Glucagon
Receptors, Glucagon
Glucagon-Secreting Cells
Insulin
Liver
Somatostatin
Islets of Langerhans
Proglucagon
Hypoglycemia
Gluconeogenesis
Glucose
Glucagon-Like Peptides
Pancreatic Hormones
Pancreatic Polypeptide
Pancreas
Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
Epinephrine
Rats, Inbred Strains
Cyclic AMP
Receptors, Gastrointestinal Hormone
Adenylate Cyclase
Dogs
Hormones
C-Peptide
Secretin
Adenoma, Islet Cell
Bucladesine
Somatostatin-Secreting Cells
Glucagonoma
Oxyntomodulin
Fatty Acids, Nonesterified
Gastrointestinal Hormones
Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide
3-Hydroxybutyric Acid
Secretory Rate
Ketone Bodies
Phosphorylases
Vasopressins
Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental
Glycogenolysis
Radioimmunoassay
Hydrocortisone
Low doses of bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol impair Ca2+ signals in pancreatic alpha-cells through a nonclassical membrane estrogen receptor within intact islets of Langerhans. (1/215)
Glucagon, secreted from pancreatic alpha-cells integrated within the islets of Langerhans, is involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism by enhancing the synthesis and mobilization of glucose in the liver. In addition, it has other extrahepatic effects ranging from lipolysis in adipose tissue to the control of satiety in the central nervous system. In this article, we show that the endocrine disruptors bisphenol A (BPA) and diethylstilbestrol (DES), at a concentration of 10(-9) M, suppressed low-glucose-induced intracellular calcium ion ([Ca2+]i) oscillations in alpha-cells, the signal that triggers glucagon secretion. This action has a rapid onset, and it is reproduced by the impermeable molecule estradiol (E2) conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (E-HRP). Competition studies using E-HRP binding in immunocytochemically identified alpha-cells indicate that 17beta-E2, BPA, and DES share a common membrane-binding site whose pharmacologic profile differs from the classical ER. The effects triggered by BPA, DES, and E2 are blocked by the G alpha i- and G alpha o-protein inhibitor pertussis toxin, by the guanylate cyclase-specific inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, and by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester. The effects are reproduced by 8-bromo-guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate and suppressed in the presence of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor KT-5823. The action of E2, BPA, and DES in pancreatic alpha-cells may explain some of the effects elicited by endocrine disruptors in the metabolism of glucose and lipid. (+info)Islet auto-transplantation into an omental or splenic site results in a normal beta cell but abnormal alpha cell response to mild non-insulin-induced hypoglycemia. (2/215)
The present studies were designed to determine if totally pancreatectomized dogs that underwent islet auto-transplantation retained a functional pancreatic counterregulatory response to mild non-insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Six dogs underwent total pancreatectomy followed by islet auto-transplantation to spleen or omentum. The animals recovered and fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels were normal. Each study consisted of a 40-min control and 2-h test period. At the onset of the test period, a glycogen phosphorylase inhibitor was administered to create mild hypoglycemia. Plasma glucose in the transplanted dogs fell from 120 +/- 4 to 80 +/- 3 mg/dL, similar to the minimum in control dogs without islet auto-transplantation (108 +/- 2 to 84 +/- 5 mg/dL). The fall in plasma insulin was similar in both groups. Glucagon, however, rose in response to hypoglycemia in the control dogs (Delta24 +/- 7 pg/mL; p < 0.05), but failed to rise significantly in the transplanted dogs (Delta9 +/- 6 pg/mL). In fact, only 1 of 7 control dogs failed to increase plasma glucagon by at least 25%, whereas 4 of 6 transplanted dogs failed to do so. In conclusion, in conscious dogs with successfully auto-transplanted islets, the beta cell response to mild non-insulin-induced hypoglycemia was normal, whereas the alpha cell response was not. (+info)Cell type-specific activation of metabolism reveals that beta-cell secretion suppresses glucagon release from alpha-cells in rat pancreatic islets. (3/215)
Abnormal glucagon secretion is often associated with diabetes mellitus. However, the mechanisms by which nutrients modulate glucagon secretion remain poorly understood. Paracrine modulation by beta- or delta-cells is among the postulated mechanisms. Herein we present further evidence of the paracrine mechanism. First, to activate cellular metabolism and thus hormone secretion in response to specific secretagogues, we engineered insulinoma INS-1E cells using an adenovirus-mediated expression system. Expression of the Na+-dependent dicarboxylate transporter (NaDC)-1 resulted in 2.5- to 4.6-fold (P < 0.01) increases in insulin secretion in response to various tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. Similarly, expression of glycerol kinase (GlyK) increased insulin secretion 3.8- or 4.2-fold (P < 0.01) in response to glycerol or dihydroxyacetone, respectively. This cell engineering method was then modified, using the Cre-loxP switching system, to activate beta-cells and non-beta-cells separately in rat islets. NaDC-1 expression only in non-beta-cells, among which alpha-cells are predominant, caused an increase (by 1.8-fold, P < 0.05) in glucagon secretion in response to malate or succinate. However, the increase in glucagon release was prevented when NaDC-1 was expressed in whole islets, i.e., both beta-cells and non-beta-cells. Similarly, an increase in glucagon release with glycerol was observed when GlyK was expressed only in non-beta-cells but not when it was expressed in whole islets. Furthermore, dicarboxylates suppressed basal glucagon secretion by 30% (P < 0.05) when NaDC-1 was expressed only in beta-cells. These data demonstrate that glucagon secretion from rat alpha-cells depends on beta-cell activation and provide insights into the coordinated mechanisms underlying hormone secretion from pancreatic islets. (+info)Stevioside counteracts the alpha-cell hypersecretion caused by long-term palmitate exposure. (4/215)
Long-term exposure to fatty acids impairs beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes, but little is known about the chronic effects of fatty acids on alpha-cells. We therefore studied the prolonged impact of palmitate on alpha-cell function and on the expression of genes related to fuel metabolism. We also investigated whether the antihyperglycemic agent stevioside was able to counteract these effects of palmitate. Clonal alpha-TC1-6 cells were cultured with palmitate in the presence or absence of stevioside. After 72 h, we evaluated glucagon secretion, glucagon content, triglyceride (TG) content, and changes in gene expression. Glucagon secretion was dose-dependently increased after 72-h culture, with palmitate at concentrations >or=0.25 mM (P< 0.05). Palmitate (0.5 mM) enhanced TG content of alpha-cells by 73% (P< 0.01). Interestingly, stevioside (10(-8) and 10(-6) M) reduced palmitate-stimulated glucagon release by 22 and 45%, respectively (P< 0.01). There was no significant change in glucagon content after 72-h culture with palmitate and/or stevioside. Palmitate increased carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I) mRNA level, whereas stevioside enhanced CPT I, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase gene expressions in the presence of palmitate (P<0.05). In conclusion, long-term exposure to elevated fatty acids leads to a hypersecretion of glucagon and an accumulation of TG content in clonal alpha-TC1-6 cells. Stevioside was able to counteract the alpha-cell hypersecretion caused by palmitate and enhanced the expression of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism. This indicates that stevioside may be a promising antidiabetic agent in treatment of type 2 diabetes. (+info)Small rat islets are superior to large islets in in vitro function and in transplantation outcomes. (5/215)
Barriers to the use of islet transplantation as a practical treatment for diabetes include the limited number of available donor pancreata. This project was designed to determine whether the size of the islet could influence the success rate of islet transplantations in rats. Islets from adult rats were divided into two groups containing small (diameter <125 microm) or large (diameter >150 microm) islets. An average pancreas yielded three times more small islets than large. Smaller islets were approximately 20% more viable, with large islets containing a scattered pattern of necrotic and apoptotic cells or central core cell death. Small islets in culture consumed twice as much oxygen as large islets when normalized for the same islet equivalents. In static incubation, small islets released three times more insulin under basal conditions than did large islets. During exposure to high glucose conditions, the small islets released four times more insulin than the same islet equivalencies of large islets, and five times more insulin was released by the small islets in response to glucose and depolarization with K+. Most importantly, the small islets were far superior to large islets when transplanted into diabetic animals. When marginal islet equivalencies were used for renal subcapsular transplantation, large islets failed to produce euglycemia in any recipient rats, whereas small islets were successful 80% of the time. The results indicate that small islets are superior to large islets in in vitro testing and for transplantation into the kidney capsule of diabetic rats. (+info)Desperately seeking sugar: glial cells as hypoglycemia sensors. (6/215)
A life-saving response to hypoglycemia requires rapid sensing of decreases in glycemia and consequent brisk glucagon secretion. Preceding studies have shown that mice lacking glucose transporter type 2 (GLUT2) lose this response. In this issue of the JCI, Marty et al. report that glucose sensing and consequent pancreatic glucagon secretion are restored by re-expression of GLUT2 in glial but not neuronal cells. A new, glucose-sensing role is ascribed to GLUT2-expressing glial cells. (+info)Regulation of glucagon secretion by glucose transporter type 2 (glut2) and astrocyte-dependent glucose sensors. (7/215)
Ripglut1;glut2-/- mice have no endogenous glucose transporter type 2 (glut2) gene expression but rescue glucose-regulated insulin secretion. Control of glucagon plasma levels is, however, abnormal, with fed hyperglucagonemia and insensitivity to physiological hypo- or hyperglycemia, indicating that GLUT2-dependent sensors control glucagon secretion. Here, we evaluated whether these sensors were located centrally and whether GLUT2 was expressed in glial cells or in neurons. We showed that ripglut1;glut2-/- mice failed to increase plasma glucagon levels following glucoprivation induced either by i.p. or intracerebroventricular 2-deoxy-D-glucose injections. This was accompanied by failure of 2-deoxy-D-glucose injections to activate c-Fos-like immunoreactivity in the nucleus of the tractus solitarius and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus. When glut2 was expressed by transgenesis in glial cells but not in neurons of ripglut1;glut2-/- mice, stimulated glucagon secretion was restored as was c-Fos-like immunoreactive labeling in the brainstem. When ripglut1;glut2-/- mice were backcrossed into the C57BL/6 genetic background, fed plasma glucagon levels were also elevated due to abnormal autonomic input to the alpha cells; glucagon secretion was, however, stimulated by hypoglycemic stimuli to levels similar to those in control mice. These studies identify the existence of central glucose sensors requiring glut2 expression in glial cells and therefore functional coupling between glial cells and neurons. These sensors may be activated at different glycemic levels depending on the genetic background. (+info)Intra-islet insulin suppresses glucagon release via GABA-GABAA receptor system. (8/215)
Excessive secretion of glucagon is a major contributor to the development of diabetic hyperglycemia. Secretion of glucagon is regulated by various nutrients, with glucose being a primary determinant of the rate of alpha cell glucagon secretion. The intra-islet action of insulin is essential to exert the effect of glucose on the alpha cells since, in the absence of insulin, glucose is not able to suppress glucagon release in vivo. However, the precise mechanism by which insulin suppresses glucagon secretion from alpha cells is unknown. In this study, we show that insulin induces activation of GABAA receptors in the alpha cells by receptor translocation via an Akt kinase-dependent pathway. This leads to membrane hyperpolarization in the alpha cells and, ultimately, suppression of glucagon secretion. We propose that defects in this pathway(s) contribute to diabetic hyperglycemia. (+info)Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to regulate glucose levels in the blood by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream. This process helps to raise blood sugar levels when they are too low, such as during hypoglycemia.
