Any pathological condition where fibrous connective tissue invades any organ, usually as a consequence of inflammation or other injury.
An autosomal recessive genetic disease of the EXOCRINE GLANDS. It is caused by mutations in the gene encoding the CYSTIC FIBROSIS TRANSMEMBRANE CONDUCTANCE REGULATOR expressed in several organs including the LUNG, the PANCREAS, the BILIARY SYSTEM, and the SWEAT GLANDS. Cystic fibrosis is characterized by epithelial secretory dysfunction associated with ductal obstruction resulting in AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; chronic RESPIRATORY INFECTIONS; PANCREATIC INSUFFICIENCY; maldigestion; salt depletion; and HEAT PROSTRATION.
A chloride channel that regulates secretion in many exocrine tissues. Abnormalities in the CFTR gene have been shown to cause cystic fibrosis. (Hum Genet 1994;93(4):364-8)
A condition characterized by the thickening of the ventricular ENDOCARDIUM and subendocardium (MYOCARDIUM), seen mostly in children and young adults in the TROPICAL CLIMATE. The fibrous tissue extends from the apex toward and often involves the HEART VALVES causing restrictive blood flow into the respective ventricles (CARDIOMYOPATHY, RESTRICTIVE).
A common interstitial lung disease of unknown etiology, usually occurring between 50-70 years of age. Clinically, it is characterized by an insidious onset of breathlessness with exertion and a nonproductive cough, leading to progressive DYSPNEA. Pathological features show scant interstitial inflammation, patchy collagen fibrosis, prominent fibroblast proliferation foci, and microscopic honeycomb change.
Liver disease in which the normal microcirculation, the gross vascular anatomy, and the hepatic architecture have been variably destroyed and altered with fibrous septa surrounding regenerated or regenerating parenchymal nodules.
A slowly progressive condition of unknown etiology, characterized by deposition of fibrous tissue in the retroperitoneal space compressing the ureters, great vessels, bile duct, and other structures. When associated with abdominal aortic aneurysm, it may be called chronic periaortitis or inflammatory perianeurysmal fibrosis.
A complex of related glycopeptide antibiotics from Streptomyces verticillus consisting of bleomycin A2 and B2. It inhibits DNA metabolism and is used as an antineoplastic, especially for solid tumors.
'Oral Submucous Fibrosis' is a chronic, insidious, and potentially disabling condition, characterized by progressive stiffness and loss of elasticity of the oral mucosa, due to fibrotic changes in the lamina propria, often associated with juxta-epithelial inflammation and epithelial atrophy.
Experimentally induced chronic injuries to the parenchymal cells in the liver to achieve a model for LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
A hydroxylated form of the imino acid proline. A deficiency in ASCORBIC ACID can result in impaired hydroxyproline formation.
Perisinusoidal cells of the liver, located in the space of Disse between HEPATOCYTES and sinusoidal endothelial cells.
Blockage in any part of the URETER causing obstruction of urine flow from the kidney to the URINARY BLADDER. The obstruction may be congenital, acquired, unilateral, bilateral, complete, partial, acute, or chronic. Depending on the degree and duration of the obstruction, clinical features vary greatly such as HYDRONEPHROSIS and obstructive nephropathy.
Infections with bacteria of the genus PSEUDOMONAS.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Spindle-shaped cells with characteristic CONTRACTILE PROTEINS and structures that contribute to the WOUND HEALING process. They occur in GRANULATION TISSUE and also in pathological processes such as FIBROSIS.
A polypeptide substance comprising about one third of the total protein in mammalian organisms. It is the main constituent of SKIN; CONNECTIVE TISSUE; and the organic substance of bones (BONE AND BONES) and teeth (TOOTH).
A solvent for oils, fats, lacquers, varnishes, rubber waxes, and resins, and a starting material in the manufacturing of organic compounds. Poisoning by inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption is possible and may be fatal. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
A factor synthesized in a wide variety of tissues. It acts synergistically with TGF-alpha in inducing phenotypic transformation and can also act as a negative autocrine growth factor. TGF-beta has a potential role in embryonal development, cellular differentiation, hormone secretion, and immune function. TGF-beta is found mostly as homodimer forms of separate gene products TGF-beta1, TGF-beta2 or TGF-beta3. Heterodimers composed of TGF-beta1 and 2 (TGF-beta1.2) or of TGF-beta2 and 3 (TGF-beta2.3) have been isolated. The TGF-beta proteins are synthesized as precursor proteins.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria commonly isolated from clinical specimens (wound, burn, and urinary tract infections). It is also found widely distributed in soil and water. P. aeruginosa is a major agent of nosocomial infection.
Disorder characterized by a wide range of structural changes in PERITONEUM, resulting from fibrogenic or inflammatory processes. Peritoneal fibrosis is a common complication in patients receiving PERITONEAL DIALYSIS and contributes to its gradual decrease in efficiency.
A fibrillar collagen consisting of three identical alpha1(III) chains that is widely distributed in many tissues containing COLLAGEN TYPE I. It is particularly abundant in BLOOD VESSELS and may play a role in tissues with elastic characteristics.
Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules.
The most common form of fibrillar collagen. It is a major constituent of bone (BONE AND BONES) and SKIN and consists of a heterotrimer of two alpha1(I) and one alpha2(I) chains.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The fluid excreted by the SWEAT GLANDS. It consists of water containing sodium chloride, phosphate, urea, ammonia, and other waste products.
Material coughed up from the lungs and expectorated via the mouth. It contains MUCUS, cellular debris, and microorganisms. It may also contain blood or pus.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Inflammation of the interstitial tissue of the kidney. This term is generally used for primary inflammation of KIDNEY TUBULES and/or surrounding interstitium. For primary inflammation of glomerular interstitium, see GLOMERULONEPHRITIS. Infiltration of the inflammatory cells into the interstitial compartment results in EDEMA, increased spaces between the tubules, and tubular renal dysfunction.
A chronic multi-system disorder of CONNECTIVE TISSUE. It is characterized by SCLEROSIS in the SKIN, the LUNGS, the HEART, the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, the KIDNEYS, and the MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM. Other important features include diseased small BLOOD VESSELS and AUTOANTIBODIES. The disorder is named for its most prominent feature (hard skin), and classified into subsets by the extent of skin thickening: LIMITED SCLERODERMA and DIFFUSE SCLERODERMA.
A strain of mice widely studied as a model for cystic fibrosis. These mice are generated from embryonic stem cells in which the CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) gene is inactivated by gene targeting. As a result, all mice have one copy of this altered gene in all their tissues. Mice homozygous for the disrupted gene exhibit many features common to young cystic fibrosis patients, including failure to thrive, meconium ileus, and alteration of mucous and serous glands.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
Liver diseases caused by infections with PARASITES, such as tapeworms (CESTODA) and flukes (TREMATODA).
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
Infections with bacteria of the genus BURKHOLDERIA.
A species of BURKHOLDERIA considered to be an opportunistic human pathogen. It has been associated with various types of infections of nosocomial origin.
A chronic, acquired, idiopathic, progressive eruption of the skin that occurs in the context of RENAL FAILURE. It is sometimes accompanied by systemic fibrosis. The pathogenesis seems to be multifactorial, with postulated involvement of circulating fibrocytes. There is a strong association between this disorder and the use of gadolinium-based contrast agents.
Cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body by forming cellular layers (EPITHELIUM) or masses. Epithelial cells lining the SKIN; the MOUTH; the NOSE; and the ANAL CANAL derive from ectoderm; those lining the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM and the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM derive from endoderm; others (CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM and LYMPHATIC SYSTEM) derive from mesoderm. Epithelial cells can be classified mainly by cell shape and function into squamous, glandular and transitional epithelial cells.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
A CCN protein family member that regulates a variety of extracellular functions including CELL ADHESION; CELL MIGRATION; and EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX synthesis. It is found in hypertrophic CHONDROCYTES where it may play a role in CHONDROGENESIS and endochondral ossification.
Non-invasive imaging methods based on the mechanical response of an object to a vibrational or impulsive force. It is used for determining the viscoelastic properties of tissue, and thereby differentiating soft from hard inclusions in tissue such as microcalcifications, and some cancer lesions. Most techniques use ultrasound to create the images - eliciting the response with an ultrasonic radiation force and/or recording displacements of the tissue by Doppler ultrasonography.
Inorganic compounds derived from hydrochloric acid that contain the Cl- ion.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Lipid infiltration of the hepatic parenchymal cells resulting in a yellow-colored liver. The abnormal lipid accumulation is usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES, either as a single large droplet or multiple small droplets. Fatty liver is caused by an imbalance in the metabolism of FATTY ACIDS.
The mucous membrane lining the RESPIRATORY TRACT, including the NASAL CAVITY; the LARYNX; the TRACHEA; and the BRONCHI tree. The respiratory mucosa consists of various types of epithelial cells ranging from ciliated columnar to simple squamous, mucous GOBLET CELLS, and glands containing both mucous and serous cells.
Washing liquid obtained from irrigation of the lung, including the BRONCHI and the PULMONARY ALVEOLI. It is generally used to assess biochemical, inflammatory, or infection status of the lung.
Measurement of the various processes involved in the act of respiration: inspiration, expiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, lung volume and compliance, etc.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
Pathological processes involving any part of the LUNG.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
A diverse group of lung diseases that affect the lung parenchyma. They are characterized by an initial inflammation of PULMONARY ALVEOLI that extends to the interstitium and beyond leading to diffuse PULMONARY FIBROSIS. Interstitial lung diseases are classified by their etiology (known or unknown causes), and radiological-pathological features.
Persistent abnormal dilatation of the bronchi.
A receptor-regulated smad protein that undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION by ACTIVIN RECEPTORS, TYPE I. Activated Smad3 can bind directly to DNA, and it regulates TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA and ACTIVIN signaling.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.
A meshwork-like substance found within the extracellular space and in association with the basement membrane of the cell surface. It promotes cellular proliferation and provides a supporting structure to which cells or cell lysates in culture dishes adhere.
A malabsorption condition resulting from greater than 10% reduction in the secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes (LIPASE; PROTEASES; and AMYLASE) by the EXOCRINE PANCREAS into the DUODENUM. This condition is often associated with CYSTIC FIBROSIS and with chronic PANCREATITIS.
Filamentous proteins that are the main constituent of the thin filaments of muscle fibers. The filaments (known also as filamentous or F-actin) can be dissociated into their globular subunits; each subunit is composed of a single polypeptide 375 amino acids long. This is known as globular or G-actin. In conjunction with MYOSINS, actin is responsible for the contraction and relaxation of muscle.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A crystalline compound used as a laboratory reagent in place of HYDROGEN SULFIDE. It is a potent hepatocarcinogen.
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
Long convoluted tubules in the nephrons. They collect filtrate from blood passing through the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS and process this filtrate into URINE. Each renal tubule consists of a BOWMAN CAPSULE; PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE; LOOP OF HENLE; DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCT leading to the central cavity of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS) that connects to the URETER.
Cell membrane glycoproteins that form channels to selectively pass chloride ions. Nonselective blockers include FENAMATES; ETHACRYNIC ACID; and TAMOXIFEN.
A member of the family of TISSUE INHIBITOR OF METALLOPROTEINASES. It is a N-glycosylated protein, molecular weight 28 kD, produced by a vast range of cell types and found in a variety of tissues and body fluids. It has been shown to suppress metastasis and inhibit tumor invasion in vitro.
The transference of either one or both of the lungs from one human or animal to another.
Measure of the maximum amount of air that can be expelled in a given number of seconds during a FORCED VITAL CAPACITY determination . It is usually given as FEV followed by a subscript indicating the number of seconds over which the measurement is made, although it is sometimes given as a percentage of forced vital capacity.
Carbon tetrachloride poisoning is a condition characterized by the systemic toxicity induced by exposure to carbon tetrachloride, a volatile chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent, causing central nervous system depression, cardiovascular collapse, and potentially fatal liver and kidney damage.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Enlargement of the HEART, usually indicated by a cardiothoracic ratio above 0.50. Heart enlargement may involve the right, the left, or both HEART VENTRICLES or HEART ATRIA. Cardiomegaly is a nonspecific symptom seen in patients with chronic systolic heart failure (HEART FAILURE) or several forms of CARDIOMYOPATHIES.
The geometric and structural changes that the HEART VENTRICLES undergo, usually following MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION. It comprises expansion of the infarct and dilatation of the healthy ventricle segments. While most prevalent in the left ventricle, it can also occur in the right ventricle.
A genus of trichuroid nematodes parasitic in the liver and intestines of many mammals and birds. Two species, C. hepatica and C. philippinensis, produce often fatal infections in man.
Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.
The mucous lining of the NASAL CAVITY, including lining of the nostril (vestibule) and the OLFACTORY MUCOSA. Nasal mucosa consists of ciliated cells, GOBLET CELLS, brush cells, small granule cells, basal cells (STEM CELLS) and glands containing both mucous and serous cells.
The channels that collect and transport the bile secretion from the BILE CANALICULI, the smallest branch of the BILIARY TRACT in the LIVER, through the bile ductules, the bile ducts out the liver, and to the GALLBLADDER for storage.
An aminoglycoside, broad-spectrum antibiotic produced by Streptomyces tenebrarius. It is effective against gram-negative bacteria, especially the PSEUDOMONAS species. It is a 10% component of the antibiotic complex, NEBRAMYCIN, produced by the same species.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A group of diseases in which the dominant feature is the involvement of the CARDIAC MUSCLE itself. Cardiomyopathies are classified according to their predominant pathophysiological features (DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY; HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; RESTRICTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY) or their etiological/pathological factors (CARDIOMYOPATHY, ALCOHOLIC; ENDOCARDIAL FIBROELASTOSIS).
A biosynthetic precursor of collagen containing additional amino acid sequences at the amino-terminal and carboxyl-terminal ends of the polypeptide chains.
A mammalian pancreatic extract composed of enzymes with protease, amylase and lipase activities. It is used as a digestant in pancreatic malfunction.
The identification of selected parameters in newborn infants by various tests, examinations, or other procedures. Screening may be performed by clinical or laboratory measures. A screening test is designed to sort out healthy neonates (INFANT, NEWBORN) from those not well, but the screening test is not intended as a diagnostic device, rather instead as epidemiologic.
The larger air passages of the lungs arising from the terminal bifurcation of the TRACHEA. They include the largest two primary bronchi which branch out into secondary bronchi, and tertiary bronchi which extend into BRONCHIOLES and PULMONARY ALVEOLI.
A receptor-regulated smad protein that undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION by ACTIVIN RECEPTORS, TYPE I. It regulates TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA and ACTIVIN signaling.
The tubular and cavernous organs and structures, by means of which pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange between ambient air and the blood are brought about.
A form of pneumoconiosis caused by inhalation of asbestos fibers which elicit potent inflammatory responses in the parenchyma of the lung. The disease is characterized by interstitial fibrosis of the lung, varying from scattered sites to extensive scarring of the alveolar interstitium.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Blood tests that are used to evaluate how well a patient's liver is working and also to help diagnose liver conditions.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
A group of phenotypically similar but genotypically distinct species (genomovars) in the genus BURKHOLDERIA. They are found in water, soil, and the rhizosphere of crop plants. They can act as opportunistic human pathogens and as plant growth promoting and biocontrol agents.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Small polyhedral outpouchings along the walls of the alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles through the walls of which gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood takes place.
Schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma mansoni. It is endemic in Africa, the Middle East, South America, and the Caribbean and affects mainly the bowel, spleen, and liver.
Infections with nematodes of the order ENOPLIDA.
The viscous secretion of mucous membranes. It contains mucin, white blood cells, water, inorganic salts, and exfoliated cells.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Extracts prepared from pancreatic tissue that may contain the pancreatic enzymes or other specific uncharacterized factors or proteins with specific activities. PANCREATIN is a specific extract containing digestive enzymes and used to treat pancreatic insufficiency.
A natural high-viscosity mucopolysaccharide with alternating beta (1-3) glucuronide and beta (1-4) glucosaminidic bonds. It is found in the UMBILICAL CORD, in VITREOUS BODY and in SYNOVIAL FLUID. A high urinary level is found in PROGERIA.
Agents that increase mucous excretion. Mucolytic agents, that is drugs that liquefy mucous secretions, are also included here.
The volume of air that is exhaled by a maximal expiration following a maximal inspiration.
A naturally occurring phenomenon where terminally differentiated cells dedifferentiate to the point where they can switch CELL LINEAGES. The cells then differentiate into other cell types.
Pathological processes of the LIVER.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
A form of pneumoconiosis resulting from inhalation of dust containing crystalline form of SILICON DIOXIDE, usually in the form of quartz. Amorphous silica is relatively nontoxic.
A de novo myeloproliferation arising from an abnormal stem cell. It is characterized by the replacement of bone marrow by fibrous tissue, a process that is mediated by CYTOKINES arising from the abnormal clone.
One or more layers of EPITHELIAL CELLS, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
An inhibitory smad protein that associates with TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA RECEPTORS and BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS. It negatively regulates SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS by inhibiting PHOSPHORYLATION of RECEPTOR-REGULATED SMAD PROTEINS.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.
A diffuse parenchymal lung disease caused by inhalation of dust and by tissue reaction to their presence. These inorganic, organic, particulate, or vaporized matters usually are inhaled by workers in their occupational environment, leading to the various forms (ASBESTOSIS; BYSSINOSIS; and others). Similar air pollution can also have deleterious effects on the general population.
Glycoproteins found on the surfaces of cells, particularly in fibrillar structures. The proteins are lost or reduced when these cells undergo viral or chemical transformation. They are highly susceptible to proteolysis and are substrates for activated blood coagulation factor VIII. The forms present in plasma are called cold-insoluble globulins.
A nitrosamine derivative with alkylating, carcinogenic, and mutagenic properties. It causes serious liver damage and is a hepatocarcinogen in rodents.
The cartilaginous and membranous tube descending from the larynx and branching into the right and left main bronchi.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
A family of proteins that are involved in the translocation of signals from TGF-BETA RECEPTORS; BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS; and other surface receptors to the CELL NUCLEUS. They were originally identified as a class of proteins that are related to the mothers against decapentaplegic protein, Drosophila and sma proteins from CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Identification of genetic carriers for a given trait.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
A nodular organ in the ABDOMEN that contains a mixture of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and EXOCRINE GLANDS. The small endocrine portion consists of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS secreting a number of hormones into the blood stream. The large exocrine portion (EXOCRINE PANCREAS) is a compound acinar gland that secretes several digestive enzymes into the pancreatic ductal system that empties into the DUODENUM.
Hardening of the KIDNEY due to infiltration by fibrous connective tissue (FIBROSIS), usually caused by renovascular diseases or chronic HYPERTENSION. Nephrosclerosis leads to renal ISCHEMIA.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Phenotypic changes of EPITHELIAL CELLS to MESENCHYME type, which increase cell mobility critical in many developmental processes such as NEURAL TUBE development. NEOPLASM METASTASIS and DISEASE PROGRESSION may also induce this transition.
Application of a ligature to tie a vessel or strangulate a part.
Chemical substances, produced by microorganisms, inhibiting or preventing the proliferation of neoplasms.
Infection of the lung often accompanied by inflammation.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
The thick green-to-black mucilaginous material found in the intestines of a full-term fetus. It consists of secretions of the INTESTINAL GLANDS; BILE PIGMENTS; FATTY ACIDS; AMNIOTIC FLUID; and intrauterine debris. It constitutes the first stools passed by a newborn.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
'Pleural diseases' is a broad term referring to various medical conditions that affect the pleura, the thin, double-layered membrane surrounding the lungs, including inflammation (pleurisy), effusions (excess fluid buildup), thickening, or tumors, which may cause chest pain, coughing, and breathing difficulties.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS B VIRUS lasting six months or more. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
Salts of alginic acid that are extracted from marine kelp and used to make dental impressions and as absorbent material for surgical dressings.
A non-fibrillar collagen found in the structure of BASEMENT MEMBRANE. Collagen type IV molecules assemble to form a sheet-like network which is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of basement membranes. The predominant form of the protein is comprised of two alpha1(IV) subunits and one alpha2(IV) subunit, however, at least six different alpha subunits can be incorporated into the heterotrimer.
The administration of drugs by the respiratory route. It includes insufflation into the respiratory tract.
Damage to any compartment of the lung caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents which characteristically elicit inflammatory reaction. These inflammatory reactions can either be acute and dominated by NEUTROPHILS, or chronic and dominated by LYMPHOCYTES and MACROPHAGES.
Basic glycoprotein members of the SERPIN SUPERFAMILY that function as COLLAGEN-specific MOLECULAR CHAPERONES in the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM.
Washing out of the lungs with saline or mucolytic agents for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It is very useful in the diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in immunosuppressed patients.
The fibrous tissue that replaces normal tissue during the process of WOUND HEALING.
Gadolinium. An element of the rare earth family of metals. It has the atomic symbol Gd, atomic number 64, and atomic weight 157.25. Its oxide is used in the control rods of some nuclear reactors.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of proteins, including elastin. It cleaves preferentially bonds at the carboxyl side of Ala and Val, with greater specificity for Ala. EC 3.4.21.37.
The thin serous membrane enveloping the lungs (LUNG) and lining the THORACIC CAVITY. Pleura consist of two layers, the inner visceral pleura lying next to the pulmonary parenchyma and the outer parietal pleura. Between the two layers is the PLEURAL CAVITY which contains a thin film of liquid.
A secreted endopeptidase homologous with INTERSTITIAL COLLAGENASE, but which possesses an additional fibronectin-like domain.
An octapeptide that is a potent but labile vasoconstrictor. It is produced from angiotensin I after the removal of two amino acids at the C-terminal by ANGIOTENSIN CONVERTING ENZYME. The amino acid in position 5 varies in different species. To block VASOCONSTRICTION and HYPERTENSION effect of angiotensin II, patients are often treated with ACE INHIBITORS or with ANGIOTENSIN II TYPE 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKERS.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
A preparation of hog pancreatic enzymes standardized for lipase content.
Hypersensitivity reaction (ALLERGIC REACTION) to fungus ASPERGILLUS in an individual with long-standing BRONCHIAL ASTHMA. It is characterized by pulmonary infiltrates, EOSINOPHILIA, elevated serum IMMUNOGLOBULIN E, and skin reactivity to Aspergillus antigen.
Asbestos. Fibrous incombustible mineral composed of magnesium and calcium silicates with or without other elements. It is relatively inert chemically and used in thermal insulation and fireproofing. Inhalation of dust causes asbestosis and later lung and gastrointestinal neoplasms.
Chinese herbal or plant extracts which are used as drugs to treat diseases or promote general well-being. The concept does not include synthesized compounds manufactured in China.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Inflammation of the lung due to harmful effects of ionizing or non-ionizing radiation.
Transparent, tasteless crystals found in nature as agate, amethyst, chalcedony, cristobalite, flint, sand, QUARTZ, and tridymite. The compound is insoluble in water or acids except hydrofluoric acid.
A non-specific host defense mechanism that removes MUCUS and other material from the LUNGS by ciliary and secretory activity of the tracheobronchial submucosal glands. It is measured in vivo as mucus transfer, ciliary beat frequency, and clearance of radioactive tracers.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
The type species of gram negative, aerobic bacteria in the genus ACHROMOBACTER. Previously in the genus ALCALIGENES, the classification and nomenclature of this species has been frequently emended. The two subspecies, Achromobacter xylosoxidans subsp. denitrificans and Achromobacter xylosoxidans subsp. xylosoxidans are associated with infections.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
Pyridine derivatives with one or more keto groups on the ring.
A common interstitial lung disease caused by hypersensitivity reactions of PULMONARY ALVEOLI after inhalation of and sensitization to environmental antigens of microbial, animal, or chemical sources. The disease is characterized by lymphocytic alveolitis and granulomatous pneumonitis.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
A species of gram-negative bacteria that causes disease in plants. It is found commonly in the environment and is an opportunistic pathogen in humans.
Impairment of bile flow due to obstruction in small bile ducts (INTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS) or obstruction in large bile ducts (EXTRAHEPATIC CHOLESTASIS).
Restoration of integrity to traumatized tissue.
A membrane of squamous EPITHELIAL CELLS, the mesothelial cells, covered by apical MICROVILLI that allow rapid absorption of fluid and particles in the PERITONEAL CAVITY. The peritoneum is divided into parietal and visceral components. The parietal peritoneum covers the inside of the ABDOMINAL WALL. The visceral peritoneum covers the intraperitoneal organs. The double-layered peritoneum forms the MESENTERY that suspends these organs from the abdominal wall.
Sweat-producing structures that are embedded in the DERMIS. Each gland consists of a single tube, a coiled body, and a superficial duct.
Macromolecular organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually, sulfur. These macromolecules (proteins) form an intricate meshwork in which cells are embedded to construct tissues. Variations in the relative types of macromolecules and their organization determine the type of extracellular matrix, each adapted to the functional requirements of the tissue. The two main classes of macromolecules that form the extracellular matrix are: glycosaminoglycans, usually linked to proteins (proteoglycans), and fibrous proteins (e.g., COLLAGEN; ELASTIN; FIBRONECTINS; and LAMININ).
Regulatory proteins and peptides that are signaling molecules involved in the process of PARACRINE COMMUNICATION. They are generally considered factors that are expressed by one cell and are responded to by receptors on another nearby cell. They are distinguished from HORMONES in that their actions are local rather than distal.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
A graphic means for assessing the ability of a screening test to discriminate between healthy and diseased persons; may also be used in other studies, e.g., distinguishing stimuli responses as to a faint stimuli or nonstimuli.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
FIBROSIS of the hepatic parenchyma due to chronic excess ALCOHOL DRINKING.
Striated muscle cells found in the heart. They are derived from cardiac myoblasts (MYOBLASTS, CARDIAC).
Phenols substituted in any position by an amino group.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Abnormal increase of resistance to blood flow within the hepatic PORTAL SYSTEM, frequently seen in LIVER CIRRHOSIS and conditions with obstruction of the PORTAL VEIN.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
An endopeptidase that is structurally similar to MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE 2. It degrades GELATIN types I and V; COLLAGEN TYPE IV; and COLLAGEN TYPE V.
Techniques and strategies which include the use of coding sequences and other conventional or radical means to transform or modify cells for the purpose of treating or reversing disease conditions.
The movement of ions across energy-transducing cell membranes. Transport can be active, passive or facilitated. Ions may travel by themselves (uniport), or as a group of two or more ions in the same (symport) or opposite (antiport) directions.
A cytokine synthesized by T-LYMPHOCYTES that produces proliferation, immunoglobulin isotype switching, and immunoglobulin production by immature B-LYMPHOCYTES. It appears to play a role in regulating inflammatory and immune responses.
A complex of gadolinium with a chelating agent, diethylenetriamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA see PENTETIC ACID), that is given to enhance the image in cranial and spinal MRIs. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p706)
A class of statistical methods applicable to a large set of probability distributions used to test for correlation, location, independence, etc. In most nonparametric statistical tests, the original scores or observations are replaced by another variable containing less information. An important class of nonparametric tests employs the ordinal properties of the data. Another class of tests uses information about whether an observation is above or below some fixed value such as the median, and a third class is based on the frequency of the occurrence of runs in the data. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1284; Corsini, Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology, 1987, p764-5)
Round, granular, mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the lungs. They ingest small inhaled particles resulting in degradation and presentation of the antigen to immunocompetent cells.
Invasion of the host RESPIRATORY SYSTEM by microorganisms, usually leading to pathological processes or diseases.
Enlargement of the LEFT VENTRICLE of the heart. This increase in ventricular mass is attributed to sustained abnormal pressure or volume loads and is a contributor to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.
A chemokine that is a chemoattractant for MONOCYTES and may also cause cellular activation of specific functions related to host defense. It is produced by LEUKOCYTES of both monocyte and lymphocyte lineage and by FIBROBLASTS during tissue injury. It has specificity for CCR2 RECEPTORS.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
A system of vessels in which blood, after passing through one capillary bed, is conveyed through a second set of capillaries before it returns to the systemic circulation. It pertains especially to the hepatic portal system.

