A front limb of a quadruped. (The Random House College Dictionary, 1980)
Either of two extremities of four-footed non-primate land animals. It usually consists of a FEMUR; TIBIA; and FIBULA; tarsals; METATARSALS; and TOES. (From Storer et al., General Zoology, 6th ed, p73)
Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms.
The farthest or outermost projections of the body, such as the HAND and FOOT.
The comparative study of animal structure with regard to homologous organs or parts. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Area of the FRONTAL LOBE concerned with primary motor control located in the dorsal PRECENTRAL GYRUS immediately anterior to the central sulcus. It is comprised of three areas: the primary motor cortex located on the anterior paracentral lobule on the medial surface of the brain; the premotor cortex located anterior to the primary motor cortex; and the supplementary motor area located on the midline surface of the hemisphere anterior to the primary motor cortex.
Distinct regions of mesenchymal outgrowth at both flanks of an embryo during the SOMITE period. Limb buds, covered by ECTODERM, give rise to forelimb, hindlimb, and eventual functional limb structures. Limb bud cultures are used to study CELL DIFFERENTIATION; ORGANOGENESIS; and MORPHOGENESIS.
The inner and longer bone of the FOREARM.
Fibers that arise from cells within the cerebral cortex, pass through the medullary pyramid, and descend in the spinal cord. Many authorities say the pyramidal tracts include both the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts.
A departure from the normal gait in animals.
A pinkish-yellow portion of the midbrain situated in the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. It receives a large projection from the contralateral half of the CEREBELLUM via the superior cerebellar peduncle and a projection from the ipsilateral MOTOR CORTEX.
The region corresponding to the human WRIST in non-human ANIMALS.
The act, process, or result of passing from one place or position to another. It differs from LOCOMOTION in that locomotion is restricted to the passing of the whole body from one place to another, while movement encompasses both locomotion but also a change of the position of the whole body or any of its parts. Movement may be used with reference to humans, vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. Differentiate also from MOTOR ACTIVITY, movement associated with behavior.
A species of newt in the Salamandridae family in which the larvae transform into terrestrial eft stage and later into an aquatic adult. They occur from Canada to southern United States. Viridescens refers to the greenish color often found in this species.
An order of the class MAMMALS that consists of one family, TUPAIIDAE (tree shrews), 5 genera (one of which is TUPAIA), and 16 species. Their recent distribution is from India to the Philippines, southern China to Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Bali, and other islands in those regions.
The properties, processes, and behavior of biological systems under the action of mechanical forces.
Congenital structural deformities of the upper and lower extremities collectively or unspecified.
Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving sensations such as movement, pain, pressure, position, temperature, touch, and vibration. It lies posterior to the central sulcus.
The domestic cat, Felis catus, of the carnivore family FELIDAE, comprising over 30 different breeds. The domestic cat is descended primarily from the wild cat of Africa and extreme southwestern Asia. Though probably present in towns in Palestine as long ago as 7000 years, actual domestication occurred in Egypt about 4000 years ago. (From Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed, p801)
Slow-moving exclusively arboreal mammals that inhabit the tropical forests of South and Central America.
A family of Urodela consisting of 15 living genera and about 42 species and occurring in North America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa.
Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.
Bone in humans and primates extending from the SHOULDER JOINT to the ELBOW JOINT.
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot.
General name for two extinct orders of reptiles from the Mesozoic era: Saurischia and Ornithischia.
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
The morphologic and physiological changes of the MUSCLES, bones (BONE AND BONES), and CARTILAGE of the body, i.e., MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM, during the prenatal and postnatal stages of development.
A partial or complete return to the normal or proper physiologic activity of an organ or part following disease or trauma.
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a nerve center toward a peripheral site. Such impulses are conducted via efferent neurons (NEURONS, EFFERENT), such as MOTOR NEURONS, autonomic neurons, and hypophyseal neurons.
A genus of the family CEBIDAE consisting of four species: S. boliviensis, S. orstedii (red-backed squirrel monkey), S. sciureus (common squirrel monkey), and S. ustus. They inhabit tropical rain forests in Central and South America. S. sciureus is used extensively in research studies.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
Remains, impressions, or traces of animals or plants of past geological times which have been preserved in the earth's crust.
The bones of the upper and lower ARM. They include the CLAVICLE and SCAPULA.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
Performance of complex motor acts.
The cat family in the order CARNIVORA comprised of muscular, deep-chested terrestrial carnivores with a highly predatory lifestyle.
A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.
Application of electric current to the spine for treatment of a variety of conditions involving innervation from the spinal cord.
An outbred strain of rats developed in 1915 by crossing several Wistar Institute white females with a wild gray male. Inbred strains have been derived from this original outbred strain, including Long-Evans cinnamon rats (RATS, INBRED LEC) and Otsuka-Long-Evans-Tokushima Fatty rats (RATS, INBRED OLETF), which are models for Wilson's disease and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, respectively.
The outer shorter of the two bones of the FOREARM, lying parallel to the ULNA and partially revolving around it.
Proteins containing a region of conserved sequence, about 200 amino acids long, which encodes a particular sequence specific DNA binding domain (the T-box domain). These proteins are transcription factors that control developmental pathways. The prototype of this family is the mouse Brachyury (or T) gene product.
In a medical context, the term "wing" is not typically used as a standalone definition; however, it can refer to various flat, wing-shaped structures in anatomy, such as the iliac wings of the pelvis or the zygomatic wings of the cheekbone.
Flat keratinous structures found on the skin surface of birds. Feathers are made partly of a hollow shaft fringed with barbs. They constitute the plumage.
Works containing information articles on subjects in every field of knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order, or a similar work limited to a special field or subject. (From The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983)
The study of animals - their morphology, growth, distribution, classification, and behavior.
The use of wings or wing-like appendages to remain aloft and move through the air.

Complete compensation in skilled reaching success with associated impairments in limb synergies, after dorsal column lesion in the rat. (1/1162)

Each of the dorsal columns of the rat spinal cord conveys primary sensory information, by way of the medullary dorsal column nucleus, to the ventrobasal thalamus on the contralateral side; thus the dorsal columns are an important source of neural input to the sensorimotor cortex. Damage to the dorsal columns causes impairments in synergistic proximal or whole-body movements in cats and distal limb impairments in primates, particularly in multiarticulated finger movements and tactile foviation while handling objects, but the behavioral effects of afferent fiber lesions in the dorsal columns of rodents have not been described. Female Long-Evans rats were trained to reach with a forelimb for food pellets and subsequently received lesions of the dorsomedial spinal cord at the C2 level, ipsilateral to their preferred limb. Reaching success completely recovered within a few days of dorsal column lesion. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of high-speed video recordings revealed that rotatory limb movements (aiming, pronation, supination, etc.) were irreversibly impaired. Compensation was achieved with whole-body and alternate limb movements. These results indicate the following: (1) in the absence of the dorsal columns, other sensorimotor pathways support endpoint success in reaching; (2) sensory input conveyed by the dorsal columns is important for both proximal and distal limb movements used for skilled reaching; and (3) detailed behavioral analyses in addition to endpoint measures are necessary to completely describe the effects of dorsal column lesions.  (+info)

Source of inappropriate receptive fields in cortical somatotopic maps from rats that sustained neonatal forelimb removal. (2/1162)

Previously this laboratory demonstrated that forelimb removal at birth in rats results in the invasion of the cuneate nucleus by sciatic nerve axons and the development of cuneothalamic cells with receptive fields that include both the forelimb-stump and the hindlimb. However, unit-cluster recordings from primary somatosensory cortex (SI) of these animals revealed few sites in the forelimb-stump representation where responses to hindlimb stimulation also could be recorded. Recently we reported that hindlimb inputs to the SI forelimb-stump representation are suppressed functionally in neonatally amputated rats and that GABAergic inhibition is involved in this process. The present study was undertaken to assess the role that intracortical projections from the SI hindlimb representation may play in the functional reorganization of the SI forelimb-stump field in these animals. The SI forelimb-stump representation was mapped during gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-receptor blockade, both before and after electrolytic destruction of the SI hindlimb representation. Analysis of eight amputated rats showed that 75.8% of 264 stump recording sites possessed hindlimb receptive fields before destruction of the SI hindlimb. After the lesions, significantly fewer sites (13.2% of 197) were responsive to hindlimb stimulation (P < 0.0001). Electrolytic destruction of the SI lower-jaw representation in four additional control rats with neonatal forelimb amputation did not significantly reduce the percentage of hindlimb-responsive sites in the SI stump field during GABA-receptor blockade (P = 0.98). Similar results were obtained from three manipulated rats in which the SI hindlimb representation was silenced temporarily with a local cobalt chloride injection. Analysis of response latencies to sciatic nerve stimulation in the hindlimb and forelimb-stump representations suggested that the intracortical pathway(s) mediating the hindlimb responses in the forelimb-stump field may be polysynaptic. The mean latency to sciatic nerve stimulation at responsive sites in the GABA-receptor blocked SI stump representation of neonatally amputated rats was significantly longer than that for recording sites in the hindlimb representation [26.3 +/- 8.1 (SD) ms vs. 10.8 +/- 2.4 ms, respectively, P < 0.0001]. These results suggest that hindlimb input to the SI forelimb-stump representation detected in GABA-blocked cortices of neonatally forelimb amputated rats originates primarily from the SI hindlimb representation.  (+info)