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide that is derived from the preproglucagon protein. It works by binding to glucagon receptors on liver cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown.
In addition to its role in glucose regulation, glucagon has also been shown to have other physiological effects, such as promoting lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) and inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Glucagon is often used clinically in the treatment of hypoglycemia, as well as in diagnostic tests to assess pancreatic function.
Glucagon receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found on the surface of cells in the body, particularly in the liver, fat, and muscle tissues. These receptors bind to the hormone glucagon, which is produced and released by the alpha cells of the pancreas in response to low blood sugar levels (hypoglycemia).
When glucagon binds to its receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the breakdown of glycogen (a stored form of glucose) in the liver and the release of glucose into the bloodstream. This helps to raise blood sugar levels back to normal.
Glucagon receptors also play a role in regulating fat metabolism, as activation of these receptors in adipose tissue can stimulate the breakdown of triglycerides (a type of fat) into free fatty acids and glycerol, which can then be used as energy sources.
Abnormalities in glucagon receptor function or expression have been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including diabetes and obesity.
Glucagon-secreting cells, also known as alpha (α) cells, are a type of cell located in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. These cells are responsible for producing and secreting the hormone glucagon, which plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels.
Glucagon works in opposition to insulin, another hormone produced by different cells in the pancreas called beta (β) cells. When blood glucose levels are low, such as during fasting or exercise, glucagon is released into the bloodstream and travels to the liver, where it stimulates the breakdown of glycogen (stored glucose) into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream to raise blood glucose levels.
Abnormalities in glucagon-secreting cells can contribute to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes and hypoglycemia.
Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.
Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.
The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:
1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.
Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.
Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.
Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.
Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:
* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain
Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.
Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.
The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.
Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.
The Islets of Langerhans are clusters of specialized cells within the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. These islets are named after Paul Langerhans, who first identified them in 1869. They constitute around 1-2% of the total mass of the pancreas and are distributed throughout its substance.
The Islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including:
1. Alpha (α) cells: These produce and release glucagon, a hormone that helps to regulate blood sugar levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver when blood sugar levels are low.
2. Beta (β) cells: These produce and release insulin, a hormone that promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose by cells throughout the body, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.
3. Delta (δ) cells: These produce and release somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon and helps regulate their secretion in response to changing blood sugar levels.
4. PP cells (gamma or γ cells): These produce and release pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive enzyme secretion and gastrointestinal motility.
Dysfunction of the Islets of Langerhans can lead to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, where insulin-producing beta cells are damaged or destroyed, leading to impaired blood sugar regulation.
Proglucagon is a precursor protein that gets cleaved into several hormones, including glucagon, GLP-1 (Glucagon-like peptide-1), and GLP-2 (Glucagon-like peptide-2). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating blood sugar levels, energy balance, and gut function. Proglucagon is primarily produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas and L cells in the intestine. Glucagon helps to raise blood sugar levels during fasting or hypoglycemia, while GLP-1 and GLP-2 contribute to glucose regulation, satiety, and gut motility, among other functions.
Hypoglycemia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally low level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Generally, hypoglycemia is defined as a blood glucose level below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), although symptoms may not occur until the blood sugar level falls below 55 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L).
Hypoglycemia can occur in people with diabetes who are taking insulin or medications that increase insulin production, as well as those with certain medical conditions such as hormone deficiencies, severe liver illnesses, or disorders of the adrenal glands. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include sweating, shaking, confusion, rapid heartbeat, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness or seizures.
Hypoglycemia is typically treated by consuming fast-acting carbohydrates such as fruit juice, candy, or glucose tablets to rapidly raise blood sugar levels. If left untreated, hypoglycemia can lead to serious complications, including brain damage and even death.
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent in the small intestine. It involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This process becomes particularly important during periods of fasting or starvation when glucose levels in the body begin to drop, and there is limited carbohydrate intake to replenish them.
Gluconeogenesis helps maintain blood glucose homeostasis by providing an alternative source of glucose for use by various tissues, especially the brain, which relies heavily on glucose as its primary energy source. It is a complex process that involves several enzymatic steps, many of which are regulated to ensure an adequate supply of glucose while preventing excessive production, which could lead to hyperglycemia.
Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.
In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.
Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.
Glucagon-like peptides (GLPs) are hormones that are produced in the intestines in response to food consumption. They belong to a class of hormones known as incretins, which play a role in regulating blood sugar levels by stimulating the pancreas to produce insulin and inhibiting the release of glucagon.
There are two main types of GLPs: GLP-1 and GLP-2. GLP-1 is secreted in response to meals and stimulates the pancreas to produce insulin, suppresses glucagon production, slows gastric emptying, and promotes satiety. GLP-2, on the other hand, promotes intestinal growth and improves nutrient absorption.
GLP-1 receptor agonists are a class of medications used to treat type 2 diabetes. They mimic the effects of natural GLP-1 by stimulating insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon release, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. These medications have been shown to improve blood sugar control, reduce body weight, and lower the risk of cardiovascular events in people with type 2 diabetes.
Pancreatic hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen. The two main types of pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon, which are released by specialized cells called islets of Langerhans.
Insulin is produced by beta cells and helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) from the bloodstream. It also helps the body store excess glucose in the liver for later use.
Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and has the opposite effect of insulin. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver to raise blood sugar levels.
Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain balanced blood sugar levels and are essential for the proper functioning of the body's metabolism. Other hormones produced by the pancreas include somatostatin, which regulates the release of insulin and glucagon, and gastrin, which stimulates the production of digestive enzymes in the stomach.
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a hormone that is produced and released by the pancreas, specifically by the F cells located in the islets of Langerhans. It is a small protein consisting of 36 amino acids, and it plays a role in regulating digestive functions, particularly by inhibiting pancreatic enzyme secretion and gastric acid secretion.
PP is released into the bloodstream in response to food intake, especially when nutrients such as proteins and fats are present in the stomach. It acts on the brain to produce a feeling of fullness or satiety, which helps to regulate appetite and eating behavior. Additionally, PP has been shown to have effects on glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and energy balance.
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential therapeutic uses of PP for a variety of conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and clinical applications.
The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.
The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.
Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is a hormone that is secreted by the intestines in response to food intake. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels through several mechanisms, including stimulation of insulin secretion from the pancreas, inhibition of glucagon release, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. GLP-1 is an important target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes due to its insulin-secretory and glucose-lowering effects. In addition, GLP-1 receptor agonists are used in the management of obesity due to their ability to promote weight loss by reducing appetite and increasing feelings of fullness.
Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone and a neurotransmitter that is produced in the body. It is released by the adrenal glands in response to stress or excitement, and it prepares the body for the "fight or flight" response. Epinephrine works by binding to specific receptors in the body, which causes a variety of physiological effects, including increased heart rate and blood pressure, improved muscle strength and alertness, and narrowing of the blood vessels in the skin and intestines. It is also used as a medication to treat various medical conditions, such as anaphylaxis (a severe allergic reaction), cardiac arrest, and low blood pressure.
"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.
Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.
Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.
Liver glycogen is the reserve form of glucose stored in hepatocytes (liver cells) for the maintenance of normal blood sugar levels. It is a polysaccharide, a complex carbohydrate, that is broken down into glucose molecules when blood glucose levels are low. This process helps to maintain the body's energy needs between meals and during periods of fasting or exercise. The amount of glycogen stored in the liver can vary depending on factors such as meal consumption, activity level, and insulin regulation.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.
In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.
Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.
Gastrointestinal (GI) hormone receptors are specialized protein structures found on the surface of cells in the gastrointestinal tract. These receptors recognize and respond to specific hormones that are released by enteroendocrine cells in the GI tract. Examples of GI hormones include gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), motilin, and ghrelin.
When a GI hormone binds to its specific receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell function. These changes can include increased or decreased secretion of digestive enzymes, altered motility (movement) of the GI tract, and regulation of appetite and satiety.
Abnormalities in GI hormone receptors have been implicated in a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, including functional dyspepsia, irritable bowel syndrome, and obesity. Therefore, understanding the role of these receptors in GI physiology and pathophysiology is an important area of research.
Adenylate cyclase is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). It plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including signal transduction and metabolism. Adenylate cyclase is activated by hormones and neurotransmitters that bind to G-protein-coupled receptors on the cell membrane, leading to the production of cAMP, which then acts as a second messenger to regulate various intracellular responses. There are several isoforms of adenylate cyclase, each with distinct regulatory properties and subcellular localization.
