The beta subunit of follicle stimulating hormone. It is a 15-kDa glycopolypeptide. Full biological activity of FSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit. Mutation of the FSHB gene causes delayed puberty, or infertility.
The beta subunit of thyroid stimulating hormone, thyrotropin. It is a 112-amino acid glycopolypeptide of about 16 kD. Full biological activity of TSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit.
The beta subunit of luteinizing hormone. It is a 15-kDa glycopolypeptide with structure similar to the beta subunit of the placental chorionic gonadatropin (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN) except for the additional 31 amino acids at the C-terminal of CG-beta. Full biological activity of LH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit. Mutation of the LHB gene causes HYPOGONADISM and infertility.
An OOCYTE-containing structure in the cortex of the OVARY. The oocyte is enclosed by a layer of GRANULOSA CELLS providing a nourishing microenvironment (FOLLICULAR FLUID). The number and size of follicles vary depending on the age and reproductive state of the female. The growing follicles are divided into five stages: primary, secondary, tertiary, Graafian, and atretic. Follicular growth and steroidogenesis depend on the presence of GONADOTROPINS.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates GAMETOGENESIS and the supporting cells such as the ovarian GRANULOSA CELLS, the testicular SERTOLI CELLS, and LEYDIG CELLS. FSH consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A tube-like invagination of the EPIDERMIS from which the hair shaft develops and into which SEBACEOUS GLANDS open. The hair follicle is lined by a cellular inner and outer root sheath of epidermal origin and is invested with a fibrous sheath derived from the dermis. (Stedman, 26th ed) Follicles of very long hairs extend into the subcutaneous layer of tissue under the SKIN.
Anterior pituitary cells that can produce both FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE and LUTEINIZING HORMONE.
The alpha chain of pituitary glycoprotein hormones (THYROTROPIN; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; LUTEINIZING HORMONE) and the placental CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Within a species, the alpha subunits of these four hormones are identical; the distinct functional characteristics of these glycoprotein hormones are determined by the unique beta subunits. Both subunits, the non-covalently bound heterodimers, are required for full biologic activity.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Luteinizing hormone regulates steroid production by the interstitial cells of the TESTIS and the OVARY. The preovulatory LUTEINIZING HORMONE surge in females induces OVULATION, and subsequent LUTEINIZATION of the follicle. LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
A decapeptide that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of both pituitary gonadotropins, LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. GnRH is produced by neurons in the septum PREOPTIC AREA of the HYPOTHALAMUS and released into the pituitary portal blood, leading to stimulation of GONADOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
An inherited autosomal recessive trait, characterized by peripheral resistance to THYROID HORMONES and the resulting elevation in serum levels of THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE. This syndrome is caused by mutations of gene THRB encoding the THYROID HORMONE RECEPTORS BETA in target cells. HYPOTHYROIDISM in these patients is partly overcome by the increased thyroid hormone levels.
The beta subunit of human CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Its structure is similar to the beta subunit of LUTEINIZING HORMONE, except for the additional 30 amino acids at the carboxy end with the associated carbohydrate residues. HCG-beta is used as a diagnostic marker for early detection of pregnancy, spontaneous abortion (ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS); ECTOPIC PREGNANCY; HYDATIDIFORM MOLE; CHORIOCARCINOMA; or DOWN SYNDROME.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRB gene (also known as NR1A2, THRB1, or ERBA2 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing. Mutations in the THRB gene cause THYROID HORMONE RESISTANCE SYNDROME.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Fushi tarazu transcription factors were originally identified in DROSOPHILA. They are found throughout ARTHROPODS and play important roles in segmentation and CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM development.
A transcription factor and member of the nuclear receptor family NR5 that is expressed throughout the adrenal and reproductive axes during development. It plays an important role in sexual differentiation, formation of primary steroidogenic tissues, and their functions in post-natal and adult life. It regulates the expression of key steroidogenic enzymes.
Chemical substances having a specific regulatory effect on the activity of a certain organ or organs. The term was originally applied to substances secreted by various ENDOCRINE GLANDS and transported in the bloodstream to the target organs. It is sometimes extended to include those substances that are not produced by the endocrine glands but that have similar effects.
Specific high affinity binding proteins for THYROID HORMONES in target cells. They are usually found in the nucleus and regulate DNA transcription. These receptors are activated by hormones that leads to transcription, cell differentiation, and growth suppression. Thyroid hormone receptors are encoded by two genes (GENES, ERBA): erbA-alpha and erbA-beta for alpha and beta thyroid hormone receptors, respectively.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Compounds and molecular complexes that consist of very large numbers of atoms and are generally over 500 kDa in size. In biological systems macromolecular substances usually can be visualized using ELECTRON MICROSCOPY and are distinguished from ORGANELLES by the lack of a membrane structure.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The reproductive organ (GONADS) in female animals. In vertebrates, the ovary contains two functional parts: the OVARIAN FOLLICLE for the production of female germ cells (OOGENESIS); and the endocrine cells (GRANULOSA CELLS; THECA CELLS; and LUTEAL CELLS) for the production of ESTROGENS and PROGESTERONE.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Single chains of amino acids that are the units of multimeric PROTEINS. Multimeric proteins can be composed of identical or non-identical subunits. One or more monomeric subunits may compose a protomer which itself is a subunit structure of a larger assembly.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Activins are produced in the pituitary, gonads, and other tissues. By acting locally, they stimulate pituitary FSH secretion and have diverse effects on cell differentiation and embryonic development. Activins are glycoproteins that are hetero- or homodimers of INHIBIN-BETA SUBUNITS.
Supporting cells for the developing female gamete in the OVARY. They are derived from the coelomic epithelial cells of the gonadal ridge. Granulosa cells form a single layer around the OOCYTE in the primordial ovarian follicle and advance to form a multilayered cumulus oophorus surrounding the OVUM in the Graafian follicle. The major functions of granulosa cells include the production of steroids and LH receptors (RECEPTORS, LH).
The discharge of an OVUM from a rupturing follicle in the OVARY.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
Steroid hormones produced by the GONADS. They stimulate reproductive organs, germ cell maturation, and the secondary sex characteristics in the males and the females. The major sex steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; and TESTOSTERONE.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the CORPUS LUTEUM and the PLACENTA. Progesterone acts on the UTERUS, the MAMMARY GLANDS and the BRAIN. It is required in EMBRYO IMPLANTATION; PREGNANCY maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for MILK production. Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.
A gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by the PLACENTA. Similar to the pituitary LUTEINIZING HORMONE in structure and function, chorionic gonadotropin is involved in maintaining the CORPUS LUTEUM during pregnancy. CG consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is virtually identical to the alpha subunits of the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN).
Female germ cells derived from OOGONIA and termed OOCYTES when they enter MEIOSIS. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until OVULATION at PUBERTY to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (OVUM).
The fluid surrounding the OVUM and GRANULOSA CELLS in the Graafian follicle (OVARIAN FOLLICLE). The follicular fluid contains sex steroids, glycoprotein hormones, plasma proteins, mucopolysaccharides, and enzymes.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
An interleukin-1 subtype that is synthesized as an inactive membrane-bound pro-protein. Proteolytic processing of the precursor form by CASPASE 1 results in release of the active form of interleukin-1beta from the membrane.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
An early growth response transcription factor that has been implicated in regulation of CELL PROLIFERATION and APOPTOSIS.
Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
The flattened stroma cells forming a sheath or theca outside the basal lamina lining the mature OVARIAN FOLLICLE. Thecal interstitial or stromal cells are steroidogenic, and produce primarily ANDROGENS which serve as precusors of ESTROGENS in the GRANULOSA CELLS.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
An 11-kDa protein associated with the outer membrane of many cells including lymphocytes. It is the small subunit of the MHC class I molecule. Association with beta 2-microglobulin is generally required for the transport of class I heavy chains from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cell surface. Beta 2-microglobulin is present in small amounts in serum, csf, and urine of normal people, and to a much greater degree in the urine and plasma of patients with tubular proteinemia, renal failure, or kidney transplants.
A glycoprotein that causes regression of MULLERIAN DUCTS. It is produced by SERTOLI CELLS of the TESTES. In the absence of this hormone, the Mullerian ducts develop into structures of the female reproductive tract. In males, defects of this hormone result in persistent Mullerian duct, a form of MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM.
A 191-amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the human adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR), also known as GH or somatotropin. Synthetic growth hormone, termed somatropin, has replaced the natural form in therapeutic usage such as treatment of dwarfism in children with growth hormone deficiency.
Glycoproteins that inhibit pituitary FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE secretion. Inhibins are secreted by the Sertoli cells of the testes, the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles, the placenta, and other tissues. Inhibins and ACTIVINS are modulators of FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE secretions; both groups belong to the TGF-beta superfamily, as the TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA. Inhibins consist of a disulfide-linked heterodimer with a unique alpha linked to either a beta A or a beta B subunit to form inhibin A or inhibin B, respectively
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX and its production of CORTICOSTEROIDS. ACTH is a 39-amino acid polypeptide of which the N-terminal 24-amino acid segment is identical in all species and contains the adrenocorticotrophic activity. Upon further tissue-specific processing, ACTH can yield ALPHA-MSH and corticotrophin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP).
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
An integrin beta subunit of approximately 85-kDa in size which has been found in INTEGRIN ALPHAIIB-containing and INTEGRIN ALPHAV-containing heterodimers. Integrin beta3 occurs as three alternatively spliced isoforms, designated beta3A-C.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
A filament-like structure consisting of a shaft which projects to the surface of the SKIN from a root which is softer than the shaft and lodges in the cavity of a HAIR FOLLICLE. It is found on most surfaces of the body.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Hormones secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND including those from the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), and the ill-defined intermediate lobe. Structurally, they include small peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins. They are under the regulation of neural signals (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) or neuroendocrine signals (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) from the hypothalamus as well as feedback from their targets such as ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANDROGENS; ESTROGENS.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.
A potent androgenic steroid and major product secreted by the LEYDIG CELLS of the TESTIS. Its production is stimulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE from the PITUITARY GLAND. In turn, testosterone exerts feedback control of the pituitary LH and FSH secretion. Depending on the tissues, testosterone can be further converted to DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE or ESTRADIOL.
One of two major pharmacologically defined classes of adrenergic receptors. The beta adrenergic receptors play an important role in regulating CARDIAC MUSCLE contraction, SMOOTH MUSCLE relaxation, and GLYCOGENOLYSIS.
The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.
Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
The process of germ cell development in the female from the primordial germ cells through OOGONIA to the mature haploid ova (OVUM).
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Effect of TRH on beta-gonadotropin subunits in patients with pituitary microincidentalomas. (1/178)

OBJECTIVE: To explore the hypothesis that most of the pituitary abnormalities compatible with the diagnosis of microadenoma, and detected in about 10% of the normal adult population, represent asymptomatic gonadotropinomas. DESIGN: Patients diagnosed with pituitary microincidentalomas at the Institute of Endocrinology of the Tel Aviv Medical Center were evaluated. Circulating beta-subunits of gonadotropin hormones were measured before and 30, 45, 60 and 90 min after the intravenous injection of 400 microgram TRH. PATIENTS: Twenty-two patients with pituitary incidentaloma and 16 normal volunteers were tested. RESULTS: In 16 of the 22 patients, an abnormal beta-subunit response was detected after the TRH challenge. Three patients had an abnormal increase in both beta-FSH and beta-LH after TRH administration. Isolated pathological beta-FSH or beta-LH responses were demonstrated in five and eight patients respectively. Six patients had normal basal and stimulated gonadotropin subunit values, raising the possibility that their lesions were not pituitary microadenomas. There was a significant overall difference between the response to TRH of the patient and control groups. In the gonadotropin positive group, comprising 16 patients, serum beta-FSH increased from 6.4+/-1.6 ng/ml to 9.2+/-1.3 ng/ml (P=0.042) 1 h after TRH stimulation, whereas no changes were detected in the control group after TRH injection (basal: 4.1+/-0.8 ng/ml, peak: 5.1+/-0.8 ng/ml; P=0.15). Serum beta-LH increased from 10.5+/-3.2 ng/ml to 23.4+/-4.9 ng/ml (P=0.0037) at this time, in contrast to a lack of response in controls (basal: 6.4+/-1.5 ng/ml, peak: 8.2+/-2.3 ng/ml; P=0.24). CONCLUSION: In about 73% of patients with pituitary incidentalomas smaller than 10 mm, TRH elicits an increase in gonadotropin beta-subunits. This observation raises the possibility that non-functioning pituitary micro- and macroadenomas, which share a similar response to TRH, originate in a common ancestor cell type, probably a pituitary gonadotrope.  (+info)

LbetaT2 gonadotroph cells secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in response to active A. (2/178)

Secretion of luteinizing hormone in response to gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) has been described in the recently developed LbetaT2 gonadotroph cell line. We evaluated the expression of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)beta mRNA and secretion of FSH from LbetaT2 cells in response to GnRH and activin A. LbetaT2 cells were treated with activin A in doses from 0 to 50 ng/ml, with or without a daily 10 nM GnRH pulse, or with GnRH alone. FSH secretion was stimulated over 6-fold by concomitant GnRH and activin A in a dose-responsive fashion at 72 h of treatment. FSHbeta mRNA was detectable by ribonuclease protection assay only in cells treated with activin A with or without GnRH. The demonstration of FSHbeta gene expression in LbetaT2 cells further validates these cells as mature, differentiated gonadotrophs and as an important tool for the study of gonadotroph physiology.  (+info)