Essential roles of retinoic acid signaling in interdigital apoptosis and control of BMP-7 expression in mouse autopods. (3/1162)

We previously reported that mice lacking the RARgamma gene and one or both alleles of the RARbeta gene (i.e., RARbeta+/-/RARgamma-/- and RARbeta-/-/RARgamma-/- mutants) display a severe and fully penetrant interdigital webbing (soft tissue syndactyly), caused by the persistence of the fetal interdigital mesenchyme (Ghyselinck et al., 1997, Int. J. Dev. Biol. 41, 425-447). In the present study, these compound mutants were used to investigate the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in retinoic acid (RA)-dependent formation of the interdigital necrotic zones (INZs). The mutant INZs show a marked decrease in the number of apoptotic cells accompanied by an increase of cell proliferation. This marked decrease was not paralleled by a reduction of the number of macrophages, indicating that the chemotactic cues which normally attract these cells into the INZs were not affected. The expression of a number of genes known to be involved in the establishment of the INZs, the patterning of the autopod, and/or the initiation of apoptosis was also unaffected. These genes included BMP-2, BMP-4, Msx-1, Msx-2, 5' members of Hox complexes, Bcl2, Bax, and p53. In contrast, the mutant INZs displayed a specific, graded, down-regulation of tissue transglutaminase (tTG) promoter activity and of stromelysin-3 expression upon the removal of one or both alleles of the RARbeta gene from the RARgamma null genetic background. As retinoic acid response elements are present in the promoter regions of both tTG and stromelysin-3 genes, we propose that RA might increase the amount of cell death in the INZs through a direct modulation of tTG expression and that it also contributes to the process of tissue remodeling, which accompanies cell death, through an up-regulation of stromelysin-3 expression in the INZs. Approximately 10% of the RARbeta-/- /RARgamma-/- mutants displayed a supernumerary preaxial digit on hindfeet, which is also a feature of the BMP-7 null phenotype (Dudley et al., 1995, Genes Dev. 9, 2795-2807; Luo et al., 1995, Genes Dev. 9, 2808-2820). BMP-7 was globally down-regulated at an early stage in the autopods of these RAR double null mutants, prior to the appearance of the digital rays. Therefore, RA may exert some of its effects on anteroposterior autopod patterning through controlling BMP-7 expression.  (+info)

Targeted disruption of Smad3 reveals an essential role in transforming growth factor beta-mediated signal transduction. (4/1162)

The Smads are a family of nine related proteins which function as signaling intermediates for the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of ligands. To discern the in vivo functions of one of these Smads, Smad3, we generated mice harboring a targeted disruption of this gene. Smad3 null mice, although smaller than wild-type littermates, are viable, survive to adulthood, and exhibit an early phenotype of forelimb malformation. To study the cellular functions of Smad3, we generated Smad3 null mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and dermal fibroblasts. We demonstrate that null MEFs have lost the ability to form Smad-containing DNA binding complexes and are unable to induce transcription from the TGF-beta-responsive promoter construct, p3TP-lux. Using the primary dermal fibroblasts, we also demonstrate that Smad3 is integral for induction of endogenous plasminogen activator inhibitor 1. We subsequently demonstrate that Smad3 null MEFs are partially resistant to TGF-beta's antiproliferative effect, thus firmly establishing a role for Smad3 in TGF-beta-mediated growth inhibition. We next examined cells in which Smad3 is most highly expressed, specifically cells of immune origin. Although no specific developmental defect was detected in the immune system of the Smad3 null mice, a functional defect was observed in the ability of TGF-beta to inhibit the proliferation of splenocytes activated by specific stimuli. In addition, primary splenocytes display defects in TGF-beta-mediated repression of cytokine production. These data, taken together, establish a role for Smad3 in mediating the antiproliferative effects of TGF-beta and implicate Smad3 as a potential effector for TGF-beta in modulating immune system function.  (+info)

Molecular cloning of the Notophthalmus viridescens radical fringe cDNA and characterization of its expression during forelimb development and adult forelimb regeneration. (5/1162)

Larval and adult newts provide important experimental models to study limb development and regeneration. These animals have exceptional ability to regenerate their appendages, as well as other vital structures. Our research examines the role of the fringe gene (fng) in the developing and regenerating adult newt forelimb. Fringe codes for a secretory protein. It was first discovered in Drosophila, and later homologues were isolated in Xenopus laevis, chick and mouse. This gene has been highly conserved throughout evolution, indicating its crucial role in vertebrate and invertebrate development. We have isolated, cloned, and sequenced the full length of the Notophthalmus viridescens radical fringe cDNA (nrFng) by screening a newt forelimb blastema cDNA library with a 500-bp fragment of the Xenopus lunatic fringe cDNA. The newt fringe cDNA codes for a 396 amino acid protein with a predicted N-terminal signal sequence. Newt fringe shows high homology with radical fringe homologues of many species. Whole mount mRNA in situ hybridization on several stages of newt limb development reveals that nrFng is first expressed in the limb field, with intense expression as the limb bud develops. However, gene expression diminishes with more advanced digit development. A significant role in adult forelimb regeneration is also evident, as we isolated the cDNA from a regeneration-specific library and found it highly expressed during the regenerative phases of active cell division and then down regulated at sites undergoing differentiation and morphogenesis.  (+info)

Salinomycin-induced polyneuropathy in cats: morphologic and epidemiologic data. (6/1162)

In April 1996, an outbreak of toxic polyneuropathy in cats occurred in the Netherlands. All cats had been fed one of two brands of dry cat food from one manufacturer. Chemical analyses of these foods, stomach contents, and liver and kidney of affected cats revealed contamination with the ionophor salinomycin. Epidemiologic and clinical data were collected from 823 cats, or about 1% of the cats at risk. In 21 affected cats, postmortem examination was performed. The affected cats had acute onset of lameness and paralysis of the hindlimbs followed by the forelimbs. Clinical and pathologic examination indicated a distal polyneuropathy involving both the sensory and motor nerves.  (+info)

Hindlimb patterning and mandible development require the Ptx1 gene. (7/1162)

The restricted expression of the Ptx1 (Pitx1) gene in the posterior half of the lateral plate mesoderm has suggested that it may play a role in specification of posterior structures, in particular, specification of hindlimb identity. Ptx1 is also expressed in the most anterior ectoderm, the stomodeum, and in the first branchial arch. Ptx1 expression overlaps with that of Ptx2 in stomodeum and in posterior left lateral plate mesoderm. We now show that targeted inactivation of the mouse Ptx1 gene severely impairs hindlimb development: the ilium and knee cartilage are absent and the long bones are underdeveloped. Greater reduction of the right femur size in Ptx1 null mice suggests partial compensation by Ptx2 on the left side. The similarly sized tibia and fibula of mutant hindlimbs may be taken to resemble forelimb bones: however, the mutant limb buds appear to have retained their molecular identity as assessed by forelimb expression of Tbx5 and by hindlimb expression of Tbx4, even though Tbx4 expression is decreased in Ptx1 null mice. The hindlimb defects appear to be, at least partly, due to abnormal chondrogenesis. Since the most affected structures derive from the dorsal side of hindlimb buds, the data suggest that Ptx1 is responsible for patterning of these dorsal structures and that as such it may control development of hindlimb-specific features. Ptx1 inactivation also leads to loss of bones derived from the proximal part of the mandibular mesenchyme. The dual role of Ptx1 revealed by the gene knockout may reflect features of the mammalian jaw and hindlimbs that were acquired at a similar time during tetrapod evolution.  (+info)

The response of the brachial ventral horn or Xenopus laevis to forelimb amputation during development. (8/1162)

The normal development of the brachial ventral horn of the frog Xenopus laevis and the response of the brachial ventral horn to complete forelimb extirpation at five developmental stages were assessed histologically. Differentiation of brachial ventral horn neurons occurred in pre-metamorphic tadpoles between stages 52/53 and 57. Mean cell number in the brachial ventral horn reached a peak of 2576 (S.E.M. equals +/- 269, N equals 2) per side of the spinal cord at stage 55 and decreased to 1070 (S.E.M. equals +/- 35, n equals 7) by the end of metamorphosis. Cell degeneration was presumed to be the mode of cell loss since it was most prevalent during the period of rapid decrease in cell numbers. The response of the ventral horn to forelimb removal varied with the stage of the animal at amputation. Following amputation at stage 52/53 or 54 the ipsilateral ventral horn neurons appeared less differentiated than those on the control side and a rapid cell loss of about 80% occurred on the operated side. These effects occurred more rapidly after ablation at stage 54 than at stage 52/53. Amputation at stage 58, 61, or 66 caused chromatolysis in the ventral horn, a period of relative cell excess on the operated side, and a delayed neuronal loss of 32-66%. It was concluded that excess cell degeneration accounted for cell loss and that suppression of normal neuronal degeneration caused the relative cell excess on the operated side. The data indicate that the brachial ventral horn was indifferent to the periphery before stage 54, was quickly affected by limb removal between stages 54 and 58, and by stage 58 had entered a phase in which a delay preceded cell death. No forelimb regeneration occurred.  (+info)

A forelimb is a term used in animal anatomy to refer to the upper limbs located in the front of the body, primarily involved in movement and manipulation of the environment. In humans, this would be equivalent to the arms, while in quadrupedal animals (those that move on four legs), it includes the structures that are comparable to both the arms and legs of humans, such as the front legs of dogs or the forepaws of cats. The bones that make up a typical forelimb include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

A hindlimb, also known as a posterior limb, is one of the pair of extremities that are located distally to the trunk in tetrapods (four-legged vertebrates) and include mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. In humans and other primates, hindlimbs are equivalent to the lower limbs, which consist of the thigh, leg, foot, and toes.

