of new blood vessels in the body, which occurs as a part of normal growth and development, as well as in response to tissue repair and wound healing. This process involves the activation of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels, and their migration, proliferation, and tube formation to create new capillaries. Physiologic neovascularization is tightly regulated by a balance of pro-angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors, ensuring that it occurs only when and where it is needed. It plays crucial roles in various physiological processes, such as embryonic development, tissue regeneration, and wound healing.

Regional blood flow (RBF) refers to the rate at which blood flows through a specific region or organ in the body, typically expressed in milliliters per minute per 100 grams of tissue (ml/min/100g). It is an essential physiological parameter that reflects the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues while removing waste products. RBF can be affected by various factors such as metabolic demands, neural regulation, hormonal influences, and changes in blood pressure or vascular resistance. Measuring RBF is crucial for understanding organ function, diagnosing diseases, and evaluating the effectiveness of treatments.

A decerebrate state is a medical condition that results from severe damage to the brainstem, specifically to the midbrain and above. This type of injury can cause motor responses characterized by rigid extension of the arms and legs, with the arms rotated outward and the wrists and fingers extended. The legs are also extended and the toes pointed downward. These postures are often referred to as "decerebrate rigidity" or "posturing."

The decerebrate state is typically seen in patients who have experienced severe trauma, such as a car accident or gunshot wound, or who have suffered from a large stroke or other type of brain hemorrhage. It can also occur in some cases of severe hypoxia (lack of oxygen) to the brain, such as during cardiac arrest or drowning.

The decerebrate state is a serious medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. If left untreated, it can lead to further brain damage and even death. Treatment typically involves providing supportive care, such as mechanical ventilation to help with breathing, medications to control blood pressure and prevent seizures, and surgery to repair any underlying injuries or bleeding. In some cases, patients may require long-term rehabilitation to regain lost function and improve their quality of life.

Muscular atrophy is a condition characterized by a decrease in the size and mass of muscles due to lack of use, disease, or injury. This occurs when there is a disruption in the balance between muscle protein synthesis and degradation, leading to a net loss of muscle proteins. There are two main types of muscular atrophy:

1. Disuse atrophy: This type of atrophy occurs when muscles are not used or are immobilized for an extended period, such as after an injury, surgery, or prolonged bed rest. In this case, the nerves that control the muscles may still be functioning properly, but the muscles themselves waste away due to lack of use.
2. Neurogenic atrophy: This type of atrophy is caused by damage to the nerves that supply the muscles, leading to muscle weakness and wasting. Conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal cord injuries, and peripheral neuropathies can cause neurogenic atrophy.

In both cases, the affected muscles may become weak, shrink in size, and lose their tone and mass. Treatment for muscular atrophy depends on the underlying cause and may include physical therapy, exercise, and medication to manage symptoms and improve muscle strength and function.

Weightlessness simulation, also known as "zero-gravity" or "microgravity" simulation, is the reproduction of the condition in which people or objects appear to be weightless. This state can be achieved through various methods, including neutral buoyancy, which is simulating the feeling of weightlessness by immersing individuals in a fluid (usually water) with a density equal to their body, or reduced-gravity environments created using specialized equipment such as aircraft that fly in parabolic arcs to generate brief periods of weightlessness.

Another method for weightlessness simulation is through the use of virtual reality and other technology to create an illusion of weightlessness. This can be done by manipulating visual and auditory cues, as well as providing a haptic feedback system that simulates the sensation of movement in zero-gravity environments. These simulations are often used for training astronauts, researching the effects of weightlessness on the human body, and developing technologies for use in space.

"Cat" is a common name that refers to various species of small carnivorous mammals that belong to the family Felidae. The domestic cat, also known as Felis catus or Felis silvestris catus, is a popular pet and companion animal. It is a subspecies of the wildcat, which is found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Domestic cats are often kept as pets because of their companionship, playful behavior, and ability to hunt vermin. They are also valued for their ability to provide emotional support and therapy to people. Cats are obligate carnivores, which means that they require a diet that consists mainly of meat to meet their nutritional needs.

Cats are known for their agility, sharp senses, and predatory instincts. They have retractable claws, which they use for hunting and self-defense. Cats also have a keen sense of smell, hearing, and vision, which allow them to detect prey and navigate their environment.

In medical terms, cats can be hosts to various parasites and diseases that can affect humans and other animals. Some common feline diseases include rabies, feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and toxoplasmosis. It is important for cat owners to keep their pets healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations and preventative treatments to protect both the cats and their human companions.

The spinal cord is a major part of the nervous system, extending from the brainstem and continuing down to the lower back. It is a slender, tubular bundle of nerve fibers (axons) and support cells (glial cells) that carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord primarily serves as a conduit for motor information, which travels from the brain to the muscles, and sensory information, which travels from the body to the brain. It also contains neurons that can independently process and respond to information within the spinal cord without direct input from the brain.

The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebral column (spine) and is divided into 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment corresponds to a specific region of the body and gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves that exit through the intervertebral foramina at each level.

The spinal cord is responsible for several vital functions, including:

1. Reflexes: Simple reflex actions, such as the withdrawal reflex when touching a hot surface, are mediated by the spinal cord without involving the brain.
2. Muscle control: The spinal cord carries motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle tone regulation.
3. Sensory perception: The spinal cord transmits sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, and vibration, from the body to the brain for processing and awareness.
4. Autonomic functions: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system originate in the thoracolumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord, respectively, controlling involuntary physiological responses like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration.

Damage to the spinal cord can result in various degrees of paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury, depending on the severity and location of the damage.

Laser-Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a non-invasive, investigative technique used to measure microcirculatory blood flow in real time. It is based on the principle of the Doppler effect, which describes the change in frequency or wavelength of light or sound waves as they encounter a moving object or reflect off a moving surface.

In LDF, a low-power laser beam is directed at the skin or other transparent tissue. The light penetrates the tissue and scatters off the moving red blood cells within the microvasculature. As the light scatters, it undergoes a slight frequency shift due to the movement of the red blood cells. This frequency shift is then detected by a photodetector, which converts it into an electrical signal. The magnitude of this signal is directly proportional to the speed and concentration of the moving red blood cells, providing a measure of microcirculatory blood flow.

LDF has various clinical applications, including the assessment of skin perfusion in patients with peripheral arterial disease, burn injuries, and flaps used in reconstructive surgery. It can also be used to study the effects of drugs or other interventions on microcirculation in research settings.

Amputation stumps, also known as residual limbs, refer to the remaining part of a limb after it has been amputated. The stump includes the soft tissue and bone that were once part of the amputated limb. Proper care and management of the amputation stump are essential for optimal healing, reducing the risk of complications such as infection or delayed wound healing, and promoting successful prosthetic fitting and use. This may involve various treatments such as wound care, pain management, physical therapy, and the use of specialized medical devices.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

The term "extremities" in a medical context refers to the most distant parts of the body, including the hands and feet (both fingers and toes), as well as the arms and legs. These are the farthest parts from the torso and head. Medical professionals may examine a patient's extremities for various reasons, such as checking circulation, assessing nerve function, or looking for injuries or abnormalities.

Collateral circulation refers to the alternate blood supply routes that bypass an obstructed or narrowed vessel and reconnect with the main vascular system. These collateral vessels can develop over time as a result of the body's natural adaptation to chronic ischemia (reduced blood flow) caused by various conditions such as atherosclerosis, thromboembolism, or vasculitis.

The development of collateral circulation helps maintain adequate blood flow and oxygenation to affected tissues, minimizing the risk of tissue damage and necrosis. In some cases, well-developed collateral circulations can help compensate for significant blockages in major vessels, reducing symptoms and potentially preventing the need for invasive interventions like revascularization procedures. However, the extent and effectiveness of collateral circulation vary from person to person and depend on factors such as age, overall health status, and the presence of comorbidities.

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles during contraction and at rest. It involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record the electrical signals generated by the muscle fibers. These signals are then displayed on an oscilloscope and may be heard through a speaker.

EMG can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, and can distinguish between muscle and nerve disorders. It is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests, such as nerve conduction studies, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the nervous system.