Ontogeny of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone gene expression during pubertal development in the female striped bass, Morone saxatilis (Teleostei). (3/178)

Pubertal development in teleost fish is characterized by gonadal growth that is directly stimulated by the pituitary gonadotropins, FSH and LH. We used a quantitative ribonuclease protection assay to provide, for the first time, the developmental profiles of the alpha-, betaFSH-, and betaLH-subunit gene expression in a seasonal breeding fish, the female striped bass (3-yr study, n = 207). Two-year-old females were sexually immature, although a transient rise in all gonadotropin subunit mRNAs was measured in the pituitary. Pubertal ovarian development occurred in 65% of 3-yr-old females, characterized by the appearance of lipid droplets within the oocytes. This reproductive phase, termed pubertal development, was associated with a 34-fold increase in the mRNA levels of betaFSH and a rise in the pituitary concentration of LH. The first sexual maturation took place in 4-yr-old females and coincided with a 218-fold increase in the mRNA levels of betaFSH. During this time period, the mRNA levels of the alpha and betaLH subunits increased by 11- and 8-fold, respectively. At the final stages of vitellogenic growth, mRNA levels of betaFSH declined to basal levels, whereas the mRNA levels of the alpha and betaLH subunits remained elevated. Throughout the study, pituitary LH concentration was positively correlated to the mRNA levels of betaLH, but plasma levels of LH remained low and unchanged (0.4-0.8 ng/ml) despite increasing levels of pituitary LH concentration, suggesting a regulated secretion pathway. Taken together, the data show that the profiles of betaFSH and betaLH mRNAs appear to follow an annual rhythm that is associated with developmental events in the growing oocytes. In particular, increasing levels of betaFSH mRNA appear to underlie the first sexual maturity in the female striped bass.  (+info)

Differential regulation of pituitary gonadotropin subunit messenger ribonucleic acid levels in photostimulated Siberian hamsters. (4/178)

FSH levels begin to rise 3-5 days after male Siberian hamsters are transferred from inhibitory short photoperiods to stimulatory long photoperiods. In contrast, LH levels do not increase for several weeks. This differential pattern of FSH and LH secretion represents one of the most profound in vivo examples of differential regulation of the gonadotropins. The present study was undertaken to characterize the molecular mechanisms controlling differential FSH and LH synthesis and secretion in photostimulated Siberian hamsters. First, we cloned species-specific cDNAs for the three gonadotropin subunits: the common alpha subunit and the unique FSHbeta and LHbeta subunits. All three subunits share high nucleotide and predicted amino acid sequence identity with the orthologous cDNAs from rats. We then used these new molecular probes to examine the gonadotropin subunit mRNA levels from pituitaries of short-day male hamsters transferred to long days for 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, or 20 days. Short-day (SD) and long-day (LD) controls remained in short and long days, respectively, from the time of weaning. We measured serum FSH and LH levels by RIA. FSHbeta, LHbeta, and alpha subunit mRNA levels were measured from individual pituitaries using a microlysate ribonuclease protection assay. Serum FSH and pituitary FSHbeta mRNA levels changed similarly following long-day transfer. Both were significantly elevated after five long days (2.3- and 3.6-fold, respectively; P < 0.02) and declined thereafter, but they remained above SD control values through 20 long days. Alpha subunit mRNA levels also increased significantly relative to SD control values (maximum 2-fold increase after seven long days; P < 0.03), although to a lesser extent than FSHbeta. Neither serum LH nor pituitary LHbeta mRNA levels changed significantly following long-day transfer. The results indicate that long-day-associated increases in serum FSH levels in Siberian hamsters reflect an underlying increase in pituitary FSHbeta and alpha subunit mRNA accumulation.  (+info)

Gonadotroph-lactotroph associations and expression of prolactin receptors in the equine pituitary gland throughout the seasonal reproductive cycle. (5/178)

An interaction between gonadotroph and lactotroph cells of the pituitary gland has long been recognized in several species. The current study was conducted to investigate whether an association between gonadotrophs and lactotrophs occurs in mares and whether prolactin receptors are expressed within the pituitary gland of this species. The effects of both reproductive state and season on these variables were examined in pituitary glands obtained from sexually active mares in July (breeding season), sexually active mares in November (non-breeding season) and anoestrous mares in November. Pituitaries were dissected out immediately after death and immunofluorescent staining was carried out on 6 micrometer sections using specific antibodies to the LHbeta subunit, FSHbeta subunit, prolactin and prolactin receptor. Gonadotrophs were observed in both the pars distalis and pars tuberalis; although they appeared mostly as isolated cells, small groups of gonadotrophs were also identified in the pars distalis. In contrast, lactotrophs were observed only as clusters of cells exclusively in the pars distalis of sexually active and anoestrous mares in November and in most of the sexually active mares in July. A specific gonadotroph-lactotroph association was identified only between large isolated gonadotrophs and lactotroph clusters. Double immunofluorescent staining for FSHbeta and prolactin revealed a similar gonadotroph-lactotroph association to the one detected for LH gonadotrophs. No statistical difference in the gonadotroph:lactotroph ratio was observed as a result of changes in reproductive status or season. However, a tendency for a simultaneous decrease in the number of gonadotrophs and an increase in the number of lactotrophs was detected in anoestrous animals. Prolactin receptor immunoreactivity was found in the pars distalis, but not in the pars tuberalis, of sexually active (July and November) and anoestrous animals for both long and short forms of the receptor. No prolactin receptor co-localization for either form of the receptor was observed in LH or FSH gonadotrophs in either of the reproductive states examined during both summer and winter seasons. Furthermore, no significant difference was apparent in the proportion of cells expressing prolactin receptors between mares of different reproductive state or season. The specific anatomical association between gonadotroph and lactotroph cells and the expression of prolactin receptors in the equine pituitary gland indicate a potential role of prolactin in the regulation of gonadotrophin secretion. However, the absence of evidence for co-localization of prolactin receptors in LH or FSH cells does not support the hypothesis of a direct effect of prolactin on the gonadotroph as reported in a short day breeder. The results raise the possibility that, in horses, an intermediate regulatory cell may mediate the action of prolactin on gonadotroph function.  (+info)

Functional compensation by Egr4 in Egr1-dependent luteinizing hormone regulation and Leydig cell steroidogenesis. (6/178)

The Egr family of zinc finger transcription factors, whose members are encoded by Egr1 (NGFI-A), Egr2 (Krox20), Egr3, and Egr4 (NGFI-C) regulate critical genetic programs involved in cellular growth, differentiation, and function. Egr1 regulates luteinizing hormone beta subunit (LHbeta) gene expression in the pituitary gland. Due to decreased levels of LHbeta, female Egr1-deficient mice are anovulatory, have low levels of progesterone, and are infertile. By contrast, male mutant mice show no identifiable defects in spermatogenesis, testosterone synthesis, or fertility. Here, we have shown that serum LH levels in male Egr1-deficient mice are adequate for maintenance of Leydig cell steroidogenesis and fertility because of partial functional redundancy with the closely related transcription factor Egr4. Egr4-Egr1 double mutant male mice had low steady-state levels of serum LH, physiologically low serum levels of testosterone, and atrophy of androgen-dependent organs that were not present in either Egr1- or Egr4-deficient males. In double mutant male mice, atrophic androgen-dependent organs and Leydig cell steroidogenesis were fully restored by administration of exogenous testosterone or human chorionic gonadotropin (an LH receptor agonist), respectively. Moreover, a normal distribution of gonadotropin-releasing hormone-containing neurons and normal innervation of the median eminence in the hypothalamus, as well as decreased levels of LH gene expression in Egr4-Egr1-relative to Egr1-deficient male mice, indicates a defect of LH regulation in pituitary gonadotropes. These results elucidate a novel level of redundancy between Egr4 and Egr1 in regulating LH production in male mice.  (+info)

Early maturity in the male striped bass, Morone saxatilis: follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone gene expression and their regulation by gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue and testosterone. (7/178)

Striped bass are seasonal breeding fish, spawning once a year during the spring. All 3-yr-old males are sexually mature; however, 60-64% of the fish mature earlier as 1- or 2-yr-old animals. The endocrine basis underlying early maturity in 2-yr-old males was studied at the molecular level by monitoring changes in pituitary beta FSH and beta LH mRNA levels by ribonuclease protection assay, and correlating these changes to stages of testicular development. In maturing males, the mRNA levels of beta FSH were elevated during early spermatogenesis, whereas beta LH mRNA levels peaked during spermiation. The appearance of spermatozoa in the testis was associated with a decrease in beta FSH mRNA and a rise in beta LH mRNA abundance. Immature males had lower levels of beta LH mRNA than maturing males, but there were no differences in beta FSH mRNA levels between immature and maturing males. The regulation of gonadotropin gene expression in 2-yr-old males was studied by the chronic administration of GnRH analogue (GnRHa) and testosterone (T), with or without pimozide (P) supplementation. In immature males, the combination of T and GnRHa stimulated a three- to fivefold increase in beta FSH and beta LH mRNA levels, but the same treatment had no effect on gonadotropin gene expression in maturing males. In addition, the coadministration of P to immature males suppressed the stimulatory effect of GnRHa and T on beta FSH and beta LH mRNA levels, suggesting that dopamine may have a novel role in regulating gonadotropin gene expression.  (+info)

Candidate gene analysis for loci affecting litter size and ovulation rate in swine. (8/178)

A candidate gene approach was used to determine whether specific loci explain responses in ovulation rate (OR) and number of fully formed (FF), live (NBA), stillborn, and mummified pigs at birth observed in two lines selected for ovulation rate and litter size compared with a randomly selected control line. Line IOL was selected for an index of OR and embryonic survival for eight generations, followed by eight generations of two-stage selection for OR and litter size. Line C was selected at random for 16 generations. Line COL, derived from line C at Generation 8, underwent eight generations of two-stage selection. Lines IOL and C differed in mean EBV by 6.1 ova and 4.7 FF, whereas lines COL and C differed by 2.2 ova and 2.9 FF. Pigs of Generation 7 of two-stage selection lines were genotyped for the retinol binding protein 4 (RBP4, n = 190) and epidermal growth factor (EGF, n = 189) loci, whereas pigs of Generations 7 and 8 were genotyped for the estrogen receptor (ESR, n = 523), prolactin receptor (PRLR, n = 524), follicle-stimulating hormone beta (FSHbeta, n = 520), and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2, n = 523) loci. Based on chi-square analysis for homogeneity of genotypic frequencies, distributions for PRLR, FSHbeta, and PTGS2 were different among lines (P < 0.005). Differences in gene frequencies between IOL vs C and COL vs C were 0.33 +/- 0.25 and 0.16 +/- 0.26 for PRLR, 0.35 +/- 0.20 and 0.15 +/- 0.24 for FSHbeta, and 0.16 +/- 0.16 and 0.08 +/- 0.18 for PTGS2. Although these differences are consistent with a model of selection acting on these loci, estimates of additive and dominance effects at these loci did not differ from zero (P > 0.05), and several of them had signs inconsistent with the changes in allele frequencies. We were not able to find significant associations between the polymorphic markers and phenotypes studied; however, we cannot rule out that other genetic variation within these candidate genes has an effect on the traits studied.  (+info)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays crucial roles in the reproductive system, primarily by promoting the growth and development of follicles in the ovaries or sperm production in the testes.

The FSH molecule consists of two subunits: α (alpha) and β (beta). The α-subunit is common to several glycoprotein hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). In contrast, the β-subunit is unique to each hormone and determines its specific biological activity.

A medical definition of 'Follicle Stimulating Hormone, beta Subunit' refers to the distinct portion of the FSH molecule that is responsible for its particular functions in the body. The β-subunit of FSH enables the hormone to bind to its specific receptors in the gonads and initiate downstream signaling pathways leading to follicular development and spermatogenesis. Any alterations or mutations in the FSH beta subunit can lead to disruptions in reproductive processes, potentially causing infertility or other related disorders.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating the function of the thyroid gland by stimulating the production and release of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

The TSH molecule is composed of two subunits: alpha and beta. The alpha subunit is common to several pituitary hormones, including TSH, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). In contrast, the beta subunit is unique to each hormone, determining its specific biological activity.

Therefore, 'Thyrotropin, beta Subunit' refers to the distinct portion of the TSH molecule that confers its thyroid-stimulating properties and allows it to be identified and measured separately from other pituitary hormones sharing the common alpha subunit. Beta-subunit assays are sometimes used in clinical settings to evaluate thyroid function, as they can provide information about TSH levels independent of the common alpha subunit.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating the reproductive system. The beta subunit of LH is one of the two non-identical polypeptide chains that make up the LH molecule (the other being the alpha subunit, which is common to several hormones).

The beta subunit of LH is unique to LH and is often used in assays to measure and determine the concentration of LH in blood or urine. It's responsible for the biological specificity and activity of the LH hormone. Any changes in the structure of this subunit can affect the function of LH, which in turn can have implications for reproductive processes such as ovulation and testosterone production.