Fasting is defined in medical terms as the abstinence from food or drink for a period of time. This practice is often recommended before certain medical tests or procedures, as it helps to ensure that the results are not affected by recent eating or drinking.
In some cases, fasting may also be used as a therapeutic intervention, such as in the management of seizures or other neurological conditions. Fasting can help to lower blood sugar and insulin levels, which can have a variety of health benefits. However, it is important to note that prolonged fasting can also have negative effects on the body, including malnutrition, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.
Fasting is also a spiritual practice in many religions, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. In these contexts, fasting is often seen as a way to purify the mind and body, to focus on spiritual practices, or to express devotion or mourning.
I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.
If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.
Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.
C-peptide is a byproduct that is produced when the hormone insulin is generated in the body. Insulin is a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels, and it is produced in the pancreas by specialized cells called beta cells. When these cells produce insulin, they also generate C-peptide as a part of the same process.
C-peptide is often used as a marker to measure the body's insulin production. By measuring C-peptide levels in the blood, healthcare providers can get an idea of how much insulin the body is producing on its own. This can be helpful in diagnosing and monitoring conditions such as diabetes, which is characterized by impaired insulin production or function.
It's worth noting that C-peptide is not typically used as a treatment for any medical conditions. Instead, it is primarily used as a diagnostic tool to help healthcare providers better understand their patients' health status and make informed treatment decisions.
Secretin is a hormone that is produced and released by the S cells in the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. It is released in response to the presence of acidic chyme (partially digested food) entering the duodenum from the stomach. Secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline secretions, which help neutralize the acidity of the chyme and create an optimal environment for enzymatic digestion in the small intestine.
Additionally, secretin also promotes the production of watery fluids from the liver, which aids in the digestion process. Overall, secretin plays a crucial role in maintaining the pH balance and facilitating proper nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
An islet cell adenoma is a rare, typically benign tumor that develops in the islets of Langerhans, which are clusters of hormone-producing cells in the pancreas. The islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including beta cells that produce insulin, alpha cells that produce glucagon, and delta cells that produce somatostatin.
Islet cell adenomas can cause various endocrine disorders depending on the type of hormone-producing cells involved. For example, if the tumor consists mainly of beta cells, it may secrete excessive amounts of insulin, leading to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Conversely, if the tumor is composed primarily of alpha cells, it may produce too much glucagon, resulting in hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) and a condition known as glucagonoma.
Islet cell adenomas are usually slow-growing and small but can become quite large in some cases. They are typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as CT scans or MRI, and hormone levels may be measured to determine the type of cells involved. Treatment options include surgical removal of the tumor, medication to manage hormonal imbalances, and, in rare cases, radiofrequency ablation or embolization.
Hyperglycemia is a medical term that refers to an abnormally high level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Fasting hyperglycemia is defined as a fasting blood glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) on two separate occasions. Alternatively, a random blood glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL in combination with symptoms of hyperglycemia (such as increased thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and fatigue) can also indicate hyperglycemia.
Hyperglycemia is often associated with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production. However, hyperglycemia can also occur in other conditions such as stress, surgery, infection, certain medications, and hormonal imbalances.
Prolonged or untreated hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), and long-term damage to various organs such as the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. Therefore, it is essential to monitor blood glucose levels regularly and maintain them within normal ranges through proper diet, exercise, medication, and lifestyle modifications.
I apologize for the confusion, but "Bucladesine" is not a recognized medical term or a medication in current use in medicine. It's possible that there may be some mistake or typo in the spelling. If you have any more context about where you encountered this term, I might be able to provide a more accurate and helpful response.
Lactates, also known as lactic acid, are compounds that are produced by muscles during intense exercise or other conditions of low oxygen supply. They are formed from the breakdown of glucose in the absence of adequate oxygen to complete the full process of cellular respiration. This results in the production of lactate and a hydrogen ion, which can lead to a decrease in pH and muscle fatigue.
In a medical context, lactates may be measured in the blood as an indicator of tissue oxygenation and metabolic status. Elevated levels of lactate in the blood, known as lactic acidosis, can indicate poor tissue perfusion or hypoxia, and may be seen in conditions such as sepsis, cardiac arrest, and severe shock. It is important to note that lactates are not the primary cause of acidemia (low pH) in lactic acidosis, but rather a marker of the underlying process.
Somatostatin-secreting cells, also known as delta cells or D cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the pancreatic islets and the central nervous system. These cells produce and secrete somatostatin, a peptide hormone that inhibits the release of several other hormones such as insulin, glucagon, and gastrin.
Somatostatin has a wide range of physiological effects, including inhibition of gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and blood flow; modulation of neurotransmission; and regulation of cell growth and differentiation. Somatostatin-secreting cells play an essential role in maintaining hormonal homeostasis by regulating the release of other hormones in response to various physiological stimuli.
In the pancreas, somatostatin-secreting cells are located in the islets of Langerhans, where they represent about 10% of the endocrine cell population. They are scattered among the insulin-producing beta cells and glucagon-producing alpha cells and form a dense network of fine processes that surround other islet cells. Somatostatin released from these cells acts in a paracrine manner to regulate the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones produced by the islet cells.
In the central nervous system, somatostatin-secreting cells are found in various regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cortex. They play a role in regulating neurotransmission, neuronal excitability, and synaptic plasticity. Dysfunction of somatostatin-secreting cells has been implicated in several neurological and endocrine disorders, such as diabetes, acromegaly, and certain types of tumors.
A glucagonoma is a rare type of neuroendocrine tumor that originates from the alpha cells of the pancreas, where the hormone glucagon is produced. This tumor can lead to an overproduction of glucagon, resulting in a characteristic syndrome known as the "glucagonoma syndrome."
The symptoms of glucagonoma syndrome may include:
1. A distinctive rash called necrolytic migratory erythema, which is characterized by red, swollen, and painful skin lesions that can affect various parts of the body.
2. Weight loss
3. Diabetes or high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia)
4. Anemia
5. Deep vein thrombosis (blood clots in the deep veins)
6. Depression and confusion
7. A decreased appetite
8. Fatigue and weakness
9. Diarrhea or steatorrhea (fatty stools)
10. High levels of amino acids, fatty acids, and zinc in the blood.
Glucagonomas are typically slow-growing tumors, but they can metastasize (spread) to other organs such as the liver, lymph nodes, and bones. Treatment options for glucagonoma may include surgery to remove the tumor, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or radiation therapy. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor the tumor's progression and manage any associated symptoms.
In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."
1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.
2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.
3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.
4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).
Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.
Oxyntomodulin is a hormone that is produced and released by the intestines in response to food consumption. It is a 37-amino acid peptide, derived from the preproglucagon gene, which also encodes several other related peptides such as glucagon and GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1).
Oxyntomodulin has two primary effects on the body:
1. Incretin effect: Oxyntomodulin acts as an incretin hormone, which means that it enhances the secretion of insulin and inhibits the release of glucagon in response to a meal. This helps to regulate blood sugar levels and maintain metabolic homeostasis.
2. Appetite regulation: Oxyntomodulin also acts on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and promote weight loss. It does this by activating receptors in the brain that signal satiety, leading to a decrease in food intake.
Overall, oxyntomodulin plays an important role in regulating energy balance, glucose metabolism, and body weight.
Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), also known as free fatty acids (FFA), refer to fatty acid molecules that are not bound to glycerol in the form of triglycerides or other esters. In the bloodstream, NEFAs are transported while bound to albumin and can serve as a source of energy for peripheral tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, NEFA levels are tightly regulated by the body; however, elevated NEFA levels have been associated with various metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes.
Gastrointestinal (GI) hormones are a group of hormones that are secreted by cells in the gastrointestinal tract in response to food intake and digestion. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including appetite regulation, gastric acid secretion, motility of the gastrointestinal tract, insulin secretion, and pancreatic enzyme release.
Examples of GI hormones include:
* Gastrin: Secreted by G cells in the stomach, gastrin stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach lining.
* Ghrelin: Produced by the stomach, ghrelin is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite and food intake.
* Cholecystokinin (CCK): Secreted by I cells in the small intestine, CCK promotes digestion by stimulating the release of pancreatic enzymes and bile from the liver. It also inhibits gastric emptying and reduces appetite.
* Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Produced by K cells in the small intestine, GIP promotes insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon release.
* Secretin: Released by S cells in the small intestine, secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes stomach acid in the duodenum.
* Motilin: Secreted by MO cells in the small intestine, motilin promotes gastrointestinal motility and regulates the migrating motor complex (MMC), which is responsible for cleaning out the small intestine between meals.
These hormones work together to regulate digestion and maintain homeostasis in the body. Dysregulation of GI hormones can contribute to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastroparesis, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and diabetes.
Perfusion, in medical terms, refers to the process of circulating blood through the body's organs and tissues to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. It is a measure of the delivery of adequate blood flow to specific areas or tissues in the body. Perfusion can be assessed using various methods, including imaging techniques like computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and perfusion scintigraphy.
Perfusion is critical for maintaining proper organ function and overall health. When perfusion is impaired or inadequate, it can lead to tissue hypoxia, acidosis, and cell death, which can result in organ dysfunction or failure. Conditions that can affect perfusion include cardiovascular disease, shock, trauma, and certain surgical procedures.
Gastric Inhibitory Polypeptide (GIP) is a 42-amino acid long peptide hormone that is released from the K cells in the duodenum and jejunum of the small intestine in response to food intake, particularly carbohydrates and fats. It is also known as glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide.
GIP has several physiological effects on the body, including:
* Incretin effect: GIP stimulates the release of insulin from the pancreas in a glucose-dependent manner, which means that it only increases insulin secretion when blood glucose levels are high. This is known as the incretin effect and helps to regulate postprandial glucose levels.
* Inhibition of gastric acid secretion: GIP inhibits the release of gastric acid from the stomach, which helps to protect the intestinal mucosa from damage caused by excessive acid production.
* Increase in blood flow: GIP increases blood flow to the intestines, which helps to facilitate nutrient absorption.
* Energy storage: GIP promotes the storage of energy by increasing fat synthesis and reducing fat breakdown in adipose tissue.