EMG is typically performed by a neurologist or a physiatrist, and the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain, although this is usually minimal. The results of an EMG can help guide treatment decisions and monitor the progression of neuromuscular conditions over time.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body, with diameters that range from 5 to 10 micrometers. They form a network of tiny tubes that connect the arterioles (small branches of arteries) and venules (small branches of veins), allowing for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and the surrounding tissues.

Capillaries are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells that surround a hollow lumen through which blood flows. The walls of capillaries are extremely thin, allowing for easy diffusion of molecules between the blood and the surrounding tissue. This is essential for maintaining the health and function of all body tissues.

Capillaries can be classified into three types based on their structure and function: continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal. Continuous capillaries have a continuous layer of endothelial cells with tight junctions that restrict the passage of large molecules. Fenestrated capillaries have small pores or "fenestrae" in the endothelial cell walls that allow for the passage of larger molecules, such as proteins and lipids. Sinusoidal capillaries are found in organs with high metabolic activity, such as the liver and spleen, and have large, irregular spaces between the endothelial cells that allow for the exchange of even larger molecules.

Overall, capillaries play a critical role in maintaining the health and function of all body tissues by allowing for the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the blood and surrounding tissues.

Biomechanics is the application of mechanical laws to living structures and systems, particularly in the field of medicine and healthcare. A biomechanical phenomenon refers to a observable event or occurrence that involves the interaction of biological tissues or systems with mechanical forces. These phenomena can be studied at various levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the tissue, organ, and whole-body level.

Examples of biomechanical phenomena include:

1. The way that bones and muscles work together to produce movement (known as joint kinematics).
2. The mechanical behavior of biological tissues such as bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments under various loads and stresses.
3. The response of cells and tissues to mechanical stimuli, such as the way that bone tissue adapts to changes in loading conditions (known as Wolff's law).
4. The biomechanics of injury and disease processes, such as the mechanisms of joint injury or the development of osteoarthritis.
5. The use of mechanical devices and interventions to treat medical conditions, such as orthopedic implants or assistive devices for mobility impairments.

Understanding biomechanical phenomena is essential for developing effective treatments and prevention strategies for a wide range of medical conditions, from musculoskeletal injuries to neurological disorders.

Spinal cord injuries (SCI) refer to damage to the spinal cord that results in a loss of function, such as mobility or feeling. This injury can be caused by direct trauma to the spine or by indirect damage resulting from disease or degeneration of surrounding bones, tissues, or blood vessels. The location and severity of the injury on the spinal cord will determine which parts of the body are affected and to what extent.

The effects of SCI can range from mild sensory changes to severe paralysis, including loss of motor function, autonomic dysfunction, and possible changes in sensation, strength, and reflexes below the level of injury. These injuries are typically classified as complete or incomplete, depending on whether there is any remaining function below the level of injury.

Immediate medical attention is crucial for spinal cord injuries to prevent further damage and improve the chances of recovery. Treatment usually involves immobilization of the spine, medications to reduce swelling and pressure, surgery to stabilize the spine, and rehabilitation to help regain lost function. Despite advances in treatment, SCI can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life and ability to perform daily activities.

Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that play a crucial role in controlling voluntary muscle movements. They transmit electrical signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and swallowing. There are two types of motor neurons: upper motor neurons, which originate in the brain's motor cortex and travel down to the brainstem and spinal cord; and lower motor neurons, which extend from the brainstem and spinal cord to the muscles. Damage or degeneration of these motor neurons can lead to various neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

The femoral artery is the major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the lower extremity of the human body. It is a continuation of the external iliac artery and becomes the popliteal artery as it passes through the adductor hiatus in the adductor magnus muscle of the thigh.

The femoral artery is located in the femoral triangle, which is bound by the sartorius muscle anteriorly, the adductor longus muscle medially, and the biceps femoris muscle posteriorly. It can be easily palpated in the groin region, making it a common site for taking blood samples, measuring blood pressure, and performing surgical procedures such as femoral artery catheterization and bypass grafting.

The femoral artery gives off several branches that supply blood to the lower limb, including the deep femoral artery, the superficial femoral artery, and the profunda femoris artery. These branches provide blood to the muscles, bones, skin, and other tissues of the leg, ankle, and foot.

A reflex is an automatic, involuntary and rapid response to a stimulus that occurs without conscious intention. In the context of physiology and neurology, it's a basic mechanism that involves the transmission of nerve impulses between neurons, resulting in a muscle contraction or glandular secretion.

Reflexes are important for maintaining homeostasis, protecting the body from harm, and coordinating movements. They can be tested clinically to assess the integrity of the nervous system, such as the knee-j jerk reflex, which tests the function of the L3-L4 spinal nerve roots and the sensitivity of the stretch reflex arc.

I apologize for the confusion, but "physical conditioning" is not a term that is typically used in the context of animals in veterinary medicine or animal sciences. The term "physical conditioning" is more commonly used to describe the process of improving an individual's physical fitness through exercise and training.

However, in animal science, the concept of "training" or "exercising" animals may refer to the process of teaching them specific behaviors or skills, improving their physical abilities, or promoting their overall health and well-being. This might involve activities such as providing opportunities for regular exercise, engaging in play, or using positive reinforcement techniques to teach animals new skills or modify their behavior.

If you have any further questions about animal care or training, I would be happy to try to help!

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Muscle contraction is the physiological process in which muscle fibers shorten and generate force, leading to movement or stability of a body part. This process involves the sliding filament theory where thick and thin filaments within the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscles) slide past each other, facilitated by the interaction between myosin heads and actin filaments. The energy required for this action is provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary, and they play a crucial role in various bodily functions such as locomotion, circulation, respiration, and posture maintenance.

Limb buds are embryological structures that develop in the early stages of fetal growth and give rise to future limbs. In humans, they appear around the 4th week of gestation as thickenings on the sides of the body trunk. These buds consist of a core of mesenchymal tissue surrounded by ectoderm. The mesenchyme will later differentiate into bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilages, while the ectoderm will form the skin and nervous tissues, including sensory organs in the limbs.

The development of limb buds is regulated by a complex interplay of genetic and molecular factors that control their outgrowth, patterning, and differentiation into specific limb components. Abnormalities during this process can lead to various congenital limb defects or deformations.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

"Recovery of function" is a term used in medical rehabilitation to describe the process in which an individual regains the ability to perform activities or tasks that were previously difficult or impossible due to injury, illness, or disability. This can involve both physical and cognitive functions. The goal of recovery of function is to help the person return to their prior level of independence and participation in daily activities, work, and social roles as much as possible.

Recovery of function may be achieved through various interventions such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech-language therapy, and other rehabilitation strategies. The specific approach used will depend on the individual's needs and the nature of their impairment. Recovery of function can occur spontaneously as the body heals, or it may require targeted interventions to help facilitate the process.

It is important to note that recovery of function does not always mean a full return to pre-injury or pre-illness levels of ability. Instead, it often refers to the person's ability to adapt and compensate for any remaining impairments, allowing them to achieve their maximum level of functional independence and quality of life.

The lumbosacral region is the lower part of the back where the lumbar spine (five vertebrae in the lower back) connects with the sacrum (a triangular bone at the base of the spine). This region is subject to various conditions such as sprains, strains, herniated discs, and degenerative disorders that can cause pain and discomfort. It's also a common site for surgical intervention when non-surgical treatments fail to provide relief.

Slow-twitch muscle fibers, also known as type I muscle fibers, are specialized skeletal muscle cells that contract relatively slowly and generate less force than fast-twitch fibers. However, they can maintain contraction for longer periods of time and have a higher resistance to fatigue. These fibers primarily use oxygen and aerobic metabolism to produce energy, making them highly efficient during prolonged, lower-intensity activities such as long-distance running or cycling. Slow-twitch muscle fibers also have an abundant blood supply, which allows for efficient delivery of oxygen and removal of waste products.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "turtles" is not a medical term. It refers to the group of reptiles that have a shell and include various species such as tortoises and terrapins. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try to help with those!

Fast-twitch muscle fibers, also known as type II fibers, are a type of skeletal muscle fiber that are characterized by their rapid contraction and relaxation rates. These fibers have a larger diameter and contain a higher concentration of glycogen, which serves as a quick source of energy for muscle contractions. Fast-twitch fibers are further divided into two subcategories: type IIa and type IIb (or type IIx). Type IIa fibers have a moderate amount of mitochondria and can utilize both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways, making them fatigue-resistant. Type IIb fibers, on the other hand, have fewer mitochondria and primarily use anaerobic metabolism, leading to faster fatigue. Fast-twitch fibers are typically used in activities that require quick, powerful movements such as sprinting or weightlifting.