An ovarian follicle is a fluid-filled sac in the ovary that contains an immature egg or ovum (oocyte). It's a part of the female reproductive system and plays a crucial role in the process of ovulation.

Ovarian follicles start developing in the ovaries during fetal development, but only a small number of them will mature and release an egg during a woman's reproductive years. The maturation process is stimulated by hormones like follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

There are different types of ovarian follicles, including primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary or Graafian follicles. The Graafian follicle is the mature follicle that ruptures during ovulation to release the egg into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm.

It's important to note that abnormal growth or development of ovarian follicles can lead to conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and ovarian cancer.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, it promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovary, which ultimately leads to the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation). In males, FSH stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It works in conjunction with luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate reproductive processes. The secretion of FSH is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its release is influenced by the levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), estrogen, inhibin, and androgens.

A hair follicle is a part of the human skin from which hair grows. It is a complex organ that consists of several layers, including an outer root sheath, inner root sheath, and matrix. The hair follicle is located in the dermis, the second layer of the skin, and is surrounded by sebaceous glands and erector pili muscles.

The hair growth cycle includes three phases: anagen (growth phase), catagen (transitional phase), and telogen (resting phase). During the anagen phase, cells in the matrix divide rapidly to produce new hair fibers that grow out of the follicle. The hair fiber is made up of a protein called keratin, which also makes up the outer layers of the skin and nails.

Hair follicles are important for various biological functions, including thermoregulation, sensory perception, and social communication. They also play a role in wound healing and can serve as a source of stem cells that can differentiate into other cell types.

Gonadotrophs are a type of hormone-secreting cells located in the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland at the base of the brain. These cells produce and release two important gonadotropin hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) plays a crucial role in the reproductive system by stimulating the growth and development of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. In females, FSH also promotes the production of estrogen during the menstrual cycle.

Luteinizing hormone (LH) is responsible for triggering ovulation in females, releasing a mature egg from the ovary into the fallopian tube. In addition, LH stimulates the production of progesterone by the remaining cells of the ruptured follicle, which forms the corpus luteum. In males, LH helps regulate testosterone production in the testes.

Gonadotrophs are essential for maintaining reproductive function and hormonal balance in both sexes. Their activity is controlled by the hypothalamus, another part of the brain that releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to regulate FSH and LH secretion.

Glycoprotein hormones are a group of hormones that share a similar structure and are made up of four subunits: two identical alpha subunits and two distinct beta subunits. The alpha subunit is common to all glycoprotein hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).

The alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones is a 92 amino acid polypeptide chain that contains several disulfide bonds, which help to stabilize its structure. It is heavily glycosylated, meaning that it contains many carbohydrate groups attached to the protein backbone. The alpha subunit plays an important role in the biological activity of the hormone by interacting with a specific receptor on the target cell surface.

The alpha subunit contains several regions that are important for its function, including a signal peptide, a variable region, and a conserved region. The signal peptide is a short sequence of amino acids at the N-terminus of the protein that directs it to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion. The variable region contains several amino acid residues that differ between different glycoprotein hormones, while the conserved region contains amino acids that are identical or very similar in all glycoprotein hormones.

Together with the beta subunit, the alpha subunit forms the functional hormone molecule. The beta subunit determines the specificity of the hormone for its target cells and regulates its biological activity.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone, which is primarily produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, a surge of LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. During pregnancy, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone. In men, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. It plays a crucial role in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining the reproductive system.

The pituitary gland is a small, endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is often called the "master gland" because it controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger many body functions. The pituitary gland measures about 0.5 cm in height and 1 cm in width, and it weighs approximately 0.5 grams.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe is further divided into three zones: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. Each part of the pituitary gland has distinct functions and produces different hormones.

The anterior pituitary gland produces and releases several important hormones, including:

* Growth hormone (GH), which regulates growth and development in children and helps maintain muscle mass and bone strength in adults.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and lactating women.

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus:

* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling urine production.
* Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding.

Overall, the pituitary gland plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), also known as Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), is a hormonal peptide consisting of 10 amino acids. It is produced and released by the hypothalamus, an area in the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction and sexual development through its control of two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins, in turn, stimulate the gonads (ovaries or testes) to produce sex steroids and eggs or sperm.

GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland by binding to its specific receptors, leading to the release of FSH and LH. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is under negative feedback control, meaning that when sex steroid levels are high, they inhibit the release of GnRH, which subsequently decreases FSH and LH secretion.

GnRH agonists and antagonists have clinical applications in various medical conditions, such as infertility treatments, precocious puberty, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, prostate cancer, and hormone-responsive breast cancer.

Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome, also known as Refractory Thyroid Disease or Generalized T3 Resistance, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by reduced sensitivity and impaired response of the body's tissues to thyroid hormones, despite having normal or elevated levels of these hormones in the blood. This condition is caused by mutations in the THRB gene, which encodes the thyroid hormone receptor beta.

In this syndrome, the target cells and tissues do not respond properly to thyroid hormones, leading to a wide range of symptoms similar to those seen in hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid), such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. However, unlike hypothyroidism, patients with Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome usually have normal or increased levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) in their blood.

The diagnosis of Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome is often challenging, as it requires the exclusion of other causes of hypothyroidism and the confirmation of normal or elevated thyroid hormone levels with impaired tissue response. Treatment typically involves careful monitoring and management of symptoms, as the use of additional thyroid hormones may not improve the condition and can even worsen symptoms in some cases.

Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human (β-hCG) is a protein that is produced by the placenta during pregnancy. It is a component of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is a hormone that is composed of two subunits: alpha and beta. The β-hCG subunit is specific to hCG and is not found in other hormones, making it a useful marker for pregnancy and certain medical conditions.

During early pregnancy, the levels of β-hCG increase rapidly and can be detected in the blood and urine. This has led to the development of pregnancy tests that detect the presence of β-hCG to confirm pregnancy. In addition to its role in pregnancy, β-hCG is also used as a tumor marker for certain types of cancer, such as germ cell tumors and choriocarcinoma.

Elevated levels of β-hCG may indicate the presence of a molar pregnancy, a condition in which a fertilized egg implants in the uterus but does not develop properly. In some cases, a molar pregnancy can become cancerous and require treatment. Therefore, monitoring β-hCG levels during pregnancy is important for detecting any potential complications.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in target cells. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THR alpha and THR beta. THR beta is further divided into two subtypes, THR beta1 and THR beta2.

THR beta is a type of nuclear receptor that is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and heart, as well as in the central nervous system. It plays an important role in regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as in the development and function of the heart. THR beta is also involved in the regulation of body weight and energy expenditure.

THR beta1 is the predominant subtype expressed in the liver and is responsible for many of the metabolic effects of thyroid hormones in this organ. THR beta2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the heart and plays a role in regulating cardiac function.

Abnormalities in THR beta function can lead to various diseases, including thyroid hormone resistance, a condition in which the body's cells are unable to respond properly to thyroid hormones. This can result in symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, and cold intolerance.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Fushi Tarazu (FTZ) transcription factors are a family of proteins that regulate gene expression during development in various organisms, including insects and mammals. The name "Fushi Tarazu" comes from the phenotype observed in Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) mutants, which have segmentation defects resembling a "broken rosary bead" or "incomplete abdomen."

FTZ transcription factors contain a zinc finger DNA-binding domain and are involved in the regulation of homeotic genes, which control body pattern formation during development. They play crucial roles in establishing and maintaining proper segmentation and regional identity along the anterior-posterior axis of the organism. In mammals, FTZ transcription factors have been implicated in various processes, including neurogenesis, adipogenesis, and energy metabolism.

Steroidogenic Factor 1 (SF-1 or NR5A1) is a nuclear receptor protein that functions as a transcription factor, playing a crucial role in the development and regulation of the endocrine system. It is involved in the differentiation and maintenance of steroidogenic tissues such as the adrenal glands, gonads (ovaries and testes), and the hypothalamus and pituitary glands in the brain.

SF-1 regulates the expression of genes that are essential for steroid hormone biosynthesis, including enzymes involved in the production of cortisol, aldosterone, and sex steroids (androgens, estrogens). Mutations in the SF-1 gene can lead to various disorders related to sexual development, adrenal function, and fertility.

In summary, Steroidogenic Factor 1 is a critical transcription factor that regulates the development and function of steroidogenic tissues and the biosynthesis of steroid hormones.

Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), and regulate gene transcription in target cells. These receptors play a crucial role in the development, growth, and metabolism of an organism by mediating the actions of thyroid hormones. THRs are encoded by genes THRA and THRB, which give rise to two major isoforms: TRα1 and TRβ1. Additionally, alternative splicing results in other isoforms with distinct tissue distributions and functions. THRs function as heterodimers with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) in the regulatory regions of target genes. The binding of T3 or T4 to THRs triggers a conformational change, which leads to recruitment of coactivators or corepressors, ultimately resulting in activation or repression of gene transcription.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Macromolecular substances, also known as macromolecules, are large, complex molecules made up of repeating subunits called monomers. These substances are formed through polymerization, a process in which many small molecules combine to form a larger one. Macromolecular substances can be naturally occurring, such as proteins, DNA, and carbohydrates, or synthetic, such as plastics and synthetic fibers.

In the context of medicine, macromolecular substances are often used in the development of drugs and medical devices. For example, some drugs are designed to bind to specific macromolecules in the body, such as proteins or DNA, in order to alter their function and produce a therapeutic effect. Additionally, macromolecular substances may be used in the creation of medical implants, such as artificial joints and heart valves, due to their strength and durability.

It is important for healthcare professionals to have an understanding of macromolecular substances and how they function in the body, as this knowledge can inform the development and use of medical treatments.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

An ovary is a part of the female reproductive system in which ova or eggs are produced through the process of oogenesis. They are a pair of solid, almond-shaped structures located one on each side of the uterus within the pelvic cavity. Each ovary measures about 3 to 5 centimeters in length and weighs around 14 grams.

The ovaries have two main functions: endocrine (hormonal) function and reproductive function. They produce and release eggs (ovulation) responsible for potential fertilization and development of an embryo/fetus during pregnancy. Additionally, they are essential in the production of female sex hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone, which regulate menstrual cycles, sexual development, and reproduction.

During each menstrual cycle, a mature egg is released from one of the ovaries into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm. If not fertilized, the egg, along with the uterine lining, will be shed, leading to menstruation.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small endocrine gland located in the neck that helps regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain iodine atoms. These hormones play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, digestion, and brain development. They help regulate the rate at which your body uses energy, affects how sensitive your body is to other hormones, and plays a vital role in the development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through a feedback mechanism that helps maintain proper balance.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

A protein subunit refers to a distinct and independently folding polypeptide chain that makes up a larger protein complex. Proteins are often composed of multiple subunits, which can be identical or different, that come together to form the functional unit of the protein. These subunits can interact with each other through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and van der Waals forces, as well as covalent bonds like disulfide bridges. The arrangement and interaction of these subunits contribute to the overall structure and function of the protein.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Activins are a type of protein that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily. They are produced and released by various cells in the body, including those in the ovaries, testes, pituitary gland, and other tissues. Activins play important roles in regulating several biological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Activins bind to specific receptors on the surface of cells, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that control gene expression. They are particularly well-known for their role in reproductive biology, where they help regulate follicle stimulation and hormone production in the ovaries and testes. Activins also have been implicated in various disease processes, including cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation.

There are three main isoforms of activin in humans: activin A, activin B, and inhibin A. While activins and inhibins share similar structures and functions, they have opposite effects on the activity of the pituitary gland. Activins stimulate the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), while inhibins suppress it. This delicate balance between activins and inhibins helps regulate reproductive function and other physiological processes in the body.

Granulosa cells are specialized cells that surround and enclose the developing egg cells (oocytes) in the ovaries. They play a crucial role in the growth, development, and maturation of the follicles (the fluid-filled sacs containing the oocytes) by providing essential nutrients and hormones.

Granulosa cells are responsible for producing estrogen, which supports the development of the endometrium during the menstrual cycle in preparation for a potential pregnancy. They also produce inhibin and activin, two hormones that regulate the function of the pituitary gland and its secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

These cells are critical for female reproductive health and fertility. Abnormalities in granulosa cell function can lead to various reproductive disorders, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure, and infertility.

Ovulation is the medical term for the release of a mature egg from an ovary during a woman's menstrual cycle. The released egg travels through the fallopian tube where it may be fertilized by sperm if sexual intercourse has occurred recently. If the egg is not fertilized, it will break down and leave the body along with the uterine lining during menstruation. Ovulation typically occurs around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle, but the timing can vary widely from woman to woman and even from cycle to cycle in the same woman.

During ovulation, there are several physical changes that may occur in a woman's body, such as an increase in basal body temperature, changes in cervical mucus, and mild cramping or discomfort on one side of the lower abdomen (known as mittelschmerz). These symptoms can be used to help predict ovulation and improve the chances of conception.

It's worth noting that some medical conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or premature ovarian failure, may affect ovulation and make it difficult for a woman to become pregnant. In these cases, medical intervention may be necessary to help promote ovulation and increase the chances of conception.

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Gonadal steroid hormones, also known as gonadal sex steroids, are hormones that are produced and released by the gonads (i.e., ovaries in women and testes in men). These hormones play a critical role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive function, and overall health.