The primary function of hindlimbs is locomotion, allowing animals to move from one place to another. However, they also play a role in other activities such as balance, support, and communication. In humans, the hindlimbs are responsible for weight-bearing, standing, walking, running, and jumping.

In medical terminology, the term "hindlimb" is not commonly used to describe human anatomy. Instead, healthcare professionals use terms like lower limbs or lower extremities to refer to the same region of the body. However, in comparative anatomy and veterinary medicine, the term hindlimb is still widely used to describe the corresponding structures in non-human animals.

Locomotion, in a medical context, refers to the ability to move independently and change location. It involves the coordinated movement of the muscles, bones, and nervous system that enables an individual to move from one place to another. This can include walking, running, jumping, or using assistive devices such as wheelchairs or crutches. Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of human mobility and is often assessed in medical evaluations to determine overall health and functioning.

The term "extremities" in a medical context refers to the most distant parts of the body, including the hands and feet (both fingers and toes), as well as the arms and legs. These are the farthest parts from the torso and head. Medical professionals may examine a patient's extremities for various reasons, such as checking circulation, assessing nerve function, or looking for injuries or abnormalities.

Comparative anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that deals with the study and comparison of the structures and functions of different species, including humans. It involves the examination of similarities and differences in the anatomy of various organisms to understand their evolutionary relationships and adaptations. This field helps scientists to understand the development and function of body structures, as well as the evolutionary history of different species. By comparing and contrasting the anatomy of different organisms, researchers can gain insights into the functions and workings of various bodily systems and how they have evolved over time.

The motor cortex is a region in the frontal lobe of the brain that is responsible for controlling voluntary movements. It is involved in planning, initiating, and executing movements of the limbs, body, and face. The motor cortex contains neurons called Betz cells, which have large cell bodies and are responsible for transmitting signals to the spinal cord to activate muscles. Damage to the motor cortex can result in various movement disorders such as hemiplegia or paralysis on one side of the body.

Limb buds are embryological structures that develop in the early stages of fetal growth and give rise to future limbs. In humans, they appear around the 4th week of gestation as thickenings on the sides of the body trunk. These buds consist of a core of mesenchymal tissue surrounded by ectoderm. The mesenchyme will later differentiate into bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and cartilages, while the ectoderm will form the skin and nervous tissues, including sensory organs in the limbs.

The development of limb buds is regulated by a complex interplay of genetic and molecular factors that control their outgrowth, patterning, and differentiation into specific limb components. Abnormalities during this process can lead to various congenital limb defects or deformations.

The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It runs from the elbow to the wrist and is located on the medial side of the forearm, next to the bone called the humerus in the upper arm. The ulna plays a crucial role in the movement of the forearm and also serves as an attachment site for various muscles.

The pyramidal tracts, also known as the corticospinal tracts, are bundles of nerve fibers that run through the brainstem and spinal cord, originating from the cerebral cortex. These tracts are responsible for transmitting motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and control of the body.

The pyramidal tracts originate from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain and decussate (cross over) in the lower medulla oblongata before continuing down the spinal cord. The left pyramidal tract controls muscles on the right side of the body, while the right pyramidal tract controls muscles on the left side of the body.

Damage to the pyramidal tracts can result in various motor impairments, such as weakness or paralysis, spasticity, and loss of fine motor control, depending on the location and extent of the damage.

Lameness in animals refers to an alteration in the animal's normal gait or movement, which is often caused by pain, injury, or disease affecting the locomotor system. This can include structures such as bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments. The severity of lameness can vary from subtle to non-weight bearing, and it can affect one or more limbs.

Lameness can have various causes, including trauma, infection, degenerative diseases, congenital defects, and neurological disorders. In order to diagnose and treat lameness in animals, a veterinarian will typically perform a physical examination, observe the animal's gait and movement, and may use diagnostic imaging techniques such as X-rays or ultrasound to identify the underlying cause. Treatment for lameness can include medication, rest, physical therapy, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

The red nucleus is a round-shaped collection of neurons located in the midbrain, specifically in the rostral part of the mesencephalon. It is called "red" due to its deep red color, which comes from the rich vascularization and numerous iron-containing red blood cells present in the region.

The red nucleus plays a crucial role in the motor system, primarily involved in controlling and coordinating movements, particularly on the contralateral side of the body. It is part of the rubrospinal tract, which descends from the red nucleus to the spinal cord and helps regulate fine motor movements and muscle tone.

There are two main types of neurons present in the red nucleus: magnocellular (large cells) and parvocellular (small cells). Magnocellular neurons form the rubrospinal tract, while parvocellular neurons project to the inferior olivary nucleus, which is part of the cerebellum. The connections between the red nucleus, cerebellum, and spinal cord allow for the integration and coordination of motor information and the execution of smooth movements.

Damage to the red nucleus can result in various motor impairments, such as ataxia (lack of muscle coordination), tremors, and weakness on the contralateral side of the body.

The carpus is the region of the forelimb in animals that corresponds to the wrist in humans. It is located between the radius and ulna bones of the forearm and the metacarpal bones of the paw. The carpus is made up of several small bones called carpals, which provide flexibility and support for movement of the limb. The number and arrangement of these bones can vary among different animal species.

In the context of medicine and healthcare, "movement" refers to the act or process of changing physical location or position. It involves the contraction and relaxation of muscles, which allows for the joints to move and the body to be in motion. Movement can also refer to the ability of a patient to move a specific body part or limb, which is assessed during physical examinations. Additionally, "movement" can describe the progression or spread of a disease within the body.

"Notophthalmus viridescens" is the scientific name for a species of salamander, commonly known as the Eastern Newt or the Red-spotted Newt. It is not a medical term. The Eastern Newt is found in the eastern parts of North America and undergoes three distinct life stages: aquatic larva, terrestrial juvenile (known as an "ef," short for "effluent"), and fully aquatic adult. They are known for their distinctive coloration and toxic skin secretions, which serve as a defense against predators.

Scandentia, also known as tree shrews, is not typically considered a part of human or animal medicine. It is a distinct order of small mammals that are closely related to primates and other placental mammals. They primarily consist of tropical rainforest dwellers found in Southeast Asia.

However, from a zoological perspective, Scandentia is a group of small, omnivorous mammals that include tree shrews. They are characterized by their small size, pointed snouts, and large eyes. Some researchers have suggested that they might be useful models for studying certain human diseases due to their close evolutionary relationship with primates. But, again, this is more related to biological research than medical practice.

Biomechanics is the application of mechanical laws to living structures and systems, particularly in the field of medicine and healthcare. A biomechanical phenomenon refers to a observable event or occurrence that involves the interaction of biological tissues or systems with mechanical forces. These phenomena can be studied at various levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the tissue, organ, and whole-body level.

Examples of biomechanical phenomena include:

1. The way that bones and muscles work together to produce movement (known as joint kinematics).
2. The mechanical behavior of biological tissues such as bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments under various loads and stresses.
3. The response of cells and tissues to mechanical stimuli, such as the way that bone tissue adapts to changes in loading conditions (known as Wolff's law).
4. The biomechanics of injury and disease processes, such as the mechanisms of joint injury or the development of osteoarthritis.
5. The use of mechanical devices and interventions to treat medical conditions, such as orthopedic implants or assistive devices for mobility impairments.

Understanding biomechanical phenomena is essential for developing effective treatments and prevention strategies for a wide range of medical conditions, from musculoskeletal injuries to neurological disorders.

Congenital limb deformities refer to abnormalities in the structure, position, or function of the arms or legs that are present at birth. These deformities can vary greatly in severity and may affect any part of the limb, including the bones, muscles, joints, and nerves.

Congenital limb deformities can be caused by genetic factors, exposure to certain medications or chemicals during pregnancy, or other environmental factors. Some common types of congenital limb deformities include:

1. Clubfoot: A condition in which the foot is twisted out of shape, making it difficult to walk normally.
2. Polydactyly: A condition in which a person is born with extra fingers or toes.
3. Radial clubhand: A rare condition in which the radius bone in the forearm is missing or underdeveloped, causing the hand to turn inward and the wrist to bend.
4. Amniotic band syndrome: A condition in which strands of the amniotic sac wrap around a developing limb, restricting its growth and leading to deformities.
5. Agenesis: A condition in which a limb or part of a limb is missing at birth.