A muscle is a soft tissue in our body that contracts to produce force and motion. It is composed mainly of specialized cells called muscle fibers, which are bound together by connective tissue. There are three types of muscles: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac. Skeletal muscles attach to bones and help in movement, while smooth muscles are found within the walls of organs and blood vessels, helping with functions like digestion and circulation. Cardiac muscle is the specific type that makes up the heart, allowing it to pump blood throughout the body.

The sciatic nerve is the largest and longest nerve in the human body, running from the lower back through the buttocks and down the legs to the feet. It is formed by the union of the ventral rami (branches) of the L4 to S3 spinal nerves. The sciatic nerve provides motor and sensory innervation to various muscles and skin areas in the lower limbs, including the hamstrings, calf muscles, and the sole of the foot. Sciatic nerve disorders or injuries can result in symptoms such as pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the lower back, hips, legs, and feet, known as sciatica.

Afferent pathways, also known as sensory pathways, refer to the neural connections that transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system (CNS), specifically to the brain and spinal cord. These pathways are responsible for carrying various types of sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, pressure, vibration, hearing, vision, and taste, to the CNS for processing and interpretation.

The afferent pathways begin with sensory receptors located throughout the body, which detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted via afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, to the spinal cord or brainstem. Within the CNS, the information is further processed and integrated with other neural inputs before being relayed to higher cognitive centers for conscious awareness and response.

Understanding the anatomy and physiology of afferent pathways is essential for diagnosing and treating various neurological conditions that affect sensory function, such as neuropathies, spinal cord injuries, and brain disorders.

Skeletal muscle fibers, also known as striated muscle fibers, are the type of muscle cells that make up skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary movements of the body. These muscle fibers are long, cylindrical, and multinucleated, meaning they contain multiple nuclei. They are surrounded by a connective tissue layer called the endomysium, and many fibers are bundled together into fascicles, which are then surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium.

Skeletal muscle fibers are composed of myofibrils, which are long, thread-like structures that run the length of the fiber. Myofibrils contain repeating units called sarcomeres, which are responsible for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers. Sarcomeres are composed of thick and thin filaments, which slide past each other during muscle contraction to shorten the sarcomere and generate force.

Skeletal muscle fibers can be further classified into two main types based on their contractile properties: slow-twitch (type I) and fast-twitch (type II). Slow-twitch fibers have a high endurance capacity and are used for sustained, low-intensity activities such as maintaining posture. Fast-twitch fibers, on the other hand, have a higher contractile speed and force generation capacity but fatigue more quickly and are used for powerful, explosive movements.

"Weight-bearing" is a term used in the medical field to describe the ability of a body part or limb to support the weight or pressure exerted upon it, typically while standing, walking, or performing other physical activities. In a clinical setting, healthcare professionals often use the term "weight-bearing exercise" to refer to physical activities that involve supporting one's own body weight, such as walking, jogging, or climbing stairs. These exercises can help improve bone density, muscle strength, and overall physical function, particularly in individuals with conditions affecting the bones, joints, or muscles.

In addition, "weight-bearing" is also used to describe the positioning of a body part during medical imaging studies, such as X-rays or MRIs. For example, a weight-bearing X-ray of the foot or ankle involves taking an image while the patient stands on the affected limb, allowing healthcare providers to assess any alignment or stability issues that may not be apparent in a non-weight-bearing position.

Gait is a medical term used to describe the pattern of movement of the limbs during walking or running. It includes the manner or style of walking, including factors such as rhythm, speed, and step length. A person's gait can provide important clues about their physical health and neurological function, and abnormalities in gait may indicate the presence of underlying medical conditions, such as neuromuscular disorders, orthopedic problems, or injuries.

A typical human gait cycle involves two main phases: the stance phase, during which the foot is in contact with the ground, and the swing phase, during which the foot is lifted and moved forward in preparation for the next step. The gait cycle can be further broken down into several sub-phases, including heel strike, foot flat, midstance, heel off, and toe off.

Gait analysis is a specialized field of study that involves observing and measuring a person's gait pattern using various techniques, such as video recordings, force plates, and motion capture systems. This information can be used to diagnose and treat gait abnormalities, improve mobility and function, and prevent injuries.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, are a type of nerve cell that conducts impulses or signals from peripheral receptors towards the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. These neurons are responsible for transmitting sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, sound, and light to the CNS for processing and interpretation. Afferent neurons have specialized receptor endings that detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the CNS via synapses with other neurons. Once the signals reach the CNS, they are processed and integrated with other information to produce a response or reaction to the stimulus.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

Immobilization is a medical term that refers to the restriction of normal mobility or motion of a body part, usually to promote healing and prevent further injury. This is often achieved through the use of devices such as casts, splints, braces, slings, or traction. The goal of immobilization is to keep the injured area in a fixed position so that it can heal properly without additional damage. It may be used for various medical conditions, including fractures, dislocations, sprains, strains, and soft tissue injuries. Immobilization helps reduce pain, minimize swelling, and protect the injured site from movement that could worsen the injury or impair healing.

Atrophic muscular disorders are medical conditions that involve the progressive loss of muscle mass and weakness due to the degeneration of muscle tissue. This process occurs because of a decrease in the size or number of muscle fibers, which can be caused by various factors such as nerve damage, lack of use, or underlying diseases.

There are two main types of atrophic muscular disorders: neurogenic and myopathic. Neurogenic atrophy is caused by damage to the nerves that supply the muscles, leading to muscle weakness and wasting. Examples of conditions that can cause neurogenic atrophy include motor neuron disease, spinal cord injury, and peripheral neuropathy.

Myopathic atrophy, on the other hand, is caused by primary muscle diseases that affect the muscle fibers themselves. Conditions such as muscular dystrophy, metabolic myopathies, and inflammatory myopathies can all lead to myopathic atrophy.

Symptoms of atrophic muscular disorders may include muscle weakness, wasting, cramping, spasms, and difficulty with movement and coordination. Treatment for these conditions depends on the underlying cause and may involve physical therapy, medication, or surgery. In some cases, the damage to the muscles may be irreversible, and the goal of treatment is to manage symptoms and maintain function as much as possible.

In animal anatomy, the tarsus is the section of the lower limb that is equivalent to the human ankle and rearfoot. It is the part of the leg between the metatarsus, which contains the bones of the toes, and the crus (the lower leg), which contains the tibia and fibula bones. The tarsus is made up of several bones, including the talus, calcaneus, cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiform bones in humans. In animals, these bones may be fused or partially fused, depending on the species. The tarsus plays a crucial role in weight-bearing and movement, providing stability and support for the animal's body.

Perfusion, in medical terms, refers to the process of circulating blood through the body's organs and tissues to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. It is a measure of the delivery of adequate blood flow to specific areas or tissues in the body. Perfusion can be assessed using various methods, including imaging techniques like computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and perfusion scintigraphy.

Perfusion is critical for maintaining proper organ function and overall health. When perfusion is impaired or inadequate, it can lead to tissue hypoxia, acidosis, and cell death, which can result in organ dysfunction or failure. Conditions that can affect perfusion include cardiovascular disease, shock, trauma, and certain surgical procedures.

Lameness in animals refers to an alteration in the animal's normal gait or movement, which is often caused by pain, injury, or disease affecting the locomotor system. This can include structures such as bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments. The severity of lameness can vary from subtle to non-weight bearing, and it can affect one or more limbs.

Lameness can have various causes, including trauma, infection, degenerative diseases, congenital defects, and neurological disorders. In order to diagnose and treat lameness in animals, a veterinarian will typically perform a physical examination, observe the animal's gait and movement, and may use diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays or ultrasound to identify the underlying cause. Treatment for lameness can include medication, rest, physical therapy, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

Spinocerebellar tracts are a type of white matter tract in the spinal cord that carry information related to proprioception, muscle tone, and movement coordination from the peripheral nervous system to the cerebellum. There are several different spinocerebellar tracts, including the dorsal (or posterior) spinocerebellar tract and the ventral (or anterior) spinocerebellar tract.