Enhanced Th1 and dampened Th2 responses synergize to inhibit acute granulomatous and fibrotic responses in murine schistosomiasis mansoni. (1/5330)

In murine schistosomiasis mansoni, CD4(+) Th1 and Th2 cells participate in the ovum-induced granulomatous inflammation. Previous studies showed that the interleukin-12 (IL-12)-induced Th1 response strongly suppressed the Th2-cell-mediated pulmonary granuloma development in naive or primed mice. However, liver granulomas were only moderately suppressed in egg-vaccinated, recombinant IL-12 (rIL-12)-treated infected mice. The present study shows that repeated rIL-12 injections given during early granuloma development at 5 to 7 weeks after infection prolonged the Th1 phase and resulted in gamma interferon-mediated suppression of liver granulomas. The timing is crucial: if given at 6 to 8 weeks, during the Th2-dominated phase of florid granuloma growth, the treatment is ineffective. Daily injections of rIL-12 given between 5 and 7.5 weeks during the period of granuloma growth achieved a somewhat-stronger diminution in granuloma growth with less deposition of collagen but caused 60% mortality and liver pathology. In contrast, combined treatment with rIL-12 and anti-IL-4-anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody (MAb) injections given during the Th2 phase strongly inhibited liver granuloma growth without mortality. The diminished inflammatory response was accompanied by less deposition of collagen in the liver. Moreover, neutralization of endogenous IL-12 by anti-IL-12 MAbs effectively decreased the early Th1 phase (between 5 and 6 weeks after infection) but not the developing Th2 phase (5 to 7 weeks) of granuloma development. These studies indicate that the granulomatous response in infected mice can be manipulated by utilizing the Th1-Th2-subset antagonism with potential salutary results in the amelioration of fibrous pathology.  (+info)

Elevated carboxy terminal cross linked telopeptide of type I collagen in alcoholic cirrhosis: relation to liver and kidney function and bone metabolism. (2/5330)

BACKGROUND: The carboxy terminal cross linked telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) has been put forward as a marker of bone resorption. Patients with alcoholic liver disease may have osteodystrophy. AIMS: To assess circulating and regional concentrations of ICTP in relation to liver dysfunction, bone metabolism, and fibrosis. METHODS: In 15 patients with alcoholic cirrhosis and 20 controls, hepatic venous, renal venous, and femoral arterial concentrations of ICTP, and bone mass and metabolism were measured. RESULTS: Circulating ICTP was higher in patients with cirrhosis than in controls. No overall significant hepatic disposal or production was found in the patient or control groups but slightly increased production was found in a subset of patients with advanced disease. Significant renal extraction was observed in the controls, whereas only a borderline significant extraction was observed in the patients. Measurements of bone mass and metabolism indicated only a mild degree of osteodystrophy in the patients with cirrhosis. ICTP correlated significantly in the cirrhotic patients with hepatic and renal dysfunction and fibrosis, but not with measurements of bone mass or metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: ICTP is highly elevated in patients with cirrhosis, with no detectable hepatic net production or disposal. No relation between ICTP and markers of bone metabolism was identified, but there was a relation to indicators of liver dysfunction and fibrosis. As the cirrhotic patients conceivably only had mild osteopenia, the elevated ICTP in cirrhosis may therefore primarily reflect liver failure and hepatic fibrosis.  (+info)

3D MRI of the membranous labyrinth. An age related comparison of MR findings in patients with labyrinthine fibrosis and in persons without inner ear symptoms. (3/5330)

PURPOSE: We compared MRI of the membranous labyrinth in patients with chronic non-neoplastic inner ear disease and MR signs of labyrinthine fibrosis and controls depending on their age, in order to establish whether there were any MR differences regarding patient age groups, control age groups and between the patients and controls themselves. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Clinical ENT examinations as well as a T2* weighted 3D CISS (Constructive Interference in Steady State) sequence with a slice thickness of 0.7 mm were performed. Our collective was subdivided as follows: 0-19 years (10 controls, 3 patients with chronic non-neoplastic inner ear disease), 20-49 years (55 controls, 8 patients), 50 years and older (40 controls, 22 patients). Detectability of labyrinthine structures (e.g. cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals) and filling defects were evaluated. RESULTS: In the 3 age-groups of the control collective no significant differences were observed in the membranous labyrinth. However differences concerning labyrinthine detectability emerged between controls and patients in both the 20-49 years and 50 years and older age groups. In the patient collective the 3 age groups showed no significant discrepancy in the mean number of lesions. CONCLUSION: Filling defects of the membranous labyrinth on 3D CISS MR images are pathological even in older persons. We would therefore recommend high resolution T2* weighted MRI in the case of suspected labyrinthine fibrosis.  (+info)

Ultramicroscopic structures of the leptomeninx of mice with communicating hydrocephalus induced by human recombinant transforming growth factor-beta 1. (4/5330)

An experimental model of communicating hydrocephalus was developed based on intrathecal injection of human recombinant transforming growth factor-beta 1 (hrTGF-beta 1) in the mouse. To clarify the mechanism of this hydrocephalus model, the ultrastructure of the leptomeninx in the process of ventricular dilation was examined in C57/BL6 mice injected intrathecally with 60 ng of hrTGF-beta 1. The leptomeninx was examined at various periods after injection by light and electron microscopy. Immunostaining for fibroblasts and macrophages was also performed. Leptomeninx within a week after injection showed that the thin cytoplasmic processes of leptomeningeal cells formed a laminated structure with a meshwork, which was almost the same as the controls. In the second week, many cells with a round nucleus appeared in the leptomeninx. Immunohistochemically, these cells were positive for anti-fibroblast antibody and negative for anti-Mac-1 and anti-macrophage BM-8 antibodies. Three weeks later, the laminated structure was disrupted and abundant deposition of collagen fibers was found in the inter-cellular space of the leptomeninx. Such inter-meningeal fibrosis would disturb cerebrospinal fluid flow in the mouse leptomeninx and cause slowly progressive ventricular dilation.  (+info)

Irradiation induces upregulation of CD31 in human endothelial cells. (5/5330)

Radiation-induced vascular injury is believed to be a major factor contributing to parenchymal atrophy, fibrosis and necrosis in normal tissue after radiotherapy. In this study irradiation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) significantly increased adherence of U-937 cells in a time-dependent manner. Given the potential multifunctional role of CD31 in the vasculature we have examined the possible effects of irradiation on levels of CD31 expression in HUVECs. Irradiation upregulated CD31 expression on HUVECs, independently of initial plating density and radiation-induced changes such as cell number, cell cycle stage, or cell size. CD31 mRNA levels were raised in irradiated HUVECs relative to controls. Both CD31 mRNA and surface protein showed similar changes, suggesting that the increase in mRNA in irradiated HUVECs is responsible for the elevation in cell surface protein. A semi-quantitative study of tissue specimens from patients who had received radiotherapy indicated that CD31 staining in the blood vessels from irradiated tissues was increased compared with controls. Endothelial CD31 is important in the transmigration of leukocytes. We have demonstrated that the incorporation of monoclonal antibody to CD31 significantly inhibited the transmigration of human peripheral blood leukocytes through a monolayer of irradiated HUVECs. Taken together these data strongly suggest that irradiation induces a marked increase in CD31 expression on endothelial cells as part of a general response to irradiation. Its upregulation may play an important role in the development of radiation-induced normal tissue damage and thus is a possible target for therapeutic intervention.  (+info)

Pancreatic stellate cells are activated by proinflammatory cytokines: implications for pancreatic fibrogenesis. (6/5330)

BACKGROUND: The pathogenesis of pancreatic fibrosis is unknown. In the liver, stellate cells play a major role in fibrogenesis by synthesising increased amounts of collagen and other extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins when activated by profibrogenic mediators such as cytokines and oxidant stress. AIMS: To determine whether cultured rat pancreatic stellate cells produce collagen and other ECM proteins, and exhibit signs of activation when exposed to the cytokines platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) or transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta). METHODS: Cultured pancreatic stellate cells were immunostained for the ECM proteins procollagen III, collagen I, laminin, and fibronectin using specific polyclonal antibodies. For cytokine studies, triplicate wells of cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of PDGF or TGF-beta. RESULTS: Cultured pancreatic stellate cells stained strongly positive for all ECM proteins tested. Incubation of cells with 1, 5, and 10 ng/ml PDGF led to a significant dose related increase in cell counts as well as in the incorporation of 3H-thymidine into DNA. Stellate cells exposed to 0.25, 0.5, and 1 ng/ml TGF-beta showed a dose dependent increase in alpha smooth muscle actin expression and increased collagen synthesis. In addition, TGF-beta increased the expression of PDGF receptors on stellate cells. CONCLUSIONS: Pancreatic stellate cells produce collagen and other extracellular matrix proteins, and respond to the cytokines PDGF and TGF-beta by increased proliferation and increased collagen synthesis. These results suggest an important role for stellate cells in pancreatic fibrogenesis.  (+info)

Cyclosporin exerts a direct fibrogenic effect on human tubulointerstitial cells: roles of insulin-like growth factor I, transforming growth factor beta1, and platelet-derived growth factor. (7/5330)

To assess the direct fibrogenic effects of cyclosporin A (CyA) on the human tubulointerstitium, primary cultures of human renal proximal tubule cells (PTC) and renal cortical fibroblasts (CF) were incubated for 24 h with various concentrations of CyA. Cytotoxicity was confirmed in both cell populations by dose-dependent inhibition of thymidine incorporation, viability, and PTC apical sodium-hydrogen exchange activity (ethylisopropylamiloride-sensitive apical 22Na+ uptake). Compared with controls, both 500 and 1000 ng/ml CyA significantly stimulated CF collagen synthesis (proline incorporation 4.6 +/- 0.4, 6.5 +/- 0.8, and 7.1 +/- 1.0%, respectively; p <.05) and inhibited matrix metalloproteinase-2 (100%, 85.7 +/- 10.0%, and 38.8 +/- 9.2%) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity (100%, 110.6 +/- 19.0%, and 49.9 +/- 12.8%). CyA did not affect CF secretion of transforming growth factor beta1, but markedly stimulated insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) secretion and inhibited secretion of both IGF-I binding protein-(IGFBP)-3 and IGFBP-2. CyA-induced CF collagen synthesis was abrogated by 5 microgram/ml anti-IGF-I receptor antibody, but not by 5 microgram/ml murine nonimmune globulin. Increasing concentrations of CyA progressively augmented PTC secretion of the fibrogenic cytokines transforming growth factor-beta1 and platelet-derived growth factor. These results indicate that clinically relevant concentrations of CyA are directly toxic to PTC and CF, irrespective of hemodynamic effects, and promote interstitial fibrosis by inhibiting matrix degradation and stimulating cortical fibroblast collagen synthesis via induction of autocrine IGF-I action. The latter effect may be further accentuated by the ability of CyA to augment secretion of transforming growth factor beta1 and platelet-derived growth factor by PTCs.  (+info)

Prognostic significance of bone marrow biopsy in essential thrombocythemia. (8/5330)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The diagnostic and prognostic value of bone marrow biopsy (BMB) has been widely investigated in patients with chronic myeloproliferative disorders (CMPD). The present study is based on a review of the results of routine BMBs taken from 93 essential thrombocythemia (ET) patients at the time of diagnosis. DESIGN AND METHODS: The common BMB histologic parameters and clinico-hematologic variables were considered for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. Clinico-pathologic correlations were looked for univariately. Moreover, the diagnostic significance of the histologic findings was tested by means of cluster analysis. Overall survival and event-free survival were considered as prognostic endpoints. RESULTS: There were no correlations between the clinic and pathologic findings, and none of the histologic and clinical parameters was predictive of survival or the occurrence of major clinical events. Cluster analysis of the BMB findings revealed two distinct morphologic patterns: one was clearly myeloproliferative; the other had somewhat dysplastic features. The event-free and overall survival rates in the latter group were significantly worse (p = 0.0377 and p = 0.0162 respectively), with major ischemic events accounting for most of the difference in event-free survival. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS: These results have no clearcut counterpart in the literature, but we feel that dysplastic BMB findings could be included in the definition of ET prognostic scores in order to allow therapeutic strategies to be adapted to the level of risk.  (+info)

Fibrosis is a pathological process characterized by the excessive accumulation and/or altered deposition of extracellular matrix components, particularly collagen, in various tissues and organs. This results in the formation of fibrous scar tissue that can impair organ function and structure. Fibrosis can occur as a result of chronic inflammation, tissue injury, or abnormal repair mechanisms, and it is a common feature of many diseases, including liver cirrhosis, lung fibrosis, heart failure, and kidney disease.

In medical terms, fibrosis is defined as:

"The process of producing scar tissue (consisting of collagen) in response to injury or chronic inflammation in normal connective tissue. This can lead to the thickening and stiffening of affected tissues and organs, impairing their function."

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that primarily affects the lungs and digestive system. It is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which regulates the movement of salt and water in and out of cells. When this gene is not functioning properly, thick, sticky mucus builds up in various organs, leading to a range of symptoms.

In the lungs, this mucus can clog the airways, making it difficult to breathe and increasing the risk of lung infections. Over time, lung damage can occur, which may lead to respiratory failure. In the digestive system, the thick mucus can prevent the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas, impairing nutrient absorption and leading to malnutrition. CF can also affect the reproductive system, liver, and other organs.

Symptoms of cystic fibrosis may include persistent coughing, wheezing, lung infections, difficulty gaining weight, greasy stools, and frequent greasy diarrhea. The severity of the disease can vary significantly among individuals, depending on the specific genetic mutations they have inherited.

Currently, there is no cure for cystic fibrosis, but treatments are available to help manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include airway clearance techniques, medications to thin mucus, antibiotics to treat infections, enzyme replacement therapy, and a high-calorie, high-fat diet. Lung transplantation is an option for some individuals with advanced lung disease.

Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) is a protein that functions as a chloride channel in the membranes of various cells, including those in the lungs and pancreas. Mutations in the gene encoding CFTR can lead to Cystic Fibrosis, a genetic disorder characterized by thick, sticky mucus in the lungs and other organs, leading to severe respiratory and digestive problems.

CFTR is normally activated by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and regulates the movement of chloride ions across cell membranes. In Cystic Fibrosis, mutations in CFTR can result in impaired channel function or reduced amounts of functional CFTR at the cell surface, leading to an imbalance in ion transport and fluid homeostasis. This can cause the production of thick, sticky mucus that clogs the airways and leads to chronic lung infections, as well as other symptoms associated with Cystic Fibrosis.

Endomyocardial fibrosis is a rare heart condition characterized by the thickening and scarring (fibrosis) of the inner layer of the heart muscle (endocardium) and the muscular walls of the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles). This process can restrict the heart's ability to fill properly with blood, leading to symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. The exact cause of endomyocardial fibrosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve an abnormal immune response or inflammation. It is more commonly found in tropical regions of Africa and Asia. Treatment typically involves medications to manage symptoms and improve heart function, as well as potentially surgical interventions to remove the scar tissue and restore normal heart function.

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) is a specific type of chronic, progressive, and irreversible fibrotic lung disease of unknown cause, characterized by scarring (fibrosis) in the lungs that thickens and stiffens the lining of the air sacs (alveoli). This makes it increasingly difficult for the lungs to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream, leading to shortness of breath, cough, decreased exercise tolerance, and, eventually, respiratory failure.

The term "idiopathic" means that the cause of the disease is unknown. The diagnosis of IPF requires a combination of clinical, radiological, and pathological findings, excluding other known causes of pulmonary fibrosis. It primarily affects middle-aged to older adults, with a higher prevalence in men than women.

The progression of IPF varies from person to person, but the prognosis is generally poor, with a median survival time of 3-5 years after diagnosis. Currently, there are two FDA-approved medications for the treatment of IPF (nintedanib and pirfenidone), which can help slow down disease progression but do not cure the condition. Lung transplantation remains an option for select patients with advanced IPF.

Liver cirrhosis is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by the replacement of normal liver tissue with scarred (fibrotic) tissue, leading to loss of function. The scarring is caused by long-term damage from various sources such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and other causes. As the disease advances, it can lead to complications like portal hypertension, fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites), impaired brain function (hepatic encephalopathy), and increased risk of liver cancer. It is generally irreversible, but early detection and treatment of underlying causes may help slow down its progression.

Retroperitoneal fibrosis (RPF) is a rare and progressive condition characterized by the abnormal growth of fibrous tissue in the retroperitoneal space, which is the area behind the peritoneum (the lining that covers the abdominal cavity). This fibrous tissue can encase and compress vital structures such as the ureters, blood vessels, and nerves, leading to various symptoms.

RPF can be idiopathic (without a known cause) or secondary to other conditions like infections, malignancies, autoimmune diseases, or medications. The exact pathogenesis of RPF is not fully understood, but it's believed that an abnormal immune response and inflammation play significant roles in its development.

Symptoms of RPF may include:

1. Flank pain or back pain
2. Renal insufficiency or kidney failure due to ureteral compression
3. Hydronephrosis (dilatation of the renal pelvis and calyces)
4. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE) due to vascular compression
5. Neurological symptoms due to nerve compression
6. Weight loss, fatigue, and fever (in some cases)

Diagnosis of RPF typically involves imaging studies such as computed tomography (CT) scans or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), along with laboratory tests and sometimes biopsy for confirmation. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause but generally involve immunosuppressive medications, corticosteroids, and surgical intervention in severe cases.

Bleomycin is a type of chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma, testicular cancer, and lymphomas. It works by causing DNA damage in rapidly dividing cells, which can inhibit the growth and proliferation of cancer cells.

Bleomycin is an antibiotic derived from Streptomyces verticillus and is often administered intravenously or intramuscularly. While it can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, it can also have serious side effects, including lung toxicity, which can lead to pulmonary fibrosis and respiratory failure. Therefore, bleomycin should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare professional who is experienced in administering chemotherapy drugs.

Oral Submucous Fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic, progressive, and potentially disabling disease that affects the oral soft tissues. It is characterized by inflammation and fibrosis (excessive deposition of collagen) of the submucosal tissues, leading to stiffness and limitation of mouth opening, tongue movement, and occasionally swallowing or speaking difficulties. The condition primarily affects individuals with a history of areca nut (betel nut) chewing, although other factors such as smoking, alcohol consumption, and genetic predisposition may also contribute to its development. Symptoms can include burning sensation in the mouth, dryness, and pain during speaking, eating, or swallowing. In severe cases, OSF can lead to significant functional impairment and require surgical intervention.

Experimental liver cirrhosis refers to a controlled research setting where various factors and substances are intentionally introduced to induce liver cirrhosis in animals or cell cultures. The purpose is to study the mechanisms, progression, potential treatments, and prevention strategies for liver cirrhosis. This could involve administering chemicals, drugs, alcohol, viruses, or manipulating genes associated with liver damage and fibrosis. It's important to note that results from experimental models may not directly translate to human conditions, but they can provide valuable insights into disease pathophysiology and therapeutic development.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Hydroxyproline is not a medical term per se, but it is a significant component in the medical field, particularly in the study of connective tissues and collagen. Here's a scientific definition:

Hydroxyproline is a modified amino acid that is formed by the post-translational modification of the amino acid proline in collagen and some other proteins. This process involves the addition of a hydroxyl group (-OH) to the proline residue, which alters its chemical properties and contributes to the stability and structure of collagen fibers. Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body and is a crucial component of connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. The presence and quantity of hydroxyproline can serve as a marker for collagen turnover and degradation, making it relevant to various medical and research contexts, including the study of diseases affecting connective tissues like osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.

Hepatic stellate cells, also known as Ito cells or lipocytes, are specialized perisinusoidal cells located in the space of Disse in the liver. They play a crucial role in maintaining the normal architecture and function of the liver. In response to liver injury or disease, these cells can become activated and transform into myofibroblasts, which produce extracellular matrix components and contribute to fibrosis and scarring in the liver. This activation process is regulated by various signaling pathways and mediators, including cytokines, growth factors, and oxidative stress. Hepatic stellate cells also have the ability to store vitamin A and lipids, which they can release during activation to support hepatocyte function and regeneration.

Ureteral obstruction is a medical condition characterized by the partial or complete blockage of the ureter, which is the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. This blockage can be caused by various factors such as kidney stones, tumors, blood clots, or scar tissue, leading to a backup of urine in the kidney (hydronephrosis). Ureteral obstruction can cause pain, infection, and potential kidney damage if not treated promptly.

Pseudomonas infections are infections caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa or other species of the Pseudomonas genus. These bacteria are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens that can cause various types of infections, including respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and bloodstream infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized for extended periods. The bacteria can also infect wounds, burns, and medical devices such as catheters and ventilators.

Pseudomonas infections can be difficult to treat due to the bacteria's resistance to many antibiotics. Treatment typically involves the use of multiple antibiotics that are effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In severe cases, intravenous antibiotics or even hospitalization may be necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, contact precautions for patients with known Pseudomonas infections, and proper cleaning and maintenance of medical equipment.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Myofibroblasts are specialized cells that are present in various tissues throughout the body. They play a crucial role in wound healing and tissue repair, but they can also contribute to the development of fibrosis or scarring when their activation and proliferation persist beyond the normal healing process. Here is a medical definition of myofibroblasts:

Medical Definition of Myofibroblasts:
Myofibroblasts are modified fibroblasts that exhibit features of both smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, including the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin stress fibers. They are involved in the contraction of wounds, tissue remodeling, and the production of extracellular matrix components such as collagen, elastin, and fibronectin. Myofibroblasts can differentiate from various cell types, including resident fibroblasts, epithelial cells (epithelial-mesenchymal transition), endothelial cells (endothelial-mesenchymal transition), and circulating fibrocytes. Persistent activation of myofibroblasts can lead to excessive scarring and fibrosis in various organs, such as the lungs, liver, kidneys, and heart.

Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, and it is a major component of connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. Collagen provides structure and strength to these tissues and helps them to withstand stretching and tension. It is made up of long chains of amino acids, primarily glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline, which are arranged in a triple helix structure. There are at least 16 different types of collagen found in the body, each with slightly different structures and functions. Collagen is important for maintaining the integrity and health of tissues throughout the body, and it has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses in various medical conditions.

Carbon tetrachloride is a colorless, heavy, and nonflammable liquid with a mild ether-like odor. Its chemical formula is CCl4. It was previously used as a solvent and refrigerant, but its use has been largely phased out due to its toxicity and ozone-depleting properties.

Inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact with carbon tetrachloride can cause harmful health effects. Short-term exposure can lead to symptoms such as dizziness, headache, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure has been linked to liver and kidney damage, as well as an increased risk of cancer.

Carbon tetrachloride is also a potent greenhouse gas and contributes to climate change. Its production and use are regulated by international agreements aimed at protecting human health and the environment.

Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) is a type of cytokine, which is a cell signaling protein involved in the regulation of various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). TGF-β plays a critical role in embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, and wound healing. It also has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

TGF-β exists in multiple isoforms (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3) that are produced by many different cell types, including immune cells, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. The protein is synthesized as a precursor molecule, which is cleaved to release the active TGF-β peptide. Once activated, TGF-β binds to its receptors on the cell surface, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate gene expression and cell behavior.

In summary, Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine involved in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, and wound healing. It has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

"Pseudomonas aeruginosa" is a medically important, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is widely found in the environment, such as in soil, water, and on plants. It's an opportunistic pathogen, meaning it usually doesn't cause infection in healthy individuals but can cause severe and sometimes life-threatening infections in people with weakened immune systems, burns, or chronic lung diseases like cystic fibrosis.

P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants due to its intrinsic resistance mechanisms and the acquisition of additional resistance determinants. It can cause various types of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, dermatitis, and severe bloodstream infections known as sepsis.

The bacterium produces a variety of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenicity, such as exotoxins, proteases, and pigments like pyocyanin and pyoverdine, which aid in iron acquisition and help the organism evade host immune responses. Effective infection control measures, appropriate use of antibiotics, and close monitoring of high-risk patients are crucial for managing P. aeruginosa infections.