Overall, GIP plays an important role in regulating glucose metabolism, energy balance, and gastrointestinal function.
3-Hydroxybutyric acid, also known as β-hydroxybutyric acid, is a type of ketone body that is produced in the liver during the metabolism of fatty acids. It is a colorless, slightly water-soluble compound with a bitter taste and an unpleasant odor.
In the body, 3-hydroxybutyric acid is produced when there is not enough glucose available to meet the body's energy needs, such as during fasting, starvation, or prolonged intense exercise. It can also be produced in large amounts in people with uncontrolled diabetes, particularly during a condition called diabetic ketoacidosis.
3-Hydroxybutyric acid is an important source of energy for the brain and other organs during periods of low glucose availability. However, high levels of 3-hydroxybutyric acid in the blood can lead to a condition called ketosis, which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and confusion. If left untreated, ketosis can progress to diabetic ketoacidosis, a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes.
Secretory rate refers to the amount or volume of a secretion produced by a gland or an organ over a given period of time. It is a measure of the productivity or activity level of the secreting structure. The secretory rate can be quantified for various bodily fluids, such as saliva, sweat, digestive enzymes, hormones, or milk, depending on the context and the specific gland or organ being studied.
In clinical settings, measuring the secretory rate might involve collecting and analyzing samples over a certain duration to estimate the production rate of the substance in question. This information can be helpful in diagnosing conditions related to impaired secretion, monitoring treatment responses, or understanding the physiological adaptations of the body under different circumstances.
Ketone bodies, also known as ketones or ketoacids, are organic compounds that are produced by the liver during the metabolism of fats when carbohydrate intake is low. They include acetoacetate (AcAc), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), and acetone. These molecules serve as an alternative energy source for the body, particularly for the brain and heart, when glucose levels are insufficient to meet energy demands.
In a healthy individual, ketone bodies are present in low concentrations; however, during periods of fasting, starvation, or intense physical exertion, ketone production increases significantly. In some pathological conditions like uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, the body may produce excessive amounts of ketones, leading to a dangerous metabolic state called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
Elevated levels of ketone bodies can be detected in blood or urine and are often used as an indicator of metabolic status. Monitoring ketone levels is essential for managing certain medical conditions, such as diabetes, where maintaining optimal ketone concentrations is crucial to prevent complications.
Arginine is an α-amino acid that is classified as a semi-essential or conditionally essential amino acid, depending on the developmental stage and health status of the individual. The adult human body can normally synthesize sufficient amounts of arginine to meet its needs, but there are certain circumstances, such as periods of rapid growth or injury, where the dietary intake of arginine may become necessary.
The chemical formula for arginine is C6H14N4O2. It has a molecular weight of 174.20 g/mol and a pKa value of 12.48. Arginine is a basic amino acid, which means that it contains a side chain with a positive charge at physiological pH levels. The side chain of arginine is composed of a guanidino group, which is a functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to three methyl groups.
In the body, arginine plays several important roles. It is a precursor for the synthesis of nitric oxide, a molecule that helps regulate blood flow and immune function. Arginine is also involved in the detoxification of ammonia, a waste product produced by the breakdown of proteins. Additionally, arginine can be converted into other amino acids, such as ornithine and citrulline, which are involved in various metabolic processes.
Foods that are good sources of arginine include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, nuts, seeds, and legumes. Arginine supplements are available and may be used for a variety of purposes, such as improving exercise performance, enhancing wound healing, and boosting immune function. However, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking arginine supplements, as they can interact with certain medications and have potential side effects.
Phosphorylases are enzymes that catalyze the phosphorolytic cleavage of a bond, often a glycosidic bond, in a carbohydrate molecule, releasing a sugar moiety and a phosphate group. This reaction is important in metabolic pathways such as glycogenolysis, where glycogen is broken down into glucose-1-phosphate by the action of glycogen phosphorylase. The resulting glucose-1-phosphate can then be further metabolized to produce energy. Phosphorylases are widely found in nature and play a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy metabolism and signal transduction.
Vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a hormone that helps regulate water balance in the body. It is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. When the body is dehydrated or experiencing low blood pressure, vasopressin is released into the bloodstream, where it causes the kidneys to decrease the amount of urine they produce and helps to constrict blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. This helps to maintain adequate fluid volume in the body and ensure that vital organs receive an adequate supply of oxygen-rich blood. In addition to its role in water balance and blood pressure regulation, vasopressin also plays a role in social behaviors such as pair bonding and trust.
I couldn't find a medical definition specifically for "Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental." However, I can provide you with information about experimental diabetes research and its relevance to understanding the disease.
Experimental diabetes models are used in biomedical research to study the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus and to test potential therapies or treatments. These models can be broadly categorized into two types: chemically-induced and genetically modified.
1. Chemically-induced diabetes models: These involve administering chemicals, such as alloxan or streptozotocin, to animals (commonly mice or rats) to destroy their pancreatic β-cells, which produce insulin. This results in hyperglycemia and symptoms similar to those seen in type 1 diabetes in humans.
2. Genetically modified diabetes models: These involve altering the genes of animals (commonly mice) to create a diabetes phenotype. Examples include non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, which develop an autoimmune form of diabetes similar to human type 1 diabetes, and various strains of obese mice with insulin resistance, such as ob/ob or db/db mice, which model aspects of type 2 diabetes.
These experimental models help researchers better understand the mechanisms behind diabetes development and progression, identify new therapeutic targets, and test potential treatments before moving on to human clinical trials. However, it's essential to recognize that these models may not fully replicate all aspects of human diabetes, so findings from animal studies should be interpreted with caution.
Glycogenolysis is the biochemical process by which glycogen, a polymer of glucose, is broken down into its constituent glucose molecules. This process occurs primarily in the liver and muscles and is critical for maintaining normal blood glucose levels between meals and during periods of increased physical activity.
Glycogenolysis is initiated by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase, which cleaves off individual glucose molecules from the end of a glycogen branch, resulting in the formation of glucose-1-phosphate. This compound is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase.
Glucose-6-phosphate can be further metabolized through several pathways, including glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway, depending on the energy needs of the cell. In the liver, glucose-6-phosphatase can remove the phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate to produce free glucose, which is released into the bloodstream and transported to other tissues for use as an energy source.
Overall, glycogenolysis plays a crucial role in maintaining normal blood glucose levels and providing energy to cells during periods of increased demand.
Hydroxybutyrates are compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a butyric acid group. More specifically, in the context of clinical medicine and biochemistry, β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is often referred to as a "ketone body."
Ketone bodies are produced by the liver during periods of low carbohydrate availability, such as during fasting, starvation, or a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet. BHB is one of three major ketone bodies, along with acetoacetate and acetone. These molecules serve as alternative energy sources for the brain and other tissues when glucose levels are low.
In some pathological states, such as diabetic ketoacidosis, the body produces excessive amounts of ketone bodies, leading to a life-threatening metabolic acidosis. Elevated levels of BHB can also be found in other conditions like alcoholism, severe illnesses, and high-fat diets.
It is important to note that while BHB is a hydroxybutyrate, not all hydroxybutyrates are ketone bodies. The term "hydroxybutyrates" can refer to any compound containing both a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a butyric acid group.
Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used in clinical and research laboratories to measure concentrations of various substances, such as hormones, vitamins, drugs, or tumor markers, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues. The method relies on the specific interaction between an antibody and its corresponding antigen, combined with the use of radioisotopes to quantify the amount of bound antigen.
In a typical RIA procedure, a known quantity of a radiolabeled antigen (also called tracer) is added to a sample containing an unknown concentration of the same unlabeled antigen. The mixture is then incubated with a specific antibody that binds to the antigen. During the incubation period, the antibody forms complexes with both the radiolabeled and unlabeled antigens.
After the incubation, the unbound (free) radiolabeled antigen is separated from the antibody-antigen complexes, usually through a precipitation or separation step involving centrifugation, filtration, or chromatography. The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (containing the antibody-antigen complexes) is then measured using a gamma counter or other suitable radiation detection device.
The concentration of the unlabeled antigen in the sample can be determined by comparing the ratio of bound to free radiolabeled antigen in the sample to a standard curve generated from known concentrations of unlabeled antigen and their corresponding bound/free ratios. The higher the concentration of unlabeled antigen in the sample, the lower the amount of radiolabeled antigen that will bind to the antibody, resulting in a lower bound/free ratio.
Radioimmunoassays offer high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, making them valuable tools for detecting and quantifying low levels of various substances in biological samples. However, due to concerns about radiation safety and waste disposal, alternative non-isotopic immunoassay techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become more popular in recent years.
Hydrocortisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a class of steroid hormones. It is identical to the naturally occurring cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress. Hydrocortisone has anti-inflammatory effects and is used to treat various inflammatory conditions such as allergies, skin disorders, and autoimmune diseases. It works by suppressing the immune system's response to reduce swelling, redness, itching, and other symptoms caused by inflammation.
Hydrocortisone is available in different forms, including oral tablets, topical creams, lotions, gels, and ointments, as well as injectable solutions. The specific use and dosage depend on the condition being treated and the individual patient's medical history and current health status.
As with any medication, hydrocortisone can have side effects, especially when used in high doses or for extended periods. Common side effects include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and skin thinning. Long-term use of hydrocortisone may also increase the risk of developing osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and other health problems. Therefore, it is essential to follow your healthcare provider's instructions carefully when using this medication.
Insulin-secreting cells, also known as beta cells, are a type of cell found in the pancreas. They are responsible for producing and releasing insulin, a hormone that regulates blood glucose levels by allowing cells in the body to take in glucose from the bloodstream. Insulin-secreting cells are clustered together in the pancreatic islets, along with other types of cells that produce other hormones such as glucagon and somatostatin. In people with diabetes, these cells may not function properly, leading to an impaired ability to regulate blood sugar levels.