The dorsal spinocerebellar tract carries information about the position and movement of joints and muscles from receptors in the skin, muscles, and tendons to the cerebellum. This information is used by the cerebellum to help coordinate movements and maintain balance.

The ventral spinocerebellar tract carries information about muscle stretch and tension from receptors in the muscles to the cerebellum. This information is used by the cerebellum to regulate muscle tone and coordination.

Damage to the spinocerebellar tracts can result in a variety of neurological symptoms, including ataxia (loss of coordination), dysmetria (impaired ability to judge distance or speed of movement), and hypotonia (decreased muscle tone).

Myosin Heavy Chains are the large, essential components of myosin molecules, which are responsible for the molecular motility in muscle cells. These heavy chains have a molecular weight of approximately 200 kDa and form the motor domain of myosin, which binds to actin filaments and hydrolyzes ATP to generate force and movement during muscle contraction. There are several different types of myosin heavy chains, each with specific roles in various tissues and cellular functions. In skeletal and cardiac muscles, for example, myosin heavy chains have distinct isoforms that contribute to the contractile properties of these tissues.

Physical exertion is defined as the act of applying energy to physically demandable activities or tasks, which results in various body systems working together to produce movement and maintain homeostasis. It often leads to an increase in heart rate, respiratory rate, and body temperature, among other physiological responses. The level of physical exertion can vary based on the intensity, duration, and frequency of the activity.

It's important to note that engaging in regular physical exertion has numerous health benefits, such as improving cardiovascular fitness, strengthening muscles and bones, reducing stress, and preventing chronic diseases like obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. However, it is also crucial to balance physical exertion with adequate rest and recovery time to avoid overtraining or injury.

Ligation, in the context of medical terminology, refers to the process of tying off a part of the body, usually blood vessels or tissue, with a surgical suture or another device. The goal is to stop the flow of fluids such as blood or other substances within the body. It is commonly used during surgeries to control bleeding or to block the passage of fluids, gases, or solids in various parts of the body.

Muscle denervation is a medical term that refers to the loss of nerve supply to a muscle or group of muscles. This can occur due to various reasons, such as injury to the nerves, nerve compression, or certain medical conditions like neuromuscular disorders. When the nerve supply to the muscle is interrupted, it can lead to muscle weakness, atrophy (wasting), and ultimately, paralysis.

In denervation, the communication between the nervous system and the muscle is disrupted, which means that the muscle no longer receives signals from the brain to contract and move. Over time, this can result in significant muscle wasting and disability, depending on the severity and extent of the denervation.

Denervation may be treated with various therapies, including physical therapy, medication, or surgical intervention, such as nerve grafting or muscle transfers, to restore function and prevent further muscle wasting. The specific treatment approach will depend on the underlying cause and severity of the denervation.

Weightlessness, also known as zero gravity or microgravity, is a condition in which people or objects appear to be weightless. The effects of weightlessness on the human body are similar to those experienced during freefall.

This state can be achieved in various ways:

1. Freefall: This is the natural weightless state that occurs when an object is in free fall and accelerating towards the center of a celestial body such as Earth, but is not being affected by any other forces (like air resistance). During this state, the only force acting upon the object is gravity, which pulls everything towards the center of the planet. This is why astronauts experience weightlessness during space travel.

2. Neutral Buoyancy: In a fluid medium like water, an object can achieve neutral buoyancy when its weight equals the weight of the fluid it displaces. This creates a state where the object neither sinks nor floats, appearing to be weightless.

3. Specialized Equipment: Devices such as aircraft that fly in parabolic arcs can create short periods of weightlessness for training purposes or research. These flights involve climbing steeply, then diving towards the earth, creating a state of freefall and thus weightlessness.

Prolonged exposure to weightlessness can have significant effects on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, balance disorders, and changes in cardiovascular function.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (VEGFA) is a specific isoform of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family. It is a well-characterized signaling protein that plays a crucial role in angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing vessels. VEGFA stimulates the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells, which line the interior surface of blood vessels, thereby contributing to the growth and development of new vasculature. This protein is essential for physiological processes such as embryonic development and wound healing, but it has also been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. The regulation of VEGFA expression and activity is critical to maintaining proper vascular function and homeostasis.

Efferent pathways refer to the neural connections that carry signals from the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, to the peripheral effectors such as muscles and glands. These pathways are responsible for the initiation and control of motor responses, as well as regulating various autonomic functions.

Efferent pathways can be divided into two main types:

1. Somatic efferent pathways: These pathways carry signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movements and postural control. The final common pathway for somatic motor innervation is the alpha-motor neuron, which synapses directly onto skeletal muscle fibers.
2. Autonomic efferent pathways: These pathways regulate the function of internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands. They are further divided into two subtypes: sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, while the parasympathetic system promotes rest and digestion. Both systems use a two-neuron chain to transmit signals from the CNS to the effector organs. The preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the CNS and synapses with the postganglionic neuron in an autonomic ganglion located near the effector organ. The postganglionic neuron then innervates the target organ or tissue.

In summary, efferent pathways are the neural connections that carry signals from the CNS to peripheral effectors, enabling motor responses and regulating various autonomic functions. They can be divided into somatic and autonomic efferent pathways, with further subdivisions within the autonomic system.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

I couldn't find a specific medical definition for "running" as an exercise or physical activity. However, in a medical or clinical context, running usually refers to the act of moving at a steady speed by lifting and setting down each foot in turn, allowing for a faster motion than walking. It is often used as a form of exercise, recreation, or transportation.

Running can be described medically in terms of its biomechanics, physiological effects, and potential health benefits or risks. For instance, running involves the repetitive movement of the lower extremities, which can lead to increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and metabolic demand, ultimately improving cardiovascular fitness and burning calories. However, it is also associated with potential injuries such as runner's knee, shin splints, or plantar fasciitis, especially if proper precautions are not taken.

It is important to note that before starting any new exercise regimen, including running, individuals should consult their healthcare provider, particularly those with pre-existing medical conditions or concerns about their ability to engage in physical activity safely.

Physical stimulation, in a medical context, refers to the application of external forces or agents to the body or its tissues to elicit a response. This can include various forms of touch, pressure, temperature, vibration, or electrical currents. The purpose of physical stimulation may be therapeutic, as in the case of massage or physical therapy, or diagnostic, as in the use of reflex tests. It is also used in research settings to study physiological responses and mechanisms.

In a broader sense, physical stimulation can also refer to the body's exposure to physical activity or exercise, which can have numerous health benefits, including improving cardiovascular function, increasing muscle strength and flexibility, and reducing the risk of chronic diseases.

Physiological adaptation refers to the changes or modifications that occur in an organism's biological functions or structures as a result of environmental pressures or changes. These adaptations enable the organism to survive and reproduce more successfully in its environment. They can be short-term, such as the constriction of blood vessels in response to cold temperatures, or long-term, such as the evolution of longer limbs in animals that live in open environments.

In the context of human physiology, examples of physiological adaptation include:

1. Acclimatization: The process by which the body adjusts to changes in environmental conditions, such as altitude or temperature. For example, when a person moves to a high-altitude location, their body may produce more red blood cells to compensate for the lower oxygen levels, leading to improved oxygen delivery to tissues.

2. Exercise adaptation: Regular physical activity can lead to various physiological adaptations, such as increased muscle strength and endurance, enhanced cardiovascular function, and improved insulin sensitivity.

3. Hormonal adaptation: The body can adjust hormone levels in response to changes in the environment or internal conditions. For instance, during prolonged fasting, the body releases stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline to help maintain energy levels and prevent muscle wasting.

4. Sensory adaptation: Our senses can adapt to different stimuli over time. For example, when we enter a dark room after being in bright sunlight, it takes some time for our eyes to adjust to the new light level. This process is known as dark adaptation.

5. Aging-related adaptations: As we age, various physiological changes occur that help us adapt to the changing environment and maintain homeostasis. These include changes in body composition, immune function, and cognitive abilities.