Peritoneal fibrosis is a chronic condition characterized by the formation of excessive scar tissue (fibrosis) in the peritoneum, which is the thin, transparent membrane that lines the inner wall of the abdomen and covers the abdominal organs. This fibrotic process can lead to thickening and shrinkage of the peritoneum, resulting in impaired function of the affected organs and various complications.

Peritoneal fibrosis often occurs as a result of long-term exposure to dialysis solutions used during peritoneal dialysis, a type of renal replacement therapy for patients with end-stage kidney disease. The inflammatory response triggered by the dialysate can cause progressive fibrosis and thickening of the peritoneum, ultimately leading to reduced efficiency of the dialysis process and potential complications such as fluid leakage, hernias, or bowel obstruction.

In addition to peritoneal dialysis-induced fibrosis, other causes of peritoneal fibrosis include previous abdominal surgeries, intra-abdominal infections, autoimmune diseases, and certain medications. The diagnosis of peritoneal fibrosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as ultrasound or CT scan), and direct examination of the peritoneum during diagnostic laparoscopy. Treatment options may include modifying the underlying cause, optimizing dialysis techniques, using anti-fibrotic medications, or considering alternative renal replacement therapies such as hemodialysis or transplantation.

Collagen Type III, also known as Collagen III Alpha 1 (COL3A1), is a type of collagen that is found in various connective tissues throughout the body. It is a fibrillar collagen that is produced by fibroblasts and is a major component of reticular fibers, which provide structural support to organs such as the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. Collagen Type III is also found in the walls of blood vessels, the skin, and the intestinal tract.

Mutations in the COL3A1 gene can lead to a rare genetic disorder called Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV, which is characterized by fragile and elastic skin, easy bruising, and spontaneous rupture of blood vessels. Collagen Type III has been studied for its potential role in various other medical conditions, including fibrosis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.

Fibroblasts are specialized cells that play a critical role in the body's immune response and wound healing process. They are responsible for producing and maintaining the extracellular matrix (ECM), which is the non-cellular component present within all tissues and organs, providing structural support and biochemical signals for surrounding cells.

Fibroblasts produce various ECM proteins such as collagens, elastin, fibronectin, and laminins, forming a complex network of fibers that give tissues their strength and flexibility. They also help in the regulation of tissue homeostasis by controlling the turnover of ECM components through the process of remodeling.

In response to injury or infection, fibroblasts become activated and start to proliferate rapidly, migrating towards the site of damage. Here, they participate in the inflammatory response, releasing cytokines and chemokines that attract immune cells to the area. Additionally, they deposit new ECM components to help repair the damaged tissue and restore its functionality.

Dysregulation of fibroblast activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including fibrosis (excessive scarring), cancer (where they can contribute to tumor growth and progression), and autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis).

Collagen Type I is the most abundant form of collagen in the human body, found in various connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. It is a structural protein that provides strength and integrity to these tissues. Collagen Type I is composed of three alpha chains, two alpha-1(I) chains, and one alpha-2(I) chain, arranged in a triple helix structure. This type of collagen is often used in medical research and clinical applications, such as tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, due to its excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Sweat, also known as perspiration, is the fluid secreted by the sweat glands in human skin. It's primarily composed of water, with small amounts of sodium chloride, potassium, and other electrolytes. Sweat helps regulate body temperature through the process of evaporation, where it absorbs heat from the skin as it turns from a liquid to a gas.

There are two types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine. Eccrine glands are found all over the body and produce a watery, odorless sweat in response to heat, physical activity, or emotional stress. Apocrine glands, on the other hand, are mainly located in the armpits and groin area and become active during puberty. They produce a thicker, milky fluid that can mix with bacteria on the skin's surface, leading to body odor.

It is important to note that while sweating is essential for maintaining normal body temperature and overall health, excessive sweating or hyperhidrosis can be a medical condition requiring treatment.

Sputum is defined as a mixture of saliva and phlegm that is expelled from the respiratory tract during coughing, sneezing or deep breathing. It can be clear, mucoid, or purulent (containing pus) depending on the underlying cause of the respiratory issue. Examination of sputum can help diagnose various respiratory conditions such as infections, inflammation, or other lung diseases.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Interstitial nephritis is a condition characterized by inflammation in the interstitium (the tissue between the kidney tubules) of one or both kidneys. This inflammation can be caused by various factors, including infections, autoimmune disorders, medications, and exposure to certain toxins.

The inflammation may lead to symptoms such as hematuria (blood in the urine), proteinuria (protein in the urine), decreased urine output, and kidney dysfunction. In some cases, interstitial nephritis can progress to chronic kidney disease or even end-stage renal failure if left untreated.

The diagnosis of interstitial nephritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests (such as urinalysis and blood tests), and imaging studies (such as ultrasound or CT scan). A kidney biopsy may also be performed to confirm the diagnosis and assess the severity of the inflammation.

Treatment for interstitial nephritis depends on the underlying cause, but may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, or discontinuation of any offending medications. In some cases, supportive care such as dialysis may be necessary to manage kidney dysfunction until the inflammation resolves.

Systemic Scleroderma, also known as Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), is a rare, chronic autoimmune disease that involves the abnormal growth and accumulation of collagen in various connective tissues, blood vessels, and organs throughout the body. This excessive collagen production leads to fibrosis or scarring, which can cause thickening, hardening, and tightening of the skin and damage to internal organs such as the heart, lungs, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract.

Systemic Scleroderma is characterized by two main features: small blood vessel abnormalities (Raynaud's phenomenon) and fibrosis. The disease can be further classified into two subsets based on the extent of skin involvement: limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis (lcSSc) and diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis (dcSSc).

Limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis affects the skin distally, typically involving fingers, hands, forearms, feet, lower legs, and face. It is often associated with Raynaud's phenomenon, calcinosis, telangiectasias, and pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis involves more extensive skin thickening and fibrosis that spreads proximally to affect the trunk, upper arms, thighs, and face. It is commonly associated with internal organ involvement, such as interstitial lung disease, heart disease, and kidney problems.

The exact cause of Systemic Scleroderma remains unknown; however, it is believed that genetic, environmental, and immunological factors contribute to its development. There is currently no cure for Systemic Scleroderma, but various treatments can help manage symptoms, slow disease progression, and improve quality of life.

'Inbred CFTR mice' refers to a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to carry a specific genetic mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. The CFTR gene provides instructions for making a protein that helps regulate the movement of salt and water in and out of cells.

In humans, mutations in the CFTR gene can lead to cystic fibrosis (CF), a genetic disorder that affects multiple organs, particularly the lungs and digestive system. The most common CF-causing mutation is called ΔF508, which results in the production of a misfolded CFTR protein that does not function properly.

Inbred CFTR mice carry the same ΔF508 mutation as human CF patients and can serve as an important model for studying the disease mechanisms and testing potential therapies. These mice exhibit many of the symptoms seen in human CF, including lung inflammation, mucus accumulation, and digestive problems. By using inbred CFTR mice, researchers can control for genetic background and focus on the effects of the CFTR mutation, providing valuable insights into the pathophysiology of cystic fibrosis.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

Parasitic liver diseases refer to conditions caused by protozoa or helminths (parasitic worms) that infect and damage the liver. These parasites can enter the body through contaminated food, water, or direct contact with an infected host. Some examples of parasitic liver diseases include:

1. Ascariasis: Caused by the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides, which can infect the liver and bile ducts, leading to inflammation, obstruction, and abscess formation.
2. Echinococcosis (Hydatid disease): A rare but serious condition caused by the larval stage of tapeworms from the genus Echinococcus. The liver is the most commonly affected organ, with cysts forming in the liver parenchyma that can grow slowly over several years and cause complications such as rupture or secondary bacterial infection.
3. Fascioliasis: A foodborne trematode (fluke) infection caused by Fasciola hepatica or Fasciola gigantica, which affects the liver and bile ducts. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
4. Leishmaniasis: A protozoan infection caused by Leishmania spp., which can affect various organs, including the liver. Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar) is the most severe form of the disease, characterized by hepatosplenomegaly, fever, and anemia.
5. Toxoplasmosis: A protozoan infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which can affect the liver and other organs. While most immunocompetent individuals remain asymptomatic or experience mild flu-like symptoms, immunocompromised patients are at risk of severe liver damage and disseminated disease.
6. Schistosomiasis: A trematode (fluke) infection caused by Schistosoma spp., which affects the liver and portal venous system. The parasites lay eggs in the liver, causing granulomatous inflammation, fibrosis, and portal hypertension.
7. Fasciolopsiasis: A trematode (fluke) infection caused by Fasciolopsis buski, which affects the small intestine and liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
8. Paragonimiasis: A trematode (lung fluke) infection caused by Paragonimus spp., which can affect the lungs, brain, and other organs, including the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
9. Clonorchiasis: A trematode (liver fluke) infection caused by Clonorchis sinensis, which affects the bile ducts and liver. The parasites lay eggs in the bile ducts, causing inflammation, cholangitis, and cholangiocarcinoma.
10. Opisthorchiasis: A trematode (liver fluke) infection caused by Opisthorchis spp., which affects the bile ducts and liver. The parasites lay eggs in the bile ducts, causing inflammation, cholangitis, and cholangiocarcinoma.
11. Heterophyiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Heterophyes spp., which affects the small intestine and liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
12. Metagonimiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Metagonimus spp., which affects the small intestine and liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
13. Echinostomiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Echinostoma spp., which affects the small intestine and liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
14. Gastrodiscoidiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Gastrodiscoides spp., which affects the large intestine and liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
15. Fascioliasis: A trematode (liver fluke) infection caused by Fasciola spp., which affects the liver and bile ducts. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
16. Paragonimiasis: A trematode (lung fluke) infection caused by Paragonimus spp., which affects the lungs and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
17. Schistosomiasis: A trematode (blood fluke) infection caused by Schistosoma spp., which affects the blood vessels and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
18. Clonorchiasis: A trematode (liver fluke) infection caused by Clonorchis sinensis, which affects the liver and bile ducts. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
19. Opisthorchiasis: A trematode (liver fluke) infection caused by Opisthorchis spp., which affects the liver and bile ducts. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
20. Metagonimiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Metagonimus spp., which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
21. Heterophyesiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Heterophyes spp., which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
22. Echinostomiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Echinostoma spp., which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
23. Fasciolopsiasis: A trematode (intestinal fluke) infection caused by Fasciolopsis buski, which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
24. Paragonimiasis: A trematode (lung fluke) infection caused by Paragonimus spp., which affects the lungs and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
25. Spirometra mansoni: A trematode (tapeworm) infection caused by Spirometra mansoni, which affects the brain and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
26. Taenia solium: A trematode (tapeworm) infection caused by Taenia solium, which affects the brain and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
27. Hymenolepis nana: A trematode (tapeworm) infection caused by Hymenolepis nana, which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
28. Diphyllobothrium latum: A trematode (tapeworm) infection caused by Diphyllobothrium latum, which affects the small intestine and sometimes the liver. The larvae migrate through the liver tissue, causing inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.
29. Echinococcus granulosus:

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Chronic Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that lasts for more than six months. This long-term infection can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), which can cause serious health problems, such as liver failure or liver cancer, in some individuals. The infection is usually asymptomatic until complications arise, but it can be detected through blood tests that identify antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. Chronic hepatitis C is typically managed with antiviral therapy, which can help clear the virus from the body and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Burkholderia infections are caused by bacteria belonging to the Burkholderia genus, which includes several species that can cause various types of infection in humans. The most well-known and medically significant species include Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc), Burkholderia pseudomallei, and Burkholderia mallei.

1. Burkholderia cepacia Complex (Bcc): These are a group of closely related bacteria that can be found in various environments such as soil, water, and plants. They can cause respiratory infections, particularly in people with weakened immune systems or chronic lung diseases like cystic fibrosis. Bcc infections can be difficult to treat due to their resistance to many antibiotics.

2. Burkholderia pseudomallei: This species is the causative agent of melioidosis, a potentially severe and life-threatening infection endemic in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Southeast Asia and northern Australia. The bacteria can be found in contaminated water and soil, and people can get infected through direct contact with contaminated sources, ingestion, or inhalation of the bacteria. Melioidosis symptoms may vary widely, from mild flu-like illness to severe pneumonia, abscesses, and sepsis.

3. Burkholderia mallei: This species is responsible for glanders, a rare but serious disease primarily affecting horses, donkeys, and mules. Human infections are usually associated with occupational exposure to infected animals or their secretions. Glanders can cause severe symptoms such as fever, pneumonia, sepsis, and skin ulcers.

Treatment of Burkholderia infections typically involves the use of specific antibiotics, often in combination therapy, depending on the species and severity of infection. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to drain abscesses or remove infected tissues. Preventive measures include avoiding contact with contaminated sources, practicing good hygiene, and using appropriate personal protective equipment when handling animals or working in high-risk environments.

Burkholderia cepacia is a gram-negative, motile bacillus that is commonly found in the environment, particularly in water and soil. It is a conditional pathogen, meaning it can cause infection in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying lung conditions such as cystic fibrosis.

Infections caused by B. cepacia can be difficult to treat due to its resistance to many antibiotics. The bacteria can colonize the lungs and cause a chronic respiratory infection that can lead to decline in lung function, increased frequency of exacerbations, and even death in some cases. It is also associated with outbreaks in healthcare settings, particularly in patients receiving respiratory therapy or using contaminated medical equipment.

It's important to note that B. cepacia is not typically considered a community-acquired pathogen and is not commonly associated with typical pneumonia or other respiratory infections in healthy individuals.

Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF), previously referred to as Nephrogenic Fibrosing Dermopathy (NFD), is a rare but serious condition characterized by thickening and hardening of the skin, joint stiffness, and in some cases, organ fibrosis. It primarily affects people with impaired kidney function, particularly those who have undergone dialysis or have received a transplant. The condition is associated with exposure to gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, not all patients exposed to GBCAs develop NSF, and the exact cause remains unclear.

Epithelial cells are types of cells that cover the outer surfaces of the body, line the inner surfaces of organs and glands, and form the lining of blood vessels and body cavities. They provide a protective barrier against the external environment, regulate the movement of materials between the internal and external environments, and are involved in the sense of touch, temperature, and pain. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat and thin), cuboidal (square-shaped and of equal height), or columnar (tall and narrow) in shape and are classified based on their location and function.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) is a cysteine-rich peptide growth factor that belongs to the CCN family of proteins. It plays an important role in various biological processes, including cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and extracellular matrix production. CTGF is involved in wound healing, tissue repair, and fibrosis, as well as in the pathogenesis of several diseases such as cancer, diabetic nephropathy, and systemic sclerosis. It is expressed in response to various stimuli, including growth factors, cytokines, and mechanical stress. CTGF interacts with a variety of signaling molecules and integrins to regulate cellular responses and tissue homeostasis.

Elasticity imaging techniques are non-invasive medical diagnostic methods used to evaluate the stiffness or elasticity of various tissues in the body, such as organs, muscles, and breast tissue. These techniques can help detect and diagnose abnormalities, including tumors, lesions, and other conditions that may affect tissue stiffness.

There are several types of elasticity imaging techniques, including:

1. Ultrasound Elastography: This technique uses ultrasound waves to apply pressure to tissues and measure their deformation or strain. The degree of deformation is then used to calculate the stiffness of the tissue.
2. Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE): MRE uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to create images of tissue elasticity. A mechanical device is used to apply vibrations to the body, and the resulting motion is measured using MRI to determine tissue stiffness.
3. Shear Wave Elastography: This technique uses acoustic radiation force impulses to generate shear waves in tissues. The speed of these waves is then measured to calculate tissue stiffness.
4. Strain Imaging: This technique measures the amount of deformation or strain that occurs in tissues when they are compressed or stretched. It can be used to detect areas of increased stiffness, such as tumors or scar tissue.

Elasticity imaging techniques have several advantages over traditional diagnostic methods, including their non-invasive nature and ability to provide real-time images of tissue elasticity. They are also useful for monitoring changes in tissue stiffness over time, making them valuable tools for evaluating the effectiveness of treatments and monitoring disease progression.

Chlorides are simple inorganic ions consisting of a single chlorine atom bonded to a single charged hydrogen ion (H+). Chloride is the most abundant anion (negatively charged ion) in the extracellular fluid in the human body. The normal range for chloride concentration in the blood is typically between 96-106 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Chlorides play a crucial role in maintaining electrical neutrality, acid-base balance, and osmotic pressure in the body. They are also essential for various physiological processes such as nerve impulse transmission, maintenance of membrane potentials, and digestion (as hydrochloric acid in the stomach).

Chloride levels can be affected by several factors, including diet, hydration status, kidney function, and certain medical conditions. Increased or decreased chloride levels can indicate various disorders, such as dehydration, kidney disease, Addison's disease, or diabetes insipidus. Therefore, monitoring chloride levels is essential for assessing a person's overall health and diagnosing potential medical issues.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic steatosis, is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fat in the liver. The liver's primary function is to process nutrients, filter blood, and fight infections, among other tasks. When excess fat builds up in the liver cells, it can impair liver function and lead to inflammation, scarring, and even liver failure if left untreated.

Fatty liver can be caused by various factors, including alcohol consumption, obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, and certain medications or medical conditions. NAFLD is the most common cause of fatty liver in the United States and other developed countries, affecting up to 25% of the population.

Symptoms of fatty liver may include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain or discomfort, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, many people with fatty liver do not experience any symptoms, making it essential to diagnose and manage the condition through regular check-ups and blood tests.

Treatment for fatty liver depends on the underlying cause. Lifestyle changes such as weight loss, exercise, and dietary modifications are often recommended for people with NAFLD or alcohol-related fatty liver disease. Medications may also be prescribed to manage related conditions such as diabetes, high cholesterol, or metabolic syndrome. In severe cases of liver damage, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Respiratory mucosa refers to the mucous membrane that lines the respiratory tract, including the nose, throat, bronchi, and lungs. It is a specialized type of tissue that is composed of epithelial cells, goblet cells, and glands that produce mucus, which helps to trap inhaled particles such as dust, allergens, and pathogens.

The respiratory mucosa also contains cilia, tiny hair-like structures that move rhythmically to help propel the mucus and trapped particles out of the airways and into the upper part of the throat, where they can be swallowed or coughed up. This defense mechanism is known as the mucociliary clearance system.

In addition to its role in protecting the respiratory tract from harmful substances, the respiratory mucosa also plays a crucial role in immune function by containing various types of immune cells that help to detect and respond to pathogens and other threats.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is a type of clinical specimen obtained through a procedure called bronchoalveolar lavage. This procedure involves inserting a bronchoscope into the lungs and instilling a small amount of saline solution into a specific area of the lung, then gently aspirating the fluid back out. The fluid that is recovered is called bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

BAL fluid contains cells and other substances that are present in the lower respiratory tract, including the alveoli (the tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs). By analyzing BAL fluid, doctors can diagnose various lung conditions, such as pneumonia, interstitial lung disease, and lung cancer. They can also monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions by comparing the composition of BAL fluid before and after treatment.

BAL fluid is typically analyzed for its cellular content, including the number and type of white blood cells present, as well as for the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms. The fluid may also be tested for various proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers that can provide additional information about lung health and disease.

Respiratory Function Tests (RFTs) are a group of medical tests that measure how well your lungs take in and exhale air, and how well they transfer oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of your blood. They can help diagnose certain lung disorders, measure the severity of lung disease, and monitor response to treatment.

RFTs include several types of tests, such as:

1. Spirometry: This test measures how much air you can exhale and how quickly you can do it. It's often used to diagnose and monitor conditions like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other lung diseases.
2. Lung volume testing: This test measures the total amount of air in your lungs. It can help diagnose restrictive lung diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis or sarcoidosis.
3. Diffusion capacity testing: This test measures how well oxygen moves from your lungs into your bloodstream. It's often used to diagnose and monitor conditions like pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial lung disease, and other lung diseases that affect the ability of the lungs to transfer oxygen to the blood.
4. Bronchoprovocation testing: This test involves inhaling a substance that can cause your airways to narrow, such as methacholine or histamine. It's often used to diagnose and monitor asthma.
5. Exercise stress testing: This test measures how well your lungs and heart work together during exercise. It's often used to diagnose lung or heart disease.

Overall, Respiratory Function Tests are an important tool for diagnosing and managing a wide range of lung conditions.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, refers to any functional or structural damage to the kidneys that impairs their ability to filter blood, regulate electrolytes, produce hormones, and maintain fluid balance. This damage can result from a wide range of causes, including diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, lupus, infections, drugs, toxins, and congenital or inherited disorders.

Depending on the severity and progression of the kidney damage, kidney diseases can be classified into two main categories: acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). AKI is a sudden and often reversible loss of kidney function that occurs over hours to days, while CKD is a progressive and irreversible decline in kidney function that develops over months or years.

Symptoms of kidney diseases may include edema, proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, anemia, and decreased urine output. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications, dietary modifications, dialysis, or kidney transplantation.

Lung diseases refer to a broad category of disorders that affect the lungs and other structures within the respiratory system. These diseases can impair lung function, leading to symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, and wheezing. They can be categorized into several types based on the underlying cause and nature of the disease process. Some common examples include:

1. Obstructive lung diseases: These are characterized by narrowing or blockage of the airways, making it difficult to breathe out. Examples include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiectasis, and cystic fibrosis.
2. Restrictive lung diseases: These involve stiffening or scarring of the lungs, which reduces their ability to expand and take in air. Examples include idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, and asbestosis.
3. Infectious lung diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that infect the lungs. Examples include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and influenza.
4. Vascular lung diseases: These affect the blood vessels in the lungs, impairing oxygen exchange. Examples include pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH).
5. Neoplastic lung diseases: These involve abnormal growth of cells within the lungs, leading to cancer. Examples include small cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
6. Other lung diseases: These include interstitial lung diseases, pleural effusions, and rare disorders such as pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM).

It is important to note that this list is not exhaustive, and there are many other conditions that can affect the lungs. Proper diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases require consultation with a healthcare professional, such as a pulmonologist or respiratory therapist.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) are a group of disorders characterized by inflammation and scarring (fibrosis) in the interstitium, the tissue and space around the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs. The interstitium is where the blood vessels that deliver oxygen to the lungs are located. ILDs can be caused by a variety of factors, including environmental exposures, medications, connective tissue diseases, and autoimmune disorders.

The scarring and inflammation in ILDs can make it difficult for the lungs to expand and contract normally, leading to symptoms such as shortness of breath, cough, and fatigue. The scarring can also make it harder for oxygen to move from the air sacs into the bloodstream.

There are many different types of ILDs, including:

* Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF): a type of ILD that is caused by unknown factors and tends to progress rapidly
* Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: an ILD that is caused by an allergic reaction to inhaled substances, such as mold or bird droppings
* Connective tissue diseases: ILDs can be a complication of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma
* Sarcoidosis: an inflammatory disorder that can affect multiple organs, including the lungs
* Asbestosis: an ILD caused by exposure to asbestos fibers

Treatment for ILDs depends on the specific type of disease and its underlying cause. Some treatments may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and oxygen therapy. In some cases, a lung transplant may be necessary.

Bronchiectasis is a medical condition characterized by permanent, abnormal widening and thickening of the walls of the bronchi (the airways leading to the lungs). This can lead to recurrent respiratory infections, coughing, and the production of large amounts of sputum. The damage to the airways is usually irreversible and can be caused by various factors such as bacterial or viral infections, genetic disorders, immune deficiencies, or exposure to environmental pollutants. In some cases, the cause may remain unknown. Treatment typically includes chest physiotherapy, bronchodilators, antibiotics, and sometimes surgery.

Smad3 protein is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta) signaling pathway. When TGF-β binds to its receptor, it activates Smad3 through phosphorylation. Activated Smad3 then forms a complex with other Smad proteins and translocates into the nucleus where it regulates the transcription of target genes involved in various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and migration.

Mutations in the SMAD3 gene or dysregulation of the TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway have been implicated in several human diseases, including fibrotic disorders, cancer, and Marfan syndrome. Therefore, Smad3 protein is an important target for therapeutic interventions in these conditions.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex network of biomolecules that provides structural and biochemical support to cells in tissues and organs. It is composed of various proteins, glycoproteins, and polysaccharides, such as collagens, elastin, fibronectin, laminin, and proteoglycans. The ECM plays crucial roles in maintaining tissue architecture, regulating cell behavior, and facilitating communication between cells. It provides a scaffold for cell attachment, migration, and differentiation, and helps to maintain the structural integrity of tissues by resisting mechanical stresses. Additionally, the ECM contains various growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines that can influence cellular processes such as proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Overall, the extracellular matrix is essential for the normal functioning of tissues and organs, and its dysregulation can contribute to various pathological conditions, including fibrosis, cancer, and degenerative diseases.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a condition characterized by the reduced ability to digest and absorb nutrients due to a lack of digestive enzymes produced by the exocrine glands in the pancreas. These enzymes, including lipases, amylases, and proteases, are necessary for breaking down fats, carbohydrates, and proteins in food during the digestion process.

When EPI occurs, undigested food passes through the gastrointestinal tract, leading to malabsorption of nutrients, which can result in various symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, weight loss, and steatorrhea (fatty stools). EPI is often associated with chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic cancer, or other conditions that damage the exocrine glands in the pancreas.

EPI can be diagnosed through various tests, including fecal elastase testing, fecal fat quantification, and imaging studies to assess the structure and function of the pancreas. Treatment typically involves replacing the missing enzymes with oral supplements taken with meals and snacks to improve digestion and absorption of nutrients. In addition, dietary modifications and management of underlying conditions are essential for optimal outcomes.

Actin is a type of protein that forms part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells, and is also found in various other cell types. It is a globular protein that polymerizes to form long filaments, which are important for many cellular processes such as cell division, cell motility, and the maintenance of cell shape. In muscle cells, actin filaments interact with another type of protein called myosin to enable muscle contraction. Actins can be further divided into different subtypes, including alpha-actin, beta-actin, and gamma-actin, which have distinct functions and expression patterns in the body.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Thioacetamide is not a medical term, but a chemical compound with the formula TAA or CH3CSNH2. It's used in research and industry, and can be harmful or fatal if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. It can cause damage to the eyes, skin, respiratory system, and digestive tract, and may be harmful to the liver and kidneys with long-term exposure.