The three main classes of gonadal steroid hormones are:

1. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are primarily produced by the testes but also produced in smaller amounts by the ovaries and adrenal glands. The most well-known androgen is testosterone, which plays a key role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
2. Estrogens: These are female sex hormones that are primarily produced by the ovaries but also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. The most well-known estrogen is estradiol, which plays a key role in the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle.
3. Progestogens: These are hormones that are produced by the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and play a key role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. The most well-known progestogen is progesterone, which also plays a role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Gonadal steroid hormones can have significant effects on various physiological processes, including bone density, cognitive function, mood, and sexual behavior. Disorders of gonadal steroid hormone production or action can lead to a range of health problems, including infertility, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy. It plays an essential role in preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. Progesterone works to thicken the lining of the uterus, creating a nurturing environment for the developing embryo.

During the menstrual cycle, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, a temporary structure formed in the ovary after an egg has been released from a follicle during ovulation. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of progesterone will decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and menstruation.

In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone also has various other effects on the body, such as helping to regulate the immune system, supporting bone health, and potentially influencing mood and cognition. Progesterone can be administered medically in the form of oral pills, intramuscular injections, or vaginal suppositories for various purposes, including hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and managing certain gynecological conditions.

Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that is produced during pregnancy. It is produced by the placenta after implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus. The main function of hCG is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum, which is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after ovulation and produces progesterone during early pregnancy. Progesterone is essential for maintaining the lining of the uterus and supporting the pregnancy.

hCG can be detected in the blood or urine as early as 10 days after conception, and its levels continue to rise throughout the first trimester of pregnancy. In addition to its role in maintaining pregnancy, hCG is also used as a clinical marker for pregnancy and to monitor certain medical conditions such as gestational trophoblastic diseases.

An oocyte, also known as an egg cell or female gamete, is a large specialized cell found in the ovary of female organisms. It contains half the number of chromosomes as a normal diploid cell, as it is the product of meiotic division. Oocytes are surrounded by follicle cells and are responsible for the production of female offspring upon fertilization with sperm. The term "oocyte" specifically refers to the immature egg cell before it reaches full maturity and is ready for fertilization, at which point it is referred to as an ovum or egg.

Follicular fluid is the fluid that accumulates within the follicle (a small sac or cyst) in the ovary where an egg matures. This fluid contains various chemicals, hormones, and proteins that support the growth and development of the egg cell. It also contains metabolic waste products and other substances from the granulosa cells (the cells that surround the egg cell within the follicle). Follicular fluid is often analyzed in fertility treatments and studies as it can provide valuable information about the health and viability of the egg cell.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body. It is produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands, which are four small endocrine glands located on the back surface of the thyroid gland.

The primary function of PTH is to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood by increasing calcium absorption from the gut, mobilizing calcium from bones, and decreasing calcium excretion by the kidneys. PTH also increases phosphate excretion by the kidneys, which helps to lower serum phosphate levels.

In addition to its role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, PTH has been shown to have anabolic effects on bone tissue, stimulating bone formation and preventing bone loss. However, chronic elevations in PTH levels can lead to excessive bone resorption and osteoporosis.

Overall, Parathyroid Hormone is a critical hormone that helps maintain mineral homeostasis and supports healthy bone metabolism.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is a member of the interleukin-1 cytokine family and is primarily produced by activated macrophages in response to inflammatory stimuli. It is a crucial mediator of the innate immune response and plays a key role in the regulation of various biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. IL-1β is involved in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and atherosclerosis. It exerts its effects by binding to the interleukin-1 receptor, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of various transcription factors and the expression of target genes.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Early Growth Response Protein 1 (EGR1) is a transcription factor that belongs to the EGR family of proteins, which are also known as zinc finger transcription factors. EGR1 plays crucial roles in various biological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. It regulates gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of target genes.

EGR1 is rapidly induced in response to a variety of stimuli, such as growth factors, neurotransmitters, and stress signals. Once induced, EGR1 modulates the transcription of downstream target genes involved in different signaling pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways.

EGR1 has been implicated in several physiological and pathological processes, including development, learning and memory, neurodegeneration, and cancer. In the context of cancer, EGR1 can act as a tumor suppressor or an oncogene, depending on the cellular context and the specific target genes it regulates.

Proton-translocating ATPases are complex, multi-subunit enzymes found in the membranes of many organisms, from bacteria to humans. They play a crucial role in energy transduction processes within cells.

In simpler terms, these enzymes help convert chemical energy into a form that can be used to perform mechanical work, such as moving molecules across membranes against their concentration gradients. This is achieved through a process called chemiosmosis, where the movement of ions (in this case, protons or hydrogen ions) down their electrochemical gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, an essential energy currency for cellular functions.

Proton-translocating ATPases consist of two main domains: a catalytic domain responsible for ATP binding and hydrolysis, and a membrane domain that contains the ion transport channel. The enzyme operates in either direction depending on the energy status of the cell: it can use ATP to pump protons out of the cell when there's an excess of chemical energy or utilize the proton gradient to generate ATP during times of energy deficit.

These enzymes are essential for various biological processes, including nutrient uptake, pH regulation, and maintaining ion homeostasis across membranes. In humans, they are primarily located in the inner mitochondrial membrane (forming the F0F1-ATP synthase) and plasma membranes of certain cells (as V-type ATPases). Dysfunction of these enzymes has been linked to several diseases, including neurological disorders and cancer.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Theca cells are specialized cells that are part of the follicle where the egg matures in the ovary. They are located in the outer layer of the follicle and play an important role in producing hormones necessary for the growth and development of the follicle and the egg within it. Specifically, they produce androgens, such as testosterone, which are then converted into estrogens by another type of cells in the follicle called granulosa cells. These hormones help to thicken the lining of the uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy. In some cases, theca cells can become overactive and produce too much testosterone, leading to conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Beta-2 microglobulin (β2M) is a small protein that is a component of the major histocompatibility complex class I molecule, which plays a crucial role in the immune system. It is found on the surface of almost all nucleated cells in the body and is involved in presenting intracellular peptides to T-cells for immune surveillance.

β2M is produced at a relatively constant rate by cells throughout the body and is freely filtered by the glomeruli in the kidneys. Under normal circumstances, most of the filtrated β2M is reabsorbed and catabolized in the proximal tubules of the nephrons. However, when the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is decreased, as in chronic kidney disease (CKD), the reabsorption capacity of the proximal tubules becomes overwhelmed, leading to increased levels of β2M in the blood and its subsequent appearance in the urine.

Elevated serum and urinary β2M levels have been associated with various clinical conditions, such as CKD, multiple myeloma, autoimmune disorders, and certain infectious diseases. Measuring β2M concentrations can provide valuable information for diagnostic, prognostic, and monitoring purposes in these contexts.

Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein hormone that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family. It is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovaries of females. AMH plays an essential role in female reproductive physiology, as it inhibits the recruitment and further development of primordial follicles, thereby regulating the size of the primordial follicle pool and the onset of puberty.

AMH levels are often used as a biomarker for ovarian reserve assessment in women. High AMH levels indicate a larger ovarian reserve, while low levels suggest a decreased reserve, which may be associated with reduced fertility or an earlier onset of menopause. Additionally, measuring AMH levels can help predict the response to ovarian stimulation during assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Human Growth Hormone (HGH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone produced in the pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in human development and growth by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 promotes the growth and reproduction of cells throughout the body, particularly in bones and other tissues. HGH also helps regulate body composition, body fluids, muscle and bone growth, sugar and fat metabolism, and possibly heart function. It is essential for human development and continues to have important effects throughout life. The secretion of HGH decreases with age, which is thought to contribute to the aging process.

Inhibins are a group of protein hormones that play a crucial role in regulating the function of the reproductive system, specifically by inhibiting the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the pituitary gland. They are produced and secreted primarily by the granulosa cells in the ovaries of females and Sertoli cells in the testes of males.

Inhibins consist of two subunits, an alpha subunit, and a beta subunit, which can be further divided into two types: inhibin A and inhibin B. Inhibin A is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovary, while inhibin B is mainly produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes.

By regulating FSH production, inhibins help control the development and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males. Abnormal levels of inhibins have been associated with various reproductive disorders, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and certain types of cancer.

Protein conformation refers to the specific three-dimensional shape that a protein molecule assumes due to the spatial arrangement of its constituent amino acid residues and their associated chemical groups. This complex structure is determined by several factors, including covalent bonds (disulfide bridges), hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds, which help stabilize the protein's unique conformation.

Protein conformations can be broadly classified into two categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The primary structure represents the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure arises from local interactions between adjacent amino acid residues, leading to the formation of recurring motifs such as α-helices and β-sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding pattern of a single polypeptide chain, while quaternary structure describes the spatial arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide chains (subunits) that interact to form a functional protein complex.

Understanding protein conformation is crucial for elucidating protein function, as the specific three-dimensional shape of a protein directly influences its ability to interact with other molecules, such as ligands, nucleic acids, or other proteins. Any alterations in protein conformation due to genetic mutations, environmental factors, or chemical modifications can lead to loss of function, misfolding, aggregation, and disease states like neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. ACTH plays a crucial role in the regulation of the body's stress response and has significant effects on various physiological processes.

The primary function of ACTH is to stimulate the adrenal glands, which are triangular-shaped glands situated on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands consist of two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. ACTH specifically targets the adrenal cortex, where it binds to specific receptors and initiates a series of biochemical reactions leading to the production and release of steroid hormones, primarily cortisol (a glucocorticoid) and aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid).

Cortisol is involved in various metabolic processes, such as regulating blood sugar levels, modulating the immune response, and helping the body respond to stress. Aldosterone plays a vital role in maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.

ACTH release is controlled by the hypothalamus, another part of the brain, which produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH, which in turn triggers cortisol production in the adrenal glands. This complex feedback system helps maintain homeostasis and ensures that appropriate amounts of cortisol are released in response to various physiological and psychological stressors.

Disorders related to ACTH can lead to hormonal imbalances, resulting in conditions such as Cushing's syndrome (excessive cortisol production) or Addison's disease (insufficient cortisol production). Proper diagnosis and management of these disorders typically involve assessing the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and addressing any underlying issues affecting ACTH secretion.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Integrin β3 is a subunit of certain integrin heterodimers, which are transmembrane receptors that mediate cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) adhesion. Integrin β3 combines with either integrin αv (to form the integrin αvβ3) or integrin αIIb (to form the integrin αIIbβ3). These integrins are involved in various cellular processes, including platelet aggregation, angiogenesis, and tumor metastasis.

Integrin αIIbβ3 is primarily expressed on platelets and mediates platelet aggregation by binding to fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and other adhesive proteins in the ECM. Integrin αvβ3 is widely expressed in various cell types and participates in diverse functions such as cell migration, proliferation, differentiation, and survival. It binds to a variety of ECM proteins, including fibronectin, vitronectin, and osteopontin, as well as to soluble ligands like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β).

Dysregulation of integrin β3 has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as thrombosis, atherosclerosis, tumor metastasis, and inflammatory diseases.

Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.

Medically, hair is defined as a threadlike structure that grows from the follicles found in the skin of mammals. It is primarily made up of a protein called keratin and consists of three parts: the medulla (the innermost part or core), the cortex (middle layer containing keratin filaments) and the cuticle (outer layer of overlapping scales).

Hair growth occurs in cycles, with each cycle consisting of a growth phase (anagen), a transitional phase (catagen), and a resting phase (telogen). The length of hair is determined by the duration of the anagen phase.

While hair plays a crucial role in protecting the skin from external factors like UV radiation, temperature changes, and physical damage, it also serves as an essential aspect of human aesthetics and identity.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Pituitary hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls several other endocrine glands and regulates various bodily functions.

There are two main types of pituitary hormones: anterior pituitary hormones and posterior pituitary hormones, which are produced in different parts of the pituitary gland and have distinct functions.

Anterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Growth hormone (GH): regulates growth and metabolism.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
5. Prolactin: stimulates milk production in lactating women.
6. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

Posterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during lactation.
2. Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH): regulates water balance in the body by controlling urine production in the kidneys.

Overall, pituitary hormones play crucial roles in regulating growth, development, metabolism, reproductive function, and various other bodily functions. Abnormalities in pituitary hormone levels can lead to a range of medical conditions, such as dwarfism, acromegaly, Cushing's disease, infertility, and diabetes insipidus.

A peptide fragment is a short chain of amino acids that is derived from a larger peptide or protein through various biological or chemical processes. These fragments can result from the natural breakdown of proteins in the body during regular physiological processes, such as digestion, or they can be produced experimentally in a laboratory setting for research or therapeutic purposes.

Peptide fragments are often used in research to map the structure and function of larger peptides and proteins, as well as to study their interactions with other molecules. In some cases, peptide fragments may also have biological activity of their own and can be developed into drugs or diagnostic tools. For example, certain peptide fragments derived from hormones or neurotransmitters may bind to receptors in the body and mimic or block the effects of the full-length molecule.

Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.