Treatment for congenital limb deformities may include surgery, bracing, physical therapy, or other interventions depending on the severity and nature of the deformity. In some cases, early intervention and treatment can help to improve function and reduce the impact of the deformity on a person's daily life.

The somatosensory cortex is a part of the brain located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, which is responsible for processing sensory information from the body. It receives and integrates tactile, proprioceptive, and thermoception inputs from the skin, muscles, joints, and internal organs, allowing us to perceive and interpret touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, position, and movement of our body parts. The somatosensory cortex is organized in a map-like manner, known as the sensory homunculus, where each body part is represented according to its relative sensitivity and density of innervation. This organization allows for precise localization and discrimination of tactile stimuli across the body surface.

"Cat" is a common name that refers to various species of small carnivorous mammals that belong to the family Felidae. The domestic cat, also known as Felis catus or Felis silvestris catus, is a popular pet and companion animal. It is a subspecies of the wildcat, which is found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Domestic cats are often kept as pets because of their companionship, playful behavior, and ability to hunt vermin. They are also valued for their ability to provide emotional support and therapy to people. Cats are obligate carnivores, which means that they require a diet that consists mainly of meat to meet their nutritional needs.

Cats are known for their agility, sharp senses, and predatory instincts. They have retractable claws, which they use for hunting and self-defense. Cats also have a keen sense of smell, hearing, and vision, which allow them to detect prey and navigate their environment.

In medical terms, cats can be hosts to various parasites and diseases that can affect humans and other animals. Some common feline diseases include rabies, feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and toxoplasmosis. It is important for cat owners to keep their pets healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations and preventative treatments to protect both the cats and their human companions.

Sloths are not a medical term, but rather they refer to slow-moving mammals that live in the trees of Central and South American rainforests. The term "sloth" is used in medicine to describe a state of being, specifically a lack of activity or a delay in making progress or taking action. In this context, it's not related to the animal. If you are looking for information about the sloth animal, I can certainly help with that as well!

Salamandridae is not a medical term, but a taxonomic designation in the field of biology. It refers to a family of amphibians commonly known as newts and salamanders. These creatures are characterized by their slender bodies, moist skin, and four legs. Some species have the ability to regenerate lost body parts, including limbs, spinal cord, heart, and more.

If you're looking for a medical term, please provide more context or check if you may have made a typo in your question.

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles during contraction and at rest. It involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record the electrical signals generated by the muscle fibers. These signals are then displayed on an oscilloscope and may be heard through a speaker.

EMG can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, and can distinguish between muscle and nerve disorders. It is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests, such as nerve conduction studies, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the nervous system.

EMG is typically performed by a neurologist or a physiatrist, and the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain, although this is usually minimal. The results of an EMG can help guide treatment decisions and monitor the progression of neuromuscular conditions over time.

The humerus is the long bone in the upper arm that extends from the shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) to the elbow joint. It articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the shoulder joint and with the radius and ulna bones at the elbow joint. The proximal end of the humerus has a rounded head that provides for movement in multiple planes, making it one of the most mobile joints in the body. The greater and lesser tubercles are bony prominences on the humeral head that serve as attachment sites for muscles that move the shoulder and arm. The narrow shaft of the humerus provides stability and strength for weight-bearing activities, while the distal end forms two articulations: one with the ulna (trochlea) and one with the radius (capitulum). Together, these structures allow for a wide range of motion in the shoulder and elbow joints.

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Functional laterality, in a medical context, refers to the preferential use or performance of one side of the body over the other for specific functions. This is often demonstrated in hand dominance, where an individual may be right-handed or left-handed, meaning they primarily use their right or left hand for tasks such as writing, eating, or throwing.

However, functional laterality can also apply to other bodily functions and structures, including the eyes (ocular dominance), ears (auditory dominance), or legs. It's important to note that functional laterality is not a strict binary concept; some individuals may exhibit mixed dominance or no strong preference for one side over the other.

In clinical settings, assessing functional laterality can be useful in diagnosing and treating various neurological conditions, such as stroke or traumatic brain injury, where understanding any resulting lateralized impairments can inform rehabilitation strategies.

Dinosaurs are a group of reptiles that were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates for over 160 million years, from the late Triassic period until the end of the Cretaceous period. They first appeared approximately 230 million years ago and went extinct around 65 million years ago.

Dinosaurs are characterized by their upright stance, with legs positioned directly under their bodies, and a wide range of body sizes and shapes. Some dinosaurs were enormous, such as the long-necked sauropods that could reach lengths of over 100 feet, while others were small and agile.

Dinosaurs are classified into two main groups: the saurischians (lizard-hipped) and the ornithischians (bird-hipped). The saurischians include both the large carnivorous theropods, such as Tyrannosaurus rex, and the long-necked sauropods. The ornithischians were primarily herbivores and included a diverse array of species, such as the armored ankylosaurs and the horned ceratopsians.

Despite their extinction, dinosaurs have left a lasting impact on our planet and continue to be a source of fascination for people of all ages. The study of dinosaurs, known as paleontology, has shed light on many aspects of Earth's history and the evolution of life on our planet.

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

Musculoskeletal development is a process that involves the growth and development of the muscles, bones, joints, and related tissues from birth through adulthood. This complex process is regulated by genetic, environmental, and behavioral factors and is critical for overall health, mobility, and quality of life.

During musculoskeletal development, bones grow in length and diameter, muscle mass increases, and joints become stronger and more stable. The process involves the coordinated growth and maturation of various tissues, including cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and nerves. Proper nutrition, physical activity, and injury prevention are essential for optimal musculoskeletal development.

Abnormalities in musculoskeletal development can lead to a range of conditions, such as muscular dystrophy, osteoporosis, scoliosis, and joint injuries. These conditions can have significant impacts on an individual's physical function, mobility, and overall health, making it essential to promote healthy musculoskeletal development throughout the lifespan.

"Recovery of function" is a term used in medical rehabilitation to describe the process in which an individual regains the ability to perform activities or tasks that were previously difficult or impossible due to injury, illness, or disability. This can involve both physical and cognitive functions. The goal of recovery of function is to help the person return to their prior level of independence and participation in daily activities, work, and social roles as much as possible.

Recovery of function may be achieved through various interventions such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech-language therapy, and other rehabilitation strategies. The specific approach used will depend on the individual's needs and the nature of their impairment. Recovery of function can occur spontaneously as the body heals, or it may require targeted interventions to help facilitate the process.

It is important to note that recovery of function does not always mean a full return to pre-injury or pre-illness levels of ability. Instead, it often refers to the person's ability to adapt and compensate for any remaining impairments, allowing them to achieve their maximum level of functional independence and quality of life.

Efferent pathways refer to the neural connections that carry signals from the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, to the peripheral effectors such as muscles and glands. These pathways are responsible for the initiation and control of motor responses, as well as regulating various autonomic functions.

Efferent pathways can be divided into two main types:

1. Somatic efferent pathways: These pathways carry signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movements and postural control. The final common pathway for somatic motor innervation is the alpha-motor neuron, which synapses directly onto skeletal muscle fibers.
2. Autonomic efferent pathways: These pathways regulate the function of internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands. They are further divided into two subtypes: sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, while the parasympathetic system promotes rest and digestion. Both systems use a two-neuron chain to transmit signals from the CNS to the effector organs. The preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the CNS and synapses with the postganglionic neuron in an autonomic ganglion located near the effector organ. The postganglionic neuron then innervates the target organ or tissue.

In summary, efferent pathways are the neural connections that carry signals from the CNS to peripheral effectors, enabling motor responses and regulating various autonomic functions. They can be divided into somatic and autonomic efferent pathways, with further subdivisions within the autonomic system.

"Saimiri" is the genus name for the group of primates known as squirrel monkeys. These small, agile New World monkeys are native to Central and South America and are characterized by their slim bodies, long limbs, and distinctive hairless faces with large eyes. They are omnivorous and known for their active, quick-moving behavior in the trees. There are several species of squirrel monkey, including the Central American squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii) and the much more widespread common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus).

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

In medical terms, "fossils" do not have a specific or direct relevance to the field. However, in a broader scientific context, fossils are the remains or impressions of prehistoric organisms preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock. They offer valuable evidence about the Earth's history and the life forms that existed on it millions of years ago.

Paleopathology is a subfield of paleontology that deals with the study of diseases in fossils, which can provide insights into the evolution of diseases and human health over time.