However, in a medical context, thioacetamide is sometimes used as a laboratory animal model of hepatotoxicity (liver toxicity) because it can cause centrilobular necrosis (death of cells in the center of liver lobules) and other liver damage when given repeatedly in small doses.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Kidney tubules are the structural and functional units of the kidney responsible for reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of various substances. They are part of the nephron, which is the basic unit of the kidney's filtration and reabsorption process.

There are three main types of kidney tubules:

1. Proximal tubule: This is the initial segment of the kidney tubule that receives the filtrate from the glomerulus. It is responsible for reabsorbing approximately 65% of the filtrate, including water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
2. Loop of Henle: This U-shaped segment of the tubule consists of a thin descending limb, a thin ascending limb, and a thick ascending limb. The loop of Henle helps to concentrate urine by creating an osmotic gradient that allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts.
3. Distal tubule: This is the final segment of the kidney tubule before it empties into the collecting duct. It is responsible for fine-tuning the concentration of electrolytes and pH balance in the urine by selectively reabsorbing or secreting substances such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and hydrogen ions.

Overall, kidney tubules play a critical role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, regulating acid-base balance, and removing waste products from the body.

Chloride channels are membrane proteins that form hydrophilic pores or gaps, allowing the selective passage of chloride ions (Cl-) across the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. They play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including regulation of neuronal excitability, maintenance of resting membrane potential, fluid and electrolyte transport, and pH and volume regulation of cells.

Chloride channels can be categorized into several groups based on their structure, function, and mechanism of activation. Some of the major classes include:

1. Voltage-gated chloride channels (ClC): These channels are activated by changes in membrane potential and have a variety of functions, such as regulating neuronal excitability and transepithelial transport.
2. Ligand-gated chloride channels: These channels are activated by the binding of specific ligands or messenger molecules, like GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) or glycine, and are involved in neurotransmission and neuromodulation.
3. Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR): This is a chloride channel primarily located in the apical membrane of epithelial cells, responsible for secreting chloride ions and water to maintain proper hydration and mucociliary clearance in various organs, including the lungs and pancreas.
4. Calcium-activated chloride channels (CaCCs): These channels are activated by increased intracellular calcium concentrations and participate in various physiological processes, such as smooth muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, and cell volume regulation.
5. Swelling-activated chloride channels (ClSwells): Also known as volume-regulated anion channels (VRACs), these channels are activated by cell swelling or osmotic stress and help regulate cell volume and ionic homeostasis.

Dysfunction of chloride channels has been implicated in various human diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, myotonia congenita, epilepsy, and certain forms of cancer.

Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) is a protein that inhibits the activity of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are enzymes responsible for breaking down extracellular matrix proteins. TIMP-1 plays a crucial role in regulating the balance between the synthesis and degradation of the extracellular matrix, thereby maintaining tissue homeostasis. It is involved in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). An imbalance between MMPs and TIMPs has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as cancer, fibrosis, and inflammatory diseases.

Lung transplantation is a surgical procedure where one or both diseased lungs are removed and replaced with healthy lungs from a deceased donor. It is typically considered as a treatment option for patients with end-stage lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, who have exhausted all other medical treatments and continue to suffer from severe respiratory failure.

The procedure involves several steps, including evaluating the patient's eligibility for transplantation, matching the donor's lung size and blood type with the recipient, and performing the surgery under general anesthesia. After the surgery, patients require close monitoring and lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the new lungs.

Lung transplantation can significantly improve the quality of life and survival rates for some patients with end-stage lung disease, but it is not without risks, including infection, bleeding, and rejection. Therefore, careful consideration and thorough evaluation are necessary before pursuing this treatment option.

Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV) is a medical term used to describe the volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled from the lungs in one second. It is often measured during pulmonary function testing to assess lung function and diagnose conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma.

FEV is typically expressed as a percentage of the Forced Vital Capacity (FVC), which is the total volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs after taking a deep breath in. The ratio of FEV to FVC is used to determine whether there is obstruction in the airways, with a lower ratio indicating more severe obstruction.

There are different types of FEV measurements, including FEV1 (the volume of air exhaled in one second), FEV25-75 (the average volume of air exhaled during the middle 50% of the FVC maneuver), and FEV0.5 (the volume of air exhaled in half a second). These measurements can provide additional information about lung function and help guide treatment decisions.

Carbon tetrachloride poisoning refers to the harmful effects on the body caused by exposure to carbon tetrachloride, a volatile and toxic chemical compound. This substance has been widely used in various industrial applications, such as a solvent for fats, oils, and rubber, a fire extinguishing agent, and a refrigerant. However, due to its high toxicity, the use of carbon tetrachloride has been significantly reduced or phased out in many countries.

Ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption of carbon tetrachloride can lead to poisoning, which may cause various symptoms depending on the severity and duration of exposure. Acute exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride can result in:

1. Central nervous system depression: Dizziness, headache, confusion, drowsiness, and, in severe cases, loss of consciousness or even death.
2. Respiratory irritation: Coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, and pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs).
3. Cardiovascular effects: Increased heart rate, low blood pressure, and irregular heart rhythms.
4. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea.
5. Liver damage: Hepatitis, jaundice, and liver failure in severe cases.
6. Kidney damage: Acute kidney injury or failure.

Chronic exposure to carbon tetrachloride can lead to long-term health effects, including:

1. Liver cirrhosis (scarring of the liver) and liver cancer.
2. Kidney damage and kidney disease.
3. Peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves in the limbs), causing numbness, tingling, or weakness.
4. Increased risk of miscarriage and birth defects in pregnant women exposed to carbon tetrachloride.

Treatment for carbon tetrachloride poisoning typically involves supportive care, such as oxygen therapy, fluid replacement, and monitoring of vital signs. In some cases, specific treatments like activated charcoal or gastric lavage may be used to remove the substance from the body. Prevention is crucial in minimizing exposure to this harmful chemical by following safety guidelines when handling it and using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Cardiomegaly is a medical term that refers to an enlarged heart. It can be caused by various conditions such as high blood pressure, heart valve problems, cardiomyopathy, or fluid accumulation around the heart (pericardial effusion). Cardiomegaly can be detected through imaging tests like chest X-rays or echocardiograms. Depending on the underlying cause, treatment options may include medications, lifestyle changes, or in some cases, surgery. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Ventricular remodeling is a structural adaptation process of the heart in response to stress or injury, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack) or pressure overload. This process involves changes in size, shape, and function of the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart).

In ventricular remodeling, the heart muscle may thicken, enlarge, or become more stiff, leading to alterations in the pumping ability of the heart. These changes can ultimately result in cardiac dysfunction, heart failure, and an increased risk of arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms).

Ventricular remodeling is often classified into two types:

1. Concentric remodeling: This occurs when the ventricular wall thickens (hypertrophy) without a significant increase in chamber size, leading to a decrease in the cavity volume and an increase in the thickness of the ventricular wall.
2. Eccentric remodeling: This involves an increase in both the ventricular chamber size and wall thickness due to the addition of new muscle cells (hyperplasia) or enlargement of existing muscle cells (hypertrophy). As a result, the overall shape of the ventricle becomes more spherical and less elliptical.

Both types of remodeling can negatively impact heart function and contribute to the development of heart failure. Close monitoring and appropriate treatment are essential for managing ventricular remodeling and preventing further complications.

Capillaria is a genus of small, slender nematode (roundworm) parasites that can infect various animals, including humans. The medical definition of Capillaria refers to the infection caused by these parasites, which is known as capillariasis.

There are several species of Capillaria that can infect humans, with the most common being Capillaria philippinensis and Capillaria aerophila. Capillaria philippinensis primarily infects the small intestine, while Capillaria aerophila infects the respiratory system.

Capillariasis is usually contracted by consuming raw or undercooked fish or meat that contains Capillaria larvae. Once inside the human body, the larvae mature into adults and begin to lay eggs, which can cause inflammation and damage to the affected organ. Symptoms of capillariasis vary depending on the species of Capillaria and the location of the infection but may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, coughing, and difficulty breathing.

Treatment for capillariasis typically involves medication to kill the parasites, such as albendazole or mebendazole. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage complications such as malnutrition or respiratory failure. Preventing capillariasis involves cooking food thoroughly and avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked fish or meat, particularly in areas where the infection is more common.

Aspartate aminotransferases (ASTs) are a group of enzymes found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, liver, and muscles. They play a crucial role in the metabolic process of transferring amino groups between different molecules.

In medical terms, AST is often used as a blood test to measure the level of this enzyme in the serum. Elevated levels of AST can indicate damage or injury to tissues that contain this enzyme, such as the liver or heart. For example, liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis, can cause elevated AST levels due to damage to liver cells. Similarly, heart attacks can also result in increased AST levels due to damage to heart muscle tissue.

It is important to note that an AST test alone cannot diagnose a specific medical condition, but it can provide valuable information when used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluation.

Nasal mucosa refers to the mucous membrane that lines the nasal cavity. It is a delicate, moist, and specialized tissue that contains various types of cells including epithelial cells, goblet cells, and glands. The primary function of the nasal mucosa is to warm, humidify, and filter incoming air before it reaches the lungs.

The nasal mucosa produces mucus, which traps dust, allergens, and microorganisms, preventing them from entering the respiratory system. The cilia, tiny hair-like structures on the surface of the epithelial cells, help move the mucus towards the back of the throat, where it can be swallowed or expelled.

The nasal mucosa also contains a rich supply of blood vessels and immune cells that help protect against infections and inflammation. It plays an essential role in the body's defense system by producing antibodies, secreting antimicrobial substances, and initiating local immune responses.

Bile ducts are tubular structures that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder for storage or directly to the small intestine to aid in digestion. There are two types of bile ducts: intrahepatic and extrahepatic. Intrahepatic bile ducts are located within the liver and drain bile from liver cells, while extrahepatic bile ducts are outside the liver and include the common hepatic duct, cystic duct, and common bile duct. These ducts can become obstructed or inflamed, leading to various medical conditions such as cholestasis, cholecystitis, and gallstones.

Tobramycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic used to treat various types of bacterial infections. According to the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terminology of the National Library of Medicine (NLM), the medical definition of Tobramycin is:

"A semi-synthetic modification of the aminoglycoside antibiotic, NEOMYCIN, that retains its antimicrobial activity but has less nephrotoxic and neurotoxic side effects. Tobramycin is used in the treatment of serious gram-negative infections, especially Pseudomonas infections in patients with cystic fibrosis."

Tobramycin works by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit of bacterial cells, inhibiting protein synthesis and ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. It is commonly used to treat severe infections caused by susceptible strains of gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Serratia marcescens, and Enterobacter species.

Tobramycin is available in various formulations, such as injectable solutions, ophthalmic ointments, and inhaled powder for nebulization. The choice of formulation depends on the type and location of the infection being treated. As with any antibiotic, it's essential to use Tobramycin appropriately and under medical supervision to minimize the risk of antibiotic resistance and potential side effects.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Cardiomyopathies are a group of diseases that affect the heart muscle, leading to mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction. The American Heart Association (AHA) defines cardiomyopathies as "a heterogeneous group of diseases of the myocardium associated with mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction that usually (but not always) exhibit inappropriate ventricular hypertrophy or dilatation and frequently lead to heart failure."

There are several types of cardiomyopathies, including:

1. Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM): This is the most common type of cardiomyopathy, characterized by an enlarged left ventricle and impaired systolic function, leading to heart failure.
2. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): In this type, there is abnormal thickening of the heart muscle, particularly in the septum between the two ventricles, which can obstruct blood flow and increase the risk of arrhythmias.
3. Restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM): This is a rare form of cardiomyopathy characterized by stiffness of the heart muscle, impaired relaxation, and diastolic dysfunction, leading to reduced filling of the ventricles and heart failure.
4. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC): In this type, there is replacement of the normal heart muscle with fatty or fibrous tissue, primarily affecting the right ventricle, which can lead to arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death.
5. Unclassified cardiomyopathies: These are conditions that do not fit into any of the above categories but still significantly affect the heart muscle and function.

Cardiomyopathies can be caused by genetic factors, acquired conditions (e.g., infections, toxins, or autoimmune disorders), or a combination of both. The diagnosis typically involves a comprehensive evaluation, including medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and sometimes genetic testing. Treatment depends on the type and severity of the condition but may include medications, lifestyle modifications, implantable devices, or even heart transplantation in severe cases.

Procollagen is the precursor protein of collagen, which is a major structural protein in the extracellular matrix of various connective tissues, such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. Procollagen is synthesized inside the cell (in the rough endoplasmic reticulum) and then processed by enzymes to remove specific segments, resulting in the formation of tropocollagen, which are the basic units of collagen fibrils.

Procollagen consists of three polypeptide chains (two alpha-1 and one alpha-2 chain), each containing a central triple-helical domain flanked by non-helical regions at both ends. These non-helical regions, called propeptides, are cleaved off during the processing of procollagen to tropocollagen, allowing the individual collagen molecules to align and form fibrils through covalent cross-linking.

Abnormalities in procollagen synthesis or processing can lead to various connective tissue disorders, such as osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease) and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (a group of disorders characterized by joint hypermobility, skin hyperextensibility, and tissue fragility).

Pancreatin is a mixture of digestive enzymes, including amylase, lipase, and proteases, naturally produced by the pancreas in humans and other mammals. These enzymes aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, respectively, in the small intestine. Pancreatin is often used as a replacement therapy for individuals with conditions like cystic fibrosis, chronic pancreatitis, or pancreatectomy, who have impaired pancreatic function and struggle to digest food properly. It can be obtained from animal pancreases, typically from pigs, and is available in various forms such as tablets, capsules, or powders for medical use.

Neonatal screening is a medical procedure in which specific tests are performed on newborn babies within the first few days of life to detect certain congenital or inherited disorders that are not otherwise clinically apparent at birth. These conditions, if left untreated, can lead to serious health problems, developmental delays, or even death.

The primary goal of neonatal screening is to identify affected infants early so that appropriate treatment and management can be initiated as soon as possible, thereby improving their overall prognosis and quality of life. Commonly screened conditions include phenylketonuria (PKU), congenital hypothyroidism, galactosemia, maple syrup urine disease, sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis, and hearing loss, among others.

Neonatal screening typically involves collecting a small blood sample from the infant's heel (heel stick) or through a dried blood spot card, which is then analyzed using various biochemical, enzymatic, or genetic tests. In some cases, additional tests such as hearing screenings and pulse oximetry for critical congenital heart disease may also be performed.

It's important to note that neonatal screening is not a diagnostic tool but rather an initial step in identifying infants who may be at risk of certain conditions. Positive screening results should always be confirmed with additional diagnostic tests before any treatment decisions are made.

"Bronchi" are a pair of airways in the respiratory system that branch off from the trachea (windpipe) and lead to the lungs. They are responsible for delivering oxygen-rich air to the lungs and removing carbon dioxide during exhalation. The right bronchus is slightly larger and more vertical than the left, and they further divide into smaller branches called bronchioles within the lungs. Any abnormalities or diseases affecting the bronchi can impact lung function and overall respiratory health.

Smad2 protein is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta) signaling pathway, which regulates various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Smad2 is primarily localized in the cytoplasm and becomes phosphorylated upon TGF-β receptor activation. Once phosphorylated, it forms a complex with Smad4 and translocates to the nucleus where it regulates the transcription of target genes. Mutations in the Smad2 gene have been associated with various human diseases, including cancer and fibrotic disorders.

The Respiratory System is a complex network of organs and tissues that work together to facilitate the process of breathing, which involves the intake of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide. This system primarily includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm.

The nostrils or mouth take in air that travels through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea into the lungs. Within the lungs, the trachea divides into two bronchi, one for each lung, which further divide into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the end of these bronchioles are tiny air sacs known as alveoli where the exchange of gases occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide, a waste product, moves from the blood to the alveoli and is exhaled out of the body.

The diaphragm, a large muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen, plays a crucial role in breathing by contracting and relaxing to change the volume of the chest cavity, thereby allowing air to flow in and out of the lungs. Overall, the Respiratory System is essential for maintaining life by providing the body's cells with the oxygen needed for metabolism and removing waste products like carbon dioxide.

Asbestosis is a chronic lung disease that is caused by the inhalation of asbestos fibers. It is characterized by scarring (fibrosis) of the lung tissue, which can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, coughing, and chest pain. The severity of the disease can range from mild to severe, and it is often progressive, meaning that it tends to worsen over time. Asbestosis is not a malignant condition, but it can increase the risk of developing lung cancer or mesothelioma, which are forms of cancer that are associated with asbestos exposure. The disease is typically diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, and imaging tests such as chest X-rays or CT scans. There is no cure for asbestosis, but treatment can help to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Liver function tests (LFTs) are a group of blood tests that are used to assess the functioning and health of the liver. These tests measure the levels of various enzymes, proteins, and waste products that are produced or metabolized by the liver. Some common LFTs include:

1. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT): An enzyme found primarily in the liver, ALT is released into the bloodstream in response to liver cell damage. Elevated levels of ALT may indicate liver injury or disease.
2. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST): Another enzyme found in various tissues, including the liver, heart, and muscles. Like ALT, AST is released into the bloodstream following tissue damage. High AST levels can be a sign of liver damage or other medical conditions.
3. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): An enzyme found in several organs, including the liver, bile ducts, and bones. Elevated ALP levels may indicate a blockage in the bile ducts, liver disease, or bone disorders.
4. Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT): An enzyme found mainly in the liver, pancreas, and biliary system. Increased GGT levels can suggest liver disease, alcohol consumption, or the use of certain medications.
5. Bilirubin: A yellowish pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile. High bilirubin levels can indicate liver dysfunction, bile duct obstruction, or certain types of anemia.
6. Albumin: A protein produced by the liver that helps maintain fluid balance in the body and transports various substances in the blood. Low albumin levels may suggest liver damage, malnutrition, or kidney disease.
7. Total protein: A measure of all proteins present in the blood, including albumin and other types of proteins produced by the liver. Decreased total protein levels can indicate liver dysfunction or other medical conditions.

These tests are often ordered together as part of a routine health checkup or when evaluating symptoms related to liver function or disease. The results should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical findings, medical history, and other diagnostic tests.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) is a group of closely related bacterial species that are gram-negative, motile, and aerobic. These bacteria are commonly found in various environments such as soil, water, and vegetation. The Bcc organisms are known to be opportunistic pathogens, meaning they primarily cause infections in individuals with compromised immune systems or underlying lung conditions, such as cystic fibrosis (CF) patients.

Bcc infections can lead to a range of clinical manifestations, including pneumonia, bacteremia, and chronic lung colonization. The bacteria are particularly notorious for their high level of antibiotic resistance and their ability to form biofilms, making them difficult to eradicate from the lungs of CF patients. Accurate identification of Bcc species is essential for appropriate treatment and infection control measures.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Pulmonary alveoli, also known as air sacs, are tiny clusters of air-filled pouches located at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs. They play a crucial role in the process of gas exchange during respiration. The thin walls of the alveoli, called alveolar membranes, allow oxygen from inhaled air to pass into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to pass into the alveoli to be exhaled out of the body. This vital function enables the lungs to supply oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.

Schistosomiasis mansoni is a parasitic infection caused by the trematode flatworm Schistosoma mansoni. The disease cycle begins when human hosts come into contact with fresh water contaminated with the parasite's larvae, called cercariae, which are released from infected snail intermediate hosts.

Once the cercariae penetrate the skin of a human host, they transform into schistosomula and migrate through various tissues before reaching the hepatic portal system. Here, the parasites mature into adult worms, mate, and produce eggs that can cause inflammation and damage to the intestinal wall, liver, spleen, and other organs.

Symptoms of schistosomiasis mansoni may include fever, chills, cough, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and blood in stool or urine. Chronic infection can lead to severe complications such as fibrosis of the liver, kidney damage, bladder cancer, and neurological disorders.

Preventive measures include avoiding contact with contaminated water sources, proper sanitation, and access to safe drinking water. Treatment typically involves administering a single dose of the drug praziquantel, which is effective in eliminating the adult worms and reducing egg production. However, it does not prevent reinfection.

Enoplida is a group of nematodes (roundworms) that are not typically associated with human infections. There are very few reports of human infections caused by Enoplida, and these are usually the result of accidental ingestion or penetration of the skin by the worms.

There is no established medical definition for "Enoplida infections" as they are not a common or well-known type of infection in humans. If you have any concerns about a possible Enoplida infection, it is important to consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Mucus is a viscous, slippery secretion produced by the mucous membranes that line various body cavities such as the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. It serves to lubricate and protect these surfaces from damage, infection, and foreign particles. Mucus contains water, proteins, salts, and other substances, including antibodies, enzymes, and glycoproteins called mucins that give it its characteristic gel-like consistency.

In the respiratory system, mucus traps inhaled particles such as dust, allergens, and pathogens, preventing them from reaching the lungs. The cilia, tiny hair-like structures lining the airways, move the mucus upward toward the throat, where it can be swallowed or expelled through coughing or sneezing. In the gastrointestinal tract, mucus helps protect the lining of the stomach and intestines from digestive enzymes and other harmful substances.

Excessive production of mucus can occur in various medical conditions such as allergies, respiratory infections, chronic lung diseases, and gastrointestinal disorders, leading to symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, nasal congestion, and diarrhea.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Pancreatic extracts are preparations that contain digestive enzymes derived from the pancreas. These enzymes, including amylase, lipase, and trypsin, help in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, respectively, during the digestion process. Pancreatic extracts are often used in medical treatments, such as replacing deficient pancreatic enzymes in individuals with conditions like cystic fibrosis or chronic pancreatitis to improve their nutrient absorption and overall digestive health.

Hyaluronic acid is a glycosaminoglycan, a type of complex carbohydrate, that is naturally found in the human body. It is most abundant in the extracellular matrix of soft connective tissues, including the skin, eyes, and joints. Hyaluronic acid is known for its remarkable capacity to retain water, which helps maintain tissue hydration, lubrication, and elasticity. Its functions include providing structural support, promoting wound healing, and regulating cell growth and differentiation. In the medical field, hyaluronic acid is often used in various forms as a therapeutic agent for conditions like osteoarthritis, dry eye syndrome, and skin rejuvenation.

Expectorants are a type of medication that help to thin and loosen mucus in the airways, making it easier to cough up and clear the airways. They work by increasing the production of fluid in the respiratory tract, which helps to moisten and soften thick or sticky mucus. This makes it easier for the cilia (tiny hair-like structures that line the airways) to move the mucus out of the lungs and into the throat, where it can be swallowed or spit out.

Expectorants are often used to treat respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, pneumonia, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which can cause excessive mucus production and difficulty breathing. Some common expectorants include guaifenesin, iodinated glycerol, and potassium iodide.

It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully when taking expectorants, as taking too much can lead to side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It is also important to drink plenty of fluids while taking expectorants, as this can help to thin the mucus and make it easier to cough up.

Vital capacity (VC) is a term used in pulmonary function tests to describe the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking a deep breath. It is the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. In other words, it's the total amount of air you can forcibly exhale after inhaling as deeply as possible. Vital capacity is an important measurement in assessing lung function and can be reduced in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and other respiratory disorders.

Cell transdifferentiation is a process in which one type of differentiated cell transforms into another type of differentiated cell, without going through the stage of pluripotent stem cells. This process involves a series of genetic and epigenetic changes that result in the activation of new genetic programs and repression of old ones, leading to the acquisition of a new cell identity.

Transdifferentiation is a rare event in nature, but it has been induced in the laboratory through various methods such as gene transfer, chemical treatment, or nuclear transplantation. This process has potential applications in regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, and disease modeling. However, it also raises ethical concerns related to the generation of chimeric organisms and the possibility of uncontrolled cell growth.

Liver diseases refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the normal functioning of the liver. The liver is a vital organ responsible for various critical functions such as detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion.

Liver diseases can be categorized into acute and chronic forms. Acute liver disease comes on rapidly and can be caused by factors like viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), drug-induced liver injury, or exposure to toxic substances. Chronic liver disease develops slowly over time, often due to long-term exposure to harmful agents or inherent disorders of the liver.

Common examples of liver diseases include hepatitis, cirrhosis (scarring of the liver tissue), fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, autoimmune liver diseases, genetic/hereditary liver disorders (like Wilson's disease and hemochromatosis), and liver cancers. Symptoms may vary widely depending on the type and stage of the disease but could include jaundice, abdominal pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and weight loss.

Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent progression and potential complications associated with liver diseases.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Silicosis is a lung disease caused by inhalation of crystalline silica dust. It is characterized by the formation of nodular lesions and fibrosis (scarring) in the upper lobes of the lungs, which can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, cough, and fatigue. The severity of the disease depends on the duration and intensity of exposure to silica dust. Chronic silicosis is the most common form and develops after prolonged exposure, while acute silicosis can occur after brief, intense exposures. There is no cure for silicosis, and treatment is focused on managing symptoms and preventing further lung damage.

Primary myelofibrosis (PMF) is a rare, chronic bone marrow disorder characterized by the replacement of normal bone marrow tissue with fibrous scar tissue, leading to impaired production of blood cells. This results in cytopenias (anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia), which can cause fatigue, infection susceptibility, and bleeding tendencies. Additionally, PMF is often accompanied by the proliferation of abnormal megakaryocytes (large, atypical bone marrow cells that produce platelets) and extramedullary hematopoiesis (blood cell formation outside the bone marrow, typically in the spleen and liver).

PMF is a type of myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN), which is a group of clonal stem cell disorders characterized by excessive proliferation of one or more types of blood cells. PMF can present with various symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, night sweats, abdominal discomfort due to splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), and bone pain. In some cases, PMF may progress to acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

The exact cause of PMF remains unclear; however, genetic mutations are known to play a significant role in its development. The Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), calreticulin (CALR), and MPL genes have been identified as commonly mutated in PMF patients. These genetic alterations contribute to the dysregulated production of blood cells and the activation of signaling pathways that promote fibrosis.