Patrik Rorsman
Cilium
Blood sugar level
Alpha cell
Free fatty acid receptor 2
Endocrine system
Glucokinase
Pancreatic progenitor cell
Homeostasis
Insulin
Enteroendocrine cell
List of MeSH codes (A03)
Glucagon
Glucagon-like peptide-2
Glucagon-like peptide-1
Brockmann body
Development of the endocrine system
Pancreas
Fat
Dulaglutide
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide
Gastrin
Glycogen
List of MeSH codes (A06)
Free fatty acid receptor 1
Essential hypertension
Lixisenatide
Tirzepatide
Pancreatic islets
Insulin signal transduction pathway
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Pancreas31
- Often, type 2 diabetics also have elevated levels of glucagon, another hormone that is released by the pancreas. (uu.se)
- To find out why, Hmeadi and colleagues isolated the α-cells and separated them from their tissue context in the pancreas. (uu.se)
- The pancreas has exocrine cells that secrete amylase and other digestive enzymes into the duodenum and endocrine cells that secrete hormones. (keyence.com)
- The exocrine cells make up most of the pancreas. (keyence.com)
- Understanding: Insulin and glucagon are secreted by beta and alpha cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentrations. (quizlet.com)
- Insulin is a protein hormone secreted from β cells of the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels. (quizlet.com)
- Beta (β) cells are endocrine cells of the pancreas that produce and secrete the hormone insulin when blood glucose levels are high. (quizlet.com)
- What cells of the pancreas secrete insulin? (histology-world.com)
- We now report that MT-Exendin mice develop extensive tissue lymphocytic infiltration with increased numbers of CD4 + and CD8a + cells in the liver and/or kidney and increased numbers of B220 + cells present in the pancreas and liver. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Pancreas Transplantation Pancreas transplantation is a form of pancreatic beta-cell replacement that can restore normoglycemia in diabetic patients. (merckmanuals.com)
- Mutant digestive enzymes aggregate in nearby insulin-producing beta cells, triggering an inherited condition that may shed light on other diseases of the pancreas. (joslin.org)
- The pancreas secretes the hormones insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. (hypnoathletics.com)
- The death of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas is a core defect in diabetes. (medicaldaily.com)
- Hormones secreted by the pancreas are insulin and glucagon. (swastikclasses.com)
- In addition to exploring the complex biology of glucagon, Jon's lab studies the Incretin Effect, a mechanism by which the gut influences the secretion of insulin in the pancreas. (promegaconnections.com)
- GLP1 and GIP bind to G-protein coupled receptors in the beta cells of the pancreas to induce insulin secretion. (promegaconnections.com)
- pancreatic cancer , a disease characterized by abnormal growth of cells in the pancreas , a 15-cm- (6-inch-) long gland located behind the stomach . (britannica.com)
- The pancreas is primarily made up of two different tissues with separate functions: the exocrine pancreas, which secretes enzymes into the digestive tract , aiding the breakdown of fats and proteins, and the endocrine pancreas, which secretes glucagon and insulin into the bloodstream in order to control blood sugar levels. (britannica.com)
- Insulin is normally secreted by the beta cell of the pancreas in response to high blood sugar. (blfh.org)
- Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cell of the pancreas when blood glucose is low. (blfh.org)
- The pancreas gland produces hormones ( hormonal quality ), including insulin and glucagon , and secretes pancreatic juices ( secretory quality ) that are released into the small intestine to assist the digestion of food. (learninggnm.com)
- Starting with the DHS , during the conflict-active phase cells in the pancreas gland proliferate proportionally to the intensity of the conflict. (learninggnm.com)
- In case of the pancreas gland, the cells that could not be removed keep producing digestive juices resulting in a permanent overproduction of pancreatic fluid (see also thyroid gland , parathyroid glands , adrenal gland , prostate gland ). (learninggnm.com)
- Hence, we sought to develop pseudoislets from commercial pancreas-derived cell lines. (elsevierpure.com)
- decreases glucagon secretion from the pancreas . (wikidoc.org)
- The alpha cells and beta cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans, a special group of cells in the pancreas. (byjus.com)
- Both cell-types situated within the Islet of Langerhans in the pancreas. (lu.se)
- The pancreas lies in the curve of the duodenum and controls the level of sugar in the blood by secreting insulin and glucagon. (medscape.com)
- [ 5 ] When gastrinomas are found in the pancreas, they are non-beta islet cell tumors. (medscape.com)
- Still missing from these approaches is any attempt to induce regeneration or replication of endogenous beta cells in the pancreas, an approach that would be physiologically desirable. (medscape.com)
- A 2008 study by Zhou and colleagues [ 6 ] provided early insight into how endogenous cells in the pancreas could be coaxed into becoming beta cells. (medscape.com)
Somatostatin5
- The δ cells secrete a hormone called somatostatin. (keyence.com)
- Somatostatin is secreted when you take in food. (keyence.com)
- The remaining gamma cells secrete somatostatin, (GHIH). (hypnoathletics.com)
- Cell line pseudoislets secreted and expressed insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as confirmed by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and immunohistochemistry analyses. (elsevierpure.com)
- Thus, the current artificially manufactured biomimetic pseudoislets resembled pancreatic islets of the endocrine system, appearing as cellular aggregates that secreted insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. (elsevierpure.com)
Islet cells8
- A type of pancreatic cell representing about 5-20% of the islet cells. (musc.edu)
- Patrik's work also covers human islet cells, which has revealed important differences between ß-cells in man and experimental animals that are likely to be highly relevant to the understanding of the causes and treatment of human diabetes. (wikipedia.org)
- By comparing the pancreatic cells of type 2 diabetic human donors with those of healthy people, researchers at the University of Geneva (UNIGE) and at the University Hospitals of Geneva (HUG), Switzerland, were able to demonstrate, for the first time, that the pancreatic islet cells derived from the Type 2 Diabetic human donors bear compromised circadian oscillators. (sciencedaily.com)
- The biological rhythms of the islet cells in type-2 diabetes exhibit both reduced amplitudes of circadian oscillations and poor synchronization capacity. (sciencedaily.com)
- Moreover, the defects in temporal coordination of insulin and glucagon secretion observed in patients with type-2 diabetes were comparable to those measured in healthy islet cells with artificially-disrupted circadian clock. (sciencedaily.com)
- The lab has used conditional knockouts to complement in vitro models using primary islets from humans/rodents to dissect cross-talk between insulin/IGF-I, glucose, and incretin (glucagon like-peptide-1) signaling pathways in islet cells. (joslin.org)
- In vitro, 25(OH)D induces the biosynthesis of insulin and insulin secretion in rat pancreatic islet cells [ 5 , 6 ],[ 7 ] . (researchsquare.com)
- This is further demonstrated by IL-1 beta-induced inhibition of glucose oxidation by purified beta-cells, mitochondrial aconitase activity of dispersed islet cells, and mitochondrial aconitase activity of Rin-m5F cells, all of which are prevented by NMMA. (jci.org)
Peptide14
- Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36)amide (truncated GLP-1, tGLP-1) is a potent insulin releasing hormone of the enteroinsular axis. (uaeu.ac.ae)
- Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) exhibits considerable potential for the treatment of type 2 diabetes because of its effects on stimulation of insulin secretion and the inhibition of gastric emptying, appetite, and glucagon secretion. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) lowers blood glucose through several distinct mechanisms that include amplification of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and inhibition of both glucagon secretion and gastric emptying. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Anthropometric indices, biochemical parameters, serum 25(OH)D, and islet function including C-peptide (C-p) and glucagon were measured. (researchsquare.com)
- It signals NPF receptor in the corpora cardiaca, a gland-like organ in insects, and stimulates insulin producing cells in the insect brain to suppress glucagon-like hormone while enhancing insulin-like peptide production. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
- Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1," PNAS , 104:15069-74, 2007. (the-scientist.com)
- Mutated recombinant human glucagon-like peptide-1 protects SH-SY5Y cells from apoptosis induced by amyloid-beta peptide (1-42). (ncbcs.org)
- It has been demonstrated that glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which is an endogenous insulinotropic peptide secreted from the intestine, binds to its receptor within the mind and possesses neuroprotective results. (ncbcs.org)
- Utilizing site-directed mutagenesis and gene recombination strategies, we generated a mutated recombinant human glucagon-like peptide-1 (mGLP-1) which has longer half-life as in contrast with native GLP-1. (ncbcs.org)
- Recombinant expression, in vitro refolding, and biophysical characterization of the human glucagon -like peptide-1 receptor. (ncbcs.org)
- Activation of the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) upon ligand binding results in the discharge of insulin from pancreatic cells. (ncbcs.org)
- Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is a 30- or 31-amino acid peptide hormone produced and secreted by intestinal enteroendocrine L-cells and certain neurons within the nucleus of the solitary tract in the brainstem upon food consumption. (immune-system-research.com)
- The hormones secreted by the G-I tract are Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). (swastikclasses.com)
- Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is derived from the transcription product of the proglucagon gene. (wikidoc.org)
Islets of Langerh4
- Insulin and other hormones secreted from the islets of Langerhans adjust blood glucose levels, and a weakening of this function is understood to cause diabetes. (keyence.com)
- Fluorescent immunostaining using anti-glucagon antibodies and anti-insulin antibodies allows for visualization of glucagon-positive cells as α cells and insulin-positive cells as β cells, clarifying each cell type's distribution in the islets of Langerhans. (keyence.com)
- Interleukin 1 beta induces the formation of nitric oxide by beta-cells purified from rodent islets of Langerhans. (jci.org)
- Statement 2: Alpha cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans. (byjus.com)
Type 2 diabet8
- Patients with type 2 diabetes secrete not only too little insulin but also too much glucagon, which contributes to poor blood glucose control. (uu.se)
- Dr. Kulkarni has been on the Joslin Staff and Harvard Medical School Faculty since 1999The research interests of the Kulkarni Lab are focused on two major complementary areas with the long term goal of designing therapeutic strategies to generate new beta cells to prevent and/or cure type 1 and type 2 diabetes. (joslin.org)