A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the caudal (posterior) end of a ... Frogs have 4 digits in fore limb while hindlimb have 5 digits. All digits are without nails. All birds walk using hindlimbs. ... Forelimb http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/hind%20limb%7C Merriam Webster Dictionary-Hindlimb (Articles needing additional ...
Gatesy, Stephen M. (1999-05-01). "Guineafowl hind limb function. I: Cineradiographic analysis and speed effects". Journal of ...
Enaliornis barrette - "Braincases, vertebrae, pelvis [and] limb elements.." E sedgwicki - "Hindlimb elements." E. seeleyi - " ...
Pasquiaornis hardiei - "Hindlimb elements." Pasquiaornis tankei - "Hindlimb elements and quadrate." Earth sciences portal ...
Partial left hindlimb assigned to cf. Aenocyon dirus is reported from the Upper Pleistocene deposits from the QM38 site in ...
Morey-Holton, ER; Globus, RK (2002). "Hindlimb unloading rodent model: technical aspects". J Appl Physiol. 92 (4): 1367-1377. ...
The pelvic girdle and the hindlimb]". Zoologia [Zoology] (in Polish) (4th ed.). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Szkolne i Pedagogiczne. pp ...
Hindlimb withdrawal time is another method. Sorin Barac et al. in a recent paper published in the Journal of Reconstructive ... external heat stimulus and measuring hindlimb withdrawal times (HLWT). Reflex Sensory stimulation therapy Stimulation Stimulus ...
Williston, S. W. (1902). "On the hind limb of Protostega". American Journal of Science. 4. 13 (76): 276-278. Bibcode:1902AmJS ...
Four toes are present per hindlimb. Females lay eggs under rocks and other large cover objects in late spring and early summer ...
Membrane behind hind limb is small. Vibrissae is black. Dorsal fur is very soft, long and sheen. There are 2 subspecies, as; ...
Scott, Harry W.; McLaughlin, Ronald (2007). "Fractures and disorders of the hindlimb. Total hip replacement". Feline ...
The hindlimb elements were generally very robust. The femur (thigh-bone) was very robust, with a curved shaft, and ranged from ...
Robertson, G. A.; Stein, P. S. G. (October 1988). "Synaptic control of hindlimb motoneurones during three forms of the fictive ... Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology(37), 383-403 Stein P (2005). "Neuronal control of turtle hindlimb motor ...
The only information that has been deduced is from the bones of its hindlimb anatomy, which are heavily built. This suggests ... Blikanasaurus was first discovered by a partial hindlimb (epipodium and pes) found in the lower Elliot Formation (LEF) at the ... Blikanasaurus is only known from partial hindlimb bones that were recovered from the lower Elliot Formation (LEF) in the ... Galton, Peter M.; Van Heerden, Jacques (1985). "Partial hindlimb of Blikanasaurus cromptoni n. gen. And n. Sp.,representing a ...
"Hindlimb Muscle Fiber Populations Of Five Mammals". Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry. 21 (1): 51-55. doi:10.1177/21.1. ...
The snout-to-vent length is 103 millimeters (4.1 in); hindlimb length is 87 millimeters (3.4 in). T. temporalis is mainly found ...
The hip and hindlimb was more complete. The ilium has a slightly convex upper edge, a long postacetabular process (rear blade ... bones of the hip and hindlimb, tail vertebrae, and potential hand bone fragments. Another specimen, SMNS 91400, consists of ...
McDonald, KS; Delp, MD; Fitts, RH (June 1992). "Effect of hindlimb unweighting on tissue blood flow in the rat". Journal of ... Itai, Y; Kariya, Y; Hoshino, Y (June 2004). "Morphological changes in rat hindlimb muscle fibres during recovery from disuse ... Steffen, JM; Fell, RD; Geoghegan, TE; Ringel, LC; Musacchia, XJ (March 1990). "Age effects on rat hindlimb muscle atrophy ... Fitts, RH; Metzger, JM; Riley, DA; Unsworth, BR (June 1986). "Models of disuse: a comparison of hindlimb suspension and ...
O'Connor, J.K.; Chang, H. (2015). "Hindlimb feathers in paravians: primarily "wings" or ornaments?". Biology Bulletin. 42 (7): ...
The left hindlimb is well preserved, and shows a femur, tibia with fibula, and vague foot skeleton; the right hindlimb ... The left hindlimb is preserved complete with four clawed toes; only the upper and lower portions of the right leg remain. The ... The right hindlimb shows only a disarticulated femur and tibia. The first toe is very short and includes a robust and strongly ... The left hindlimb is completely preserved on the main slab, and shows a slightly curved femur, a proximal muscle scar likely to ...
No skull, hindlimb, or foot bones are known. Since the original description of Isisaurus, titanosaur fossils belonging to more ...
Sullivan, Corwin (2015). "Evolution of hind limb posture in Triassic archosauriforms". In Dial, Kenneth P.; Shubin, Neil; ...
Both the forelimb and hindlimb have five digits. The skink is predominantly pale brown to grey in colour with a series of nine ...
The hind limb was shorter than the forelimb. The forelimbs had a humerus and a radius which were straighter and shorter than ...
The fore limb stretched forwards extends considerably beyond the tip of the snout; the adpressed hind limb nearly reaches the ...
... most of the left hindlimb, and part of the hindlimb, which is 20% larger than the holotype; and PVL 4612, a nearly complete ... A right hindlimb and a left femur and tibia have been assigned to Tropidosuchus, and another one has been assigned to ... The right hindlimb's foot was originally assigned to Gracilisuchus. Three other specimens, stored at the MCZ, were found by ... Lecuona, A.; Desojo, J.B. (2012). "Hind limb osteology of Gracilisuchus stipanicicorum (Archosauria: Pseudosuchia)". Earth and ...
... is known mostly for its role in the development of the hindlimb, but it also plays a critical role in the formation of the ... Tbx4 has been shown to be expressed in the allantois, hindlimb, lung and proctodeum. Expression of Tbx4 is activated by a ... Tbx4 is expressed in the hindlimb, whereas Tbx5 is expressed in the forelimb, heart, and dorsal side of the retina. Studies ... For instance, in chickens Tbx4 specifies hindlimb status. The activation of Tbx4 and other T-box proteins by Hox genes ...
... hindlimb". Journal of Anatomy. 218 (4): 363-374. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2010.01310.x. PMC 3077520. PMID 21062282. Sears, E. S ... Hindlimb Muscles" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological Genetics and Physiology. 313A (1): 45-57. doi: ...
Sullivan, Corwin (2015). "Evolution of hind limb posture in Triassic archosauriforms". In Dial, Kenneth P.; Shubin, Neil; ... as well as inconsistencies in the patterns of the fusion of their vertebrae and the proportions of the hind limb during growth ...
A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the caudal (posterior) end of a ... Frogs have 4 digits in fore limb while hindlimb have 5 digits. All digits are without nails. All birds walk using hindlimbs. ... Forelimb http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/hind%20limb%7C Merriam Webster Dictionary-Hindlimb (Articles needing additional ...
We found that wild type C57BL/6 mice, subjected to hindlimb ischemia (HLI) and supplemented with carnosine (1g/L) in drinking ... Hind Limb Ischemia (HLI) and Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging. Hind limb ischemia was induced as described previously (Abplanalp ... Niiyama, H., Huang, N. F., Rollins, M. D., and Cooke, J. P. (2009). Murine model of hindlimb ischemia. J. Vis. Exp 23:1035. ... Physical Activity After Hindlimb Ischemia. Limb function, i.e., physical activity of the HLI mice was assessed by using ...
Different fore- vs hindlimb patterns are also seen for anatomical network complexity (i.e., complexity in the arrangement of ... Contra long-accepted ideas, network analysis reveals that the hindlimb displays a pattern opposite to that of the forelimb: Pan ... network analyses do not support the prediction that forelimb and hindlimb are more dissimilar in species with functionally ... bones and muscles). For instance, the human hindlimb is as complex as that of chimpanzees but the human forelimb is less ...
Neuronal Basis of Crossed Actions from the Reticular Formation on Feline Hindlimb Motoneurons. Elzbieta Jankowska, Ingela ... 1995) Segmental localisation of the relays mediating crossed inhibition of hindlimb motoneurones from group II afferents in the ... Possible substrates of oligosynaptic actions of reticulospinal tract fibers on contralateral hindlimb motoneurons.A, ... Many different potential routes through which reticulospinal tract neurons can influence contralateral hindlimb motoneurons ...
OpenSim Musculoskeletal Model of a Sheep Hind Limb. Summary:. Detailed description:. DO NOT enter passwords or confidential ...