Diagnosis of PMF typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, complete blood count (CBC), bone marrow aspiration and biopsy, cytogenetic analysis, and molecular testing to identify genetic mutations. Treatment options depend on the individual patient's symptoms, risk stratification, and disease progression. They may include observation, supportive care, medications to manage symptoms and control the disease (such as JAK inhibitors), and stem cell transplantation for eligible patients.

Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outer surface of the body, lines the internal cavities and organs, and forms various glands. It is composed of one or more layers of tightly packed cells that have a uniform shape and size, and rest on a basement membrane. Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not contain blood vessels, and are supplied with nutrients by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelial cells perform a variety of functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensation. They can be classified based on their shape and the number of cell layers they contain. The main types of epithelium are:

1. Squamous epithelium: composed of flat, scalelike cells that fit together like tiles on a roof. It forms the lining of blood vessels, air sacs in the lungs, and the outermost layer of the skin.
2. Cuboidal epithelium: composed of cube-shaped cells with equal height and width. It is found in glands, tubules, and ducts.
3. Columnar epithelium: composed of tall, rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide. It lines the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
4. Pseudostratified epithelium: appears stratified or layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells that vary in height. The nuclei of these cells appear at different levels, giving the tissue a stratified appearance. It lines the respiratory and reproductive tracts.
5. Transitional epithelium: composed of several layers of cells that can stretch and change shape to accommodate changes in volume. It is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue provides a barrier between the internal and external environments, protecting the body from physical, chemical, and biological damage. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the exchange of substances between the body and its environment.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Smad7 protein is a intracellular signaling molecule that plays a role in negative regulation of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily of cytokines. It is a member of the Smad family, which are proteins that transduce signals from the cell membrane to the nucleus in response to TGF-β ligands binding to their receptors.

Smad7 functions as an inhibitory Smad by blocking the formation of active Smad complexes and targeting the activated type I TGF-β receptor for degradation, thus preventing the activation of TGF-β signaling pathways. It also interacts with other signaling molecules, such as tumor necrosis factor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) and transforming growth factor-beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), to inhibit their activity and downregulate TGF-β signaling.

Abnormal regulation of Smad7 protein has been implicated in various human diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune disorders.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Hepatocytes are the predominant type of cells in the liver, accounting for about 80% of its cytoplasmic mass. They play a key role in protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances, initiation of formation and secretion of bile, and enzyme production. Hepatocytes are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

Pneumoconiosis is a group of lung diseases caused by inhaling dust particles, leading to fibrosis or scarring of the lungs. The type of pneumoconiosis depends on the specific dust inhaled. Examples include coal worker's pneumoconiosis (from coal dust), silicosis (from crystalline silica dust), and asbestosis (from asbestos fibers). These diseases are generally preventable by minimizing exposure to harmful dusts through proper engineering controls, protective equipment, and workplace safety regulations.

Fibronectin is a high molecular weight glycoprotein that is found in many tissues and body fluids, including plasma, connective tissue, and the extracellular matrix. It is composed of two similar subunits that are held together by disulfide bonds. Fibronectin plays an important role in cell adhesion, migration, and differentiation by binding to various cell surface receptors, such as integrins, and other extracellular matrix components, such as collagen and heparan sulfate proteoglycans.

Fibronectin has several isoforms that are produced by alternative splicing of a single gene transcript. These isoforms differ in their biological activities and can be found in different tissues and developmental stages. Fibronectin is involved in various physiological processes, such as wound healing, tissue repair, and embryonic development, and has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including fibrosis, tumor metastasis, and thrombosis.

Dimethylnitrosamine is a chemical compound with the formula (CH3)2NNO. It is a potent carcinogen, and is classified as a Class 1 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). It is known to cause cancer in various organs, including the liver, kidney, and lungs.

Dimethylnitrosamine is formed when nitrogen oxides react with secondary amines under conditions that are commonly encountered in industrial processes or in certain food preservation methods. It can also be found as a contaminant in some foods and cosmetics.

Exposure to dimethylnitrosamine can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. The toxic effects of this compound are due to its ability to form DNA adducts, which can lead to mutations and cancer. It is important to minimize exposure to this compound and to take appropriate safety measures when working with it.

The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a tube-like structure in the respiratory system that connects the larynx (voice box) to the bronchi (the two branches leading to each lung). It is composed of several incomplete rings of cartilage and smooth muscle, which provide support and flexibility. The trachea plays a crucial role in directing incoming air to the lungs during inspiration and outgoing air to the larynx during expiration.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Smad proteins are a family of intracellular signaling molecules that play a crucial role in the transmission of signals from the cell surface to the nucleus in response to transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) superfamily ligands. These ligands include TGF-βs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), activins, and inhibins.

There are eight mammalian Smad proteins, which are categorized into three classes based on their function: receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads), common mediator Smads (Co-Smads), and inhibitory Smads (I-Smads). R-Smads include Smad1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad5, and Smad8/9, while Smad4 is the only Co-Smad. The I-Smads consist of Smad6 and Smad7.

Upon TGF-β superfamily ligand binding to their transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors, R-Smads are phosphorylated and form complexes with Co-Smad4. These complexes then translocate into the nucleus, where they regulate the transcription of target genes involved in various cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, migration, and extracellular matrix production. I-Smads act as negative regulators of TGF-β signaling by competing with R-Smads for receptor binding or promoting the degradation of receptors and R-Smads.

Dysregulation of Smad protein function has been implicated in various human diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and developmental disorders.

Up-regulation is a term used in molecular biology and medicine to describe an increase in the expression or activity of a gene, protein, or receptor in response to a stimulus. This can occur through various mechanisms such as increased transcription, translation, or reduced degradation of the molecule. Up-regulation can have important functional consequences, for example, enhancing the sensitivity or response of a cell to a hormone, neurotransmitter, or drug. It is a normal physiological process that can also be induced by disease or pharmacological interventions.

Heterozygote detection is a method used in genetics to identify individuals who carry one normal and one mutated copy of a gene. These individuals are known as heterozygotes and they do not typically show symptoms of the genetic disorder associated with the mutation, but they can pass the mutated gene on to their offspring, who may then be affected.

Heterozygote detection is often used in genetic counseling and screening programs for recessive disorders such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia. By identifying heterozygotes, individuals can be informed of their carrier status and the potential risks to their offspring. This information can help them make informed decisions about family planning and reproductive options.

Various methods can be used for heterozygote detection, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based tests, DNA sequencing, and genetic linkage analysis. The choice of method depends on the specific gene or mutation being tested, as well as the availability and cost of the testing technology.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.

Nephrosclerosis is a medical term that refers to the thickening and scarring (fibrosis) of the small arteries and arterioles in the kidneys, resulting in reduced blood flow and damage to the kidney tissue. This process can lead to decreased kidney function and ultimately result in chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal failure.

The two main types of nephrosclerosis are:

1. Hypertensive nephrosclerosis: This type is caused by long-term high blood pressure (hypertension), which damages the small blood vessels in the kidneys over time, leading to scarring and thickening of the arterial walls.
2. Ischemic nephrosclerosis: This type results from reduced blood flow to the kidneys due to atherosclerosis or other vascular diseases that cause narrowing or blockage of the renal arteries.

Nephrosclerosis is often asymptomatic in its early stages, but as the condition progresses, it may lead to symptoms such as proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), edema (swelling), and hypertension. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment focuses on managing underlying conditions such as high blood pressure and diabetes, which can help slow or prevent further kidney damage.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a biological process that involves the transformation of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells. This process is characterized by distinct changes in cell shape, behavior, and molecular markers.

Epithelial cells are typically tightly packed together and have a polarized structure with distinct apical and basal surfaces. In contrast, mesenchymal cells are elongated, spindle-shaped cells that can migrate and invade surrounding tissues.

During EMT, epithelial cells lose their polarity and cell-to-cell adhesion molecules, such as E-cadherin, and acquire mesenchymal markers, such as vimentin and N-cadherin. This transition enables the cells to become more motile and invasive, which is critical for embryonic development, wound healing, and cancer metastasis.

EMT is a complex process that involves various signaling pathways, including TGF-β, Wnt, Notch, and Hedgehog, among others. Dysregulation of EMT has been implicated in several diseases, particularly cancer, where it contributes to tumor progression, metastasis, and drug resistance.

Ligation, in the context of medical terminology, refers to the process of tying off a part of the body, usually blood vessels or tissue, with a surgical suture or another device. The goal is to stop the flow of fluids such as blood or other substances within the body. It is commonly used during surgeries to control bleeding or to block the passage of fluids, gases, or solids in various parts of the body.

Antibiotics are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. They work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth.

Antineoplastics, also known as chemotherapeutic agents, are a class of drugs used to treat cancer. These medications target and destroy rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, although they can also affect other quickly dividing cells in the body, such as those in the hair follicles or digestive tract, which can lead to side effects.

Antibiotics and antineoplastics are two different classes of drugs with distinct mechanisms of action and uses. It is important to use them appropriately and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Pneumonia is an infection or inflammation of the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in one or both lungs. It's often caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Accumulated pus and fluid in these air sacs make it difficult to breathe, which can lead to coughing, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity of symptoms can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the underlying cause, the patient's overall health, and age. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment usually involves antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia, antivirals for viral pneumonia, and supportive care like oxygen therapy, hydration, and rest.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.

Meconium is the first stool passed by a newborn infant, typically within the first 48 hours of life. It is composed of materials ingested during fetal development, including intestinal epithelial cells, lanugo (fine hair), amniotic fluid, mucus, bile, and water. The color of meconium is usually greenish-black, and its consistency can range from a thick paste to a liquid. Meconium staining of the amniotic fluid can occur when the fetus has passed meconium while still in the uterus, which may indicate fetal distress and requires careful medical attention during delivery.

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

Pleural diseases refer to conditions that affect the pleura, which is the thin, double-layered membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the inside of the chest wall. The space between these two layers contains a small amount of fluid that helps the lungs move smoothly during breathing. Pleural diseases can cause inflammation, infection, or abnormal collections of fluid in the pleural space, leading to symptoms such as chest pain, cough, and difficulty breathing.

Some common examples of pleural diseases include:

1. Pleurisy: Inflammation of the pleura that causes sharp chest pain, often worsened by breathing or coughing.
2. Pleural effusion: An abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which can be caused by various underlying conditions such as heart failure, pneumonia, cancer, or autoimmune disorders.
3. Empyema: A collection of pus in the pleural space, usually resulting from a bacterial infection.
4. Pleural thickening: Scarring and hardening of the pleura, which can restrict lung function and cause breathlessness.
5. Mesothelioma: A rare form of cancer that affects the pleura, often caused by exposure to asbestos.
6. Pneumothorax: A collection of air in the pleural space, which can result from trauma or a rupture of the lung tissue.

Proper diagnosis and treatment of pleural diseases require a thorough evaluation by a healthcare professional, often involving imaging tests such as chest X-rays or CT scans, as well as fluid analysis or biopsy if necessary.

Chronic Hepatitis B is a persistent infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can lead to chronic inflammation and scarring of the liver over time. It is defined as the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the blood for more than six months.

The infection can be asymptomatic or may cause nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and joint pain. A small percentage of people with chronic HBV infection may develop serious complications, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. Treatment options for chronic hepatitis B include antiviral medications that can help to suppress the virus and reduce the risk of liver damage. Vaccination is available to prevent hepatitis B infection.

Alginates are a type of polysaccharide derived from brown algae or produced synthetically, which have gelling and thickening properties. In medical context, they are commonly used as a component in wound dressings, dental impressions, and bowel cleansing products. The gels formed by alginates can provide a protective barrier to wounds, help maintain a moist environment, and promote healing. They can also be used to create a mold of the mouth or other body parts in dental and medical applications. In bowel cleansing, sodium alginates are often combined with sodium bicarbonate and water to form a solution that expands and stimulates bowel movements, helping to prepare the colon for procedures such as colonoscopy.

Collagen Type IV is a type of collagen that forms the structural basis of basement membranes, which are thin, sheet-like structures that separate and support cells in many types of tissues. It is a major component of the basement membrane's extracellular matrix and provides strength and flexibility to this structure. Collagen Type IV is composed of three chains that form a distinctive, mesh-like structure. Mutations in the genes encoding Collagen Type IV can lead to a variety of inherited disorders affecting the kidneys, eyes, and ears.

"Inhalation administration" is a medical term that refers to the method of delivering medications or therapeutic agents directly into the lungs by inhaling them through the airways. This route of administration is commonly used for treating respiratory conditions such as asthma, COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and cystic fibrosis.

Inhalation administration can be achieved using various devices, including metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), dry powder inhalers (DPIs), nebulizers, and soft-mist inhalers. Each device has its unique mechanism of delivering the medication into the lungs, but they all aim to provide a high concentration of the drug directly to the site of action while minimizing systemic exposure and side effects.

The advantages of inhalation administration include rapid onset of action, increased local drug concentration, reduced systemic side effects, and improved patient compliance due to the ease of use and non-invasive nature of the delivery method. However, proper technique and device usage are crucial for effective therapy, as incorrect usage may result in suboptimal drug deposition and therapeutic outcomes.

Lung injury, also known as pulmonary injury, refers to damage or harm caused to the lung tissue, blood vessels, or air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. This can result from various causes such as infection, trauma, exposure to harmful substances, or systemic diseases. Common types of lung injuries include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), pneumonia, and chemical pneumonitis. Symptoms may include difficulty breathing, cough, chest pain, and decreased oxygen levels in the blood. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, oxygen therapy, or mechanical ventilation.

HSP47 (Heat Shock Protein 47) is a type of molecular chaperone that assists in the proper folding and assembly of collagen molecules within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of eukaryotic cells. It is also known as SERPINH1, which stands for serine protease inhibitor, clade H (heat shock protein 47).

HSP47 binds to procollagen molecules in a highly specific manner and helps facilitate their correct folding and assembly into higher-order structures. Once the collagen molecules are properly assembled, HSP47 dissociates from them and allows for their transport out of the ER and further processing in the Golgi apparatus.

HSP47 is upregulated under conditions of cellular stress, such as heat shock or oxidative stress, which can lead to an accumulation of misfolded proteins within the ER. This upregulation helps to enhance the protein folding capacity of the ER and prevent the aggregation of misfolded proteins, thereby maintaining cellular homeostasis.

Defects in HSP47 function have been implicated in various connective tissue disorders, such as osteogenesis imperfecta and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, which are characterized by abnormal collagen structure and function.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a medical procedure in which a small amount of fluid is introduced into a segment of the lung and then gently suctioned back out. The fluid contains cells and other materials that can be analyzed to help diagnose various lung conditions, such as inflammation, infection, or cancer.

The procedure is typically performed during bronchoscopy, which involves inserting a thin, flexible tube with a light and camera on the end through the nose or mouth and into the lungs. Once the bronchoscope is in place, a small catheter is passed through the bronchoscope and into the desired lung segment. The fluid is then introduced and suctioned back out, and the sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis.

BAL can be helpful in diagnosing various conditions such as pneumonia, interstitial lung diseases, alveolar proteinosis, and some types of cancer. It can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for certain lung conditions. However, like any medical procedure, it carries some risks, including bleeding, infection, and respiratory distress. Therefore, it is important that the procedure is performed by a qualified healthcare professional in a controlled setting.

A cicatrix is a medical term that refers to a scar or the process of scar formation. It is the result of the healing process following damage to body tissues, such as from an injury, wound, or surgery. During the healing process, specialized cells called fibroblasts produce collagen, which helps to reconnect and strengthen the damaged tissue. The resulting scar tissue may have a different texture, color, or appearance compared to the surrounding healthy tissue.

Cicatrix formation is a natural part of the body's healing response, but excessive scarring can sometimes cause functional impairment, pain, or cosmetic concerns. In such cases, various treatments may be used to minimize or improve the appearance of scars, including topical creams, steroid injections, laser therapy, and surgical revision.

Gadolinium is a rare earth metal that is used as a contrast agent in medical imaging techniques such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA). It works by shortening the relaxation time of protons in tissues, which enhances the visibility of internal body structures on the images. Gadolinium-based contrast agents are injected into the patient's bloodstream during the imaging procedure.

It is important to note that in some individuals, gadolinium-based contrast agents can cause a condition called nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), which is a rare but serious disorder that affects people with severe kidney disease. NSF causes thickening and hardening of the skin, joints, eyes, and internal organs. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate a patient's renal function before administering gadolinium-based contrast agents.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Leukocyte elastase is a type of enzyme that is released by white blood cells (leukocytes), specifically neutrophils, during inflammation. Its primary function is to help fight infection by breaking down the proteins in bacteria and viruses. However, if not properly regulated, leukocyte elastase can also damage surrounding tissues, contributing to the progression of various diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and cystic fibrosis.

Leukocyte elastase is often measured in clinical settings as a marker of inflammation and neutrophil activation, particularly in patients with lung diseases. Inhibitors of leukocyte elastase have been developed as potential therapeutic agents for these conditions.

The pleura is the medical term for the double-layered serous membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the inside of the chest cavity. The two layers of the pleura are called the parietal pleura, which lines the chest cavity, and the visceral pleura, which covers the surface of the lungs.

The space between these two layers is called the pleural cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to move smoothly within the chest during breathing. The main function of the pleura is to protect the lungs and facilitate their movement during respiration.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2), also known as gelatinase A, is an enzyme that belongs to the matrix metalloproteinase family. MMPs are involved in the breakdown of extracellular matrix components, and MMP-2 is responsible for degrading type IV collagen, a major component of the basement membrane. This enzyme plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including tissue remodeling, wound healing, and angiogenesis. However, its dysregulation has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as cancer, arthritis, and cardiovascular diseases. MMP-2 is synthesized as an inactive proenzyme and requires activation by other proteases or chemical modifications before it can exert its proteolytic activity.

Angiotensin II is a potent vasoactive peptide hormone that plays a critical role in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which is a crucial regulator of blood pressure and fluid balance in the body. It is formed from angiotensin I through the action of an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).

Angiotensin II has several physiological effects on various organs, including:

1. Vasoconstriction: Angiotensin II causes contraction of vascular smooth muscle, leading to an increase in peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure.
2. Aldosterone release: Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal glands to release aldosterone, a hormone that promotes sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys, thereby increasing water retention and blood volume.
3. Sympathetic nervous system activation: Angiotensin II activates the sympathetic nervous system, leading to increased heart rate and contractility, further contributing to an increase in blood pressure.
4. Thirst regulation: Angiotensin II stimulates the hypothalamus to increase thirst, promoting water intake and helping to maintain intravascular volume.
5. Cell growth and fibrosis: Angiotensin II has been implicated in various pathological processes, such as cell growth, proliferation, and fibrosis, which can contribute to the development of cardiovascular and renal diseases.

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are two classes of medications commonly used in clinical practice to target the RAAS by blocking the formation or action of angiotensin II, respectively. These drugs have been shown to be effective in managing hypertension, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Pancrelipase is a prescription medication that contains a combination of three enzymes (lipases, proteases, and amylases) that are normally produced by the pancreas. These enzymes help break down fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in food so that they can be absorbed into the intestines.

Pancrelipase is used to replace these enzymes when a person's pancreas is not able to produce enough of them due to conditions such as cystic fibrosis, chronic pancreatitis, or pancreatectomy. By taking pancrelipase with meals and snacks, people with these conditions can improve their digestion and absorption of nutrients from food.

It is important to note that pancrelipase should be taken under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as improper use or dosage can lead to serious side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and constipation.

Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) is a medical condition characterized by an hypersensitivity reaction to the fungus Aspergillus species, most commonly A. fumigatus. It primarily affects the airways and lung tissue. The immune system overreacts to the presence of the fungus, leading to inflammation and damage in the lungs.

The main symptoms of ABPA include wheezing, coughing, production of thick mucus, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. These symptoms are similar to those seen in asthma and other respiratory conditions. Some people with ABPA may also experience fever, weight loss, and fatigue.

Diagnosis of ABPA typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as chest X-rays or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as blood tests or sputum cultures) to detect the presence of Aspergillus species and elevated levels of certain antibodies.

Treatment for ABPA usually involves a combination of corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and antifungal medications to eradicate the Aspergillus infection. In some cases, immunomodulatory therapies may also be used to help regulate the immune system's response to the fungus.

It is important to note that ABPA can lead to serious complications if left untreated, including bronchiectasis (permanent enlargement of the airways), pulmonary fibrosis (scarring of the lung tissue), and respiratory failure. Therefore, prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing this condition.

Asbestos is a group of naturally occurring mineral fibers that are resistant to heat, chemical reactions, and electrical currents. There are six types of asbestos, but the most common ones are chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite. Asbestos has been widely used in various construction materials, such as roofing shingles, ceiling and floor tiles, paper products, and cement products.

Exposure to asbestos can cause serious health problems, including lung cancer, mesothelioma (a rare form of cancer that affects the lining of the lungs, heart, or abdomen), and asbestosis (a chronic lung disease characterized by scarring of the lung tissue). These health risks are related to the inhalation of asbestos fibers, which can become lodged in the lungs and cause inflammation and scarring over time.

As a result, the use of asbestos has been heavily regulated in many countries, and its use is banned in several others. Despite these regulations, asbestos remains a significant public health concern due to the large number of buildings and products that still contain it.

Chinese herbal drugs, also known as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), refer to a system of medicine that has been practiced in China for thousands of years. It is based on the belief that the body's vital energy, called Qi, must be balanced and flowing freely for good health. TCM uses various techniques such as herbal therapy, acupuncture, dietary therapy, and exercise to restore balance and promote healing.

Chinese herbal drugs are usually prescribed in the form of teas, powders, pills, or tinctures and may contain one or a combination of herbs. The herbs used in Chinese medicine are typically derived from plants, minerals, or animal products. Some commonly used Chinese herbs include ginseng, astragalus, licorice root, and cinnamon bark.

It is important to note that the use of Chinese herbal drugs should be under the guidance of a qualified practitioner, as some herbs can interact with prescription medications or have side effects. Additionally, the quality and safety of Chinese herbal products can vary widely depending on the source and manufacturing process.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Radiation pneumonitis is a inflammatory reaction in the lung tissue that occurs as a complication of thoracic radiation therapy. It usually develops 1-3 months following the completion of radiation treatment. The symptoms can range from mild to severe and may include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. In severe cases, it can lead to fibrosis (scarring) of the lung tissue, which can cause permanent lung damage. Radiation pneumonitis is diagnosed through a combination of clinical symptoms, imaging studies such as chest X-ray or CT scan, and sometimes through bronchoscopy with lavage. Treatment typically involves corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and supportive care to manage symptoms.

Silicon dioxide is not a medical term, but a chemical compound with the formula SiO2. It's commonly known as quartz or sand and is not something that would typically have a medical definition. However, in some cases, silicon dioxide can be used in pharmaceutical preparations as an excipient (an inactive substance that serves as a vehicle or medium for a drug) or as a food additive, often as an anti-caking agent.

In these contexts, it's important to note that silicon dioxide is considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, exposure to very high levels of respirable silica dust, such as in certain industrial settings, can increase the risk of lung disease, including silicosis.

Mucociliary clearance is a vital defense mechanism of the respiratory system that involves the coordinated movement of tiny hair-like structures called cilia, which are present on the surface of the respiratory epithelium, and the mucus layer. This mechanism helps to trap inhaled particles, microorganisms, and other harmful substances and move them away from the lungs towards the upper airways, where they can be swallowed or coughed out.

The cilia beat in a coordinated manner, moving in a wave-like motion to propel the mucus layer upwards. This continuous movement helps to clear the airways of any debris and maintain a clean and healthy respiratory system. Mucociliary clearance plays an essential role in preventing respiratory infections and maintaining lung function. Any impairment in this mechanism, such as due to smoking or certain respiratory conditions, can increase the risk of respiratory infections and other related health issues.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

*Achromobacter denitrificans* is a gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in various environments such as soil, water, and clinical samples. It is known for its ability to denitrify, which means it can convert nitrates to nitrogen gas under anaerobic conditions. This bacterium is generally considered to be non-pathogenic, but there have been rare cases of infections associated with *Achromobacter denitrificans* in immunocompromised individuals.

The medical definition of *Achromobacter denitrificans* would refer to its identification and classification as a bacterium, along with its potential role in certain types of infections. However, it is important to note that this organism is not typically associated with specific diseases or medical conditions, and its presence in clinical samples may simply reflect environmental contamination or colonization rather than active infection.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Pyridones are a class of organic compounds that contain a pyridone ring, which is a heterocyclic ring consisting of a six-membered ring with five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom, with one oxygen atom attached to the nitrogen atom by a double bond. Pyridones can be found in various natural sources, including plants and microorganisms, and they also have important applications in the pharmaceutical industry as building blocks for drug design and synthesis. Some drugs that contain pyridone rings include antihistamines, anti-inflammatory agents, and antiviral agents.

Extrinsic allergic alveolitis is a type of lung inflammation that occurs in response to inhaling organic dusts or mold spores that contain allergens. It is also known as hypersensitivity pneumonitis. This condition typically affects people who have been repeatedly exposed to the allergen over a period of time, such as farmers, bird fanciers, and workers in certain industries.

The symptoms of extrinsic allergic alveolitis can vary but often include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and fatigue. These symptoms may develop gradually or suddenly, depending on the frequency and intensity of exposure to the allergen. In some cases, the condition may progress to cause permanent lung damage if it is not treated promptly.

Diagnosis of extrinsic allergic alveolitis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies such as chest X-rays or CT scans, and pulmonary function tests. In some cases, blood tests or bronchoscopy with lavage may also be used to help confirm the diagnosis.

Treatment for extrinsic allergic alveolitis typically involves avoiding further exposure to the allergen, as well as using medications such as corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and relieve symptoms. In severe cases, hospitalization and oxygen therapy may be necessary. With prompt and appropriate treatment, most people with extrinsic allergic alveolitis can recover fully and avoid long-term lung damage.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a species of gram-negative, motile bacteria that belongs to the family Burkholderiaceae. These bacteria are commonly found in various environments such as soil, water, and plant roots. They are known to form biofilms and can survive under a wide range of conditions, making them difficult to eradicate.