Testosterone is a steroid hormone that belongs to androsten class of hormones. It is primarily secreted by the Leydig cells in the testes of males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. It plays a key role in the development of masculine characteristics, such as body hair and muscle mass, and contributes to bone density, fat distribution, red cell production, and sex drive. In females, testosterone contributes to sexual desire and bone health. Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and its production is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Adrenergic receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds and responds to catecholamines, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Beta adrenergic receptors (β-adrenergic receptors) are a subtype of adrenergic receptors that include three distinct subclasses: β1, β2, and β3. These receptors are widely distributed throughout the body and play important roles in various physiological functions, including cardiovascular regulation, bronchodilation, lipolysis, and glucose metabolism.

β1-adrenergic receptors are primarily located in the heart and regulate cardiac contractility, chronotropy (heart rate), and relaxation. β2-adrenergic receptors are found in various tissues, including the lungs, vascular smooth muscle, liver, and skeletal muscle. They mediate bronchodilation, vasodilation, glycogenolysis, and lipolysis. β3-adrenergic receptors are mainly expressed in adipose tissue, where they stimulate lipolysis and thermogenesis.

Agonists of β-adrenergic receptors include catecholamines like epinephrine and norepinephrine, as well as synthetic drugs such as dobutamine (a β1-selective agonist) and albuterol (a non-selective β2-agonist). Antagonists of β-adrenergic receptors are commonly used in the treatment of various conditions, including hypertension, angina pectoris, heart failure, and asthma. Examples of β-blockers include metoprolol (a β1-selective antagonist) and carvedilol (a non-selective β-blocker with additional α1-adrenergic receptor blocking activity).

Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate group (a molecule consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen atoms) to a protein or other organic molecule, which is usually done by enzymes called kinases. This post-translational modification can change the function, localization, or activity of the target molecule, playing a crucial role in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, metabolism, and regulation of gene expression. Phosphorylation is reversible, and the removal of the phosphate group is facilitated by enzymes called phosphatases.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to introduce specific and targeted changes to a specific DNA sequence. This process involves creating a new variant of a gene or a specific region of interest within a DNA molecule by introducing a planned, deliberate change, or mutation, at a predetermined site within the DNA sequence.

The methodology typically involves the use of molecular tools such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, and/or ligases to introduce the desired mutation(s) into a plasmid or other vector containing the target DNA sequence. The resulting modified DNA molecule can then be used to transform host cells, allowing for the production of large quantities of the mutated gene or protein for further study.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a valuable tool in basic research, drug discovery, and biotechnology applications where specific changes to a DNA sequence are required to understand gene function, investigate protein structure/function relationships, or engineer novel biological properties into existing genes or proteins.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Triiodothyronine (T3) is a thyroid hormone, specifically the active form of thyroid hormone, that plays a critical role in the regulation of metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. It is produced by the thyroid gland through the iodination and coupling of the amino acid tyrosine with three atoms of iodine. T3 is more potent than its precursor, thyroxine (T4), which has four iodine atoms, as T3 binds more strongly to thyroid hormone receptors and accelerates metabolic processes at the cellular level.

In circulation, about 80% of T3 is bound to plasma proteins, while the remaining 20% is unbound or free, allowing it to enter cells and exert its biological effects. The primary functions of T3 include increasing the rate of metabolic reactions, promoting protein synthesis, enhancing sensitivity to catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), and supporting normal brain development during fetal growth and early infancy. Imbalances in T3 levels can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, which may require clinical intervention and management.

Oogenesis is the biological process of formation and maturation of female gametes, or ova or egg cells, in the ovary. It begins during fetal development and continues throughout a woman's reproductive years. The process involves the division and differentiation of a germ cell (oogonium) into an immature ovum (oocyte), which then undergoes meiotic division to form a mature ovum capable of being fertilized by sperm.

The main steps in oogenesis include:

1. Multiplication phase: The oogonia divide mitotically to increase their number.
2. Growth phase: One of the oogonia becomes primary oocyte and starts to grow, accumulating nutrients and organelles required for future development.
3. First meiotic division: The primary oocyte undergoes an incomplete first meiotic division, resulting in two haploid cells - a secondary oocyte and a smaller cell called the first polar body. This division is arrested in prophase I until puberty.
4. Second meiotic division: At ovulation or just before fertilization, the secondary oocyte completes the second meiotic division, producing another small cell, the second polar body, and a mature ovum (egg) with 23 chromosomes.
5. Fertilization: The mature ovum can be fertilized by a sperm, restoring the normal diploid number of chromosomes in the resulting zygote.

Oogenesis is a complex and highly regulated process that involves various hormonal signals and cellular interactions to ensure proper development and maturation of female gametes for successful reproduction.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