The surgical procedure for delivery of embryonic stem cell-derived endothelial cells to the ischemic hindlimb is demonstrated, ... Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Cells for Treatment of Hindlimb Ischemia. Article DOI: 10.3791/1034 • 09:11 min January ... Journal / Biology / Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Endothelial Cells for Treatment of Hindlimb Ischemia… ... A Modified Surgical Model of Hind Limb Ischemia in ApoE-/- Mice using a Miniature Incision… ...
The effect of LSD on the hind limb flexor reflex was determined in spinal rats. Method The response of the hind limb to ... "The Influence of LSD on the Hind Limb Flexor Reflex in the Spinal Rat". ... "The Influence of LSD on the Hind Limb Flexor Reflex in the Spinal Rat" Pol.J.Pharmacol.Pharm.. 1975;27(Suppl.):173-79. ...
JaxKOMP-EAP phenotype measure: hindlimb_nail_num View raw data. MPD and LIMS short name. hindlimb_nail_num hindlimb_nail_number ... One hindlimb - decreased number. One hindlimb - increased number. One hindlimb decreased number. ... hindlimb nail number MPD and LIMS phenotype procedure. observation (SHIRPA) SHIRPA View protocol MPD measure ID, data type. ...
Hindlimb anatomy suggests Dasypus is the better burrower. Extending the hindlimb analysis to a controversial fossil armadillo ... The hindlimb of Tolypeutes is dramatically different from that of Dasypus. Chaetophractus has a more intermediate morphology, ... Armadillos use their forelimbs to break the soil when digging; hindlimb use varies. Some use hindlimbs purely for bracing; ... Dramatic differences were present in both the osteology and myology of the hindlimb. Identification of muscles was a non- ...
Genetic basis of hindlimb loss in a naturally occurring vertebrate model. Emily K Don, Tanya A de Jong-Curtain, Karen Doggett, ... Genetic basis of hindlimb loss in a naturally occurring vertebrate model. In: Biology Open. 2016 ; Vol. 5, No. 3. pp. 359-366. ... Genetic basis of hindlimb loss in a naturally occurring vertebrate model. / Don, Emily K; de Jong-Curtain, Tanya A; Doggett, ... Genetic basis of hindlimb loss in a naturally occurring vertebrate model. Biology Open. 2016;5(3):359-366. doi: 10.1242/bio. ...
... December 16, 2016. Event ... Discussions on the upper hindlimb as a cause of lameness (hip joint, pelvic and sacroiliac problems), objective gait analysis ... and to discuss all aspects of Hindlimb Lameness diagnostics and therapeutics with the specialists. Each attendee will be ... veterinarians who have experience with lameness investigations and provides a critical overview of possible causes of hindlimb ...
BioAssay record AID 130032 submitted by ChEMBL: Change in threshold voltage (applied via a subcutaneous and a buccal electrode) for inducing tonic hind limb extension seizures in 50% (CV50) in mouse MEST model at a dose of 30 mg/kg orally.
Cross-limb communication during Xenopus hindlimb regenerative response: non-local bioelectric injury signals In collection: ... 4A). Those receiving the major injury treatment were punctured in the tibiofibular region of the right hindlimb with a syringe ... Sera M. Busse, Patrick T. McMillen, Michael Levin; Cross-limb communication during Xenopus hindlimb regenerative response: non- ... Developmental segregation of spinal networks driving axial- and hindlimb-based locomotion in metamorphosing Xenopus laevis ...
"Alterations in inorganic phosphate in mouse hindlimb muscles during limb disuse." NMR Biomed, vol. 21, no. 2, Feb. 2008, pp. ... "Alterations in inorganic phosphate in mouse hindlimb muscles during limb disuse." NMR Biomed 21, no. 2 (February 2008): 101-10 ... Alterations in inorganic phosphate in mouse hindlimb muscles during limb disuse.. Publication , Journal Article ... Alterations in inorganic phosphate in mouse hindlimb muscles during limb disuse. NMR Biomed. 2008 Feb;21(2):101-10. ...
Muscles of the Hind Limb == {{#ev:youtube,7l_ur3AFxsk}},ref>Veterinary Anatomy. Muscles of the Hip Joint - Rump Muscles in the ...
Managing Disorders of the Canine Hind Limb. Plus Course, 2021.,/ref> * Tuber ischii is positioned underneath the hamstrings ...
Other categories referring to Neuromechanical Model of Rat Hindlimb Walking with Two-Layer CPGs (Deng et al, 2019). ... A neuromechanical model of the rat hindlimb and locomotor circuitry built and run in AnimatLab v1. We use separate rhythm ... Neuromechanical Model of Rat Hindlimb Walking with Two-Layer CPGs (Deng et al, 2019) ...
Results of a study that consisted of 92 horses with only suspensory ligament disease that were treated with neurectomy and fasciotomy indicated 78% of them returned to the same level of work they were at before the injury for at least one year.
... ... severe femoral-saphenous artery-vein pair resection model of unilateral hindlimb ischemia to test the relevance of Cx37 and ...
... Please note the following pages contain graphic images which some users may find upsetting. ... fractures of the humerus of her upper right forelimb and the femur of her upper left hind limb. She was, almost incredibly, ... This does mean working the plate under the major nerve to the hind limb, the sciatic nerve. ...
Hind limb clasping. During a 10 s tail suspension period hind limb clasping severity (scores 0-1- no hind limb clasping to 3- ... a Hind limb clasping in adult Cul3+/− mice, not observed in wild-type littermate controls (a top); scoring 0-1 (normal) to 3 ( ... d Hind limb clasping scoring from 0-1 (normal) to 3 (most severe) in all conditions (n(Cul3+/fl + TM) = 13, n(Cul3+/fl Cag- ... 1d). Adult Cul3+/− mice present with hind limb clasping (Fig. 1a) and mild gait abnormalities, such as increased sway and ...
We use cookies to improve your experience on our website. By browsing this website, you agree to our use of cookies ...
The Hind Limb. Learning Objectives. *Identify the major bones of the hind limb, paying special attention to palpable features. ... Study the hind limb bones using a caprine or bovine skeleton (Figure 6.1). From proximal to distal, the bones of the hind limb ... 6.1 Bones of the Hind Limb. Goal: Study the bones of the ruminant hind limb and their palpable features. Compare and contrast ... The major adductors of the hind limb can be memorized by the acronym "PAGE" that stands for pectineus, adductor, gracilis, and ...
Martin, D.G., and Teleni, E. (1988) Blood flow, blood pH and Co2 output across the hind-limb muscle of working ruminants. ... This communication reports on the effect of work on blood flow, blood pH and C02 output across the hind-limb muscles of cattle ... Blood flow, blood pH and Co2 output across the hind-limb muscle of working ruminants ...
Hindlimb) X-Ray Positioning Improve veterinary imaging skills for Foot (Hindlimb) Lateral Canine X-Ray Positioning. ... Free Download: Foot (hindlimb) - Lateral canine x-ray positioning guide. Download your free Foot (Hindlimb) X-Ray positioning ...
Enhance your veterinary imaging skills with our digits hindlimb dorsopalmar canine x-ray positioning guide. Learn best ...
abnormal hind limb morphology; hind limb dysplasia; hindlimb abnormalities; hindlimb dysplasia. narrow_synonym: abnormal leg ...
We first met Bailey in the Summer of 2014 when he had developed a hind limb lameness which was persistent. ...
Thera-Paw Standard Hindlimb Dorsi-Flex Assist Size Chart ...
... could increase blood flow and angiogenesis in a rat model of hindlimb ischemia. pFGFE+ or control treatments were administered ... Ferraro, B.; Cruz, Y. L.; Baldwin, M.; Coppola, D.; and Heller, R., "Increased Perfusion and Angiogenesis in a Hindlimb ... Ferraro, B., Cruz, Y. L., Baldwin, M., Coppola, D., & Heller, R. (2010). Increased perfusion and angiogenesis in a hindlimb ... Increased Perfusion and Angiogenesis in a Hindlimb Ischemia Model with Plasmid FGF-2 Delivered by Noninvasive Electroporation ...
  • In this study, we use a well-established, severe femoral-saphenous artery-vein pair resection model of unilateral hindlimb ischemia to test the relevance of Cx37 and Cx40 to postischemic tissue survival and recovery of limb perfusion. (figshare.com)
  • Increased Perfusion and Angiogenesis in a Hindlimb Ischemia Model with" by B. Ferraro, Y. L. Cruz et al. (odu.edu)
  • We sought to determine if intradermal injection of plasmid DNA encoding FGF-2 (pFGF) followed by noninvasive cutaneous electroporation (pFGFE+) could increase blood flow and angiogenesis in a rat model of hindlimb ischemia. (odu.edu)
  • Importantly, in contrast to the analysis of morphological integration using morphometric approaches, network analyses do not support the prediction that forelimb and hindlimb are more dissimilar in species with functionally divergent limbs such as bipedal humans. (nature.com)
  • Hayashi, N , Hayes, SG & Kaufman, MP 2001, ' Comparison of the exercise pressor reflex between forelimb and hindlimb muscles in cats ', American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology , vol. 281, no. 4 50-4, pp. (elsevierpure.com)