B. cenocepacia is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause serious respiratory infections in individuals with weakened immune systems, particularly those with cystic fibrosis (CF). In CF patients, B. cenocepacia infections can lead to a rapid decline in lung function and are associated with high mortality rates. The bacteria can also cause other types of infections such as bacteremia, wound infections, and urinary tract infections.

B. cenocepacia is resistant to many antibiotics, which makes treatment challenging. Infection control measures, such as contact isolation and rigorous environmental cleaning, are crucial in preventing the spread of B. cenocepacia in healthcare settings.

Cholestasis is a medical condition characterized by the interruption or reduction of bile flow from the liver to the small intestine. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps in the breakdown and absorption of fats. When the flow of bile is blocked or reduced, it can lead to an accumulation of bile components, such as bilirubin, in the blood, which can cause jaundice, itching, and other symptoms.

Cholestasis can be caused by various factors, including liver diseases (such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or cancer), gallstones, alcohol abuse, certain medications, pregnancy, and genetic disorders. Depending on the underlying cause, cholestasis may be acute or chronic, and it can range from mild to severe in its symptoms and consequences. Treatment for cholestasis typically involves addressing the underlying cause and managing the symptoms with supportive care.

Wound healing is a complex and dynamic process that occurs after tissue injury, aiming to restore the integrity and functionality of the damaged tissue. It involves a series of overlapping phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling.

1. Hemostasis: This initial phase begins immediately after injury and involves the activation of the coagulation cascade to form a clot, which stabilizes the wound and prevents excessive blood loss.
2. Inflammation: Activated inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages, infiltrate the wound site to eliminate pathogens, remove debris, and release growth factors that promote healing. This phase typically lasts for 2-5 days post-injury.
3. Proliferation: In this phase, various cell types, including fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and keratinocytes, proliferate and migrate to the wound site to synthesize extracellular matrix (ECM) components, form new blood vessels (angiogenesis), and re-epithelialize the wounded area. This phase can last up to several weeks depending on the size and severity of the wound.
4. Remodeling: The final phase of wound healing involves the maturation and realignment of collagen fibers, leading to the restoration of tensile strength in the healed tissue. This process can continue for months to years after injury, although the tissue may never fully regain its original structure and function.

It is important to note that wound healing can be compromised by several factors, including age, nutrition, comorbidities (e.g., diabetes, vascular disease), and infection, which can result in delayed healing or non-healing chronic wounds.

The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. It is composed of a mesothelial cell monolayer supported by a thin, loose connective tissue. The peritoneum has two layers: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which covers the organs.

The potential space between these two layers is called the peritoneal cavity, which contains a small amount of serous fluid that allows for the smooth movement of the organs within the cavity. The peritoneum plays an important role in the absorption and secretion of fluids and electrolytes, as well as providing a surface for the circulation of immune cells.

In addition, it also provides a route for the spread of infection or malignant cells throughout the abdominal cavity, known as peritonitis. The peritoneum is highly vascularized and innervated, making it sensitive to pain and distention.

Sweat glands are specialized tubular structures in the skin that produce and secrete sweat, also known as perspiration. They are part of the body's thermoregulatory system, helping to maintain optimal body temperature by releasing water and heat through evaporation. There are two main types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine.

1. Eccrine sweat glands: These are distributed throughout the body, with a higher concentration on areas like the palms, soles, and forehead. They are responsible for producing a watery, odorless sweat that primarily helps to cool down the body through evaporation.

2. Apocrine sweat glands: These are mainly found in the axillary (armpit) region and around the anogenital area. They become active during puberty and produce a thick, milky fluid that does not have a strong odor on its own but can mix with bacteria on the skin's surface, leading to body odor.

Sweat glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, meaning they function involuntarily in response to various stimuli such as emotions, physical activity, or changes in environmental temperature.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins are a group of structural and functional molecules that provide support, organization, and regulation to the cells in tissues and organs. The ECM is composed of a complex network of proteins, glycoproteins, and carbohydrates that are secreted by the cells and deposited outside of them.

ECM proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, including:

1. Collagens: These are the most abundant ECM proteins and provide strength and stability to tissues. They form fibrils that can withstand high tensile forces.
2. Proteoglycans: These are complex molecules made up of a core protein and one or more glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains. The GAG chains attract water, making proteoglycans important for maintaining tissue hydration and resilience.
3. Elastin: This is an elastic protein that allows tissues to stretch and recoil, such as in the lungs and blood vessels.
4. Fibronectins: These are large glycoproteins that bind to cells and ECM components, providing adhesion, migration, and signaling functions.
5. Laminins: These are large proteins found in basement membranes, which provide structural support for epithelial and endothelial cells.
6. Tenascins: These are large glycoproteins that modulate cell adhesion and migration, and regulate ECM assembly and remodeling.

Together, these ECM proteins create a microenvironment that influences cell behavior, differentiation, and function. Dysregulation of ECM proteins has been implicated in various diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and degenerative disorders.

Intercellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that mediate communication and interaction between different cells in living organisms. They play crucial roles in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). These signals can be released into the extracellular space, where they bind to specific receptors on the target cell's surface, triggering intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately lead to a response.

Peptides are short chains of amino acids, while proteins are larger molecules made up of one or more polypeptide chains. Both can function as intercellular signaling molecules by acting as ligands for cell surface receptors or by being cleaved from larger precursor proteins and released into the extracellular space. Examples of intercellular signaling peptides and proteins include growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, hormones, neurotransmitters, and their respective receptors.

These molecules contribute to maintaining homeostasis within an organism by coordinating cellular activities across tissues and organs. Dysregulation of intercellular signaling pathways has been implicated in various diseases, such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying intercellular signaling is essential for developing targeted therapies to treat these disorders.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

A Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve is a graphical representation used in medical decision-making and statistical analysis to illustrate the performance of a binary classifier system, such as a diagnostic test or a machine learning algorithm. It's a plot that shows the tradeoff between the true positive rate (sensitivity) and the false positive rate (1 - specificity) for different threshold settings.

The x-axis of an ROC curve represents the false positive rate (the proportion of negative cases incorrectly classified as positive), while the y-axis represents the true positive rate (the proportion of positive cases correctly classified as positive). Each point on the curve corresponds to a specific decision threshold, with higher points indicating better performance.

The area under the ROC curve (AUC) is a commonly used summary measure that reflects the overall performance of the classifier. An AUC value of 1 indicates perfect discrimination between positive and negative cases, while an AUC value of 0.5 suggests that the classifier performs no better than chance.

ROC curves are widely used in healthcare to evaluate diagnostic tests, predictive models, and screening tools for various medical conditions, helping clinicians make informed decisions about patient care based on the balance between sensitivity and specificity.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Alcoholic Liver Cirrhosis is a medical condition characterized by irreversible scarring (fibrosis) and damage to the liver caused by excessive consumption of alcohol over an extended period. The liver's normal structure and function are progressively impaired as healthy liver tissue is replaced by scarred tissue, leading to the formation of nodules (regenerative noduli).

The condition typically develops after years of heavy drinking, with a higher risk for those who consume more than 60 grams of pure alcohol daily. The damage caused by alcoholic liver cirrhosis can be life-threatening and may result in complications such as:

1. Ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen)
2. Encephalopathy (neurological dysfunction due to liver failure)
3. Esophageal varices (dilated veins in the esophagus that can rupture and bleed)
4. Hepatorenal syndrome (kidney failure caused by liver disease)
5. Increased susceptibility to infections
6. Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma)
7. Portal hypertension (increased blood pressure in the portal vein that supplies blood to the liver)

Abstaining from alcohol and managing underlying medical conditions are crucial for slowing down or halting disease progression. Treatment may involve medications, dietary changes, and supportive care to address complications. In severe cases, a liver transplant might be necessary.

Cardiac myocytes are the muscle cells that make up the heart muscle, also known as the myocardium. These specialized cells are responsible for contracting and relaxing in a coordinated manner to pump blood throughout the body. They differ from skeletal muscle cells in several ways, including their ability to generate their own electrical impulses, which allows the heart to function as an independent rhythmical pump. Cardiac myocytes contain sarcomeres, the contractile units of the muscle, and are connected to each other by intercalated discs that help coordinate contraction and ensure the synchronous beating of the heart.

Aminophenols are organic compounds that consist of an amino group (-NH2) attached to a phenol group (aromatic ring with a hydroxyl group, -OH). There are two primary aminophenols: para-aminophenol (PAP) and ortho-aminophenol (OAP), which differ in the position of the amino group on the aromatic ring.

Para-aminophenol (PAP):
Chemical formula: C6H5NOH
IUPAC name: 4-Aminophenol

Ortho-aminophenol (OAP):
Chemical formula: C6H5NOH
IUPAC name: 2-Aminophenol

These compounds have various applications, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, and chemical intermediates. However, they can also be toxic and pose health risks if not handled properly. For instance, PAP is a metabolite of the analgesic drug paracetamol (acetaminophen), and overexposure to it can lead to liver damage.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Portal hypertension is a medical condition characterized by an increased pressure in the portal vein, which is the large blood vessel that carries blood from the intestines, spleen, and pancreas to the liver. Normal portal venous pressure is approximately 5-10 mmHg. Portal hypertension is defined as a portal venous pressure greater than 10 mmHg.

The most common cause of portal hypertension is cirrhosis of the liver, which leads to scarring and narrowing of the small blood vessels in the liver, resulting in increased resistance to blood flow. Other causes include blood clots in the portal vein, inflammation of the liver or bile ducts, and invasive tumors that block the flow of blood through the liver.

Portal hypertension can lead to a number of complications, including the development of abnormal blood vessels (varices) in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, which are prone to bleeding. Ascites, or the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, is another common complication of portal hypertension. Other potential complications include encephalopathy, which is a condition characterized by confusion, disorientation, and other neurological symptoms, and an increased risk of bacterial infections.

Treatment of portal hypertension depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. Medications to reduce pressure in the portal vein, such as beta blockers or nitrates, may be used. Endoscopic procedures to band or inject varices can help prevent bleeding. In severe cases, surgery or liver transplantation may be necessary.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Medical Definition:

Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), also known as gelatinase B or 92 kDa type IV collagenase, is a member of the matrix metalloproteinase family. These enzymes are involved in degrading and remodeling the extracellular matrix (ECM) components, playing crucial roles in various physiological and pathological processes such as wound healing, tissue repair, and tumor metastasis.

MMP-9 is secreted as an inactive zymogen and activated upon removal of its propeptide domain. It can degrade several ECM proteins, including type IV collagen, elastin, fibronectin, and gelatin. MMP-9 has been implicated in numerous diseases, such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Its expression is regulated at the transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels, and its activity can be controlled by endogenous inhibitors called tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs).

Genetic therapy, also known as gene therapy, is a medical intervention that involves the use of genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, to treat or prevent diseases. It works by introducing functional genes into cells to replace missing or faulty ones caused by genetic disorders or mutations. The introduced gene is incorporated into the recipient's genome, allowing for the production of a therapeutic protein that can help manage the disease symptoms or even cure the condition.

There are several approaches to genetic therapy, including:

1. Replacing a faulty gene with a healthy one
2. Inactivating or "silencing" a dysfunctional gene causing a disease
3. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight off a disease, such as cancer

Genetic therapy holds great promise for treating various genetic disorders, including cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, and certain types of cancer. However, it is still an evolving field with many challenges, such as efficient gene delivery, potential immune responses, and ensuring the safety and long-term effectiveness of the therapy.

Ion transport refers to the active or passive movement of ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and calcium (Ca2+) ions, across cell membranes. This process is essential for various physiological functions, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and maintenance of resting membrane potential.

Ion transport can occur through several mechanisms, including:

1. Diffusion: the passive movement of ions down their concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
2. Facilitated diffusion: the passive movement of ions through specialized channels or transporters in the cell membrane.
3. Active transport: the energy-dependent movement of ions against their concentration gradient, requiring the use of ATP. This process is often mediated by ion pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase).
4. Co-transport or symport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in the same direction, often driven by an electrochemical gradient.
5. Counter-transport or antiport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in opposite directions, also often driven by an electrochemical gradient.

Abnormalities in ion transport can lead to various medical conditions, such as cystic fibrosis (which involves defective chloride channel function), hypertension (which may be related to altered sodium transport), and certain forms of heart disease (which can result from abnormal calcium handling).

Interleukin-13 (IL-13) is a cytokine that plays a crucial role in the immune response, particularly in the development of allergic inflammation and hypersensitivity reactions. It is primarily produced by activated Th2 cells, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. IL-13 mediates its effects through binding to the IL-13 receptor complex, which consists of the IL-13Rα1 and IL-4Rα chains.

IL-13 has several functions in the body, including:

* Regulation of IgE production by B cells
* Induction of eosinophil differentiation and activation
* Inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine production by macrophages
* Promotion of mucus production and airway hyperresponsiveness in the lungs, contributing to the pathogenesis of asthma.

Dysregulation of IL-13 has been implicated in various diseases, such as allergic asthma, atopic dermatitis, and chronic rhinosinusitis. Therefore, targeting IL-13 with biologic therapies has emerged as a promising approach for the treatment of these conditions.

Gadolinium DTPA (Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) is a type of gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) used in medical imaging, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). It functions as a paramagnetic substance that enhances the visibility of internal body structures during these imaging techniques.

The compound Gadolinium DTPA is formed when gadolinium ions are bound to diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, a chelating agent. This binding helps to make the gadolinium ion safer for use in medical imaging by reducing its toxicity and improving its stability in the body.

Gadolinium DTPA is eliminated from the body primarily through the kidneys, making it important to monitor renal function before administering this contrast agent. In some cases, Gadolinium DTPA may cause adverse reactions, including allergic-like responses and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in patients with impaired kidney function.

Nonparametric statistics is a branch of statistics that does not rely on assumptions about the distribution of variables in the population from which the sample is drawn. In contrast to parametric methods, nonparametric techniques make fewer assumptions about the data and are therefore more flexible in their application. Nonparametric tests are often used when the data do not meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, such as normality or equal variances.

Nonparametric statistical methods include tests such as the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) for comparing two independent groups, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for comparing two related groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing more than two independent groups. These tests use the ranks of the data rather than the actual values to make comparisons, which allows them to be used with ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

Overall, nonparametric statistics provide a useful set of tools for analyzing data in situations where the assumptions of parametric methods are not met, and can help researchers draw valid conclusions from their data even when the data are not normally distributed or have other characteristics that violate the assumptions of parametric tests.

Alveolar macrophages are a type of macrophage (a large phagocytic cell) that are found in the alveoli of the lungs. They play a crucial role in the immune defense system of the lungs by engulfing and destroying any foreign particles, such as dust, microorganisms, and pathogens, that enter the lungs through the process of inhalation. Alveolar macrophages also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. They are important for maintaining the health and function of the lungs by removing debris and preventing infection.

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections that affect the respiratory system, which includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. These infections can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or, less commonly, fungi.

RTIs are classified into two categories based on their location: upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs). URTIs include infections of the nose, sinuses, throat, and larynx, such as the common cold, flu, laryngitis, and sinusitis. LRTIs involve the lower airways, including the bronchi and lungs, and can be more severe. Examples of LRTIs are pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis.

Symptoms of RTIs depend on the location and cause of the infection but may include cough, congestion, runny nose, sore throat, difficulty breathing, wheezing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Treatment for RTIs varies depending on the severity and underlying cause of the infection. For viral infections, treatment typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms, while antibiotics may be prescribed for bacterial infections.

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a medical condition in which the left ventricle of the heart undergoes an enlargement or thickening of its muscle wall. The left ventricle is the main pumping chamber of the heart that supplies oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

In response to increased workload, such as hypertension (high blood pressure), aortic valve stenosis, or athletic training, the left ventricular muscle may thicken and enlarge. This process is called "hypertrophy." While some degree of hypertrophy can be adaptive in athletes, significant or excessive hypertrophy can lead to impaired relaxation and filling of the left ventricle during diastole, reduced pumping capacity, and decreased compliance of the chamber.

Left ventricular hypertrophy is often asymptomatic initially but can increase the risk of various cardiovascular complications such as heart failure, arrhythmias, myocardial infarction (heart attack), and sudden cardiac death over time. It is typically diagnosed through imaging techniques like echocardiography or cardiac MRI and confirmed by measuring the thickness of the left ventricular wall.

Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2, also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), is a small signaling protein that belongs to the chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of cytokines, or regulatory proteins, that play important roles in immune responses and inflammation by recruiting various immune cells to sites of infection or injury.

CCL2 specifically acts as a chemoattractant for monocytes, memory T cells, and dendritic cells, guiding them to migrate towards the source of infection or tissue damage. It does this by binding to its receptor, CCR2, which is expressed on the surface of these immune cells.

CCL2 has been implicated in several pathological conditions, including atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and various cancers, where it contributes to the recruitment of immune cells that can exacerbate tissue damage or promote tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, targeting CCL2 or its signaling pathways has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy for these diseases.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

A portal system in medicine refers to a venous system in which veins from various tissues or organs (known as tributaries) drain into a common large vessel (known as the portal vein), which then carries the blood to a specific organ for filtration and processing before it is returned to the systemic circulation. The most well-known example of a portal system is the hepatic portal system, where veins from the gastrointestinal tract, spleen, pancreas, and stomach merge into the portal vein and then transport blood to the liver for detoxification and nutrient processing. Other examples include the hypophyseal portal system, which connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland, and the renal portal system found in some animals.

The heart ventricles are the two lower chambers of the heart that receive blood from the atria and pump it to the lungs or the rest of the body. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Both ventricles have thick, muscular walls to generate the pressure necessary to pump blood through the circulatory system.

Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) is a protein involved in the regulation of fibrinolysis, which is the body's natural process of breaking down blood clots. PAI-1 inhibits tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), two enzymes that convert plasminogen to plasmin, which degrades fibrin clots. Therefore, PAI-1 acts as a natural antagonist of the fibrinolytic system, promoting clot formation and stability. Increased levels of PAI-1 have been associated with thrombotic disorders, such as deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism.

Hepatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the liver, often resulting in damage to liver cells. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections (such as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E), alcohol abuse, toxins, medications, and autoimmune disorders. Symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine. The severity of the disease can range from mild illness to severe, life-threatening conditions, such as liver failure or cirrhosis.

Pulmonary emphysema is a chronic respiratory disease characterized by abnormal, permanent enlargement of the airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destruction of their walls and without obvious fibrosis. This results in loss of elastic recoil, which leads to trappling of air within the lungs and difficulty exhaling. It is often caused by cigarette smoking or long-term exposure to harmful pollutants. The disease is part of a group of conditions known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which also includes chronic bronchitis.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Osteopontin (OPN) is a phosphorylated glycoprotein that is widely distributed in many tissues, including bone, teeth, and mineralized tissues. It plays important roles in various biological processes such as bone remodeling, immune response, wound healing, and tissue repair. In the skeletal system, osteopontin is involved in the regulation of bone formation and resorption by modulating the activity of osteoclasts and osteoblasts. It also plays a role in the development of chronic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and cancer metastasis to bones. Osteopontin is considered a potential biomarker for various disease states, including bone turnover, cardiovascular disease, and cancer progression.

Amiloride is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called potassium-sparing diuretics. It works by preventing the reabsorption of salt and water in the kidneys, which helps to increase urine output and decrease fluid buildup in the body. At the same time, amiloride also helps to preserve the level of potassium in the body, which is why it is known as a potassium-sparing diuretic.

Amiloride is commonly used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and edema (fluid buildup) in the body. It is available in tablet form and is typically taken once or twice a day, with or without food. Common side effects of amiloride include headache, dizziness, and stomach upset.

It's important to note that amiloride can interact with other medications, including some over-the-counter products, so it's essential to inform your healthcare provider of all the medications you are taking before starting amiloride therapy. Additionally, regular monitoring of blood pressure, kidney function, and electrolyte levels is necessary while taking this medication.

Genetic testing is a type of medical test that identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Genetic tests are performed on a sample of blood, hair, skin, amniotic fluid (the fluid that surrounds a fetus during pregnancy), or other tissue. For example, a physician may recommend genetic testing to help diagnose a genetic condition, confirm the presence of a gene mutation known to increase the risk of developing certain cancers, or determine the chance for a couple to have a child with a genetic disorder.

There are several types of genetic tests, including:

* Diagnostic testing: This type of test is used to identify or confirm a suspected genetic condition in an individual. It may be performed before birth (prenatal testing) or at any time during a person's life.
* Predictive testing: This type of test is used to determine the likelihood that a person will develop a genetic disorder. It is typically offered to individuals who have a family history of a genetic condition but do not show any symptoms themselves.
* Carrier testing: This type of test is used to determine whether a person carries a gene mutation for a genetic disorder. It is often offered to couples who are planning to have children and have a family history of a genetic condition or belong to a population that has an increased risk of certain genetic disorders.
* Preimplantation genetic testing: This type of test is used in conjunction with in vitro fertilization (IVF) to identify genetic changes in embryos before they are implanted in the uterus. It can help couples who have a family history of a genetic disorder or who are at risk of having a child with a genetic condition to conceive a child who is free of the genetic change in question.
* Pharmacogenetic testing: This type of test is used to determine how an individual's genes may affect their response to certain medications. It can help healthcare providers choose the most effective medication and dosage for a patient, reducing the risk of adverse drug reactions.

It is important to note that genetic testing should be performed under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional who can interpret the results and provide appropriate counseling and support.

In medical terms, the heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body. The heart's rhythmic contractions and relaxations are regulated by a complex electrical conduction system.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Connective tissue is a type of biological tissue that provides support, strength, and protection to various structures in the body. It is composed of cells called fibroblasts, which produce extracellular matrix components such as collagen, elastin, and proteoglycans. These components give connective tissue its unique properties, including tensile strength, elasticity, and resistance to compression.

There are several types of connective tissue in the body, each with its own specific functions and characteristics. Some examples include:

1. Loose or Areolar Connective Tissue: This type of connective tissue is found throughout the body and provides cushioning and support to organs and other structures. It contains a large amount of ground substance, which allows for the movement and gliding of adjacent tissues.
2. Dense Connective Tissue: This type of connective tissue has a higher concentration of collagen fibers than loose connective tissue, making it stronger and less flexible. Dense connective tissue can be further divided into two categories: regular (or parallel) and irregular. Regular dense connective tissue, such as tendons and ligaments, has collagen fibers that run parallel to each other, providing great tensile strength. Irregular dense connective tissue, such as the dermis of the skin, has collagen fibers arranged in a more haphazard pattern, providing support and flexibility.
3. Adipose Tissue: This type of connective tissue is primarily composed of fat cells called adipocytes. Adipose tissue serves as an energy storage reservoir and provides insulation and cushioning to the body.
4. Cartilage: A firm, flexible type of connective tissue that contains chondrocytes within a matrix of collagen and proteoglycans. Cartilage is found in various parts of the body, including the joints, nose, ears, and trachea.
5. Bone: A specialized form of connective tissue that consists of an organic matrix (mainly collagen) and an inorganic mineral component (hydroxyapatite). Bone provides structural support to the body and serves as a reservoir for calcium and phosphate ions.
6. Blood: Although not traditionally considered connective tissue, blood does contain elements of connective tissue, such as plasma proteins and leukocytes (white blood cells). Blood transports nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.

A granuloma is a small, nodular inflammatory lesion that occurs in various tissues in response to chronic infection, foreign body reaction, or autoimmune conditions. Histologically, it is characterized by the presence of epithelioid macrophages, which are specialized immune cells with enlarged nuclei and abundant cytoplasm, often arranged in a palisading pattern around a central area containing necrotic debris, microorganisms, or foreign material.

Granulomas can be found in various medical conditions such as tuberculosis, sarcoidosis, fungal infections, and certain autoimmune disorders like Crohn's disease. The formation of granulomas is a complex process involving both innate and adaptive immune responses, which aim to contain and eliminate the offending agent while minimizing tissue damage.

Contrast media are substances that are administered to a patient in order to improve the visibility of internal body structures or processes in medical imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasounds. These media can be introduced into the body through various routes, including oral, rectal, or intravenous administration.

Contrast media work by altering the appearance of bodily structures in imaging studies. For example, when a patient undergoes an X-ray examination, contrast media can be used to highlight specific organs, tissues, or blood vessels, making them more visible on the resulting images. In CT and MRI scans, contrast media can help to enhance the differences between normal and abnormal tissues, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.

There are several types of contrast media available, each with its own specific properties and uses. Some common examples include barium sulfate, which is used as a contrast medium in X-ray studies of the gastrointestinal tract, and iodinated contrast media, which are commonly used in CT scans to highlight blood vessels and other structures.

While contrast media are generally considered safe, they can sometimes cause adverse reactions, ranging from mild symptoms such as nausea or hives to more serious complications such as anaphylaxis or kidney damage. As a result, it is important for healthcare providers to carefully evaluate each patient's medical history and individual risk factors before administering contrast media.

Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-β) receptors are a group of cell surface receptors that bind to TGF-β ligands and transduce signals into the cell. These receptors play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and extracellular matrix production.

There are two types of TGF-β receptors: type I and type II. Type I receptors, also known as activin receptor-like kinases (ALKs), have serine/threonine kinase activity and include ALK1, ALK2, ALK3, ALK4, ALK5, and ALK6. Type II receptors are constitutively active serine/threonine kinases and include TGF-β RII, ActRII, and ActRIIB.

When a TGF-β ligand binds to a type II receptor, it recruits and phosphorylates a type I receptor, which in turn phosphorylates downstream signaling molecules called Smads. Phosphorylated Smads form complexes with co-Smad proteins and translocate to the nucleus, where they regulate gene expression.

Abnormalities in TGF-β signaling have been implicated in various human diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of TGF-β receptor function is essential for developing therapeutic strategies to target these conditions.