... subunit contains an amino acid sequence that exhibits large homologies with that of the beta subunit of hCG and both stimulate ... Its structure is similar to that of the other glycoprotein hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating ... glycoprotein hormones do not exist in invertebrates). The beta subunits vary. LH has a beta subunit of 120 amino acids (LHB) ... human interstitial cell stimulating hormone and human follicle-stimulating hormone on ovarian weights in estrogen-primed ...
Follitropin subunit beta also known as follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit (FSH-B) is a protein that in humans is encoded ... This gene encodes the beta subunit of follicle-stimulating hormone. In conjunction with luteinizing hormone, follicle- ... The FSHB gene in human DNA encodes the follicle-stimulating hormone subunit beta protein (FSH-B), or Follitropin Beta. More ... "Human follicle stimulating hormone: first proposal for the amino acid sequence of the hormone-specific, beta subunit (hFSHb)". ...
... while the beta subunits vary. Both subunits are required for biological activity. FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino acids ( ... "Follicle-Stimulating Hormone". WebMD. Bowen R. "Luteinizing and Follicle Stimulating Hormones". www.vivo.colostate.edu. ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by ... actions on follicle-stimulating hormone beta messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) involve differential expression of pituitary ...
... follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) are heterodimers consisting of alpha and beta ... "Human follicle stimulating hormone (hFSH): first proposal for the amino acid sequence of the alpha-subunit (hFSHa) and first ... "Primary amino acid sequence of follicle-stimulating hormone from human pituitary glands. I. alpha subunit". The Journal of ... The alpha subunits of these four human glycoprotein hormones are identical; however, their beta chains are unique and confer ...
The alpha subunit is common to all glycoprotein hormones (LH, FSH, TSH, CG). The beta subunits are hormone-specific and are ... but in other species it has activity like both follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Equine CG, like ... Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropins, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, Horse hormones, All stub ... all glycoprotein hormones, is composed of two dissimilar subunits named alpha and beta. ...
... follicle stimulating hormone, beta subunit MeSH D06.472.734.525.343.288.625 - follicle stimulating hormone, human MeSH D06.472. ... follicle stimulating hormone MeSH D06.472.351.576.288.500 - follicle stimulating hormone, beta subunit MeSH D06.472.351.576. ... follicle stimulating hormone MeSH D06.472.699.631.525.343.288.500 - follicle stimulating hormone, beta subunit MeSH D06.472. ... follicle stimulating hormone, human MeSH D06.472.699.631.525.343.288.750 - glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit MeSH D06.472. ...
... luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The α subunit is thought to be the effector region ... TSH is a glycoprotein and consists of two subunits, the alpha and the beta subunit. The α (alpha) subunit (i.e., chorionic ... luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and alpha-subunit". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 71 ... Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as thyrotropin, thyrotropic hormone, or abbreviated TSH) is a pituitary hormone that ...
This family includes the mammalian hormones follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), the placental/ ... implying that hormone assembly is limited by the appearance of the specific beta subunits, and hence that synthesis of alpha ... The two principal gonadotropins in vertebrates are luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), although ... Peptide hormones, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropins, Animal ...
... in the gonadotropes and stimulates the Smad2 or Smad3 pathway to increase follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit (FSHB). The ... Macroorchidism result from an increased secretion of the follicle stimulating hormone. The follicle stimulating hormone is ... follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) then stimulates the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) of the sertoli cells, ... Macroorchidism is related to IGFS1 deficiency which causes an increase in the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). ...
... follicle stimulating hormone MeSH D12.644.548.691.525.343.288.500 - follicle stimulating hormone, beta subunit MeSH D12.644. ... glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit MeSH D12.644.548.691.525.343.463.500 - luteinizing hormone, beta subunit MeSH D12.644. ... glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit MeSH D12.644.548.691.525.883.500 - thyrotropin, beta subunit MeSH D12.644.548.691.692 - ... beta subunit, human MeSH D12.644.548.726.367.562 - glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit MeSH D12.644.548.726.451 - ...
Regulation of the sensitivity of granulosa cells to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) action, contributing to the ... However, in the BMP-15 the homodimers form as a non-covalent bond is present between two BMP-15 subunits. Functions of BMP-15 ... This protein is a member of the Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) superfamily and is a paracrine signalling molecule. ... It is involved in folliculogenesis, the process in which primordial follicles develop into pre-ovulatory follicles. The BMP-15 ...
Follicle stimulating hormone and inhibin B were recommended to be monitored routinely by specialists to speculate the condition ... is a glycoprotein hormone structurally related to inhibin and activin from the transforming growth factor beta superfamily, ... The molecule consists of two identical subunits linked by sulfide bridges, and characterized by the N-terminal dimer (pro- ... and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Mutations in both the AMH gene and the type II AMH receptor have been shown to cause ...
... follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and a β (beta) subunit that is unique to hCG. The α ( ... Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, Sex hormones, Hormones of the placenta, Hormones of the pregnant female, ... beta-hCG is mostly similar to beta-LH, with the exception of a Carboxy Terminus Peptide (beta-CTP) containing four glycosylated ... alpha) subunit is 92 amino acids long. The β-subunit of hCG gonadotropin (beta-hCG) contains 145 amino acids, encoded by six ...
... peptide hormones (e.g., calcitonin, C5a anaphylatoxin, follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH], gonadotropin-releasing hormone [GnRH ... For example, beta-arrestin bound to β2-adrenoreceptors acts as an adaptor for binding with clathrin, and with the beta-subunit ... Stimulative regulative G-protein is a G-protein linked to stimulative hormone receptor (Rs), and its α subunit upon activation ... On the contrary, inhibitory regulative G-protein is linked to an inhibitory hormone receptor, and its α subunit upon activation ...
... acting alongside follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). After ovulation has occurred, IGF-2 promotes progesterone secretion during ... As IGF-2 promotes development of fetal pancreatic beta cells, it is believed to be related to some forms of diabetes mellitus. ... binding protein 5 forms an alternative ternary complex with IGFs and the acid-labile subunit". The Journal of Biological ... Peptide hormones, Growth factors, Hormones of the somatotropic axis, Insulin-like growth factor receptor agonists, Insulin ...
headquartered in India), Argentina's Laboratorios Beta S.A., and China's Wanbang Biopharma Co. Follicle-stimulating hormone ( ... Purification and characterization of the 40 S ribosomal subunit proteins Sa, Sc, S3a, S3b, S5', S9, S10, S11, S12, S14, S15, ... Human growth hormone (rHGH): Humatrope from Lilly and Serostim from Serono replaced cadaver harvested human growth hormone ... Interferon-beta-1a: Avonex from Biogen Idec; Rebif from Serono; Interferon beta-1b as Betaseron from Schering. It is being ...
Follicle-stimulating hormone Human chorionic gonadotropin Bonnet macaque Folliculogenesis India portal Medicine portal His ... "Passive immunization with an antibody to the beta-subunit of ovine luteinizing hormone as a method of early abortion-a ... he discovered that sialidase from the kidney of the primate acted as an inhibitor of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), a ... "Responsiveness of human male volunteers to immunization with ovine follicle stimulating hormone vaccine: results of a pilot ...
... luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and alpha-subunit". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 71 ... In beta cells lacking contact (i.e. outside islet of Lagerhans), the periodicity of these oscillations is rather variable (2-10 ... such as that observed for Leutinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), have indicated similar pulses into ... related hormones Glucocorticoids Insulin Growth hormone Parathyroid hormone Nervous system control over hormone release is ...
The production of gametes is induced in both male and female mammals by the same two hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone ( ... in India with a more potent vaccine that combined the beta subunit of hCG with the alpha subunit of ovine luteinizing hormone ... A vaccine in which the beta subunit of hCG is fused to the B subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin has been ... Agnantis NJ, Patra F, Khaldi L, Filis S (1992). "Immunohistochemical expression of subunit beta HCG in breast cancer". Eur. J. ...
... which stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone. Then the gonads produce estrogen and ... However, it has been seen to be important in receiving the endocrine signal in the form of TSHB (a β subunit of TSH), informing ... The chromophils can be further divided into acidophils (alpha cells) and basophils (beta cells). These cells all together ... stress may delay the release of reproductive hormones such as luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). ...
... and peptide hormones composed of polypeptides, e.g. thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing ... of the alpha subunit with the beta-gamma complex and which results in a single alpha subunit with GTP bound and a beta-gamma ... hormone receptor 1 Corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 2 Estrogen receptors Follicle-stimulating hormone receptors ... These hormones can cause cancer to not survive in the human body. Hormone receptor proteins bind to a hormone as a result of an ...
2004). "Regulation of the follicle-stimulating hormone beta gene by the LHX3 LIM-homeodomain transcription factor". ... "MRG1 binds to the LIM domain of Lhx2 and may function as a coactivator to stimulate glycoprotein hormone alpha-subunit gene ... Mutations in this gene have been associated with a syndrome of combined pituitary hormone deficiency and rigid cervical spine. ... Sloop KW, Meier BC, Bridwell JL, Parker GE, Schiller AM, Rhodes SJ (Jan 2000). "Differential activation of pituitary hormone ...
... beta(B)-, and beta(C)-subunits in humanprostate and evidence for formation of new activin heterodimers of beta(C)-subunit". The ... FSH stimulates the secretion of inhibin from the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles in the ovaries. In turn, inhibin ... Hormones of the ovary, Peptide hormones, TGFβ domain, Human female endocrine system). ... Inhibin is also a dimer wherein the first component is a beta subunit similar or identical to the beta subunit in activin. ...
"Recruitment of beta-catenin by wild-type or mutant androgen receptors correlates with ligand-stimulated growth of prostate ... whereas dihydrotestosterone is the main androgenic hormone in the urogenital sinus, urogenital tubercle, and hair follicles. ... Beauchemin AM, Gottlieb B, Beitel LK, Elhaji YA, Pinsky L, Trifiro MA (2001). "Cytochrome c oxidase subunit Vb interacts with ... Vitamins & Hormones. Vol. 55. pp. 309-52. doi:10.1016/S0083-6729(08)60938-3. ISBN 978-0-12-709855-5. PMID 9949684. Bardin CW, ...
Reduction of the inflammatory cytokine Interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) in mice by mTOR inhibition (with rapamycin in doses of 20 mg/ ... The FAT domain consists of repeats, referred to as HEAT (Huntingtin, Elongation factor 3, A subunit of protein phosphatase 2A ... Rapamycin has shown to induce cancer cell death by stimulating autophagy or apoptosis, but the molecular mechanism of apoptosis ... for advanced hormone receptor-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer in combination with exemestane, and pediatric and adult ...
Beta subunits have four cysteine-rich repeated sequences. Both α and β subunits bind several divalent cations. The role of ... the conformational state changes to stimulate ligand binding, which then activates the receptors - also by inducing a shape ... "Integrin alphaVbeta3 contains a cell surface receptor site for thyroid hormone that is linked to activation of mitogen- ... "Alpha4beta7/MAdCAM-1 interactions play an essential role in transitioning cryptopatches into isolated lymphoid follicles and a ...
... subunit contains an amino acid sequence that exhibits large homologies with that of the beta subunit of hCG and both stimulate ... Its structure is similar to that of the other glycoprotein hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating ... glycoprotein hormones do not exist in invertebrates). The beta subunits vary. LH has a beta subunit of 120 amino acids (LHB) ... human interstitial cell stimulating hormone and human follicle-stimulating hormone on ovarian weights in estrogen-primed ...
follicle stimulating hormone beta subunit. protein-coding. FAM212A. family with sequence similarity 212 member A. protein- ... fibrinogen beta chain. protein-coding. FLVCR2. feline leukemia virus subgroup C cellular receptor family member 2. protein- ...
Beta-human chorionic gonadotropin. hCG is a glycoprotein similar in structure to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), ... alpha or beta subunit, and degraded form, or beta core fragment. Intact and free beta subunit are initially the predominant ... The alpha subunit of hCG is similar to the alpha subunit of FSH, LH, and thyrotropin. The free beta subunit of hCG differs from ... The free beta-hCG subunit is further degraded in the kidney to a beta subunit core fragment that has less than half the ...
C. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Beta Subunit (FSHB). D. Neurotensin (NTS) in the cell culture supernatants were quantified by ... These proteins are: FSHB (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Beta Subunit) and NTS (Neurotensin). Both proteins can be detected in ... Generally, RNA isolation reagents comprise, among other components, guanidium thiocyanate and/or beta-mercaptoethanol, which ...
Cloning and DNA sequence analysis of the cDNA for the precursor of ovine follicle stimulating hormone beta-subunit. Nucleic ... Cloning and DNA sequence analysis of the cDNA for the precursor of ovine follicle stimulating hormone beta-subunit. Nucleic ... As development progressed, compared with the CK group, the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), follicle-stimulating hormone ... Demonstration of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor in cauda epididymis of rat. Biology of Reproduction 2006;75:98-106.). In ...
Human follicle stimulating hormone: first proposal for the amino acid sequence of the hormone-specific, beta subunit (hFSHb)". ... Saxena BB, Rathnam P (1976). „Amino acid sequence of the beta subunit of follicle-stimulating hormone from human pituitary ... Jameson JL, Becker CB, Lindell CM, Habener JF (1988). „Human follicle-stimulating hormone beta-subunit gene encodes multiple ... Delayed puberty and hypogonadism caused by mutations in the follicle-stimulating hormone beta-subunit gene". N. Engl. J. Med. ...
LBXFSH - Follicle stimulating hormone (mIU/mL). Variable Name: LBXFSH. SAS Label: Follicle stimulating hormone (mIU/mL). ... The alpha subunit of FSH contains 92 amino acids. The beta subunit of FSH is unique and confers its immunological and ... LBDFSHSI - Follicle stimulating hormone (IU/L). Variable Name: LBDFSHSI. SAS Label: Follicle stimulating hormone (IU/L). ... Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone IMx Ultrasensitive FSH and LH is a Microparticle Enzyme Immunoassay (MEIA ...
Santos EM, Rand-Weaver M, Tyler CR (2001). Follicle-stimulating hormone and its alpha and beta subunits in rainbow trout ( ... Follicle-stimulating hormone and its alpha and beta subunits in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): purification, ... Santos EM, Rand-Weaver M, Tyler CR (2001). Follicle-stimulating hormone and its alpha and beta subunits in rainbow trout ( ... Follicle-stimulating hormone and its alpha and beta subunits in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): purification, ...
... and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), as well as to the alpha subunit of human thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The beta ... It stimulates production of gonadal steroid hormones by stimulating the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) of the testis to ... The alpha subunit is essentially identical to the alpha subunits of the human pituitary gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH ... Chorionic gonadotropin is a purified preparation composed of an alpha and a beta subunit. ...
Most patients have gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) deficiency, as suggested by their response to pulsatile GnRH therapy. ... Rarely, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism occurs as a result of isolated follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) deficiency due to ... In one patient, isolated bioinactive LH was present because of a homozygous mutation in the LH beta subunit gene, which led to ... In one patient, isolated bioinactive luteinizing hormone (LH) was present as a result of a homozygous mutation in the LH beta ...
Activin induction of the ovine follicle-stimulating hormone beta-subunit is mediated by Smad4 and a forkhead box transcription ... Analysis of Gonadotrope-specific Expression of Ovine Follicle Stimulating Hormone Beta Subunit Using Adenoviral Expression ... Activin Induction of Follicle Stimulating Hormone is Mediated by Transforming Growth Factor Beta Activated Kinase-1 (TAK-1) in ...
The chicken follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit gene. GenBank Accession Number AF467082 ... hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, GnRH receptors, and messenger ribonucleic acid for gonadotropin subunits in cows. ... of infused gonadotropin releasing hormone on secretion of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone in nutritionally ... Gallus gallus follicle-stimulating hormone beta gene, exons 1, 2 and 3 and complete cds. ...