  • A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the caudal (posterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. (wikipedia.org)
  • Frogs have 4 digits in fore limb while hindlimb have 5 digits. (wikipedia.org)
  • In contrast, in species where the limbs have become specialized (e.g., humans, gibbons), co-variation among topologically similar elements of the fore- and hindlimb is substantially lower, i.e., these limbs have a lower inter-limb integration. (nature.com)
  • Pathways through which reticulospinal neurons can influence contralateral limb movements were investigated by recording from motoneurons innervating hindlimb muscles. (jneurosci.org)
  • In the afternoons, 7 hours of practical and case-based sessions will give attendees plenty of opportunity to put theory into practice on live horses and limb specimens in small groups (2 4 people per ultrasound machine) and to discuss all aspects of Hindlimb Lameness diagnostics and therapeutics with the specialists. (dvm360.com)
  • We examined the bioelectric properties (resting potential gradients in the epidermis) of Xenopus laevis froglets undergoing hindlimb amputation and observed that the contralateral (undamaged) limb exhibits apparent depolarization signals immediately after the opposite hindlimb is amputated. (biologists.com)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Alterations in inorganic phosphate in mouse hindlimb muscles during limb disuse. (duke.edu)
  • The contribution of Isl1-lineages to a large portion, but not the entire hindlimb mesenchyme, too because the requirement of -catenin in Isl1-lineages, PLD medchemexpress indicated that the seemingly homogenous nascent limb bud mesenchyme is in actual fact heterogeneous from the onset of hindlimb development. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • Different fore- vs hindlimb patterns are also seen for anatomical network complexity (i.e., complexity in the arrangement of bones and muscles). (nature.com)
  • Our results suggest that in the anesthetized cat the cardiovascular responses to both static contraction and tendon stretch are greater when arising from forelimb muscles than from hindlimb muscles. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Hindlimb Lameness Diagnostics (incl. (dvm360.com)
  • This two-day practical course has been developed for equine veterinarians who have experience with lameness investigations and provides a critical overview of possible causes of hindlimb lameness, diagnostic anaesthetic strategies and how to interpret nerve and joint block results, via a regio-anatomic approach. (dvm360.com)
  • Discussions on the upper hindlimb as a cause of lameness (hip joint, pelvic and sacroiliac problems), objective gait analysis and on systemic and intra-articular joint therapies will round the course off. (dvm360.com)
  • By combining histological, genetic, and cellular approaches we show that the hindlimb initiation gene tbx4 has an evolutionarily conserved, essential role in pelvic fin development. (monash.edu)
  • At Isl1 acts upstream on the -catenin pathway throughout hindlimb initiation (Kawakami et al. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • 2011). Nevertheless, ISL1-positive cells and nuclear -cateninpositive cells barely overlap just before hindlimb initiation. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • For instance, early inactivation of -catenin in LPM before initiation of hindlimb bud outgrowth by Hoxb6Cre caused cell death broadly in hindlimb progenitor cells at the same time because the comprehensive failure to activate the Fgf10-Fgf8 feedback loop (Kawakami et al. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • Pitx1 is necessary for normal initiation of hindlimb outgrowth through regulation of Tbx4 expression and shapes hindlimb morphologies via targeted growth control. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Similarly, species in which the hindlimb takes on a major role in propulsion, such as leapers (e.g., lemurs, tarsiers) and bipedally-committed humans, have relatively longer hindlimbs. (nature.com)
  • Here we genetically characterise pelvic finless, a naturally occurring model of hindlimb loss in zebrafish that lacks pelvic fin structures, which are homologous to tetrapod hindlimbs, but displays no other abnormalities. (monash.edu)
  • In addition, our novel viable model of hindlimb deficiency is likely to facilitate the elucidation of the detailed molecular mechanisms through which Tbx4 functions during pelvic fin and hindlimb development. (monash.edu)
  • Differential bone remodeling mechanism in hindlimb unloaded and hibernating Daurian ground squirrels: a comparison between artificial and natural disuse within the same species. (bvsalud.org)
  • The present study assesses the bone remodeling mechanisms present in Daurian ground squirrels ( Spermophilus dauricus) during hibernation as compared with a model of hindlimb disuse. (bvsalud.org)
  • The surgical procedure for delivery of embryonic stem cell-derived endothelial cells to the ischemic hindlimb is demonstrated, with non-invasive tracking by bioluminescence imaging. (jove.com)
  • Hindlimb postural asymmetry induced by unilateral brain injury: evidence for extra spinal mechanism. (lu.se)
  • In thirteen cats anesthetized with α-chloralose, we compared the cardiovascular and ventilatory responses to both static contraction and tendon stretch of a hindlimb muscle group, the triceps surae, with those to contraction and stretch of a forelimb muscle group, the triceps brachii. (elsevierpure.com)
  • DeLaurier A, Schweitzer R, Logan M. Pitx1 determines the morphology of muscle, tendon, and bones of the hindlimb. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Hindlimb anatomy suggests Dasypus is the better burrower. (umass.edu)
  • Available from: [https://www.imaios.com/en/vet-Anatomy/Vet-Anatomical-Part/Biceps-muscle-of-thigh-Biceps-femoris-muscle Ahttps://www.imaios.com/en/vet-Anatomy/Vet-Anatomical-Part/Biceps-muscle-of-thigh-Biceps-femoris-muscle] (last accessed 30/5/2021). (physio-pedia.com)
  • In this study, we used immunohistochemical, in situ hybridization, and Northern blot analyses to examine the time course and spatial characteristics of expression of myoglobin protein and mRNA during development of the distal hindlimb in the mouse. (elsevierpure.com)
  • A neuromechanical model of the rat hindlimb and locomotor circuitry built and run in AnimatLab v1. (yale.edu)
  • A genetic strategy in this study working with Isl1Cre to inactivate catenin provided proof that -catenin was expected in Isl1-lineages, but this requirement was limited to a portion from the hindlimb bud mesenchyme progenitors, which contributes to the posterior region of nascent hindlimb buds. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • Extending the hindlimb analysis to a controversial fossil armadillo, †Peltephilus, suggests it was not a burrower. (umass.edu)
  • Contrary to the heart where -catenin regulates proliferative expansion of cardiac progenitors, our evaluation in nascent hindlimb buds indicated that a loss of -catenin didn't bring about defects in proliferation in Isl1-lineages (Fig. 2). (hivinhibitor.com)
  • We observed only minimal expression of myoglobin in the hindlimb prior to the second day after birth, but a rapid and large (50- fold) induction of this gene in the ensuing neonatal period. (elsevierpure.com)
  • For instance, the human hindlimb is as complex as that of chimpanzees but the human forelimb is less complex than in Pan . (nature.com)
  • 2011) recommend that Isl1 functions upstream of -catenin in hindlimb and BA1. (hivinhibitor.com)
  • Dramatic differences were present in both the osteology and myology of the hindlimb. (umass.edu)
  • In a second study [32], in vivo two-photon calcium imaging was used to examine how response properties of individual neurons and glial cells in reorganized forelimb and hindlimb functional somatosensory maps modified during the recovery period from ischemic damage in the sensory cortex. (consulmedia.tv)
  • These findings indicate that unilateral ES of the forelimb induced an asymmetrical SBF response in hindlimb, and that ES-induced enhancement in SBF in the ischemic hindlimb was frequency-dependent. (atlasofscience.org)
  • Background and Objectives: Experimental protocols for remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) utilize models in which a tourniquet is placed around the hindlimb or efuent is collected from an isolated heart. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We investigated whether treatment with a few micrometers of CO2 molecules atomized via two fluidnozzles (CO2 mist) exerts an angiogenic effect in a mouse ischemic hindlimb model. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Hindlimb and forelimb lameness in many horses will be accentuated when the horse is worked in a circle with the affected limb on the inside. (consulmedia.tv)