The bones that make up the upper extremity, also known as the upper limb, include those found in the arm, shoulder, and wrist. Here is a medical definition of each bone in the upper extremity:

1. Clavicle (Collarbone): A long, S-shaped bone located in the anterior part of the shoulder region that connects the trunk to the arm. It acts as a strut between the scapula and the sternum, providing support and protection for the underlying structures such as blood vessels and nerves.
2. Scapula (Shoulder Blade): A flat, triangular bone located on the posterior aspect of the shoulder region. The scapula has several important functions, including anchoring muscles that move the arm and serving as a site of attachment for the clavicle.
3. Humerus: The longest bone in the upper extremity, located in the arm between the shoulder and elbow. It has a proximal end (head) that articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula to form the shoulder joint, and a distal end (epicondyles) that articulates with the radius and ulna bones to form the elbow joint.
4. Radius: One of two bones in the forearm located laterally (on the thumb side). It has a proximal end that articulates with the humerus at the elbow joint, and a distal end that articulates with the carpals of the wrist. The radius also has a unique feature called the radial head, which is a rounded articular surface that allows for rotation of the forearm.
5. Ulna: One of two bones in the forearm located medially (on the pinky side). It has a proximal end that articulates with the humerus at the elbow joint, and a distal end that articulates with the carpals of the wrist. The ulna also has a prominent process called the olecranon, which forms the bony prominence on the back of the elbow (olecranon process).
6. Carpals: Eight small bones located in the wrist region that form the proximal row of the carpus. They include the scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, and pisiform bones. The carpals articulate with the radius and ulna proximally, and the metacarpals distally.
7. Metacarpals: Five long bones located in the hand region that form the middle part of the hand. They articulate with the carpals proximally and the phalanges distally. The metacarpals are numbered 1-5, with the thumb being metacarpal 1 and the little finger being metacarpal 5.
8. Phalanges: Fifteen small bones located in the fingers and thumb region that form the distal part of the hand. Each digit has three phalanges (proximal, middle, and distal), except for the thumb, which only has two (proximal and distal). The phalanges articulate with the metacarpals proximally and each other distally.

Understanding the anatomy of the upper limb is essential for healthcare professionals to accurately diagnose and treat conditions affecting this region. Familiarity with the bones, joints, muscles, and nerves that make up the upper limb can help clinicians identify areas of injury or dysfunction, develop appropriate treatment plans, and monitor patient progress over time.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

Motor skills are defined as the abilities required to plan, control and execute physical movements. They involve a complex interplay between the brain, nerves, muscles, and the environment. Motor skills can be broadly categorized into two types: fine motor skills, which involve small, precise movements (such as writing or picking up small objects), and gross motor skills, which involve larger movements using the arms, legs, and torso (such as crawling, walking, or running).

Motor skills development is an essential aspect of child growth and development, and it continues to evolve throughout adulthood. Difficulties with motor skills can impact a person's ability to perform daily activities and can be associated with various neurological and musculoskeletal conditions.

Felidae is the biological family that includes all extant (living) members of the cat group, also known as felids. This family consists of big cats such as lions, tigers, and leopards, as well as small cats like domestic cats, cheetahs, and pumas. Felidae is part of the order Carnivora and is characterized by specialized adaptations for hunting and stalking prey, including retractile claws, sharp teeth, and flexible bodies. The family has a worldwide distribution, with species found in various habitats across all continents except Antarctica.

The spinal cord is a major part of the nervous system, extending from the brainstem and continuing down to the lower back. It is a slender, tubular bundle of nerve fibers (axons) and support cells (glial cells) that carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord primarily serves as a conduit for motor information, which travels from the brain to the muscles, and sensory information, which travels from the body to the brain. It also contains neurons that can independently process and respond to information within the spinal cord without direct input from the brain.

The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebral column (spine) and is divided into 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment corresponds to a specific region of the body and gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves that exit through the intervertebral foramina at each level.

The spinal cord is responsible for several vital functions, including:

1. Reflexes: Simple reflex actions, such as the withdrawal reflex when touching a hot surface, are mediated by the spinal cord without involving the brain.
2. Muscle control: The spinal cord carries motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle tone regulation.
3. Sensory perception: The spinal cord transmits sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, and vibration, from the body to the brain for processing and awareness.
4. Autonomic functions: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system originate in the thoracolumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord, respectively, controlling involuntary physiological responses like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration.

Damage to the spinal cord can result in various degrees of paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury, depending on the severity and location of the damage.

Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is a medical procedure that involves the use of an implanted device to deliver electrical pulses to the spinal cord. The pulses are intended to interrupt or mask the transmission of pain signals to the brain, thereby reducing the perception of pain. SCS is typically offered as a treatment option for patients with chronic pain who have not found relief from other therapies, such as medication or surgery.

During the procedure, electrodes are placed in the epidural space of the spinal cord, and connected to a pulse generator that is implanted under the skin, usually in the abdomen or buttocks. The patient can use a remote control to adjust the intensity and location of the stimulation, allowing them to customize the therapy to their individual pain patterns.

SCS is generally considered safe, although there are some risks associated with the procedure, such as infection, bleeding, and nerve damage. It is important for patients to discuss these risks with their healthcare provider before deciding whether to undergo SCS.

"Long-Evans" is a strain of laboratory rats commonly used in scientific research. They are named after their developers, the scientists Long and Evans. This strain is albino, with a brownish-black hood over their eyes and ears, and they have an agouti (salt-and-pepper) color on their backs. They are often used as a model organism due to their size, ease of handling, and genetic similarity to humans. However, I couldn't find any specific medical definition related to "Long-Evans rats" as they are not a medical condition or disease.

The radius is one of the two bones in the forearm in humans and other vertebrates. In humans, it runs from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist. It is responsible for rotation of the forearm and articulates with the humerus at the elbow and the carpals at the wrist. Any medical condition or injury that affects the radius can impact the movement and function of the forearm and hand.

T-box domain proteins are a family of transcription factors that share a highly conserved DNA-binding domain, known as the T-box. The T-box domain is a DNA-binding motif that specifically recognizes and binds to T-box binding elements (TBEs) in the regulatory regions of target genes. These proteins play crucial roles during embryonic development, particularly in the formation of specific tissues and organs, such as the heart, limbs, and brain. Mutations in T-box domain proteins can lead to various congenital defects and developmental disorders. Some examples of T-box domain proteins include TBX1, TBX5, and TBX20.

In medical terms, "wing" is not a term that is used as a standalone definition. However, it can be found in the context of certain anatomical structures or medical conditions. For instance, the "wings" of the lungs refer to the upper and lower portions of the lungs that extend from the main body of the organ. Similarly, in dermatology, "winging" is used to describe the spreading out or flaring of the wings of the nose, which can be a characteristic feature of certain skin conditions like lupus.

It's important to note that medical terminology can be highly specific and context-dependent, so it's always best to consult with a healthcare professional for accurate information related to medical definitions or diagnoses.

Feathers are not a medical term, but they are a feature found in birds and some extinct theropod dinosaurs. Feathers are keratinous structures that grow from the skin and are used for various functions such as insulation, flight, waterproofing, and display. They have a complex structure consisting of a central shaft with barbs branching off on either side, which further divide into smaller barbules. The arrangement and modification of these feather structures vary widely among bird species to serve different purposes.

An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "zoology" is not a term used in medical definitions. Zoology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of animals and animal life. It involves understanding their evolution, classification, behavior, structure, genetics, and distribution. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or concepts, I'd be happy to help!

"Animal Flight" is not a medical term per se, but it is a concept that is studied in the field of comparative physiology and biomechanics, which are disciplines related to medicine. Animal flight refers to the ability of certain animal species to move through the air by flapping their wings or other appendages. This mode of locomotion is most commonly associated with birds, bats, and insects, but some mammals such as flying squirrels and sugar gliders are also capable of gliding through the air.

The study of animal flight involves understanding the biomechanics of how animals generate lift and propulsion, as well as the physiological adaptations that allow them to sustain flight. For example, birds have lightweight skeletons and powerful chest muscles that enable them to flap their wings rapidly and generate lift. Bats, on the other hand, use a more complex system of membranes and joints to manipulate their wings and achieve maneuverability in flight.

Understanding animal flight has important implications for the design of aircraft and other engineering systems, as well as for our broader understanding of how animals have evolved to adapt to their environments.