... higher E2 plasma levels and follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit (fshb) expression was registered at low temperatures (10 ... Japanese eel follicle-stimulating hormone (Fsh) and luteinizing hormone (Lh): production of biologically active recombinant Fsh ... Differential regulation of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone expression during ovarian development and under ... Due to their biological relevance, fshb and luteinizing hormone beta subunit (lhb) were chosen as target genes for additional ...
... follicle stimulating hormone), and LH (luteinizing hormone), and provides more egg recruitment from the ovary. When combined ... Recombinant Beta Subunit (known as Puregon). Gonal F and Puregon are sold in pen formats to allow for ease of preparation and ... Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Injections. FSH is a protein made by the human pituitary gland and it has an effect on the ... Letrozole is administered orally and results in an increase in follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), intended to increase ovarian ...
subunit. gamma-12. Gβ. Glycoprotein. hormones alpha. chain. Follitropin. subunit beta. Follicle-. stimulating. hormone. ... hormones alpha. chain. Follitropin. subunit beta. Follicle-. stimulating. hormone. receptor. Guanine. nucleotide-. binding ... Regulatory Subunit. Transcription. Nucleus. FSHR. GNAS. GNG12. GNB1. FSHR. GNAS. GNB1. GNG12. GNG12. GNB1. GNAS. FSHR. ADCY2. ... Regulatory Subunit. Transcription. Nucleus. Unknown. Unknown. FSHR. GNAS. GNG12. GNB1. Unknown. Unknown. FSHR. GNAS. GNB1. ...
Follicle Stimulating Hormone. *Follicle Stimulating Hormone, beta Subunit. *Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Human ... Follicle Stimulating Hormone [D06.472.699.631.525.343.288]. *Glycoprotein Hormones, alpha Subunit [D06.472.699.631.525.343. ... Follicle Stimulating Hormone [D12.644.548.691.525.343.288]. *Glycoprotein Hormones, alpha Subunit [D12.644.548.691.525.343. ... The alpha chain of pituitary glycoprotein hormones (THYROTROPIN; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; LUTEINIZING HORMONE) and the ...
Follicle-stimulating hormone ß subunit; Ct: Cycle threshold; Rn18s: Rattus norvegicus 18S ribosomal RNA. ... inhibin subunit beta A; qRT-PCR: Real-Time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; FSHß: ... Follicle-stimulating hormone; FSHR: Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor; cAMP: Cyclic adenosine 35 monophosphate; PKA: ... increased ratio of luteinizing hormone/follicle stimulating hormone, and stockpiling of secondary follicles, which are typical ...
Primary amenorrhea and infertility due to a mutation in the beta-subunit of follicle-stimulating hormone. Nat Genet 5: 83, 1993 ... Kumar TR, Low MJ, Matzuk MM: Genetic rescue of follicle-stimulating hormone beta-deficient mice. Endocrinology 139: 3289, 1998 ... Kumar TR, Wang Y, Lu N, Matzuk MM: Follicle stimulating hormone is required for ovarian follicle maturation but not male ... Illustration of the concept that the dominant follicle contains relatively high levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in ...
Inhibins selectively suppress the secretion of pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The inhibins consist of a dimer of ... 2 homologous subunits, an alpha subunit and either a beta A or beta B subunit, to form inhibin A and inhibin B, respectively. ... Inhibins are heterodimeric protein hormones secreted by granulosa cells of the ovary in females and Sertoli cells of the testis ... In females, inhibin A is primarily produced by the dominant follicle and corpus luteum, whereas inhibin B is primarily produced ...
... and the beta-subunit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSHB). This suggested a link between the T-ALL(bcr) and the Wilms tumour ... and the beta-subunit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSHB). This suggested a link between the T-ALL(bcr) and the Wilms tumour ... and the beta-subunit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSHB). This suggested a link between the T-ALL(bcr) and the Wilms tumour ... and the beta-subunit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSHB). This suggested a link between the T-ALL(bcr) and the Wilms tumour ...
Urofollitropin is a urinary-derived follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) that is extracted and purified from human urine samples ... subunits. The alpha- and beta- subunits have 92 and 111 amino acids. The alpha subunit is glycosylated at Asn 51... ... Hormones, Hormone Substitutes, and Hormone Antagonists ... Sex Hormones and Modulators of the Genital System … Matched Products ... The alpha subunit is glycosylated at Asn 51 and Asn 78 while the beta subunit is glycosylated at Asn … Matched Categories: … ...
In the pituitary the gonadotropin hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) are produced ... and a unique beta subunit (LHB or FSHB) that provides hormone specificity (25). Gonadotropin synthesis and secretion are ... primarily regulated by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) but other hormones such as steroids activin follistatin and ... Further investigation revealed that FOXO1 participates in follicle atresia likely by enhancing apoptosis (17). FOXO1 is also ...
Human FSH ELISA kit can detect quantitative levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in human serum samples. ... It is just like to other glycoproteins being made up of an alpha and beta subunit. The immunological and biological properties ... Follicle Stimulating Hormone). INTENDED USE. Human FSH ELISA kit is a reliable quantitative procedure for measuring follicle ... Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein which is secreted by basophil cells, located in the anterior pituitary. ...
LUTEINIZING HORMONE; and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. Unlike that in humans, the equine LUTEINIZING HORMONE, BETA SUBUNIT is ... LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is ... DailyMed - FOLLTROPIN (follicle stimulating hormone- porcine injection, powder, for solution. In conjunction with the 6th dose ... FOLLTROPIN®DUAL PACK [porcine pituitary-derived follicle stimulating hormone for injection] (dailymed.nlm.nih.gov). ...
LUTEINIZING HORMONE; and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. Unlike that in humans, the equine LUTEINIZING HORMONE, BETA SUBUNIT is ... Menon KM, Nair AK, Wang L, Peegel H. Regulation of luteinizing hormone receptor mRNA expression by a specific RNA binding ... identical to the equine choronic gonadotropin, beta. Equine gonadotropins prepared from pregnant mare serum are used in ...
Follicle-stimulating hormone is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. ... while the beta subunits vary.[4] [5] Both subunits are required for biological activity. FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino ... Follicle-Stimulating Hormone. WebMD.. *Web site: Richard . Bowen . vanc . Luteinizing and Follicle Stimulating Hormones . www. ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone.[1] FSH is synthesized and secreted by ...
... while the beta subunits vary.[2][3] Both subunits are required for biological activity. FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during menstrual cycle.png. Reference ranges for the blood content of follicle-stimulating ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by ... luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone during the menstrual cycle". WikiJournal of Medicine (published 2014-03-26 ...
... while the beta subunits vary.[2][3] Both subunits are required for biological activity. FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during menstrual cycle.png. Reference ranges for the blood content of follicle-stimulating ... Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a gonadotropin, a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone. FSH is synthesized and secreted by ... luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone during the menstrual cycle". WikiJournal of Medicine (published 2014-03-26 ...
  • Exceptionally high levels of estradiol induce hypothalamic production of progesterone, which stimulates elevated GnRH secretion, triggering a surge in LH. (wikipedia.org)
  • The GnRH secreted from the hypothalamus activates specific receptors on the pituitary gland to stimulate the synthesis and secretion of FSH and LH from gonadotropic cells of the pituitary gland. (scielo.br)
  • FSH and LH enter peripheral blood circulation to ultimately promote the secretion of sex hormones, and the sex hormones exert feedback inhibition to affect the synthesis of GnRH, FSH, and LH. (scielo.br)
  • Under such environmental circumstances, the body regulates the HPG axis by changing the secretion activities of these hormones. (scielo.br)
  • Inhibins selectively suppress the secretion of pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). (southtees.nhs.uk)
  • Gonadotropin synthesis and secretion are primarily regulated by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) but other hormones such as steroids activin follistatin and inhibin also modulate gonadotropin production (26). (immune-source.com)
  • Alongside luteinizing hormone (LH), FSH is able to regulate the synthesis and secretion of female and male sex hormones via a negative feedback relationship, together they are able to control the growth and reproductive activities of gonadal tissues. (elisakits.co.uk)
  • Because of the cyclic and circadian variations in the secretion of gonadotropins, a meaningful evaluation of FSH and LH requires either testing of a pool of blood specimens collected 20-30 min apart or average the hormone measurements of multiple blood samples collected 20-30 min apart. (medscape.com)
  • Specifically, activation of Sertoli cells by FSH sustains spermatogenesis and stimulates inhibin B secretion. (explained.today)
  • In addition, there is evidence that gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor produced by small follicles during the first half of the follicle phase also exerts a negative feedback on pulsatile luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion amplitude, thus allowing a more favorable environment for follicle growth and preventing premature luteinization. (explained.today)
  • The inhibin beta A subunit joins the alpha subunit to form a pituitary FSH secretion inhibitor. (assaygenie.com)
  • Furthermore, the beta A subunit forms a homodimer, activin A, and also joins with a beta B subunit to form a heterodimer, activin AB, both of which stimulate FSH secretion. (assaygenie.com)
  • Inhibins/activins are involved in regulating a number of diverse functions such as hypothalamic and pituitary hormone secretion, gonadal hormone secretion, germ cell development and maturation, erythroid differentiation, insulin secretion, nerve cell survival, embryonic axial development or bone growth, depending on their subunit composition. (assaygenie.com)
  • Activins were discovered and, in fact, named more than a quarter century ago based on their abilities to stimulate pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) synthesis and secretion. (bioone.org)
  • This "LH surge" triggers ovulation, thereby not only releasing the egg from the follicle, but also initiating the conversion of the residual follicle into a corpus luteum that, in turn, produces progesterone to prepare the endometrium for a possible implantation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Positive feedback by estrogens also occurs in the gonadal axis of female mammals and is responsible for the midcycle surge of LH that stimulates ovulation. (wikipedia.org)
  • During the normal menstrual cycle, LH participates with FSH in the development and maturation of the normal ovarian follicle, and the mid-cycle LH surge triggers ovulation. (drugs.com)
  • Several medications are available to help induce ovulation in women who don't ovulate, or stimulate more vigorous ovulation in those who do. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • Typically, the human ovaries produce a single dominant follicle that results in a single ovulation each menstrual cycle (Fig. 1). (glowm.com)
  • Photomicrograph of ovulation shows the expanded egg-cumulus complex leaving the follicle through the stigma. (glowm.com)
  • From Blandau RJ: Growth of the ovarian follicle and ovulation. (glowm.com)
  • This seems to be critical in selecting only the most advanced follicle to proceed to ovulation. (explained.today)
  • The yellow body derived from the ruptured OVARIAN FOLLICLE after OVULATION. (lookformedical.com)
  • Human Chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is a hormone that supports the normal development of an egg in a woman's ovary, and stimulates the release of the egg during ovulation. (pharmabeast.is)
  • It is a polypeptide hormone that has a function in the normal advancement of an egg in a female's ovary and also boosts the egg released during ovulation. (mymedistore.com)
  • Luteinizing hormone in addition to Follicle-stimulating hormone has a duty in advancement and also maturation of typical ovarian hair follicle and in mid-cycle LH rise launches ovulation. (mymedistore.com)
  • HCG plays the same function as LH in a body as well as stimulates ovulation procedure in infertile females. (mymedistore.com)
  • The production of LH is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Its structure is similar to that of the other glycoprotein hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (wikipedia.org)
  • It is regulated by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. (wikipedia.org)
  • If pregnancy occurs, LH levels will decrease, and luteal function will instead be maintained by the action of hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), a hormone very similar to LH but secreted from the new placenta. (wikipedia.org)
  • The most commonly used assays are for the beta subunit of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (medscape.com)
  • Chorionic gonadotropin, a gonadotropin, is a polypeptide hormone produced by the human placenta and obtained from the urine of pregnant persons. (drugs.com)
  • Chorionic gonadotropin is a purified preparation composed of an alpha and a beta subunit. (drugs.com)
  • Most patients have gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) deficiency, as suggested by their response to pulsatile GnRH therapy. (medscape.com)
  • 2012. Immunization of beef heifers against gonadotropin-releasing hormone prevents luteal activity and pregnancy: Effect of conjugation to different proteins and effectiveness of adjuvants. (aamu.edu)
  • Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is known as the pregnancy hormone because its levels increase once a pregnancy is established. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • Specialized hypothalamic neurons secrete pulses of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) into the portal blood vessels, which acts on the gonadotrophs to cause a pulsatile release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which act on ovarian follicle cells to control folliculogenesis. (glowm.com)
  • The development of preantral and antral follicles is gonadotropin independent and gonadotropin dependent, respectively. (glowm.com)
  • In the pituitary the gonadotropin hormones luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) are produced exclusively in gonadotrope cells (19-21). (immune-source.com)
  • Unlike that in humans, the equine LUTEINIZING HORMONE, BETA SUBUNIT is identical to the equine choronic gonadotropin, beta. (jefferson.edu)
  • Follicle-stimulating hormone ( FSH ) is a gonadotropin , a glycoprotein polypeptide hormone . (explained.today)
  • Its structure is similar to those of luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). (explained.today)
  • Low frequency gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulses increase FSH mRNA levels in the rat, [8] but is not directly correlated with an increase in circulating FSH. (explained.today)
  • A potent synthetic analog of GONADOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE with D-serine substitution at residue 6, glycine10 deletion, and other modifications. (lookformedical.com)
  • The four human glycoprotein hormones chorionic gonadotropin (CG), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) are dimers consisting of alpha and beta subunits that are associated noncovalently. (nih.gov)
  • Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), a polypeptide hormone produced by the human placenta, is composed of an alpha and a beta sub-unit. (druglib.com)
  • Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein gonadotropin secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which is released by the hypothalamus. (medscape.com)
  • Perrett RM, McArdle CA. Molecular Mechanisms of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Signaling: Integrating Cyclic Nucleotides into the Network. (medscape.com)
  • A comparison of outcomes from in vitro fertilization cycles stimulated with either recombinant luteinizing hormone (LH) or human chorionic gonadotropin acting as an LH analogue delivered as human menopausal gonadotropins, in subjects with good or poor ovarian reserve: A retrospective analysis. (medscape.com)
  • The 3 human pituitary glycoprotein hormones: luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyrotropin, and the placenta-derived chorionic gonadotropin, are closely related tropic hormones. (mayocliniclabs.com)
  • Chorionic gonadotropin is a polypeptide hormone normally found in the female body during the early months of pregnancy. (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • Although it possesses minor FSH-like (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) activity, the physiological actions of chorionic gonadotropin mainly mimic those of the gonadotropin luteinizing hormone (LH). (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • Chorionic gonadotropin was first discovered in 1920, 767 and was identified as a pregnancy hormone approximately 8 years later. (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • Buy Ovidac 10000 iu online, Human chorionic gonadotropin also known as HCG which is a polypeptide hormone that is generated by the syncytiotrophoblast, a component of the fertilized egg after conception.HCG has a wide role in treating infertility in women and increases sperm count in men. (mymedistore.com)
  • Ovidac 10000 iu includes an active ingredient Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) which is a polypeptide hormone that is generated by the syncytiotrophoblast, a component of the fertilized egg after conception. (mymedistore.com)
  • Human chorionic gonadotropin is a hormone that is prescribed in the inability to conceive, enhances sperm count, and in pituitary gland condition. (mymedistore.com)
  • Inhibin, activin, and sex hormones do not affect genetic activity for the beta subunit production of LH. (wikipedia.org)
  • The inhibins consist of a dimer of 2 homologous subunits, an alpha subunit and either a beta A or beta B subunit, to form inhibin A and inhibin B, respectively. (southtees.nhs.uk)
  • In females, inhibin A is primarily produced by the dominant follicle and corpus luteum, whereas inhibin B is primarily produced by small developing follicles. (southtees.nhs.uk)
  • The gene for the FSH beta subunit is located on chromosome 11p13, and is expressed in gonadotropes of the pituitary cells, controlled by GnRH , inhibited by inhibin , and enhanced by activin . (explained.today)