- We are also interested in differentiating iPS cells into mature cells that are involved in complications observed in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. (joslin.org)
- Recent studies showed that glucagon served as an insulinotropic hormone rather than counter-regulatory hormone to insulin [ 3 ] , which suggested that both a-and β-cells dysfunction contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes (T2D). (researchsquare.com)
- So in response to high glucose level or in type 2 diabetes, how 25(OH)D impact glucagon secretion from islet α-cells as well as the islet function homeostasis between islet α-cells and β-cells should be elucidated, which can provide new strategies for treating glucose metabolism disorders. (researchsquare.com)
- A Syntenic Cross Species Aneuploidy Genetic Screen Links RCAN1 Expression to β-Cell Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes. (lu.se)
- In type 2 diabetes , beta cells fail to secrete sufficient insulin to overcome the prevailing insulin resistance . (medscape.com)
- Although a few FDA-approved therapies for type 2 diabetes (meglitinides, sulfonylureas, incretin-based drugs) directly enhance beta-cell function, no therapies for any form of diabetes lead to the growth of healthy, new beta cells to replace those that were lost or dysfunctional. (medscape.com)
Insulin-producing1
- Occurs abruptly, characterised by an absolute deficiency of insulin due to a marked decline in the number of insulin producing beta cells (perhaps caused by the auto immune destruction of beta cells) even though target cells contain insulin receptors. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
Regulate8
- His nomination reads: Patrik Rorsman is an outstanding cell physiologist who has made distinguished contributions to our understanding of how the insulin- and glucagon-producing cells of the pancreatic islets regulate the plasma glucose concentration. (wikipedia.org)
- The islet cell types, alpha, beta, and delta cells, each secrete different hormones, and regulate the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream. (keyence.com)
- Nearly all the cells in our body comprise molecular clocks that regulate and synchronize metabolic functions to a 24-hour cycle of day-night changes. (sciencedaily.com)
- Such disturbances seem to prevent the proper functioning of the cells in the pancreatic islet that secrete insulin and glucagon, the hormones that regulate blood sugar levels. (sciencedaily.com)
- Tsukuba, Japan-Incretins are hormones secreted by intestinal cells that regulate pancreatic insulin and glucagon to control sugar metabolism in mammals. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
- Insulin and glucagon are the 2 hormones that regulate homeostasis. (blfh.org)
- In beta-cells, CFTR act as a regulator of the Ca 2+ activated chloride channel ANO1 to regulate granular priming and exocytosis of insulin granules. (lu.se)
- These hormones regulate the body's growth, and are involved in cell to cell communication, control metabolic activity, sleep-wake homeostasis, and altered regulation or dysregulation of adaptive response in various physiologic and pathophysiologic states. (medscape.com)
Thyroid gland secretes1
- The thyroid gland secretes thyroxin, a hormone that can reduce concentration and lead to irritability when the thyroid is overactive and cause drowsiness and a sluggish metabolism when the thyroid is underactive. (medscape.com)
Bloodstream5
- When the blood glucose level drops, glucagon induces the breakdown of glycogen to raise the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream. (keyence.com)
- At the same time, glucagon induces the release of glucose stored in cells into the bloodstream. (keyence.com)
- When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the storage polysaccharide glycogen into individual glucose molecules and release them into the bloodstream, thereby increasing blood glucose levels. (quizlet.com)
- Insulin promotes the storage of glucose as glycogen by liver cells and the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream of muscle and fat cells, thereby lowering the blood glucose levels. (quizlet.com)
- Meanwhile, the autonomic nervous system stimulates the suprarenal medulla to secrete hormones such as epinephrine into the bloodstream. (medscape.com)
Receptors9
- In acinar cells the distribution of these receptors is tightly localized to an area associated with the actin cytoskeleton in the apical secretory pole of the cell. (rochester.edu)
- Some type II diabetes have sufficient amounts of insulin in the blood, but they have defects in the molecular machinery that mediates the action of insulin on its target cells, cells can become less sensitive to insulin because they have fewer insulin receptors. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- Glucose entry into cells depends on the presence of insulin receptors on the surface of the target cells. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- Based on morphological features, researchers had suspected that these cells were chemosensory, but the findings of gustducin, taste receptors,[2. (the-scientist.com)
- Expression of bitter taste receptors of the T2R family in the gastrointestinal tract and enteroendocrine STC-1 cells," PNAS , 99:2392-97, 2002. (the-scientist.com)
- For example, the pancreatic release of insulin in response to glucose is partially mediated by the binding of glucose to sweet-taste receptors on cells of the intestine and subsequent activation of the signaling cascade. (the-scientist.com)
- Since mGLP-1 remedy elevated cytosolic cAMP focus in SH-SY5Y cells, we postulate that mGLP-1 could exert its affect through binding to GLP-1 receptors in SH-SY5Y cells and stimulating the manufacturing of cAMP. (ncbcs.org)
- Glucagon receptor (GCGR), a 62 kDa protein, is a member of the class B G-protein coupled family of receptors. (immune-system-research.com)
- Well, we asked, 'Why do the beta cells that secrete insulin have glucagon receptors? (promegaconnections.com)
Inhibits2
- In addition to suppressing the secretion of glucagon and insulin, it also inhibits the secretion of hormones that induce pancreatic secretions, such as cholecystokinin and secretin, from the duodenum. (keyence.com)
- Delta cells which secrete Samatastatin which inhibits the secretion of insulin, glucagon and growth hormone. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
Endocrine System1
- The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that produce and secrete hormones into the blood stream to reach and act on target cells of specific organs. (medscape.com)
Exocrine5
- In exocrine acinar cells regulation of intracellular calcium plays a pivotal role in controlling fluid and protein secretion. (rochester.edu)
- Research in this laboratory focuses on gaining a better understanding of the mechanisms which underlie these signaling patterns with a primary goal of relating this knowledge to the physiology and pathophysiology of exocrine cells. (rochester.edu)
- A further project relates to the organization and regulation of calcium release sites in exocrine cells. (rochester.edu)
- The endocrine cells exist sporadically as small clusters like islands among the exocrine cells. (keyence.com)
- This team showed that injection of just three genes- Neurog3, Mafa, and Pdx1 -into the pancreatic parenchyma of mice leads to conversion of exocrine cells to functional beta cells, a process popularly known as "reprogramming. (medscape.com)
Diabetic8
- When this fails in diabetic patients, too much glucagon contributes to a vicious cycle that exacerbates the already high blood sugar levels of diabetics. (uu.se)
- Surprisingly, the cells now behaved in a 'diabetic' manner and continued to secrete glucagon even when glucose was elevated. (uu.se)
- Research into transplanting pancreatic cells produced from iPS cells and other human pluripotent stem cells is underway as a recent radical therapy for diabetes, and in such studies it has been reported that the proportion of the area of insulin-positive cells is high in a diabetic mouse-derived graft. (keyence.com)
- Using combined bioluminescence-fluorescence time-lapse microscopy, a technology that allows tracking the molecular clock activity in living cells very precisely over time, the scientists compared the behaviour of pancreatic cell of type-2 diabetic donors and those of healthy subjects throughout the day. (sciencedaily.com)
- In diabetic rodents, GLP-1 increases β-cell mass via proliferative, neogenic, and antiapoptotic actions ( 1 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
- However increased glucagon concentrations contribute to diabetic hyperglycemia. (immune-system-research.com)
- In the future, we will use this knowledge in the attempt to rescue the diabetic phenotype using LNA antagomirs as possible therapeutics to influence insulin and glucagon secretion. (lu.se)
- Daneshpajooh M, Bacos K, Bysani M, Bagge A, Ottosson Laakso E, Vikman P, Eliasson L, Mulder H, Ling C. HDAC7 is overexpressed in human diabetic islets and impairs insulin secretion in rat islets and clonal beta cells. (lu.se)
Raises the blood sugar2
- With these two functions, glucagon raises the blood sugar level by raising glucose concentration. (keyence.com)
- Alpha cells which secrete the hormone glucagon which raises the blood sugar level. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
Transplantation8
- 8 Department of Surgery, Cell Isolation and Transplantation Centre, University Hospital of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland. (nih.gov)
- A secondary advantage is that islet cell transplantation appears to help maintain normoglycemia in patients who require total pancreatectomy for pain due to chronic pancreatitis. (merckmanuals.com)
- Simultaneous islet cell-kidney transplantation may be desirable in the future after the outcomes have improved. (merckmanuals.com)
- We are using transplantation/parabiotic approaches to investigate inter-organ communication (e.g. between islets and liver/brain/adipose) to identify islet cell growth factors. (joslin.org)
- These approaches allow us to generate cells that maintain the genetic make-up of the living individual that would otherwise be unavailable, with the potential for characterizing their signaling properties, testing drugs in vitro and the possibility of transplantation in suitable patients. (joslin.org)
- Limited beta cell proliferation results in a therapeutic beta cell mass after transplantation. (bioville.be)
- Replacement of primary isolated pancreatic islets must be carried out continuously for various in vitro tests, making primary isolated islets a useful tool for cell transplantation research. (elsevierpure.com)
- A more appealing strategy involves the transplantation of beta cells grown from stem cells, particularly with recent advances in generating large numbers of beta cells from human stem cells. (medscape.com)
Alpha21
- Alpha cells secrete GLUCAGON. (musc.edu)
- Alpha cells c. (histology-world.com)
- Its disadvantages are that transplanted glucagon -secreting alpha cells are nonfunctional (possibly complicating hypoglycemia) and several pancreata are usually required for a single islet cell recipient (exacerbating disparities between graft supply and demand and limiting use of the procedure). (merckmanuals.com)