A heterozygote is an individual who has inherited two different alleles (versions) of a particular gene, one from each parent. This means that the individual's genotype for that gene contains both a dominant and a recessive allele. The dominant allele will be expressed phenotypically (outwardly visible), while the recessive allele may or may not have any effect on the individual's observable traits, depending on the specific gene and its function. Heterozygotes are often represented as 'Aa', where 'A' is the dominant allele and 'a' is the recessive allele.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Inflammation mediators are substances that are released by the body in response to injury or infection, which contribute to the inflammatory response. These mediators include various chemical factors such as cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and histamine, among others. They play a crucial role in regulating the inflammatory process by attracting immune cells to the site of injury or infection, increasing blood flow to the area, and promoting the repair and healing of damaged tissues. However, an overactive or chronic inflammatory response can also contribute to the development of various diseases and conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences in real-time. It is a sensitive and specific method that allows for the quantification of target nucleic acids, such as DNA or RNA, through the use of fluorescent reporter molecules.

The RT-PCR process involves several steps: first, the template DNA is denatured to separate the double-stranded DNA into single strands. Then, primers (short sequences of DNA) specific to the target sequence are added and allowed to anneal to the template DNA. Next, a heat-stable enzyme called Taq polymerase adds nucleotides to the annealed primers, extending them along the template DNA until a new double-stranded DNA molecule is formed.

During each amplification cycle, fluorescent reporter molecules are added that bind specifically to the newly synthesized DNA. As more and more copies of the target sequence are generated, the amount of fluorescence increases in proportion to the number of copies present. This allows for real-time monitoring of the PCR reaction and quantification of the target nucleic acid.

RT-PCR is commonly used in medical diagnostics, research, and forensics to detect and quantify specific DNA or RNA sequences. It has been widely used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, genetic disorders, and cancer, as well as in the identification of microbial pathogens and the detection of gene expression.

Hexuronic acids are a type of uronic acid that contains six carbon atoms and is commonly found in various biological tissues and polysaccharides, such as pectins, heparin, and certain glycoproteins. The most common hexuronic acids are glucuronic acid and iduronic acid, which are formed from the oxidation of the corresponding hexoses, glucose and galactose, respectively. Hexuronic acids play important roles in various biological processes, including the detoxification and excretion of xenobiotics, the formation of proteoglycans, and the regulation of cell growth and differentiation.

Necrosis is the premature death of cells or tissues due to damage or injury, such as from infection, trauma, infarction (lack of blood supply), or toxic substances. It's a pathological process that results in the uncontrolled and passive degradation of cellular components, ultimately leading to the release of intracellular contents into the extracellular space. This can cause local inflammation and may lead to further tissue damage if not treated promptly.

There are different types of necrosis, including coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, fibrinoid, and gangrenous necrosis, each with distinct histological features depending on the underlying cause and the affected tissues or organs.

F344 is a strain code used to designate an outbred stock of rats that has been inbreeded for over 100 generations. The F344 rats, also known as Fischer 344 rats, were originally developed at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and are now widely used in biomedical research due to their consistent and reliable genetic background.

Inbred strains, like the F344, are created by mating genetically identical individuals (siblings or parents and offspring) for many generations until a state of complete homozygosity is reached, meaning that all members of the strain have identical genomes. This genetic uniformity makes inbred strains ideal for use in studies where consistent and reproducible results are important.

F344 rats are known for their longevity, with a median lifespan of around 27-31 months, making them useful for aging research. They also have a relatively low incidence of spontaneous tumors compared to other rat strains. However, they may be more susceptible to certain types of cancer and other diseases due to their inbred status.

It's important to note that while F344 rats are often used as a standard laboratory rat strain, there can still be some genetic variation between individual animals within the same strain, particularly if they come from different suppliers or breeding colonies. Therefore, it's always important to consider the source and history of any animal model when designing experiments and interpreting results.

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of enzymes responsible for the degradation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix, the structural framework of most tissues in the body. These enzymes play crucial roles in various physiological processes such as tissue repair, wound healing, and embryonic development. They also participate in pathological conditions like tumor invasion, metastasis, and inflammatory diseases by breaking down the components of the extracellular matrix, including collagens, elastins, proteoglycans, and gelatins. MMPs are zinc-dependent endopeptidases that require activation from their proenzyme form to become fully functional. Their activity is tightly regulated at various levels, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and enzyme inhibition by tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Dysregulation of MMPs has been implicated in several diseases, making them potential therapeutic targets for various clinical interventions.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Pancreatic diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the structure and function of the pancreas, a vital organ located in the abdomen. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function, which involves the production of digestive enzymes that help break down food in the small intestine, and an endocrine function, which involves the production of hormones such as insulin and glucagon that regulate blood sugar levels.

Pancreatic diseases can be broadly classified into two categories: inflammatory and non-inflammatory. Inflammatory pancreatic diseases include conditions such as acute pancreatitis, which is characterized by sudden inflammation of the pancreas, and chronic pancreatitis, which is a long-term inflammation that can lead to scarring and loss of function.

Non-inflammatory pancreatic diseases include conditions such as pancreatic cancer, which is a malignant tumor that can arise from the cells of the pancreas, and benign tumors such as cysts or adenomas. Other non-inflammatory conditions include pancreatic insufficiency, which can occur when the pancreas does not produce enough digestive enzymes, and diabetes mellitus, which can result from impaired insulin production or action.

Overall, pancreatic diseases can have serious consequences on a person's health and quality of life, and early diagnosis and treatment are essential for optimal outcomes.

Mucins are high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins that are the major components of mucus. They are produced and secreted by specialized epithelial cells in various organs, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts, as well as the eyes and ears.

Mucins have a characteristic structure consisting of a protein backbone with numerous attached oligosaccharide side chains, which give them their gel-forming properties and provide a protective barrier against pathogens, environmental insults, and digestive enzymes. They also play important roles in lubrication, hydration, and cell signaling.

Mucins can be classified into two main groups based on their structure and function: secreted mucins and membrane-bound mucins. Secreted mucins are released from cells and form a physical barrier on the surface of mucosal tissues, while membrane-bound mucins are integrated into the cell membrane and participate in cell adhesion and signaling processes.

Abnormalities in mucin production or function have been implicated in various diseases, including chronic inflammation, cancer, and cystic fibrosis.

Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas that leads to irreversible structural changes and impaired function of the pancreas. It is characterized by recurrent or persistent abdominal pain, often radiating to the back, and maldigestion with steatorrhea (fatty stools) due to exocrine insufficiency. The pancreatic damage results from repeated episodes of acute pancreatitis, alcohol abuse, genetic predisposition, or autoimmune processes. Over time, the pancreas may lose its ability to produce enough digestive enzymes and hormones like insulin, which can result in diabetes mellitus. Chronic pancreatitis also increases the risk of developing pancreatic cancer.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

A homozygote is an individual who has inherited the same allele (version of a gene) from both parents and therefore possesses two identical copies of that allele at a specific genetic locus. This can result in either having two dominant alleles (homozygous dominant) or two recessive alleles (homozygous recessive). In contrast, a heterozygote has inherited different alleles from each parent for a particular gene.

The term "homozygote" is used in genetics to describe the genetic makeup of an individual at a specific locus on their chromosomes. Homozygosity can play a significant role in determining an individual's phenotype (observable traits), as having two identical alleles can strengthen the expression of certain characteristics compared to having just one dominant and one recessive allele.

Ortho-Aminobenzoates are chemical compounds that contain a benzene ring substituted with an amino group in the ortho position and an ester group in the form of a benzoate. They are often used as pharmaceutical intermediates, plastic additives, and UV stabilizers. In medical contexts, one specific ortho-aminobenzoate, para-aminosalicylic acid (PABA), is an antibiotic used in the treatment of tuberculosis. However, it's important to note that "ortho-aminobenzoates" in general do not have a specific medical definition and can refer to any compound with this particular substitution pattern on a benzene ring.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a type of cardiomyopathy characterized by the enlargement and weakened contraction of the heart's main pumping chamber (the left ventricle). This enlargement and weakness can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. DCM can be caused by various factors including genetics, viral infections, alcohol and drug abuse, and other medical conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes. It is important to note that this condition can lead to heart failure if left untreated.

Stenotrophomonas maltophilia is a gram-negative, aerobic, non-fermentative bacillus that is commonly found in moist environments such as soil and water. It has emerged as an important nosocomial pathogen, particularly in patients with compromised immune systems or underlying lung diseases.

S. maltophilia can cause a variety of infections, including pneumonia, bacteremia, urinary tract infections, and wound infections. It is inherently resistant to many antibiotics, making it difficult to treat. The bacteria produce biofilms, which can make them even more resistant to antibiotics and host defenses.

Infection with S. maltophilia is associated with high mortality rates, particularly in critically ill patients. Prompt identification and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are essential for the successful management of infections caused by this organism.

Colistin is an antibiotic that belongs to a class of drugs called polymyxins. It is primarily used to treat infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. Colistin works by disrupting the bacterial cell membrane and causing the bacterium to lose essential components, leading to its death.

Colistin can be administered intravenously or inhaled, depending on the type of infection being treated. It is important to note that colistin has a narrow therapeutic index, meaning that there is a small difference between the effective dose and the toxic dose. Therefore, it must be used with caution and under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.

Common side effects of colistin include kidney damage, nerve damage, and muscle weakness. It may also cause allergic reactions in some people. Colistin should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding unless the benefits outweigh the risks.

Glucuronic acid is a physiological important organic acid, which is a derivative of glucose. It is formed by the oxidation of the primary alcohol group of glucose to form a carboxyl group at the sixth position. Glucuronic acid plays a crucial role in the detoxification process in the body as it conjugates with toxic substances, making them water-soluble and facilitating their excretion through urine or bile. This process is known as glucuronidation. It is also a component of various polysaccharides, such as heparan sulfate and chondroitin sulfate, which are found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues.

A needle biopsy is a medical procedure in which a thin, hollow needle is used to remove a small sample of tissue from a suspicious or abnormal area of the body. The tissue sample is then examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells or other abnormalities. Needle biopsies are often used to diagnose lumps or masses that can be felt through the skin, but they can also be guided by imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI to reach areas that cannot be felt. There are several types of needle biopsy procedures, including fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA uses a thin needle and gentle suction to remove fluid and cells from the area, while core needle biopsy uses a larger needle to remove a small piece of tissue. The type of needle biopsy used depends on the location and size of the abnormal area, as well as the reason for the procedure.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs) are a class of medications that block the action of aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. Aldosterone helps regulate sodium and potassium balance and blood pressure by binding to mineralocorticoid receptors in the kidneys, heart, blood vessels, and brain.

When aldosterone binds to these receptors, it promotes sodium retention and potassium excretion, which can lead to an increase in blood volume and blood pressure. MRAs work by blocking the binding of aldosterone to its receptors, thereby preventing these effects.

MRAs are primarily used to treat heart failure, hypertension, and kidney disease. By reducing sodium retention and increasing potassium excretion, MRAs can help lower blood pressure, reduce fluid buildup in the body, and improve heart function. Examples of MRAs include spironolactone and eplerenone.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP) is a type of lung disorder that is characterized by the presence of inflammation and scarring in the lungs. The term "cryptogenic" means that the cause of the condition is unknown or unclear.

Organizing pneumonia is a specific pattern of injury to the lungs that can be caused by various factors, including infections, medications, and autoimmune disorders. However, in cases of COP, there is no clear underlying cause that can be identified.

The main symptoms of COP include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and fatigue. The condition can also cause crackles or wheezing sounds when listening to the lungs with a stethoscope. Diagnosis of COP typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as chest X-rays or CT scans, and lung biopsy.

Treatment for COP usually involves the use of corticosteroids, which can help to reduce inflammation and improve symptoms. In some cases, other medications may also be used to manage the condition. The prognosis for people with COP is generally good, with most individuals responding well to treatment and experiencing improvement in their symptoms over time. However, recurrence of the condition is possible, and long-term monitoring may be necessary.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.

Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Exocrine glands are a type of gland in the human body that produce and release substances through ducts onto an external or internal surface. These glands are responsible for secreting various substances such as enzymes, hormones, and lubricants that help in digestion, protection, and other bodily functions.

Exocrine glands can be further classified into three types based on their mode of secretion:

1. Merocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by exocytosis, where the secretory product is enclosed in a vesicle that fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents outside the cell. Examples include sweat glands and mucous glands.
2. Apocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by pinching off a portion of the cytoplasm along with the secretory product. An example is the apocrine sweat gland found in the armpits and genital area.
3. Holocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by disintegrating and releasing the entire cell, including its organelles and secretory products. An example is the sebaceous gland found in the skin, which releases an oily substance called sebum.

Diagnostic techniques for the digestive system are medical tests and procedures used to diagnose and evaluate various conditions and diseases related to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and associated organs. These techniques can be categorized into invasive and non-invasive methods.

Non-invasive diagnostic techniques:

1. Imaging tests: These include X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and ultrasounds. They help visualize the structure and function of the digestive organs without requiring any invasive procedures.
2. Laboratory tests: Blood, stool, and urine samples can be analyzed to detect signs of infection, inflammation, or other abnormalities related to digestive system disorders. Examples include complete blood count (CBC), liver function tests (LFTs), coagulation studies, and fecal occult blood test (FOBT).
3. Breath tests: These are used to diagnose conditions like lactose intolerance, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), or helicobacter pylori infection by analyzing the patient's exhaled air after consuming a specific substance.

Invasive diagnostic techniques:

1. Endoscopy: A thin, flexible tube with a light and camera attached to its end is inserted through the mouth or rectum to directly visualize the GI tract's inner lining. There are different types of endoscopies, such as gastroscopy (esophagus, stomach, and duodenum), colonoscopy (colon and rectum), sigmoidoscopy (lower part of the colon), and enteroscopy (small intestine).
2. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): This combines endoscopy with ultrasound technology to provide detailed images of the digestive organs' structure and surrounding tissues, allowing for accurate diagnosis and staging of conditions like cancer.
3. Biopsy: During an endoscopy or surgery, a small tissue sample can be taken from the affected area for further examination under a microscope to confirm a diagnosis or assess the severity of a condition.
4. Capsule endoscopy: A patient swallows a tiny camera-equipped capsule that transmits images as it passes through the GI tract, allowing doctors to diagnose conditions in the small intestine that may be difficult to reach with traditional endoscopes.
5. Imaging studies: Procedures like computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or positron emission tomography (PET) scans can provide detailed images of the digestive organs and help diagnose conditions like tumors, inflammation, or obstructions.

These diagnostic techniques help healthcare providers identify and manage various gastrointestinal conditions, ensuring appropriate treatment and improved patient outcomes.

Bronchopneumonia is a type of pneumonia that involves inflammation and infection of the bronchioles (small airways in the lungs) and alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs). It can be caused by various bacteria, viruses, or fungi and often occurs as a complication of a respiratory tract infection.

The symptoms of bronchopneumonia may include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, shortness of breath, and fatigue. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as respiratory failure or sepsis. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections, antiviral medications for viral infections, and supportive care such as oxygen therapy and hydration.

Heart-lung transplantation is a surgical procedure where both the heart and lungs of a patient are replaced with those from a deceased donor. This complex and highly specialized surgery is typically considered as a last resort for patients suffering from end-stage lung or heart-lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or certain forms of congenital heart disease, who have exhausted all other treatment options and face imminent death.

The procedure involves removing the patient's diseased heart and lungs en bloc, followed by implanting the donor's heart and lungs in their place. The surgery requires a skilled multidisciplinary team of cardiothoracic surgeons, anesthesiologists, perfusionists, transplant coordinators, and intensive care specialists.

Following the transplantation, patients require lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the transplanted organs. Despite the significant risks associated with this procedure, including infection, bleeding, and rejection, heart-lung transplantation can significantly improve both survival and quality of life for carefully selected patients with advanced heart-lung disease.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

Spironolactone is a prescription medication that belongs to a class of drugs known as potassium-sparing diuretics. It works by blocking the action of aldosterone, a hormone that helps regulate sodium and potassium balance in your body. This results in increased urine production (diuresis) and decreased salt and fluid retention.

Spironolactone is primarily used to treat edema (fluid buildup) associated with heart failure, liver cirrhosis, or kidney disease. It's also prescribed for the treatment of high blood pressure and primary hyperaldosteronism, a condition where the adrenal glands produce too much aldosterone.

Furthermore, spironolactone is used off-label to treat conditions such as acne, hirsutism (excessive hair growth in women), and hormone-sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

It's important to note that spironolactone can cause increased potassium levels in the blood (hyperkalemia) and should be used with caution in patients with kidney impairment or those taking other medications that affect potassium balance. Regular monitoring of electrolyte levels, including potassium and sodium, is essential during spironolactone therapy.

Schistosomiasis japonica is a specific form of schistosomiasis, which is also known as snail fever. It is caused by the parasitic flatworm Schistosoma japonicum. This disease is prevalent in East Asian countries like China, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

The life cycle of Schistosoma japonicum involves freshwater-dwelling snails as an intermediate host. Humans get infected through direct contact with contaminated water, where the parasite's larvae are released from the snails. The larvae penetrate the skin, enter the bloodstream, and migrate to the liver. Here, they mature into adult worms and start producing eggs, which are excreted through feces or urine.

The symptoms of Schistosomiasis japonica can vary depending on the stage and severity of the infection. In the early stages, individuals might experience skin rashes, fever, chills, and muscle aches. As the parasite eggs travel through the body, they can cause inflammation and damage to various organs, including the liver, intestines, and lungs. Chronic infections can lead to severe complications such as fibrosis, scarring, and increased risk of bladder cancer.

Preventive measures include avoiding contact with contaminated water sources, proper sanitation, and snail control. Treatment typically involves administering the drug praziquantel, which is effective against Schistosoma japonicum and other schistosome species.

Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is a fossil fuel that is formed from the accumulation and decomposition of plants over millions of years. It is primarily used as a source of energy for electricity generation, as well as for heating and industrial processes.

There are two main types of coal mining: surface mining and underground mining. Surface mining involves removing the soil and rock above the coal seam to access the coal, while underground mining involves sinking shafts and tunnels into the earth to reach the coal. Both methods have their own set of benefits and challenges, and the choice of which method to use depends on various factors such as the depth and location of the coal seam, the geology of the area, and environmental concerns.

Coal mining can be a dangerous occupation, with risks including accidents, explosions, and exposure to harmful dust and gases. As a result, it is essential that coal miners receive proper training and equipment to minimize these risks and ensure their safety. Additionally, coal mining has significant environmental impacts, including deforestation, habitat destruction, and water pollution, which must be carefully managed to minimize harm.

"Areca" is the term used to refer to the Areca catechu plant, which is also known as the betel nut palm. The areca nut, which is the seed of the fruit produced by this plant, is commonly chewed with betel leaf for its mild stimulant effects. It contains a number of alkaloids, including arecoline, which has psychoactive properties. Chewing areca nut is a popular habit in many parts of Asia and the Pacific Islands, despite evidence that it can have negative health effects, such as increasing the risk of oral cancer.

Liver transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a diseased or failing liver is replaced with a healthy one from a deceased donor or, less commonly, a portion of a liver from a living donor. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal liver function and improve the patient's overall health and quality of life.

Liver transplantation may be recommended for individuals with end-stage liver disease, acute liver failure, certain genetic liver disorders, or liver cancers that cannot be treated effectively with other therapies. The procedure involves complex surgery to remove the diseased liver and implant the new one, followed by a period of recovery and close medical monitoring to ensure proper function and minimize the risk of complications.

The success of liver transplantation has improved significantly in recent years due to advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive medications, and post-transplant care. However, it remains a major operation with significant risks and challenges, including the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection of the new liver, as well as potential complications such as infection, bleeding, and organ failure.

Chronic hepatitis is a type of liver inflammation that lasts for more than six months and can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and even liver cancer in some cases. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections such as Hepatitis B and C, autoimmune disorders, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The symptoms of chronic hepatitis may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, dark urine, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Treatment for chronic hepatitis depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, immunosuppressive drugs, or lifestyle changes.

Biliary cirrhosis is a specific type of liver cirrhosis that results from chronic inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts, leading to impaired bile flow, liver damage, and fibrosis. It can be further classified into primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and secondary biliary cirrhosis. PBC is an autoimmune disease, while secondary biliary cirrhosis is often associated with chronic gallstones, biliary tract obstruction, or recurrent pyogenic cholangitis. Symptoms may include fatigue, itching, jaundice, and abdominal discomfort. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsy. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms, slowing disease progression, and preventing complications.

Anti-inflammatory agents are a class of drugs or substances that reduce inflammation in the body. They work by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are released during an immune response and contribute to symptoms like pain, swelling, redness, and warmth.

There are two main types of anti-inflammatory agents: steroidal and nonsteroidal. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) include corticosteroids, which mimic the effects of hormones produced by the adrenal gland. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a larger group that includes both prescription and over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib.

While both types of anti-inflammatory agents can be effective in reducing inflammation and relieving symptoms, they differ in their mechanisms of action, side effects, and potential risks. Long-term use of NSAIDs, for example, can increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney damage, and cardiovascular events. Corticosteroids can have significant side effects as well, particularly with long-term use, including weight gain, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections.

It's important to use anti-inflammatory agents only as directed by a healthcare provider, and to be aware of potential risks and interactions with other medications or health conditions.

Bone Morphogenetic Protein 7 (BMP-7) is a growth factor belonging to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily. It plays crucial roles in the development and maintenance of various tissues, including bones, cartilages, and kidneys. In bones, BMP-7 stimulates the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells, thereby promoting bone formation and regeneration. It also has potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of various musculoskeletal disorders, such as fracture healing, spinal fusion, and osteoporosis.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) is a pattern of kidney injury that involves scarring or sclerosis in some (segmental) areas of some (focal) glomeruli. Glomeruli are the tiny blood vessel clusters within the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood.

In FSGS, the scarring occurs due to damage to the glomerular basement membrane, which can be caused by various factors such as genetic mutations, viral infections, or immune system disorders. The damage leads to the accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins and the formation of scar tissue, impairing the kidney's ability to filter blood effectively.

FSGS is characterized by proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), and declining kidney function, which can lead to end-stage renal disease if left untreated. The focal and segmental nature of the scarring means that not all glomeruli are affected, and only some areas of each affected glomerulus are damaged, making FSGS a highly variable condition with different clinical presentations and outcomes.

Collagen diseases, also known as collagen disorders or connective tissue diseases, refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the body's connective tissues. These tissues provide support and structure for various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, muscles, and blood vessels.

Collagen is a major component of connective tissues, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining their strength and elasticity. In collagen diseases, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy collagen, leading to inflammation, pain, and damage to the affected tissues.

There are several types of collagen diseases, including:

1. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): This is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, kidneys, heart, and lungs.
2. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): This is a chronic inflammatory disease that primarily affects the joints, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness.
3. Scleroderma: This is a rare autoimmune disorder that causes thickening and hardening of the skin and connective tissues, leading to restricted movement and organ damage.
4. Dermatomyositis: This is an inflammatory muscle disease that can also affect the skin, causing rashes and weakness.
5. Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD): This is a rare autoimmune disorder that combines symptoms of several collagen diseases, including SLE, RA, scleroderma, and dermatomyositis.

The exact cause of collagen diseases is not fully understood, but they are believed to be related to genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and physical therapy to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Proteinuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of excess proteins, particularly albumin, in the urine. Under normal circumstances, only small amounts of proteins should be found in the urine because the majority of proteins are too large to pass through the glomeruli, which are the filtering units of the kidneys.

However, when the glomeruli become damaged or diseased, they may allow larger molecules such as proteins to leak into the urine. Persistent proteinuria is often a sign of kidney disease and can indicate damage to the glomeruli. It is usually detected through a routine urinalysis and may be confirmed with further testing.

The severity of proteinuria can vary, and it can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, and other kidney diseases. Treatment for proteinuria depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control blood pressure, manage diabetes, or reduce protein loss in the urine.

Echocardiography is a medical procedure that uses sound waves to produce detailed images of the heart's structure, function, and motion. It is a non-invasive test that can help diagnose various heart conditions, such as valve problems, heart muscle damage, blood clots, and congenital heart defects.

During an echocardiogram, a transducer (a device that sends and receives sound waves) is placed on the chest or passed through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart. The sound waves produced by the transducer bounce off the heart structures and return to the transducer, which then converts them into electrical signals that are processed to create images of the heart.

There are several types of echocardiograms, including:

* Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE): This is the most common type of echocardiogram and involves placing the transducer on the chest.
* Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE): This type of echocardiogram involves passing a specialized transducer through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart from a closer proximity.
* Stress echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram is performed during exercise or medication-induced stress to assess how the heart functions under stress.
* Doppler echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram uses sound waves to measure blood flow and velocity in the heart and blood vessels.

Echocardiography is a valuable tool for diagnosing and managing various heart conditions, as it provides detailed information about the structure and function of the heart. It is generally safe, non-invasive, and painless, making it a popular choice for doctors and patients alike.

Interleukin-8 (IL-8) is a type of cytokine, which is a small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. IL-8 is also known as neutrophil chemotactic factor or NCF because it attracts neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, to the site of infection or injury.

IL-8 is produced by various cells including macrophages, epithelial cells, and endothelial cells in response to bacterial or inflammatory stimuli. It acts by binding to specific receptors called CXCR1 and CXCR2 on the surface of neutrophils, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events leading to neutrophil activation, migration, and degranulation.

IL-8 plays an important role in the recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection or tissue damage, where they can phagocytose and destroy invading microorganisms. However, excessive or prolonged production of IL-8 has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer.

Colforsin is a drug that belongs to a class of medications called phosphodiesterase inhibitors. It works by increasing the levels of a chemical called cyclic AMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) in the body, which helps to relax and widen blood vessels.

Colforsin is not approved for use in humans in many countries, including the United States. However, it has been used in research settings to study its potential effects on heart function and other physiological processes. In animals, colforsin has been shown to have positive inotropic (contractility-enhancing) and lusitropic (relaxation-enhancing) effects on the heart, making it a potential therapeutic option for heart failure and other cardiovascular conditions.