The forelimb thus develops into a flipper. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of ... Specific uses of the forelimbs may be analogous if they evolved from different sub-structures of the forelimb, such as the ... A forelimb is not to be confused with a forearm, which is a distal portion of the human upper limb between the elbow and the ... A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a ...
Storrs (1997); "Forelimb", page 171. Everhart (2005); "Where the Elasmosaurs Roamed", page 132. Everhart (2005); "Where the ... with the left forelimb injured by a predator causing the loss of use of this limb but which nevertheless survived for some time ...
"Hadrosaur Forelimb Study". Palaeo-electronica.org. Retrieved 2013-07-23. Williams, Vincent S.; Barrett, Paul M.; Purnell, Mark ...
... the right forelimb; the left pelvis and the right ischium. According to Michael P. Taylor, as of 2022, the holotype of C. ...
3-4 forelimb lamellae; No peri-orbital X pattern; No distinct peri-orbital ocelli; No distinct naso-orbital triangular "figure ...
... a partial left forelimb; and partial innominates. A second species, Chrysocetus fouadassii, is known from Bartonian-age ...
In terms of limb proportions, Zhao indicated that the forelimb of Klamelisaurus was three-quarters the length of the hindlimb, ... the relatively short forelimb; and the fibula-femur length ratio. However, he noted that the combination of more than twelve ...
Tarquini, J.; Toledo, N.; Morgan, C. C.; Soibelzon, L. H. (16 January 2017). "The forelimb of †Cyonasua sp. (Procyonidae, ... "Comparative osteology and functional morphology of the forelimb of Cyonasua (Mammalia, Procyonidae), the first South American ...
Dorsal forelimb has glandular warts. Smooth granular skin on throat and underside of thigh, and rough granular skin on chest ...
J. Tarquini; N. Toledo; C. C. Morgan; L. H. Soibelzon (2017). "The forelimb of †Cyonasua sp. (Procyonidae, Carnivora): ... A study on the growth of forelimb bones of Smilodon fatalis as indicated by the anatomy of specimens recovered from the La Brea ... substrate preference and locomotory mode in the forelimb of Cyonasua is published by Tarquini et al. (2017). A reevaluation of ...
Equine forelimb anatomy Whitcomb, MB; Weiser. "Diagnostic Ultrasound & Musculoskeletal injuries in Horses". Archived from the ...
... and Therizinosaurus possessed the longest forelimbs known for any bipedal dinosaurs. The holotype forelimbs ... It is slightly larger than the holotype, and it could be clearly identified as Deinocheirus by its left forelimb, and therefore ... The specimen consisted of both forelimbs, excluding the claws of the right hand, the complete shoulder girdle, centra of three ... The specific name comes from Latin and means "unusual" or "peculiar", chosen for the unusual structure of the forelimbs. The ...
The furcula is broad and more or less U-shaped with its two branches angled at 125°. The forelimb is rather long; its length is ... The hindlimbs and especially the forelimbs were rather elongated. Dal Sasso & Maganuco considered it likely that a coat of ... Mysterious shaft parts present near the forelimbs are by Dal Sasso & Maganuco interpreted as the remains of a nineteenth ...
Castorocauda's powerful forelimbs look adapted for digging. This feature and the spurs on its ankles make it resemble the ... The newborn marsupial uses its forelimbs (with relatively strong hands) to climb to a nipple, which is usually in a pouch on ... Some of the carnivores had semi-erect hindlimbs, but all dinocephalians had sprawling forelimbs. In many ways they were very ... However, they also discuss that earlier mammals had more erect forelimbs as opposed to the more sprawling hindlimbs, a trend ...
"Forelimb," Tidwell, Carpenter, and Meyer (2001). Page 148. "Pelvis," Tidwell, Carpenter, and Meyer (2001). Page 152. " ... ISBN 0-253-33907-3. Tidwell, Virginia; Wilhite, D. Ray (2005). "Ontogenetic Variation and Isometric Growth in the Forelimb of ...
"Forelimb Amputation Prosthesis (PerFiTS) - Fitzpatrick Referrals". Fitzpatrick Referrals. Retrieved 12 April 2017. MRCVSonline ...
"Forelimb," Tidwell, Carpenter, and Meyer (2001). Page 148. Ignacio A. Cerda and Jaime E. Powell, 2010, "Dermal Armor Histology ...
The forelimbs of Allosaurus were short in comparison to the hindlimbs (only about 35% the length of the hindlimbs in adults) ... This is compatible with other evidence that the forelimbs were strong and capable of restraining prey. Studies done by Stephen ... Carpenter, Kenneth (2002). "Forelimb biomechanics of nonavian theropod dinosaurs in predation". Senckenbergiana Lethaea. 82 (1 ... Stress fractures and tendon avulsions occurring in the forelimb have special behavioral significance since while injuries to ...
Otogornis genghisi - "Shoulder girdle forelimb elements." Earth sciences portal Paleontology portal Dinosaurs portal List of ...
Gonyea, W. J. (1978). "Functional implications of felid forelimb anatomy". Acta Anatomica. 102 (2): 111-121. doi:10.1159/ ...
Equine forelimb anatomy William Ridgeway (1905). The origin and influence of the Thoroughbred horse. University Press. pp. 538 ...
As a spinosaur it would have had a long, low snout and robust forelimbs, and one possible skeleton indicates the presence of a ... As a spinosaurid, Siamosaurus would have had low, narrow, and elongated jaws; well-built forelimbs; relatively short hindlimbs ...
Fore limbs absent. Hind limbs vestigial and appear as buds. Dorsum brown or light reddish brown, hatchlings are dark gray or ...
The forelimb comprised the typical radius, ulna, humerus, and manus. These bones are typically more developed with greater ... Relative development is as with the forelimb. All temnospondyls with a known pes have five digits. Unlike modern amphibians, ...
The forelimbs and hindlimbs strongly resembled each other. The humerus in the upper arm, and the femur in the upper leg, had ... Less attention was given to an alternative hypothesis by Stephen Godfrey in 1984, which proposed that both the forelimbs and ... Watson, D.M.S. (1924). "The elasmosaurid shoulder-girdle and fore-limb". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 1924 ... the hindlimbs would have rowed in the horizontal plane but the forelimbs would have paddled, moved to below and to the rear. In ...
The forelimb is robust but relatively long. In Edmontonia longiceps and E. rugosidens the deltopectoral crest of the humerus is ...
Reconstructions of ankylosaur forelimb musculature made by Coombs in 1978 suggest that the forelimbs bore the majority of the ... The forelimbs strongly increased in robustness while the hindlimbs did not become larger relative to the rest of the skeleton, ... It was quadrupedal, and its hind limbs were longer than its forelimbs. In the holotype specimen, the scapula (shoulder blade) ... Coombs, W. (1978). "Forelimb muscles of the Ankylosauria (Reptilia, Ornithischia)". Journal of Paleontology. 52 (3): 642-57. ...
The forelimbs had five fingers of which only the first three bore wide and flat unguals. The feet were wide and had four toes ... The hindlimbs were longer than the forelimbs. The tail was long and had an enigmatic sail-like structure, which may have been ... The forelimbs of Protoceratops could sprawl laterally but not for quadrupedal locomotion, which was accomplished with the ... In its general form, the forelimbs of Protoceratops were shorted than the hindlimbs, and composed by the humerus, radius, and ...
Its function is to elevate and abduct the forelimb. It is innervated by the accessory nerve. Rhomboideus: originates on the ... Its function is to elevate the forelimb. It is innervated by the ventral branches of the spinal nerves. Latissimus dorsi: ...
Coombs, Walter P. (1978). "Forelimb Muscles of the Ankylosauria (Reptilia, Ornithischia)". Journal of Paleontology. 52 (3): 642 ...
The forelimb thus develops into a flipper. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of ... Specific uses of the forelimbs may be analogous if they evolved from different sub-structures of the forelimb, such as the ... A forelimb is not to be confused with a forearm, which is a distal portion of the human upper limb between the elbow and the ... A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a ...
The forelimb of chimpanzee. (c) collar bone; (s) shoulder blade; (h) humerus; (r) radius; (u) ulna;… ...
... FIGURE 1. Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of the holotype of Styracosaurus albertensis (CMN ... in anterior view with forelimbs in sprawling posture (L), and in lateral view with forelimbs in habitual posture for standing ... FIGURE 2. Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of Thescelosaurus sp. (NCSM 15728) and motion at the shoulder. A. Right ... NCSM 15728 (I) and CMN 8537 (J), showing that the curvature of the anterior dorsal vertebrae positions the forelimb such that ...
Forelimbs of the theropod dinosaur Dilophosaurus wetherilli: Range of motion, influence of paleopathology and soft tissues, and ... Dilophosaurus forelimbs Forelimbs of the theropod dinosaur Dilophosaurus wetherilli: Range of motion, influence of ... The morphology and ROM in the forelimbs of D. wetherilli falsify the hypotheses that it was able to use its forelimbs to ... of each forelimb joint and to test functional hypotheses of forelimb use. Using bony articular surface margins to delimit ROM, ...
2005) Effect of forelimb use on postnatal development of the forelimb motor representation in primary motor cortex of the cat. ... Whereas we first observed evoked forelimb movements at PW4, albeit at high currents, activation of all forelimb joints was ... 1977) Activity of red nucleus neurons associated with a skilled forelimb movement in the cat. Brain Res 131:383-388, doi: ... The RN forelimb motor map is present at PW5, when there is a distal representation, and undergoes rapid development by PW7/PW8 ...
Anatomy for nerve block, digital area, forelimb, horse. Topographical anatomy for nerve block in the digital area of the ...
The objective of the present report is to describe the case of a calf with severe contracture of the forelimb flexor tendons ... Figure 1 Displacement of calf with contracture of forelimb flexor tendons. Note the body condition and the alopecia in the legs ... It was determined that the calf presented bilateral contracture of superficial and deep digital flexor tendons in forelimbs. ... Congenital flexor tendon contracture in forelimbs is one of the most prevalent musculoskeletal abnormalities in neonatal calves ...