- When the blood sugar level falls below a certain level chemical sensors in the alpha cells of the inlets stimulate the cells to secrete glucagon. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- In humans, glucagon is processed in pancreatic alpha cells located next to insulin-secreting beta cells, suggesting a local interaction. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
- IL-1 beta does not appear to affect FACS-purified alpha-cell metabolic activity or intracellular cGMP levels, suggesting that IL-1 beta does not exert any effect on alpha-cells. (jci.org)
- another 20%, are called alpha cells that secrete glucagon. (hypnoathletics.com)
- Taste receptor-like cells in the rat gut identified by expression of alpha-gustducin," PNAS , 93:6631-34, 1996. (the-scientist.com)
- Upon hypoglycemia, pancreatic alpha cells can secrete glucagon which stimulates hepatic glucose production. (immune-system-research.com)
- Here, we provide evidence on the activation of a survival pathway, mediated by PARP-14, in pancreatic α cells, following treatment of αTC1.6 glucagonoma and βTC1 insulinoma cell lines with a cytokine cocktail: interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). (unict.it)
- Statement 1: Insulin is secreted by the alpha cells. (byjus.com)
- The overall goal of my research has always been to increase the knowledge regarding alpha- and beta-cell function for the possible development of better treatment for patients with diabetes. (lu.se)
- The main hormone regulating the blood glucose levels is insulin, secreted from beta cells, and glucagon, secreted from alpha cells. (lu.se)
- My research focus is to understand how we can circumvent the reduced capacity of the pancreatic beta cells to secrete enough insulin, and why the control of alpha cell glucagon secretion becomes disturbed in diabetes. (lu.se)
- Priming is an important step in the release of insulin from the beta cell (and the alpha cell). (lu.se)
- In my goal to understand beta- and alpha-cell regulation, we have lately demonstrated the novel finding that the chloride channel CFTR is present in both mouse and human beta- and alpha-cells. (lu.se)
- In alpha-cells, CFTR is important for regulation of alpha-cell electrical activity and the generation of action potentials. (lu.se)
- [ 7 , 8 ] As background, in 2009, Collombat and colleagues [ 9 ] showed that pancreatic misexpression of the gene Pax4 led to the conversion of glucagon -producing alpha cells into functional beta cells. (medscape.com)
- Using careful, state-of-the-art cell tracking techniques, the same group subsequently showed that Pax4 misexpression initially caused the conversion of cells lining the ducts to become alpha cells, which were then converting to beta cells. (medscape.com)
- These cell lines reported on the levels of ARX, an alpha-cell master regulator that appears to be inhibited when Pax4 activity increases. (medscape.com)
- The investigators showed that a class of antimalarial drugs known as artemisinins, typified by the FDA-approved drug artemether , were capable of inhibiting ARX levels, reducing glucagon, and increasing insulin in an in vitro alpha-cell model. (medscape.com)
Uppsala University3
- Rorsman was educated at Uppsala University in Sweden where he was awarded a PhD under the supervision of Nobel laureate Bert Sakmann in 1986 for patch clamp studies of pancreatic cells and their secretion of glucagon and insulin. (wikipedia.org)
- A new study from Uppsala University suggests that this is because the glucagon-secreting α-cells have become resistant to insulin. (uu.se)
- Using advanced microscopy techniques, a team led by Omar Hmeadi in Sebastian Barg's research group at Uppsala University now adds insight into how glucagon-producing α-cells are controlled by glucose. (uu.se)
Effects of insulin2
- Glucagon counteracts the effects of insulin by instructing the liver to release stored glucose into the blood. (uu.se)
- The main function of glucagon is to counteract the effects of insulin and thus maintain balanced blood gluco. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
Lowers the blood sugar1
- Beta cells which secrete the hormone insulin that lowers the blood sugar level. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
Beta32
- Beta cells d. (histology-world.com)
- The beta cells secrete insulin. (histology-world.com)
- Finally, we are studying pathways utilized by lymphocytes that allow regeneration of beta cells in type 1 diabetes. (joslin.org)
- Insulin is produced by the inlet Beta cells, and acts to lower blood sugar levels. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- Evidence for the beta-cell as a source and site of action of nitric oxide. (jci.org)
- Nitric oxide has recently been implicated as the effector molecule that mediates IL-1 beta-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and beta-cell specific destruction. (jci.org)
- The purpose of this investigation was to determine if the beta-cell, which is selectively destroyed during insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, is both a source of IL-1 beta-induced nitric oxide production and also a site of action of this free radical. (jci.org)
- Pretreatment of beta-cells, purified by FACS with IL-1 beta results in a 40% inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion that is prevented by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, NG-monomethyl-L-arginine (NMMA). (jci.org)
- IL-1 beta induces the formation of nitric oxide by purified beta-cells as evidenced by the accumulation of cGMP, which is blocked by NMMA. (jci.org)
- IL-1 beta also induces the accumulation of cGMP by the insulinoma cell line Rin-m5F, and both NMMA as well as the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide prevent this cGMP accumulation. (jci.org)
- IL-1 beta induces the formation of an iron-dinitrosyl complex by Rin-m5F cells indicating that nitric oxide mediates the destruction of iron-sulfur clusters of iron containing enzymes. (jci.org)
- These results demonstrate that the islet beta-cell is a source of IL-1 beta-induced nitric oxide production, and that beta-cell mitochondrial iron-sulfur containing enzymes are one site of action of nitric oxide. (jci.org)
- For many years it was believed that the primary function of NAD/NADH in cells was to harness and transfer energy from glucose, fatty and amino acids through pathways like glycolysis, beta-oxidation and the citric acid cycle. (promegaconnections.com)
- Beta-Cell NV has established a freezing procedure by which its proprietary cell product (Betaprep TM ) can be stored long term, while maintaining the ability to control diabetes. (bioville.be)
- In a comparative experiment in mice, Beta-Cell demonstrated equal diabetes reversal of cryopreserved cells compared to fresh cells. (bioville.be)
- In summary, BetaPrep cryopreservation allows flexible manufacturing of a standardized and quality-controlled beta cell replacement therapy with high therapeutic potency for the treatment of diabetes. (bioville.be)
- Insulin secreting beta cells are shown in red, glucagon secreting cells in green and proliferative cells in white. (bioville.be)
- Beta-Cell is Belgian biotech company that is developing a cell therapy for diabetes. (bioville.be)
- The company has developed a quality controlled proprietary xenogeneic cell product and has an extensive track record in beta cell biology and therapeutic efficacy testing in diabetes models. (bioville.be)
- The Beta-Cell porcine endocrine product shows diabetes reversal in animal models and key steps have been made to prepare for future clinical translation. (bioville.be)
- Beta-Cell has been funded by VLAIO, the European Union and by private investors, of which the Belgian-based Group Machiels serves as main shareholder. (bioville.be)
- https://www.beta-cell.com or https://www.machiels.com . (bioville.be)
- increases beta cells mass and insulin gene expression. (wikidoc.org)
- Others and we suggest that the beta cell release primed insulin granules during first phase insulin secretion, which is lacking in individuals with pre-diabetes. (lu.se)
- Since then my research group have performed detailed analysis of miRNAs in beta-cell function by investigations of islets from different diabetes animal models, and from human donors. (lu.se)
- Through the centre, we have access to human islets from which we have investigated the miRNA-profile and together we perform large-scale RNA-sequencing studies in human islets that has given us the opportunity to investigate other non-coding RNAs such as the lncRNAs and their role in beta cell function. (lu.se)
- Here, we discuss how transcription factors, and their unique position as the gatekeepers of cellular identity, are exploited in cell reprogramming protocols by exploring work focusing on one reprogramming paradigm - the transdifferentiation of hepatocytes to pancreatic beta cells (β-cell). (silverchair.com)
- La secreción hormonal depende del tipo de CÉLULAS DE LOS ISLOTES presentes en los tumores: GLUCAGÓN de las CÉLULAS PANCREÁTICAS ALFA, INSULINA de las CÉLULAS PANCREÁTICAS BETA y SOMATOSTATINA de las CÉLULAS D. La mayoría son malignos exceptuando a los tumres productores de insulina (INSULINOMA). (bvsalud.org)
- In recent years, we have come to appreciate that loss or dysfunction of insulin-producing islet beta cells underlies virtually all major forms of diabetes mellitus. (medscape.com)
- In type 1 diabetes , beta cells succumb to autoimmunity, leaving individuals with significantly reduced beta-cell mass and a lifelong dependence on insulin replacement therapy. (medscape.com)
- The pathogenesis of other forms of diabetes (eg, gestational diabetes ) can similarly be traced to a failure of beta-cell mass, beta-cell function, or both. (medscape.com)
- Multiple strategies to replace beta cells in individuals with diabetes have been considered. (medscape.com)
Intestinal cells2
- Additionally, enzymes are secreted by the intestinal cells that line the villi. (pressbooks.pub)
- Once carbohydrates are chemically broken down into single sugar units they are then transported into the inside of intestinal cells. (pressbooks.pub)
Vitro5
- Thus, phase entrainment properties, gene expression, and functional outputs of the α-cell and β-cell clockworks could be assessed in vivo and in vitro at the population and single-cell level. (nih.gov)
- Moreover, temporal insulin and glucagon secretion exhibited distinct oscillatory profiles both in vivo and in vitro. (nih.gov)
- We had also previously observed that if the clocks of human pancreatic cells were artificially disrupted in the cellular culture in vitro, secretion of the key islet hormones -- insulin and glucagon -- was compromised," says Volodymyr Petrenko, a researcher in Dr. Dibner's lab and the first author of these publications. (sciencedaily.com)
- Despite the fact that whole body SIRT4-KO mice demonstrated an age-induced increase in glucose- and leucine-stimulated insulin secretion, our current data indicate that the loss of SIRT4 specifically in pancreatic ß-cells, both in vivo and in vitro, does not have a significant impact on nutrient-stimulated insulin secretion. (bvsalud.org)
- In vitro experiments in transgene positive α-cells demonstrated that EGFP expression did not alter the intracellular Ca2+ pattern in response to glucose or adrenaline. (bvsalud.org)
Diabetes14
- Jointly, our data claim that miR-483 provides opposite results in - and -cells by concentrating on SOCS3, as well as the imbalance of miR-483 and its own goals may play an essential function in diabetes pathogenesis. (biotech2012.org)