  • DeLaurier A, Schweitzer R, Logan M. Pitx1 determines the morphology of muscle, tendon, and bones of the hindlimb. (medlineplus.gov)
  • These results show how changes in expression of regional patterning genes can generate localized changes in organ fate and morphology, and provide viable molecular mechanisms for diversity in hindlimb scale and feather distribution. (elifesciences.org)
  • both indicating right forelimb), while for hindlimb lameness, the head and withers will show movement asymmetries of opposite directions (e.g. (consulmedia.tv)
  • In our study, we found that application of 125-Hz ES to the right forelimb (R125) led to a rapid increase in SBF in the right hindlimb within 3 min, and showed significantly higher levels of SBF in the right hindlimb compared to the control group. (atlasofscience.org)
  • No changes in SBF were seen in either hindlimb when ES was applied to the left or right forelimb at 3 Hz (Fig. 2). (atlasofscience.org)
  • Following ES of 125 Hz to the right forelimb, SBF increased significantly in the right hindlimb compared to the control group. (atlasofscience.org)
  • Fatigability of rat hindlimb muscles after acute irreversible acetylcholinesterase inhibition. (concordia.ca)
  • Descending propriospinal axons were recorded extracellularly from the hindlimb enlargement on one side of the body, while the ipsilateral or contralateral body surface was stimulated. (jneurosci.org)
  • Concurrent recordings were made from ipsilateral and contralateral hindlimb muscle nerves to monitor fictive scratch motor patterns. (jneurosci.org)
  • In addition, these results suggest that a certain area in the forelimb is functionally correlated with a specific area of the ipsilateral hindlimb. (atlasofscience.org)
  • Therefore, the physiological function of a specific area in the hindlimb may be influenced by the stimulation of a specific area of the ipsilateral forelimb. (atlasofscience.org)
  • 11. Effects of diet and exposure to hindlimb suspension on estrous cycling in Sprague-Dawley rats. (nih.gov)
  • Forelimb-hindlimb coordination in adult rats moving freely along 2 m long runway was investigated using the method of footprint recording. (consulmedia.tv)
  • 2018). Finally, otherauthors have previously demonstrated that the inhibition of bone formation, induced by unloading, can be a consequence of your hindlimb elevation independently with the glucocorticoids since plasma corticosterone levels are not considerably distinctive in between usually loaded and unloaded rats and adrenalectomy had no protective effect on bone loss in unloaded animals (Halloran et al. (epigenetics-modulation-frontier.com)
  • At the end of the treatment period, the rats were anesthetized with urethane (1.2 g/kg) and mean arterial pressure, heart rate and hindlimb blood flow were monitored. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside induced dose-dependent increases in hindlimb vascular conductance in control normoglycemic rats which were attenuated in diabetic control rats. (elsevierpure.com)
  • In conclusion, chronic administration of the selective COX-2 inhibitor, nimesulide improved endothelial dysfunction in the hindlimb vasculature of streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Abdelrahman, AM & Al Suleimani, YM 2008, ' Four-week administration of nimesulide, a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, improves endothelial dysfunction in the hindlimb vasculature of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats ', Archives of Pharmacal Research , vol. 31, no. 12, pp. 1584-1589. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The similarly sized tibia and fibula of mutant hindlimbs may be taken to resemble forelimb bones: however, the mutant limb buds appear to have retained their molecular identity as assessed by forelimb expression of Tbx5 and by hindlimb expression of Tbx4, even though Tbx4 expression is decreased in Ptx1 null mice. (nih.gov)
  • The restricted expression of the Ptx1 (Pitx1) gene in the posterior half of the lateral plate mesoderm has suggested that it may play a role in specification of posterior structures, in particular, specification of hindlimb identity. (nih.gov)
  • We now show that targeted inactivation of the mouse Ptx1 gene severely impairs hindlimb development: the ilium and knee cartilage are absent and the long bones are underdeveloped. (nih.gov)
  • found that a gene called Pitx1, which is typically considered a hindlimb gene, is expressed at lower levels in the developing legs of breeds with feathered feet than in a breed with scaled feet. (elifesciences.org)
  • The centroid coordinates for the forelimb and hindlimb axons are shown in the Table. (consulmedia.tv)
  • The hindlimb skeleton of the canine includes the pelvic girdle, consisting of the fused ilium, ischium, and pubis, and the bones of the hindlimb. (physio-pedia.com)
  • The canine hindlimb is known also as the pelvic limb or rear limb, but we use the term hindlimb. (consulmedia.tv)
  • Mean arterial pressure was significantly reduced and hindlimb vascular conductance was not significantly affected in the control diabetic group when compared to the normoglycemic control group. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Nimesulide reversed the attenuation of acetylcholine-induced increase in hindlimb vascular conductance. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The EDL muscle was unloaded for 14 days by hindlimb suspension (HS) in aged (34-36 mo. (hindawi.com)
  • Hindlimb suspension (HS) has been used widely as a preclinical model of atrophy to study a variety of skeletal muscle adaptations including reduced gravity, disuse, and reloading (R) following disuse [ 30 - 35 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • 1. Hindlimb-suspension and spaceflight both alter cGMP levels in rat choroid plexus. (nih.gov)
  • SLS-1, SLS-2 and hindlimb-suspension experiments). (nih.gov)
  • 12. Effects of hindlimb suspension and elevated ambient CO2 on rat growth and renal function. (nih.gov)
  • The bones of the hindlimb are the femur, patella, fabellae (sesamoid bones), tibia, fibula, tarsus and meta-tarsus and the digital bones. (physio-pedia.com)
  • The size of hindlimb bones varies due to the significant variation in size for breeds of dogs. (physio-pedia.com)
  • We found that feathered feet in pigeons result from a partial transformation from hindlimb to forelimb identity mediated by cis -regulatory changes in the genes encoding the hindlimb-specific transcription factor Pitx1 and forelimb-specific transcription factor Tbx5. (elifesciences.org)
  • To fully capture the anatomic organization of forelimb and hindlimb tracts within the IC, we reconstructed the axon fiber distributions in 3 dimensions within this area. (consulmedia.tv)
  • A modification with the reflex organization in hindlimb muscle groups (D'Amelio et al. (epigenetics-modulation-frontier.com)
  • What response of skin blood flow in hindlimb does electrical stimulation of forelimb induce? (atlasofscience.org)
  • In analyzing the humoral factors that act as signal transducers in these models, sampled blood can be influenced by systemic responses, while the efuent from an isolated heart might differ from that of the hindlimb. (elsevierpure.com)
  • For linear sports like Flyball, strong adductors and abductors will help keep limbs moving … OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate angle-of-motion values for the forelimb and hindlimb in clinically healthy adult Santa Ines sheep by means of a standard goniometer. (consulmedia.tv)
  • The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a beta-1 adrenergic (Adrb1) agonist, dobutamine (DOB), on disuse-induced changes in bone integrity during 28 d of hindlimb unloading (HU). (medscape.com)
  • Since the most affected structures derive from the dorsal side of hindlimb buds, the data suggest that Ptx1 is responsible for patterning of these dorsal structures and that as such it may control development of hindlimb-specific features. (nih.gov)
  • However, there were no significant differences in SBF in the left hindlimb between R125 and control groups. (atlasofscience.org)
  • In contrast, the same ES that was applied to the left forelimb in L125 group had no effect on SBF in either hindlimb. (atlasofscience.org)
  • A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the caudal (posterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. (wikipedia.org)
  • The other is the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord containing the hindlimb motor circuits. (nature.com)