In our work, we paid special attention to the organization of the venous system within the forelimb of the Anubis baboon (,i, ... The main aim of the study was a detailed examination of the location of venous valves and perforating veins in forelimb of ... The main vessel within the forelimb, in the superficial venous system, was a well-developed cephalic vein. In all the cases, ... The superficial veins of the forelimb show high variability, both in man and in other primates, regarding the number of main ...
JaxKOMP-LAP phenotype measure: forelimbs_size View raw data. MPD and LIMS short name. forelimbs_size forelimbs_size ... MA:0000025 forelimb MP:0000550 abnormal forelimb morphology MGI. VT:0000550 forelimb morphology trait ... forelimbs size MPD and LIMS phenotype procedure. observation (SHIRPA) SHIRPA View protocol MPD measure ID, data type. 101360 ...
The forelimb and pectoral girdle of Struthiomimus altus are described for the first time. The ornithomimid pectoral girdle ... Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda: Ornithomimidae). Palaeontology, ... Article: Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda: Ornithomimidae). ...
Forelimb diversity of mammals.. The topology includes all genera examined in this work, representing the exceptional forelimb ... Components of the morphological evolution of forelimb skeletal elements.. (A) Forelimb schematic, with colours indicating bones ... 2021) Non-model systems in mammalian forelimb evo-devo Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 69:65-71. ... 2013) Getting a grip on the evolution of grasping in musteloid carnivorans: a three-dimensional analysis of forelimb shape ...
Abstract Objective-To evaluate a Markov-chain model for the development of forelimb injuries in Thoroughbreds and to use the ... Objective-To evaluate a Markov-chain model for the development of forelimb injuries in Thoroughbreds and to use the model to ... Objective-To evaluate a Markov-chain model for the development of forelimb injuries in Thoroughbreds and to use the model to ... Evaluation of a stochastic Markov-chain model for the development of forelimb injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses ...
Zemmar, A; Kast, B; Lussi, K; Luft, A R; Schwab, M E (2015). Acquisition of a high-precision skilled forelimb reaching task in ...
Diagnosing and treating forelimb conditions in dogs can be very challenging. Many dogs present with a similar history including ... Forelimb circumference may be decreased in the effected forelimb when compared to the contralateral unaffected forelimb. Dogs ... Challenging forelimb lameness: the shoulder (Proceedings). November 1, 2010. Sherman O. Canapp, Jr., DVM, MS, DACVS, DACVSMR, ... Diagnosing and treating forelimb conditions in dogs can be very challenging. Many dogs present with a similar history including ...
... ZARUCCO, Laura;Scandella M;Seco O;Cozzi F;Driessen B. ... The developed technique of placing and securing palmar CPNB catheters in the equine forelimb can be successfully applied under ... The developed technique of placing and securing palmar CPNB catheters in the equine forelimb can be successfully applied under ... In horses successful treatment of severe pain originating in the forelimb is complicated mainly because regional analgesic ...
Equine Distal Forelimb. An invaluable tool for teaching or a handy reference for ultrasound study. Equine lower limb is cross ...
Effects of LP10 on Forelimb Grip Strength. After supplementation for six weeks, the forelimb grip strengths in the vehicle, ... Forelimb Grip Strength Test. A low-force testing system (Model-RX-5, Aikoh Engineering, Nagoya, Japan) was used to measure the ... Mice were pretreated with vehicle, LP10-1X, or LP10-5X for six weeks, and then forelimb grip strength was tested. Data are mean ... Mice were pretreated with vehicle, LP10-1X, or LP10-5X for six weeks, and then forelimb grip strength was tested. Data are mean ...
The maximal grip force in 10 trials was recorded as absolute forelimb grip strength. Forelimb grip strength was monitored at ... A) Forelimb grip strength of young (n = 17) and aged mice (n = 16) was measured before administration. (B) Mice were treated ... The forelimb grip strength in the aged mouse groups (A-Control and A-TWK10; 106.1 ± 3.7 g, n = 16) was significantly (P , 0.001 ... Forelimb Grip Strength. A low-force testing system (Model-RX-5, Aikoh Engineering, Nagoya, Japan) was used to measure the ...
The Veterinary Client Patient Relationship (or VCPR) is a convention that is designed to protect the animal owner from inappropriate and fraudulent veterinary medical activity. It is the foundation of contemporary veterinary medical ethics and is central to the effective delivery of high-quality animal care in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Each country and state may publish their own VCPR definition, which requires that a licensed veterinarian maintain current one-on-one knowledge of veterinary patients. To review the VCPR Definition as it applies to your state, click HERE ...
How well do you know your horses anatomy? For the next week we will examine the forelimb, beginning from the ground up - when ...
Amputation of the Forelimb. In: Current Techniques in Small Animal Surgery (5th Edition) ...
Sawtell N.B. Sawtell, Nathaniel B. "Unraveling Brainstem Circuits Underlying Forelimb Movement Control." Kandel Quarterly ... Sawtell N.B. Sawtell, Nathaniel B. Unraveling Brainstem Circuits Underlying Forelimb Movement Control. Kandel Quarterly, 6 ... Sawtell N.B. Sawtell, Nathaniel B. (2022). Unraveling brainstem circuits underlying forelimb movement control. Kandel ER. ...
Relationship between joint motion and flexor tendon force in the canine forelimb. / Lieber, R. L.; Amiel, D.; Kaufman, K. R. et ... Relationship between joint motion and flexor tendon force in the canine forelimb. In: Journal of Hand Surgery. 1996 ; Vol. 21, ... Relationship between joint motion and flexor tendon force in the canine forelimb. Journal of Hand Surgery. 1996;21(6):957-962. ... Dive into the research topics of Relationship between joint motion and flexor tendon force in the canine forelimb. Together ...
14 Fore Limbs Forms. By SA Anatomy / February 16, 2023 Blender Creature Course ...
Home » Health News » New strategy for treating chronic spinal cord injury leads to functional recovery of the forelimb New ... Comments Off on New strategy for treating chronic spinal cord injury leads to functional recovery of the forelimb ... strategy for treating chronic spinal cord injury leads to functional recovery of the forelimb. 10/05/2023. ... a strategy for treating a chronic spinal cord injury in rats that led to functional recovery of the paralyzed forelimb and paw ...
Forelimb Cortical Stroke Reduces Precision of Motor Control in Mice. / Becker, April M.; Betz, Dene M.; Goldberg, Mark P. In: ... Forelimb Cortical Stroke Reduces Precision of Motor Control in Mice. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair. 2020 Jun 1;34(6): ... Becker, A. M., Betz, D. M., & Goldberg, M. P. (2020). Forelimb Cortical Stroke Reduces Precision of Motor Control in Mice. ... Becker, April M. ; Betz, Dene M. ; Goldberg, Mark P. / Forelimb Cortical Stroke Reduces Precision of Motor Control in Mice. In ...
Study Of Forelimb Conformation A longitudinal study followed the lower limb growth and conformation of 134 Thoroughbred, 162 ... Study Of Forelimb Conformation. A longitudinal study followed the lower limb growth and conformation of 134 Thoroughbred, 162 ... KEYWORDS Albert Kane Demerol Forelimb Conformation HHLT high hoof, long toe Icelandic horses Research Journal ...
But how awesome would it be if you could regrow your own arm in the same manner as a spider? A rat forelimb entirely created ... This is worlds first biolimb, a rat forelimb grown in the lab Posted by Bryan Gatton in categories: bioengineering, robotics/ ...
  • Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of the holotype of Styracosaurus albertensis (CMN 344) and motion at the shoulder. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Right pectoral girdle and forelimb bones of Thescelosaurus sp. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • A forelimb is not to be confused with a forearm, which is a distal portion of the human upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here, we seek to fill gaps in published knowledge of the forelimbs of D. wetherilli by providing new estimates of the ROM in the joints of the holotype, describing the methods used to determine these estimates, describing the influence of paleopathology on the ROM, and describing a previously-undescribed distal carpal bone. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Here, we explore whether the temporal sequence of bone condensation predicts variation in the capacity of evolution to generate morphological diversity in proximal and distal forelimb segments across more than 600 species of mammals. (elifesciences.org)
  • This study reports an interesting analysis of evolutionary variation in forelimb/hand bone shapes in relation to functional and developmental variation along the proximo-distal axis. (elifesciences.org)
  • The aim of this study was to develop a technique for placing CPNB catheters along the palmar nerves in horses and to evaluate the nociceptive efficacy of LA infusion in the distal equine forelimb. (unito.it)
  • We measured skilled distal forelimb reach-and-grasp motions within a target force range requiring moderate-strength. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The developed technique of placing and securing palmar CPNB catheters in the equine forelimb can be successfully applied under ambulatory conditions in the standing horse without causing major harm. (unito.it)
  • Congenital flexor tendon contracture in forelimbs is one of the most prevalent musculoskeletal abnormalities in neonatal calves. (scielo.org.mx)
  • A forelimb or front limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the cranial (anterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. (wikipedia.org)
  • The system of superficial veins of the primates' forelimb (thoracic or upper limb) shows two basic types of arrangements dependent on the number of main venous channels present in the superficial venous network. (hindawi.com)