- Two years ago, the team led by Charna Dibner, Principle Investigator in the Departments of Medicine and of Cell Physiology and Metabolism, and Diabetes Centre at UNIGE Faculty of Medicine, and at HUG, has already shown that in rodents the perturbation of pancreatic cellular clocks led to disrupted insulin and glucagon secretion, thus promoting the onset of diabetes. (sciencedaily.com)
- The moderate analyses revealed significantly interaction effect of 25(OH)D and glucagon on C-p ( P =0.0124), as well as the effect of 25(OH)D and duration of diabetes on glucagon/C-p in abdominal obesity group. (researchsquare.com)
- According to the range of the duration of diabetes, the conditional indirect effect of 25(OH)D on glucagon/C-p was significantly at 1 SD below the mean ( P =0.0002) and the mean of the duration of diabetes ( P =0.0007). (researchsquare.com)
- Duration of diabetes influence the effect of 25(OH)D on the ratio of glucagon/C-p, on behalf of islet function homeostasis, in T2D patients with abdominal obesity. (researchsquare.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is considered as a risk factor for diabetes type 2 (DM2), it is often associated with obesity, β-cell dysfunction or insulin resistance. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
- Results of low-dose recombinant human insulin-like development factor-I on insulin sensitivity, development hormone and glucagon ranges in younger adults with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. (ncbcs.org)
- We've studied the results of low-dose bolus subcutaneous rhIGF-I (40 microg/kg and 20 microg/kg) on insulin sensitivity, development hormone (GH) and glucagon ranges in seven younger adults with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) utilizing a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover research design. (ncbcs.org)
- Cytokine release from immune system cells characterizes many autoimmune inflammatory disorders, including type I diabetes, in which the inflammatory state causes β cell loss. (unict.it)
- Nevertheless, growing evidence supports a concomitant implication of glucagon secreting α cells in type I diabetes progression. (unict.it)
- Our demonstration that BetaPrep can be cryopreserved with full functionality opens the opportunity to develop an off-the-shelf cell product for diabetes. (bioville.be)
- Altogether, our studies aim to increase the understanding of insulin- and glucagon secretion in the complex disease diabetes. (lu.se)
- We consider how, over the last 20 years, advances in genetic engineering and cell culture techniques have improved the efficiency and efficacy of the transdifferentiation process and brought us closer to a clinically relevant therapy for type 1 diabetes (T1D). (silverchair.com)
- [ 3 ] Clinical trials are currently under way on the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of transplanting such cells in encapsulated forms in persons with type 1 diabetes, with results to be announced in the coming years. (medscape.com)
Metabolism1
- Glucagon plays an important role in glucose metabolism. (immune-system-research.com)
Glycogen1
- Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the α -cells of the pancreatic islets, raises the blood sugar by releasing liver glycogen as glucose. (bmj.com)
Hepatocytes3
- Glucagon moves through the blood and binds to receptor proteins located in the membrane of liver cells (hepatocytes). (quizlet.com)
- Hepatocytes are the liver cells. (histology-world.com)
- One well-established example of transdifferentiation is the conversion of hepatocytes to pancreatic β-cells. (silverchair.com)
Gamma1
- The gamma cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide. (histology-world.com)
GHIH1
- Glucagon secretion is inhibited by GHIH (samastostatin). (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
Secretory1
- With prolonged conflict activity ( hanging conflict ) a cauliflower-shaped growth ( secretory type ), referred to as a pancreatic cancer , develops as a result of the continuing cell augmentation (compare with " pancreatic cancer" related to the pancreatic ducts ). (learninggnm.com)
Gluconeogenesis2
- Pivotal role of type-1 inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor for glucagon-induced gluconeogenesis. (rochester.edu)
- GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. (lookformedical.com)
Hypothalamus1
- Glucagon is also produced in the intestinal L-cells and in small amounts in the hypothalamus. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
Molecule4
- A hormone is a molecule released by a cell in a multicellular organism that influences the behavior of another cell within the same organism. (quizlet.com)
- Moreover, using clock modulator molecule dubbed Nobiletin, extracted from lemon peel, the researchers succeeded in "repairing" the disrupted cellular clocks and in partial restoring of the islet cell function. (sciencedaily.com)
- Scientists in Italy and Texas now have discovered a new way that these cells die - by toxic imbalance of a molecule secreted by other pancreatic cells. (medicaldaily.com)
- Today, however, NAD is recognized as an important cell signaling molecule and substrate. (promegaconnections.com)
Secretin1
- In 1902, Balysis and Startling extracted and identified the first hormone secretin (secreted by cells in the intestinal mucosa), and, in 1927, McGee isolated and purified substances that were androgenic in small amounts (microgram levels). (medscape.com)
Blood18
- The reason, Hmeadi explains, is that α-cells are normally blocked by insulin and other hormones that are released at high blood glucose from nearby cells. (uu.se)
- The α cells secrete a hormone called glucagon, which acts to raise the blood glucose level. (keyence.com)
- Insulin moves through the blood and binds to receptor proteins located in the membrane of target cells, major ones being liver, skeletal muscle and fat. (quizlet.com)
- Insulin causes muscle and fat cells to take in glucose from the blood. (quizlet.com)
- Explain the role of glucagon in the control of blood glucose concentration. (quizlet.com)
- The level of glucagon in the blood rises sharply when the blood sugar falls, suggesting that the hormone plays a part in the regulation of the blood sugar level. (bmj.com)
- And specifically, insulin produced by β-cells lowers blood glucose, and glucagon secreted from α-cells opposes insulin action to maintain euglycemia [ 1 ] . (researchsquare.com)
- Secretion of glucagon is directly controlled by the level of blood sugar via a negative feedback system. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- Once the blood sugar level has risen cells are no longer stimulated, and production slackens. (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- It does this by accelerating the transport of glucose from the blood into cells (especially muscle). (ashfordstpeters.nhs.uk)
- Furthermore, frozen cells even exceed fresh cells in their blood glucose controlling capacity in the initial study, indicating an enrichment of the more potent cells during the freezing process. (bioville.be)
- The BetaPrep islet cell product shown above is characterized by a high purity for all key endocrine cell populations to allow a tight control of the blood glucose level. (bioville.be)
- Hemoglobin is the part of your red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. (blfh.org)
- If you have too much sugar in your blood, that's mean your cells can not absorb sugar as well as they should. (blfh.org)
- Furthermore, the administration of AAV GCG-EGFP at various doses to adult wild type mice did not significantly alter body weight, blood glucose, plasma insulin or glucagon levels, glucose tolerance or arginine tolerance. (bvsalud.org)
- Near the thyroid are 4 tiny pea-shaped organs, the parathyroids, that secrete parathormone to control and balance the levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluids. (medscape.com)
- It produces 2 hormones: vasopressin, which causes blood pressure to rise and regulates the amount of water in the body's cells, and oxytocin, which causes the uterus to contract during childbirth and lactation to begin. (medscape.com)
- HN - 2008 BX - Granulosa Cells, Cumulus MH - Coronary Sinus UI - D054326 MN - A07.231.908.194.500 MS - A short vein that collects about two thirds of the venous blood from the MYOCARDIUM and drains into the RIGHT ATRIUM. (bvsalud.org)
Liver1
- After a meal, the release of glucagon is normally blocked to prevent excessive production of glucose by the liver. (uu.se)
Levels5
- As expected, the experiments showed that glucagon is secreted during periods of low glucose, while high levels of the sugar efficiently block its release. (uu.se)
- The OLS regression and quantile regression further showed that 25(OH)D was associated with glucagon and fasting C-p levels in T2D patients with abdominal obesity. (researchsquare.com)
- Together they antagonistically fine-tune sugar levels: insulin clears circulating carbohydrate and promotes fat storage while glucagon plays a modulatory role. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
- Through qPCR, western blot and confocal analysis, we demonstrated higher expression levels of PARP-14 in αTC1.6 cells with respect to βTC1 cells under inflammatory stimuli. (unict.it)
- Gastrinomas may secrete not only high levels of gastrin, causing peptic ulcer disease (PUD) but also may secrete other hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and glucagon. (medscape.com)
Mice6
- This correlates with an increased appearance degree of miR-483 as well as the extended -cell mass seen in the islets of prediabetic db/db mice. (biotech2012.org)
- We performed FACS to obtain the purified - and -cells from Ins1-mRFP (34) and glucagon-Cre/Rosa26R-YFP (35) mice, respectively. (biotech2012.org)
- Because whole body SIRT4-KO mice had alterations to nutrient-stimulated insulin secretion, we hypothesized that SIRT4 plays a direct role in regulating pancreatic ß-cell function. (bvsalud.org)
- Thus, we tested whether ß-cell-specific ablation of SIRT4 would recapitulate the elevated insulin secretion seen in mice with a global loss of SIRT4. (bvsalud.org)
- Tamoxifen-inducible ß-cell-specific SIRT4-KO mice were generated, and their glucose tolerance and glucose- and leucine-stimulated insulin secretion were measured over time. (bvsalud.org)
- AAV GCG-EGFP delivery to mice followed by islet isolation, dispersion and separation by FACS for EGFP resulted in an 86% pure population of α-cells. (bvsalud.org)
Proteins3
- This study involves precisely defining by molecular techniques the individual signaling proteins expressed in the acinar cell and then subsequently assessing if individual agonists utilize discrete and different elements of the PI-signaling pathway. (rochester.edu)
- Considering vitamin D-binding proteins (DBP), which could bind and transport vitamin D to vitamin D receptor (VDR) in the nucleus, was highly present in human islet α-cells and also seen in islet β-cells, 25(OH)D may also contribute to glucagon secretion from α-cells. (researchsquare.com)
- Cellular identity is determined by the transcriptional profile which comprises the subset of mRNAs, and therefore proteins, being expressed by a cell at a given point in time. (silverchair.com)
Concentration1
- Recently some studies reveal that α-cells lacking DBP secrete less glucagon in response to low glucose concentration despite vitamin D sufficiency[10], and glucagon has a physiologic role to activate β-cells and enhance insulin secretion especially in the fed state [ 11 ] . (researchsquare.com)