  • The cohort of small antral follicles is normally sufficient in number to produce enough Inhibin B to lower FSH serum levels. (explained.today)
  • As a woman nears perimenopause, the number of small antral follicles recruited in each cycle diminishes and consequently insufficient Inhibin B is produced to fully lower FSH and the serum level of FSH begins to rise. (explained.today)
  • Because expression in gonadal and various extragonadal tissues may vary severalfold in a tissue-specific fashion, it is proposed that inhibin may be both a growth/differentiation factor and a hormone. (assaygenie.com)
  • Folitropinska podjedinica beta ( beta podjedica folikostimuliÅ¡ućeg hormona , FSH-B) je protein koji je kod ljudi kodiran FSHB genom . (wikipedia.org)
  • Studies of somatic cell hybrids derived from t(11;14)(p13;q11) T-ALL placed the T-ALL(bcr) between the genes for catalase (CAT) and the beta-subunit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSHB). (elsevierpure.com)
  • LH and FSH are heterodimers composed of a common alpha subunit (CGA) and a unique beta subunit (LHB or FSHB) that provides hormone specificity (25). (immune-source.com)
  • FOXO1 was also expressed in immortalized murine gonadotrope-derived cell lines: ?T3-1 cells which only express CGA and represent an immature gonadotrope lineage and in L?T2 cells which express CGA LHB and FSHB (30 33 35 36 In gonadotrope cells FOXO1 overexpression suppressed transcription of both human and rodent basal and GnRH stimulated Bay 65-1942 and (30-32). (immune-source.com)
  • Previous signals near FSHB (Follicle Stimulating Hormone beta subunit) and SMAD3 (SMAD Family Member 3) were also replicated (Mbarek et al. (cambridge.org)
  • In this minireview, we chronicle the research that led to the recent discovery of forkhead box L2 (FOXL2) as an essential mediator of activin-regulated FSH beta subunit ( Fshb ) transcription in vitro and in vivo. (bioone.org)
  • Previously, the preovulatory LH surge was attributed to a decrease in estrogen-mediated negative feedback of GnRH in the hypothalamus, subsequently stimulating the release of LH from the anterior pituitary. (wikipedia.org)
  • GABA-secreting neurons that innervate GnRH-1 neurons also can stimulate GnRH-1 release. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2010. Lamprey GnRH-III releases luteinizing hormone but not follicle stimulating hormone in pigs. (aamu.edu)
  • Although GnRH, FSH, and LH are critically important in regulating folliculogenesis, hormones and growth factors, which are themselves products of the follicle, can act locally to modulate (amplify or attenuate) FSH and LH action. (glowm.com)
  • Letrozole is administered orally and results in an increase in follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), intended to increase ovarian folliculogenesis. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • Tilly JL, Aihara T, Nishimori K, Jia XC, Billig H, Kowalski KI, Perlas EA, Hsueh AJ: Expression of recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone receptor: species-specific ligand binding, signal transduction, and identification of multiple ovarian messenger ribonucleic acid transcripts. (smpdb.ca)
  • FSH stimulates the growth and recruitment of immature ovarian follicle s in the ovary . (explained.today)
  • The alpha subunit is essentially identical to the alpha subunits of the human pituitary gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), as well as to the alpha subunit of human thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). (drugs.com)
  • More recent studies, however, attribute the LH surge to positive feedback from estradiol after production by the dominant follicle exceeds a certain threshold. (wikipedia.org)
  • In any given cycle, the dominant follicle must complete all the steps in folliculogenesis in a timely manner. (glowm.com)
  • 1 , 2 , 3 In each menstrual cycle, the dominant follicle that ovulates its egg originates from a primordial follicle that was recruited to initiate growth almost 1 year earlier (Fig. 2). (glowm.com)
  • The dominant follicle of the cycle appears to be selected from a cohort of class five follicles, and it requires about 20 days to develop to the ovulatory stage. (glowm.com)
  • In this study, we evaluated the effect of heat stress (HS) on the development of cells secreting major reproductive hormones of the HPG axis (i.e., hypothalamus, pituitary gland, ovary, and testis) of Wenchang chicks. (scielo.br)
  • It stimulates production of gonadal steroid hormones by stimulating the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) of the testis to produce androgens and the corpus luteum of the ovary to produce progesterone. (drugs.com)
  • Via feedback to the hypothalamus in the brain, it causes the pituitary gland in the brain to release more FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), and LH (luteinizing hormone), and provides more egg recruitment from the ovary. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • FSH is a protein made by the human pituitary gland and it has an effect on the ovary to push more follicles to develop. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • In the normal ovary, many follicles are recruited in the menstrual cycle, but only one or two will ovulate. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • The follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) is a transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor located in the ovary, testis, and uterus. (smpdb.ca)
  • Only a few follicles in the human ovary survive to complete the cytodifferentiation process, with 99.9% dying by a programmed cell death mechanism called apoptosis. (glowm.com)
  • Inhibins are heterodimeric protein hormones secreted by granulosa cells of the ovary in females and Sertoli cells of the testis in males. (southtees.nhs.uk)
  • Menon KM, Nair AK, Wang L, Peegel H. Regulation of luteinizing hormone receptor mRNA expression by a specific RNA binding protein in the ovary. (jefferson.edu)
  • The discharge of an OVUM from a rupturing follicle in the OVARY. (lookformedical.com)
  • HCG stimulates the Corpus Luteum of the ovary to create progesterone. (mymedistore.com)
  • The remaining cells in the follicle wall ( i.e. granulosa, membrana and periantral, theca, the theca interna and externa) develop into the corpus luteum. (glowm.com)
  • In the absence of pregnancy and diminishing trophic hormones, the corpus luteum undergoes luteolysis which is characterized by the involution and cessation of its endocrine function. (lookformedical.com)
  • The process of corpus luteum formation, LUTEINIZATION, is regulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE. (lookformedical.com)
  • The protein dimer contains 2 glycopeptidic subunits (labeled alpha- and beta- subunits) that are non-covalently associated: The alpha subunits of LH, FSH, TSH, and hCG are identical, and contain 92 amino acids in human but 96 amino acids in almost all other vertebrate species (glycoprotein hormones do not exist in invertebrates). (wikipedia.org)
  • Codina J, Stengel D, Woo SL, Birnbaumer L: Beta-subunits of the human liver Gs/Gi signal-transducing proteins and those of bovine retinal rod cell transducin are identical. (smpdb.ca)
  • The alpha subunits of the glycoproteins LH, FSH, TSH, and hCG are identical and consist of 96 amino acids , while the beta subunits vary. (explained.today)
  • The alpha-subunit is identical to that for luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). (medscape.com)
  • Finally, it has been shown that the beta A subunit mRNA is identical to the erythroid differentiation factor subunit mRNA and that only one gene for this mRNA exists in the human genome. (assaygenie.com)
  • The alpha subunits of these hormones are identical, however, their beta chains are unique and confer biological specificity. (nih.gov)
  • It has an alpha subunit that is 92 amino acids long and identical to that of luteininzing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). (pharmabeast.is)
  • Human FSH ELISA kit is a reliable quantitative procedure for measuring follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) in human serum samples. (elisakits.co.uk)
  • In the luteal-follicle phase transition period the serum levels of progesterone and estrogen (primarily estradiol) decrease and no longer suppress the release of FSH, consequently FSH peaks at about day three (day one is the first day of menstrual flow). (explained.today)
  • Newborn serum beta hCG concentrations are approximately 1/400th of the corresponding maternal serum concentrations, resulting in neonate beta hCG levels of 10-50 IU/L at birth. (medscape.com)
  • Description: A sandwich ELISA kit for detection of Protein Phosphatase 1, Regulatory Subunit 15A from Rat in samples from blood, serum, plasma, cell culture fluid and other biological fluids. (hiv-pharmacogenomics.org)
  • hCG is a glycoprotein similar in structure to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and thyrotropin. (medscape.com)
  • The alpha subunit of hCG is similar to the alpha subunit of FSH, LH, and thyrotropin. (medscape.com)
  • Shared alpha chain of the active heterodimeric glycoprotein hormones thyrotropin/thyroid stimulating hormone/TSH, lutropin/luteinizing hormone/LH, follitropin/follicle stimulating hormone/FSH and choriogonadotropin/CG. (nih.gov)
  • Binding of thyrotropin alfa to TSH receptors on normal thyroid epithelial cells or on well-differentiated thyroid cancer tissue stimulates iodine uptake and organification. (pharmacycode.com)
  • After synthesis, the alpha and beta-subunits are bonded with a noncovalent bond before being released into the circulation. (medscape.com)
  • The syncytiotrophoblast covers the villous tree and has several functions, such as transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products and synthesis of peptide and steroid hormones that regulate placental, fetal, and maternal systems. (medscape.com)
  • Under physiological conditions, alpha- and beta-chain synthesis and secretions are tightly coupled, and only small amounts of monomeric subunits are secreted. (mayocliniclabs.com)
  • With the rise in estrogens, LH receptors are also expressed on the maturing follicle, which causes it to produce more estradiol. (wikipedia.org)
  • Eventually, the FSH level becomes so high that downregulation of FSH receptors occurs and by postmenopause any remaining small secondary follicles no longer have FSH nor LH receptors. (explained.today)
  • These hormones bind specific receptors on target cells that in turn activate downstream signaling pathways. (nih.gov)
  • subdivision Receptors under individual hormones and groups of hormones, e.g. (edu.au)
  • Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as luteinising hormone, lutropin and sometimes lutrophin) is a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. (wikipedia.org)
  • The luteinizing hormone beta subunit gene is localized in the LHB/CGB gene cluster on chromosome 19q13.32. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2015. Removal of ruminal contents followed by restricted feeding does not affect the frequency of luteinizing hormone pulses in steers. (aamu.edu)
  • Model simulations for FSHR antagonism were indicative of increased testosterone levels, increased ratio of luteinizing hormone/follicle stimulating hormone, and stockpiling of secondary follicles, which are typical characteristics of PCOS. (bvsalud.org)
  • FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH) work together in the reproductive system. (explained.today)
  • Luteinizing Hormone Deficiency. (medscape.com)
  • HCG is an analog of luteinizing hormone (LH). (mymedistore.com)
  • The gene for the alpha subunit is located on chromosome 6q12.21. (wikipedia.org)
  • In contrast to the alpha gene activity, beta LH subunit gene activity is restricted to the pituitary gonadotropic cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • In humans, the gene for the alpha subunit is located at cytogenetic location 6q14.3. (explained.today)
  • The protein encoded by this gene is the alpha subunit and belongs to the glycoprotein hormones alpha chain family. (nih.gov)
  • Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS. (lookformedical.com)
  • This beta subunit contains an amino acid sequence that exhibits large homologies with that of the beta subunit of hCG and both stimulate the same receptor. (wikipedia.org)
  • The beta subunits of these hormones differ in amino acid sequence. (drugs.com)
  • Activin Induction of Follicle Stimulating Hormone is Mediated by Transforming Growth Factor Beta Activated Kinase-1 (TAK-1) in Pituitary Gonadotropes. (ncsu.edu)
  • In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH), it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone. (wikipedia.org)
  • Due to the ability of LH to stimulate the Leydig's cells in the testes to manufacture testosterone, hCG is also used with men to treat hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, a disorder characterized by low testosterone levels and insufficient LH output. (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • HCG is used by male athletes for its ability to increase endogenous testosterone production, generally during, or at the conclusion of, a steroid cycle , when natural hormone production has been interrupted. (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • In men, it likewise stimulates the manufacturing of testosterone and raises sperm count in guys. (mymedistore.com)
  • one alpha and one beta subunit make the full, functional protein. (wikipedia.org)
  • Harris BA: Complete cDNA sequence of a human stimulatory GTP-binding protein alpha subunit. (smpdb.ca)
  • The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. (lookformedical.com)
  • This conversion is promoted by the double inhibition (i.e., 2i) of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (Map2k), antagonizing Fgf signaling, and of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (Gsk3), stimulating the Wnt pathway. (bioone.org)
  • Description: This is Double-antibody Sandwich Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Rat Protein Phosphatase 1, Regulatory Subunit 15A (PPP1R15A) in Tissue homogenates, cell lysates and other biological fluids. (hiv-pharmacogenomics.org)
  • Description: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on the Double-antibody Sandwich method for detection of Rat Protein Phosphatase 1, Regulatory Subunit 15A (PPP1R15A) in samples from Tissue homogenates, cell lysates and other biological fluids with no significant corss-reactivity with analogues from other species. (hiv-pharmacogenomics.org)
  • In early (small) antral follicles, FSH is the major survival factor that rescues the small antral follicles (2-5 mm in diameter for humans) from apoptosis (programmed death of the somatic cells of the follicle and oocyte). (explained.today)
  • Folliculogenesis is the process in which a recruited primordial follicle grows and develops into a specialized graafian follicle with the potential to either ovulate its egg into the oviduct at mid-cycle to be fertilized or to die by atresia. (glowm.com)
  • HN - 2008 BX - Von Ebner's Glands MH - Cumulus Cells UI - D054885 MN - A05.360.319.114.630.535.200.500 MN - A06.407.312.497.535.300.500 MN - A11.436.300.500 MS - The granulosa cells of the cumulus oophorus which surround the OVUM in the GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE. (bvsalud.org)
  • LH has a beta subunit of 120 amino acids (LHB) that confers its specific biologic action and is responsible for the specificity of the interaction with the LH receptor. (wikipedia.org)
  • By contrast, all the different beta-subunits are transcribed from separate genes, show less homology, and convey the receptor specificity of the dimeric hormones. (mayocliniclabs.com)
  • In both males and females , FSH stimulates the maturation of primordial germ cells. (explained.today)
  • Gestational and nongestational trophoblasts are by far the most common sources of hCG, but a small amount of the hormone may also be produced by the pituitary gland and nontrophoblastic malignancies. (medscape.com)
  • Other hormones that have been used include progesterone and early pregnancy factor. (medscape.com)
  • It is synthesized in syncytiotrophoblast cells of the placenta, and is responsible for increasing the production of progesterone, a pregnancy-sustaining hormone. (secretsofbodybuilding.org)
  • Lupron, Cetrotide, and Orgalutran down-regulate the reproductive hormone system, resulting in profoundly low levels of FSH and LH. (pacificfertility.ca)
  • The minimum sensitivity detection limit of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) using current FSH ELISA kit was approximately 0.856 mIU/ml. (elisakits.co.uk)
  • Cell surface proteins that bind gastrointestinal hormones with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. (edu.au)
  • Reference ranges for the blood content of follicle-stimulating hormone levels during the menstrual cycle . (wikidoc.org)
  • Analysis of Gonadotrope-specific Expression of Ovine Follicle Stimulating Hormone Beta Subunit Using Adenoviral Expression Constructs in Purified Primary Murine Gonadotropes. (ncsu.edu)
  • This chapter considers what is known about the process underlying the expression of the structural and functional organization of developing follicles and how they are controlled. (glowm.com)
  • hCG is present in the maternal circulation as either an intact dimer, alpha or beta subunit, and degraded form, or beta core fragment. (medscape.com)
  • hCG is a dimer consisting of a 145 amino acid beta-subunit that is unique to hCG and a 92 amino acid alpha-subunit. (medscape.com)
  • Histological, RT-qPCR, western blot analyses and steroid hormone measurements were performed on in vitro cultured mouse prepubertal testicular tissues and age-matched in vivo controls. (elifesciences.org)
  • Further investigation revealed that FOXO1 participates in follicle atresia likely by enhancing apoptosis (17). (immune-source.com)
  • Androgen stimulation in the male leads to the development of secondary sex characteristics and may stimulate testicular descent when no anatomical impediment to descent is present. (drugs.com)
  • The alpha and beta-subunits have separate genes on separate chromosomes (chromosomes 6 and 19, respectively). (medscape.com)
  • In this capacity, it survives the negative events that operate to destroy the other follicles by atresia. (glowm.com)
  • Atresia can occur in preantral class 1, 2, and 3 follicles. (glowm.com)
  • FSH has a beta subunit of 111 amino acids (FSH β), which confers its specific biologic action, and is responsible for interaction with the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor . (explained.today)
  • The specific beta subunit confers the unique biologic activity. (medscape.com)
  • Eventually, when the follicle has fully matured, a spike in 17α-hydroxyprogesterone production by the follicle inhibits the production of estrogens. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although estrogens inhibit kisspeptin (Kp) release from kiss1 neurons in the ARC, estrogens stimulate Kp release from the Kp neurons in the AVPV. (wikipedia.org)
  • Mattera R, Codina J, Crozat A, Kidd V, Woo SL, Birnbaumer L: Identification by molecular cloning of two forms of the alpha-subunit of the human liver stimulatory (GS) regulatory component of adenylyl cyclase. (smpdb.ca)