  • In our work, we paid special attention to the organization of the venous system within the forelimb (thoracic limb) in the Anubis baboon, as well as communications between the superficial and deep venous system. (hindawi.com)
  • In thirteen cats anesthetized with α-chloralose, we compared the cardiovascular and ventilatory responses to both static contraction and tendon stretch of a hindlimb muscle group, the triceps surae, with those to contraction and stretch of a forelimb muscle group, the triceps brachii. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Our results suggest that in the anesthetized cat the cardiovascular responses to both static contraction and tendon stretch are greater when arising from forelimb muscles than from hindlimb muscles. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Hayashi, N , Hayes, SG & Kaufman, MP 2001, ' Comparison of the exercise pressor reflex between forelimb and hindlimb muscles in cats ', American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology , vol. 281, no. 4 50-4, pp. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Similarly, in mice with disruptions of both Hoxa13 and Hoxd13 , development of the forelimb and hindlimb autopod is severely curtailed. (silverchair.com)
  • The mesenchymal condensations that give rise to the skeletal elements are laid down progressively along the PD axis( Forsthoefel, 1963 ), with the first condensation giving rise to the most proximal element, the stylopod(i.e. humerus or femur) followed by two zeugopod condensations (i.e. radius and ulna in the forelimb, or tibia and fibula in the hindlimb). (silverchair.com)
  • A new study published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Neurotrauma demonstrates a strategy for treating a chronic spinal cord injury in rats that led to functional recovery of the paralyzed forelimb and paw and precision movements of the digits. (vaccar.biz)
  • Learned baduse' limits recovery of skilled reaching for food after forelimb motor cortex stroke in rats: a new analysis of the effect of gestures on success. (bvsalud.org)
  • Here, rats pretrained in a single pellet reaching task received MtCx stroke via pial removal contralateral to the preferred-for-reaching forelimb . (bvsalud.org)
  • Forelimb morphology and ROM are consistent with two-handed prehension, clutching objects to the chest, manually hooking objects, and seizing prey beneath the predator's chest or the base of its neck (but no further forward). (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Mutations in the 5′ or posterior murine Hox genes (paralogous groups 9-13) markedly affect the formation of the stylopod, zeugopod and autopod of both forelimbs and hindlimbs. (silverchair.com)
  • Hindlimbs are absent, the forelimbs are modified to flippers, and the tail is a horizontal fluke. (bvsalud.org)
  • A polymerase chain forelimb ataxia on June 24 (Table). (cdc.gov)
  • Specific uses of the forelimbs may be analogous if they evolved from different sub-structures of the forelimb, such as the flippers of turtles and dolphins, and the wings of birds and bats. (wikipedia.org)
  • The forelimb and pectoral girdle of Struthiomimus altus are described for the first time. (palass.org)
  • Exercise performance was evaluated by forelimb grip strength and time to exhaustion, as well as changes in body composition and anti-fatigue levels after a 15-min swimming exercise. (medsci.org)
  • Forelimb grip strength was tested. (cdc.gov)
  • The superficial veins of the forelimb show high variability, both in man and in other primates, regarding the number of main venous trunks, their course, as well as the origin and location of openings. (hindawi.com)
  • The main aim of the study was a detailed examination of the location of venous valves and perforating veins in forelimb of Anubis baboon. (hindawi.com)
  • In the field of comparative anatomy of the forelimb veins of primates, in addition to the general anatomical descriptions, we found only a few studies on the distribution of perforating veins and venous valves in the upper limbs [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • On-line for CiNet members: Shin-ichi Fujiwara: "How can we tell the forelimb posture of Triceratops? (cinet.jp)
  • How can we tell the forelimb posture of Triceratops? (cinet.jp)
  • Certain animals retained 'primitive' forelimbs, such as pentadactylous (five-fingered) reptiles and primates. (wikipedia.org)
  • The objective of the present report is to describe the case of a calf with severe contracture of the forelimb flexor tendons and its surgical correction by tenotomy of the forelimb tendons. (scielo.org.mx)
  • We used our rat model of repetitive strain injury to study changes induced in forelimb flexor digitorum tendons. (cdc.gov)
  • Most of the forelimb elements of the holotype specimen of D. wetherilli (UCMP 37302) are present and disarticulated, allowing the range of motion (ROM) in the forelimbs to be inferred based on arthrological features. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Furthermore, the holotype exhibits paleopathological asymmetry between the left and right forelimbs (Senter and Juengst, 2016) ( Figure 1 , Figure 2 ), and the influence of this condition on ROM has not been explored before now. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Forelimb bones of the Early Jurassic theropod Dilophosaurus wetherilli were manually manipulated to determine the range of motion (ROM) of each forelimb joint and to test functional hypotheses of forelimb use. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Musteloid carnivorans that have an arboreal lifestyle tend to have long and slender forelimb long bones, which allow for improved movement and flexibility. (wikipedia.org)
  • Semi-fossorial and aquatic musteloid species tend to have short and robust forelimb long bones to deal with the strain from digging and swimming. (wikipedia.org)
  • Predators hunting prey less than half their body weight tended to have longer and more slender forelimb long bones to improve energetic efficiency. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here, we apply these findings and those of previous studies on extant archosaurs to reconstruct ROM in the forelimbs of live Dilophosaurus by adjusting the results of the bare-bones manipulations to account for the known influence of soft tissues. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • The stegosaurian forelimb has evidence for a sauropod−like metacarpal configuration This was a different evolutionary strategy than megafaunal mammals such as modern elephants. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pangolins are edentate mammals possessing short powerful forelimbs suitable for excavating ants and termites. (cdc.gov)
  • Objective -To evaluate a Markov-chain model for the development of forelimb injuries in Thoroughbreds and to use the model to determine effects of reducing sprint distance on incidence of metacarpal condylar fracture (CDY) and severe suspensory apparatus injury (SSAI). (avma.org)
  • In horses successful treatment of severe pain originating in the forelimb is complicated mainly because regional analgesic techniques are not yet available and systemic administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and other analgesics (e.g. opioids) are often not very effective and/or associated with multiple adverse effects. (unito.it)
  • FENTRESS, J.C. Development of grooming in mice with amputated forelimbs. (bvsalud.org)
  • The RN has a more complete forelimb map early in development than previous studies showed for M1, supporting our hypothesis of preferential rubrospinal rather than corticospinal control for early movements. (jneurosci.org)
  • Trauma or stroke to motor cortex (MtCx) results in motor impairments that include movements of the contralateral forelimb in reaching for food that is to be placed in the mouth for eating (skilled reaching). (bvsalud.org)
  • Diagnosing and treating forelimb conditions in dogs can be very challenging. (dvm360.com)
  • Their forelimbs are used for both short sprints and grappling, which means that they need to be flexible and durable. (wikipedia.org)
  • Note the short muscular forelimbs. (cdc.gov)
  • Our hypothesis is that the RN motor map is present earlier in development than the motor cortex (M1) map, to support early forelimb control. (jneurosci.org)
  • In contrast, beginning at PW5 there was delayed and age-dependent development of forelimb motor pool projections and putative rubromotoneuronal synapses. (jneurosci.org)
  • For the next week we will examine the forelimb, beginning from the ground up - when I am learning anatomy I find it helpful to read the anatomical description, look at a diagram, then close my eyes and visualize what I've just learned. (highdesertequine.com)
  • Feasibility and efficacy of CPNB catheter instrumentation in standing, sedated horses was tested in 13 animals, using a percutaneous "blind" technique with pre- and postultrasound control using a method previously developed in 42 forelimb specimens for CPNB catheter placement along the medial and lateral palmar nerves. (unito.it)
  • The red nucleus (RN) and rubrospinal tract (RST) are important for forelimb motor control. (jneurosci.org)
  • Sawtell N.B. Sawtell, Nathaniel B. Unraveling Brainstem Circuits Underlying Forelimb Movement Control. (mhmedical.com)
  • In this study, we show that malformation of the forelimb zeugopod in Hoxa11/Hoxd11 double mutants is a consequence of interruption at multiple steps during the formation of the radius and ulna. (silverchair.com)
  • A number of factors can influence the evolution of forelimb long bone shape, such as body mass, lifestyle, predatory behavior, or relative prey size. (wikipedia.org)
  • NCSM 15728 ( I ) and CMN 8537 ( J ), showing that the curvature of the anterior dorsal vertebrae positions the forelimb such that it can reach the ground when the sacrum is horizontal. (palaeo-electronica.org)
  • Evolution of the forelimb may be characterized by many trends. (wikipedia.org)
  • In particular, reductions in the levels of Fgf8 and Fgf10 expression may be related to the observed delay in forelimb bud outgrowth that, in turn, leads to the formation of smaller mesenchymal condensations. (silverchair.com)