It is important to note that while colforsin has shown promise in preclinical studies, more research is needed to establish its safety and efficacy in humans. Therefore, it should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional and in the context of a clinical trial or research study.

Heart disease is a broad term for a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. It's often used to refer to conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease. It occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become hardened and narrowed due to the buildup of cholesterol and other substances, which can lead to chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or a heart attack.

2. Heart failure: This condition occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.

3. Arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms, which can be too fast, too slow, or irregular. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, and fainting.

4. Valvular heart disease: This involves damage to one or more of the heart's four valves, which control blood flow through the heart. Damage can be caused by various conditions, including infection, rheumatic fever, and aging.

5. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, viral infections, and drug abuse.

6. Pericardial disease: This involves inflammation or other problems with the sac surrounding the heart (pericardium). It can cause chest pain and other symptoms.

7. Congenital heart defects: These are heart conditions that are present at birth, such as a hole in the heart or abnormal blood vessels. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.

8. Heart infections: The heart can become infected by bacteria, viruses, or parasites, leading to various symptoms and complications.

It's important to note that many factors can contribute to the development of heart disease, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and certain medical conditions. Regular check-ups and a healthy lifestyle can help reduce the risk of developing heart disease.

Respiratory therapy is a healthcare profession that specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and management of respiratory disorders and diseases. Respiratory therapists (RTs) work under the direction of physicians to provide care for patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, cystic fibrosis, sleep apnea, and neuromuscular diseases that affect breathing.

RTs use a variety of techniques and treatments to help patients breathe more easily, including oxygen therapy, aerosol medication delivery, chest physiotherapy, mechanical ventilation, and patient education. They also perform diagnostic tests such as pulmonary function studies to assess lung function and help diagnose respiratory conditions.

RTs work in a variety of healthcare settings, including hospitals, clinics, long-term care facilities, and home health agencies. They may provide care for patients of all ages, from premature infants to the elderly. The overall goal of respiratory therapy is to help patients achieve and maintain optimal lung function and quality of life.

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream where they circulate and are able to move quickly to sites of infection or inflammation in the body. Neutrophils are capable of engulfing and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances through a process called phagocytosis. They are also involved in the release of inflammatory mediators, which can contribute to tissue damage in some cases. Neutrophils are characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, which contain enzymes and other proteins that help them carry out their immune functions.

Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the metabolic demands of the body or do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It can be caused by various cardiac disorders, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. Heart failure is often classified based on the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A reduced EF (less than 40%) is indicative of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), while a preserved EF (greater than or equal to 50%) is indicative of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). There is also a category of heart failure with mid-range ejection fraction (HFmrEF) for those with an EF between 40-49%.

The epidural space is the potential space located outside the dura mater, which is the outermost of the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (the meninges). This space runs the entire length of the spinal canal and contains fatty tissue, blood vessels, and nerve roots. It is often used as a route for administering anesthesia during childbirth or surgery, as well as for pain management in certain medical conditions. The injection of medications into this space is called an epidural block.

Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), also known as gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, is an enzyme found in many tissues, including the liver, bile ducts, and pancreas. GGT is involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids and plays a role in the detoxification of various substances in the body.

GGT is often measured as a part of a panel of tests used to evaluate liver function. Elevated levels of GGT in the blood may indicate liver disease or injury, bile duct obstruction, or alcohol consumption. However, it's important to note that several other factors can also affect GGT levels, so abnormal results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and diagnostic tests.

A breath test is a medical or forensic procedure used to analyze a sample of exhaled breath in order to detect and measure the presence of various substances, most commonly alcohol. The test is typically conducted using a device called a breathalyzer, which measures the amount of alcohol in the breath and converts it into a reading of blood alcohol concentration (BAC).

In addition to alcohol, breath tests can also be used to detect other substances such as drugs or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that may indicate certain medical conditions. However, these types of breath tests are less common and may not be as reliable or accurate as other diagnostic tests.

Breath testing is commonly used by law enforcement officers to determine whether a driver is impaired by alcohol and to establish probable cause for arrest. It is also used in some healthcare settings to monitor patients who are being treated for alcohol abuse or dependence.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic disorder characterized by the thickening of the heart muscle, specifically the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart that pump blood out to the body). This thickening can make it harder for the heart to pump blood effectively, which can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, chest pain, and fatigue. In some cases, HCM can also cause abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) and may increase the risk of sudden cardiac death.

The thickening of the heart muscle in HCM is caused by an overgrowth of the cells that make up the heart muscle, known as cardiomyocytes. This overgrowth can be caused by mutations in any one of several genes that encode proteins involved in the structure and function of the heart muscle. These genetic mutations are usually inherited from a parent, but they can also occur spontaneously in an individual with no family history of the disorder.

HCM is typically diagnosed using echocardiography (a type of ultrasound that uses sound waves to create images of the heart) and other diagnostic tests such as electrocardiogram (ECG) and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Treatment for HCM may include medications to help manage symptoms, lifestyle modifications, and in some cases, surgical procedures or implantable devices to help prevent or treat arrhythmias.

Burkholderia is a genus of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are widely distributed in the environment, including soil, water, and associated with plants. Some species of Burkholderia are opportunistic pathogens, meaning they can cause infection in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions.

One of the most well-known species of Burkholderia is B. cepacia, which can cause respiratory infections in people with cystic fibrosis and chronic granulomatous disease. Other notable species include B. pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis, a potentially serious infection that primarily affects the respiratory system; and B. mallei, which causes glanders, a rare but severe disease that can affect humans and animals.

Burkholderia species are known for their resistance to many antibiotics, making them difficult to treat in some cases. Proper identification of the specific Burkholderia species involved in an infection is important for determining the most appropriate treatment approach.

Left ventricular dysfunction (LVD) is a condition characterized by the impaired ability of the left ventricle of the heart to pump blood efficiently during contraction. The left ventricle is one of the four chambers of the heart and is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

LVD can be caused by various underlying conditions, such as coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, or hypertension. These conditions can lead to structural changes in the left ventricle, including remodeling, hypertrophy, and dilation, which ultimately impair its contractile function.

The severity of LVD is often assessed by measuring the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A normal EF ranges from 55% to 70%, while an EF below 40% is indicative of LVD.

LVD can lead to various symptoms, such as shortness of breath, fatigue, fluid retention, and decreased exercise tolerance. It can also increase the risk of complications, such as heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiac arrest. Treatment for LVD typically involves managing the underlying cause, along with medications to improve contractility, reduce fluid buildup, and control heart rate. In severe cases, devices such as implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) or left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) may be required.

A kidney glomerulus is a functional unit in the nephron of the kidney. It is a tuft of capillaries enclosed within a structure called Bowman's capsule, which filters waste and excess fluids from the blood. The glomerulus receives blood from an afferent arteriole and drains into an efferent arteriole.

The process of filtration in the glomerulus is called ultrafiltration, where the pressure within the glomerular capillaries drives plasma fluid and small molecules (such as ions, glucose, amino acids, and waste products) through the filtration membrane into the Bowman's space. Larger molecules, like proteins and blood cells, are retained in the blood due to their larger size. The filtrate then continues down the nephron for further processing, eventually forming urine.

Localized scleroderma, also known as morphea, is a rare autoimmune disorder that affects the skin and connective tissues. It is characterized by thickening and hardening (sclerosis) of the skin in patches or bands, usually on the trunk, limbs, or face. Unlike systemic scleroderma, localized scleroderma does not affect internal organs, although it can cause significant disfigurement and disability in some cases.

There are two main types of localized scleroderma: plaque morphea and generalized morphea. Plaque morphea typically presents as oval or circular patches of thickened, hard skin that are often white or pale in the center and surrounded by a purple or darker border. Generalized morphea, on the other hand, is characterized by larger areas of sclerosis that can cover much of the body surface.

The exact cause of localized scleroderma is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve an overactive immune system response that leads to inflammation and scarring of the skin and underlying tissues. Treatment typically involves a combination of topical therapies (such as corticosteroids or calcineurin inhibitors), phototherapy, and systemic medications (such as methotrexate or mycophenolate mofetil) in more severe cases.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Hypertension is a medical term used to describe abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries, often defined as consistently having systolic blood pressure (the top number in a blood pressure reading) over 130 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) over 80 mmHg. It is also commonly referred to as high blood pressure.

Hypertension can be classified into two types: primary or essential hypertension, which has no identifiable cause and accounts for about 95% of cases, and secondary hypertension, which is caused by underlying medical conditions such as kidney disease, hormonal disorders, or use of certain medications.

If left untreated, hypertension can lead to serious health complications such as heart attack, stroke, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. Therefore, it is important for individuals with hypertension to manage their condition through lifestyle modifications (such as healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management) and medication if necessary, under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

Keratin-18 is a type I cytoskeletal keratin protein that is primarily expressed in simple epithelial cells, such as those found in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and skin. It forms intermediate filaments, which are structural proteins that provide support and stability to the cell. Keratin-18 has been identified as a sensitive and specific marker for apoptosis (programmed cell death), making it useful in research and diagnosis of various diseases, including liver disease and cancer.

An animal model in medicine refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments to understand, predict, and test responses and effects of various biological and chemical interactions that may also occur in humans. These models are used when studying complex systems or processes that cannot be easily replicated or studied in human subjects, such as genetic manipulation or exposure to harmful substances. The choice of animal model depends on the specific research question being asked and the similarities between the animal's and human's biological and physiological responses. Examples of commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, and non-human primates.

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor Blockers (ARBs) are a class of medications used to treat hypertension, heart failure, and protect against kidney damage in patients with diabetes. They work by blocking the action of angiotensin II, a hormone that causes blood vessels to constrict and blood pressure to increase, at its type 1 receptor. By blocking this effect, ARBs cause blood vessels to dilate, reducing blood pressure and decreasing the workload on the heart. Examples of ARBs include losartan, valsartan, irbesartan, and candesartan.

Diffuse scleroderma is a medical condition that falls under the systemic sclerosis category of autoimmune rheumatic diseases. It is characterized by thickening and hardening (sclerosis) of the skin and involvement of internal organs. In diffuse scleroderma, the process affects extensive areas of the skin and at least one internal organ.

The disease process involves an overproduction of collagen, a protein that makes up connective tissues in the body. This excessive collagen deposition leads to fibrosis (scarring) of the skin and various organs, including the esophagus, gastrointestinal tract, heart, lungs, and kidneys.

Diffuse scleroderma can present with a rapid progression of skin thickening within the first few years after onset. The skin involvement may extend to areas beyond the hands, feet, and face, which are commonly affected in limited scleroderma (another form of systemic sclerosis). Additionally, patients with diffuse scleroderma have a higher risk for severe internal organ complications compared to those with limited scleroderma.

Early diagnosis and appropriate management of diffuse scleroderma are crucial to prevent or slow down the progression of organ damage. Treatment typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, focusing on symptom management, immunosuppressive therapy, and addressing specific organ involvement.

The proximal kidney tubule is the initial portion of the renal tubule in the nephron of the kidney. It is located in the renal cortex and is called "proximal" because it is closer to the glomerulus, compared to the distal tubule. The proximal tubule plays a crucial role in the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the filtrate that has been formed by the glomerulus. It also helps in the secretion of waste products and other substances into the urine.

The proximal tubule is divided into two segments: the pars convoluta and the pars recta. The pars convoluta is the curved portion that receives filtrate from the Bowman's capsule, while the pars recta is the straight portion that extends deeper into the renal cortex.

The proximal tubule is lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium, and its cells are characterized by numerous mitochondria, which provide energy for active transport processes. The apical surface of the proximal tubular cells has numerous microvilli, forming a brush border that increases the surface area for reabsorption.

In summary, the proximal kidney tubule is a critical site for the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, contributing to the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the myocardium, which is the middle layer of the heart wall. The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle cells and is responsible for the heart's pumping function. Myocarditis can be caused by various infectious and non-infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, autoimmune diseases, toxins, and drugs.

In myocarditis, the inflammation can damage the cardiac muscle cells, leading to decreased heart function, arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms), and in severe cases, heart failure or even sudden death. Symptoms of myocarditis may include chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, palpitations, and swelling in the legs, ankles, or abdomen.

The diagnosis of myocarditis is often based on a combination of clinical presentation, laboratory tests, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and endomyocardial biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications to support heart function, reduce inflammation, control arrhythmias, and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. In some cases, hospitalization and intensive care may be necessary.

Fibrothorax Pulmonary fibrosis Cystic fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (idiopathic meaning the cause is unknown) ... Glial scar Myocardial fibrosis has mainly two forms: Interstitial fibrosis, which has been described in congestive heart ... Replacement fibrosis, which indicates an older myocardial infarction. Healthy myocardium versus interstitial fibrosis in ... Progressive massive fibrosis (lungs); a complication of coal workers' pneumoconiosis Retroperitoneal fibrosis (soft tissue of ...
... is characterized by invasive, calcified fibrosis centered on lymph nodes that block major vessels and ... Mitchell IM, Saunders NR, Maher O, Lennox SC, Walker DR (1986). "Surgical treatment of idiopathic mediastinal fibrosis: report ... Davis AM, Pierson RN, Loyd JE (2001). "Mediastinal fibrosis". Seminars in Respiratory Infections. 16 (2): 119-30. doi:10.1053/ ... "Idiopathic Mediastinal Fibrosis: a Systemic Immune-Mediated Disorder. A Case Series and a Review of the Literature". Clinical ...
Malignant retroperitoneal fibrosis usually gives uneven MRI signals, is bulky, extends above the origins of renal arteries, or ... Biopsy should also be done if the location of fibrosis is atypical or if there is an inadequate response to initial treatment. ... Retroperitoneal fibrosis or Ormond's disease is a disease featuring the proliferation of fibrous tissue in the retroperitoneum ... Additionally, malignant retroperitoneal fibrosis less frequently displaces the ureters medially when compared to other causes ...
Replacement fibrosis, which indicates an older infarction. Micrograph of healthy myocardium versus interstitial fibrosis in ... The most obvious treatment for cardiac valve fibrosis or fibrosis in other locations, consists of stopping the stimulatory drug ... Following are types of myocardial fibrosis: Interstitial fibrosis, which is unspecific, and has been described in congestive ... Cardiac fibrosis is common in non-human great apes in human care. The term idiopathic myocardial fibrosis was coined to ...
Fibrosis Mukherjee PK, Das AK (1980). "Injection fibrosis in the quadriceps femoris muscle in children". J Bone Joint Surg Am. ... Injection fibrosis is a complication of intramuscular injection, occurring especially often in infants and children. Injections ...
The name "cystic fibrosis" refers to the characteristic fibrosis and cysts that form within the pancreas. Cystic fibrosis ... Search GeneCards for genes involved in cystic fibrosis Cystic Fibrosis Mutation Database "Cystic Fibrosis". MedlinePlus. U.S. ... "Orphanet: Cystic fibrosis". www.orpha.net. Retrieved 29 July 2022. Hodson M, Geddes D, Bush A, eds. (2012). Cystic Fibrosis ( ... Cochrane Cystic Fibrosis and Genetic Disorders Group) (March 2021). "Dornase alfa for cystic fibrosis". The Cochrane Database ...
Smoking is a known cause of some types of lung fibrosis, such as the entity smoking-related interstitial fibrosis (SRIF). Some ... It is a potent stimulator of fibrosis, and increased TGF-β signaling is associated with the development of fibrosis in various ... "Pulmonary Fibrosis". MedicineNet, Inc. Archived from the original on 19 July 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2014. "Pulmonary fibrosis ... Misdiagnosis is common because, while overall pulmonary fibrosis is not rare, each individual type of pulmonary fibrosis is ...
Basic and Clinical Aspects of Pulmonary Fibrosis. CRC Press. pp. 391-. ISBN 978-0-8493-8927-6. WYATT JP, RIDDELL AC (1949). " ...
Shinerama List of cystic fibrosis organizations Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Cystic Fibrosis Trust "Annual Report 2009: Keeping a ... Cystic Fibrosis Canada's mandate is to help individuals with cystic fibrosis, principally by funding cystic fibrosis research ... Cystic Fibrosis Canada raises funds in order to promote public awareness and support research and high-quality cystic fibrosis ... "Cystic Fibrosis Canada: About us: What we do: Mission". Cystic Fibrosis Canada. 2009-08-06. Archived from the original on 2011- ...
The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation has been a pioneer of cystic fibrosis treatment, having played a major role in the development ... "About the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation". Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Archived from the original on July 3, 2015. Retrieved ... Henderson, Wendy (July 5, 2017). "The Danger of Cross Infections for Those Living With Cystic Fibrosis - Cystic Fibrosis News ... "Board of Trustees". Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Retrieved May 6, 2018. "Advisory Council". Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. ...
... is a rare syndrome that involves fibrosis of the skin, joints, eyes, and internal organs. NSF is ... "nephrogenic systemic fibrosis" to better describe its systemic nature. The term "gadolinium-associated systemic fibrosis" has ... Kalb RE, Helm TN, Sperry H, Thakral C, Abraham JL, Kanal E (March 2008). "Gadolinium-induced nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in a ... Daftari Besheli L, Aran S, Shaqdan K, Kay J, Abujudeh H (July 2014). "Current status of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis". ...
... is clinically divided into three stages: Stage 1: Stomatitis Stage 2: Fibrosis a. Early lesions, ... Severe oral submucous fibrosis is irreversible. Moderate oral submucous fibrosis is reversible with cessation of habit and ... Oral Submucous Fibrosis at eMedicine Sharma, Mohit; Radhakrishnan, Raghu (June 2023). "Should oral submucous fibrosis be ... Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic, complex, premalignant (1% transformation risk) condition of the oral cavity, ...
List of cystic fibrosis organizations Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation UK Cystic Fibrosis Gene ... The aim of the Cystic Fibrosis Trust research is to understand, treat and cure cystic fibrosis. The Cystic Fibrosis Trust is ... The Cystic Fibrosis Trust (stylised as Cystic Fibrosis) is a UK-based national charity founded in 1964, dealing with all ... The Cystic Fibrosis Trust sets the national standard on clinical care; provides and funds a UK CF Clinical Database; and ...
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis at Curlie (All articles ... December 2011). "Familial pulmonary fibrosis is the strongest risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". Respiratory ... "Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (an Update) and Progressive Pulmonary Fibrosis in Adults: An Official ATS/ERS/JRS/ALAT Clinical ... "Mucin 5B promoter polymorphism is associated with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis but not with development of lung fibrosis in ...
... (PMF), characterized by the development of large conglomerate masses of dense fibrosis (usually in ... Progressive massive fibrosis increased during the period 1970-2016 among coal miners in central Appalachia who filed for black ... Primary Source: Annals of the American Thoracic Society Source Reference: Almberg KS, et al "Progressive massive fibrosis ... fibrosis, and emphysema.[citation needed] There are also some mechanical factors involved in the pathogenesis of Complex ...
"Síndrome de fibrosis por radiación". OncoLink. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 2 May 2022. "Fibrosis ... "Pulmonary fibrosis". Cleveland Clinic. Cleveland Clinic. 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2022. "Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis". AMBOSS. ... Radiation fibrosis syndrome is a human illness. It occurs as a result of cell death, and can be caused by radiotherapy. It is ... Hematic biometry Imaging tests such as X-rays or tomography Pulmonary function tests Biopsy Pulmonary fibrosis is not currently ...
... usually presents in adolescent or young adulthood, but onset of signs and symptoms can range from ... The fibrosis would affect resistance in portal veins leading to portal hypertension.[citation needed] The condition is usually ... Embryogenically, congenital hepatic fibrosis is due to malformation of the duct plate, a round structure appearing in the ... Congenital hepatic fibrosis is an inherited fibrocystic liver disease associated with proliferation of interlobular bile ducts ...
... is a chronic lung disease of horses. There is evidence that the disease is caused by ... The distribution between two patterns can be seen as a large, whitish until tan and firm nodules of fibrosis. There are noticed ... Poth T, Niedermaier G, Hermanns W (January 2009). "Equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis in association with an EHV-5 ... Signs of equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis are mainly weight loss, fever, respiratory distress and depression. ...
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive and monogenetic disorder. It is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis ... "About Cystic Fibrosis". Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. Retrieved 2022-11-18. Roehmel, Jobst F.; Kallinich, Tilmann; Staab, Doris; ... "CF Foundation Continues Working Toward Equity and Timeliness in Cystic Fibrosis Newborn Screening". Cystic Fibrosis Foundation ... the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation is currently[when?] striving for more equity and timeliness in cystic fibrosis newborn screening ...
... (CFRD) is diabetes specifically caused by cystic fibrosis, a genetic condition. Cystic ... Cystic fibrosis Lek N, Acerini CL (January 2010). "Cystic fibrosis related diabetes mellitus - diagnostic and management ... Kayani K, Mohammed R, Mohiaddin H (2018-02-20). "Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes". Frontiers in Endocrinology. 9: 20. doi: ... and prognostic implications of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes: a technical review". Diabetes Care. 33 (12): 2677-83. doi: ...
... (NCPF) is a chronic liver disease and type of non-cirrhotic portal hypertension (NCPH). It is ... Sarin, SK (December 2002). "Non-cirrhotic portal fibrosis". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology. 17 Suppl 3: S214-23. ... "Non-cirrhotic portal fibrosis: one disease with many names? An analysis from morphological study of native explant livers with ...
... in one copy of the CFTR gene and a cystic fibrosis-causing mutation in the other copy of CFTR. Cystic fibrosis: More than 1,800 ... The Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Protein The Human Gene Mutation Database - CFTR Records Cystic Fibrosis ... "Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and the etiology and pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis". FASEB Journal. 6 (10 ... Wong LJ, Alper OM, Wang BT, Lee MH, Lo SY (July 2003). "Two novel null mutations in a Taiwanese cystic fibrosis patient and a ...
The defining feature of smoking-related interstitial fibrosis is a distinctive/unique type of fibrosis characterized by "ropey ... Smoking-related interstitial fibrosis (SRIF) is an abnormality in the lungs characterized by excessive collagen deposition ... There is very limited data on treatment and follow-up of smoking-related interstitial fibrosis. One study reported that ... Vehar SJ, Yadav R, Mukhopadhyay S, Nathani A, Tolle LB (December 2022). "Smoking-Related Interstitial Fibrosis (SRIF) in ...
... (CPFE), describes a medical syndrome involving both pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema ... Wand, O; Kramer, MR (January 2018). "The Syndrome of Combined Pulmonary Fibrosis and Emphysema - CPFE". Harefuah. 157 (1): 28- ... Jankowich, MD; Rounds, SI (January 2012). "Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema syndrome: a review". Chest. 141 (1): 222- ... Cottin, V; Cordier JF (June 2005). "Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema: an experimental and clinically relevant ...
Cystic Fibrosis Foundation (CFF), a US non-profit providing the means to cure and control cystic fibrosis. Cystic Fibrosis ... Cystic Fibrosis Australia Cystic Fibrosis Community Care "CFWA - Cystic Fibrosis WA". www.cfwa.org.au. Retrieved 2019-09-05. ... Cystic-L Cystic Fibrosis Canada Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Cystic Fibrosis Lifestyle Foundation Archived 2008-02-25 at the ... Cystic Fibrosis Canada (CCFF), a Canada-wide health charity, which funds cystic fibrosis research and care. ...
GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Congenital Fibrosis of the Extraocular Muscles OMIM entries on Congenital Fibrosis of the ... Congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles is a class of rare genetic disorders affecting one or more of the muscles that ... Individuals with congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles (CFEOM) have varying degrees of ophthalmoplegia (an inability ... PMID 20074521.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Laughlin, R.C. Congenital fibrosis of the ...
"Actor Anton Yelchin, killed in an accident as he was about to talk publicly about his cystic fibrosis, celebrated in intimate ... The following notable people have or had cystic fibrosis. "'Real World: San Diego' Alum Frankie Abernathy Dead At 25". MTV. ... Robinson, Georgina (June 10, 2014). "Cystic fibrosis no barrier for Nathan Charles as he prepares for Test debut". Rugby Heaven ... "Lisa Bentley Triumphs Over CF". Canadian Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. July 7, 2004. Archived from the original on September 27, ...
Muscle biopsy shows fibrosis and fatty infiltration. Skin biopsy shows fibrosis and alterations of the elastic network. This ... Hereditary fibrosing poikiloderma with tendon contractures, myopathy and pulmonary fibrosis is a rare genetic syndrome ... The main characteristics of this condition are poikiloderma, tendon contractures and progressive pulmonary fibrosis. Other ... and pulmonary fibrosis. In: Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean LJH, Stephens K, Amemiya A, (editors). GeneReview ...
... though it is unclear exactly how this results in fibrosis. The precise mechanisms producing the fibrosis are not entirely clear ... Fibrosis can affect one or both of the two layers of tissue forming the pleura-the visceral pleura adjacent to the lung and the ... Fibrosis in the pleura may be produced intentionally using a technique called pleurodesis to prevent recurrent punctured lung ( ... Exposure to certain substances, such as asbestos, can cause generalised fibrosis of the lungs, which may involve the pleura and ...
If two cystic fibrosis carriers have children, they have a 25 percent chance of producing offspring having two copies of the ... Not all heterozygotes for recessive lethal alleles will show a mutant phenotype, as is the case for cystic fibrosis carriers. ... Ratjen, Felix; Döring, Gerd (February 2003). "Cystic fibrosis". Lancet. 361 (9358): 681-689. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12567-6 ...
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder that causes problems with breathing and digestion. CF affects about 35,000 people in ... CF results from mutations (changes) in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene, which has ... National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute: Cystic Fibrosis ...
Fibrothorax Pulmonary fibrosis Cystic fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (idiopathic meaning the cause is unknown) ... Glial scar Myocardial fibrosis has mainly two forms: Interstitial fibrosis, which has been described in congestive heart ... Replacement fibrosis, which indicates an older myocardial infarction. Healthy myocardium versus interstitial fibrosis in ... Progressive massive fibrosis (lungs); a complication of coal workers pneumoconiosis Retroperitoneal fibrosis (soft tissue of ...
Drawing from nearly a decade ago when the first antifibrotic medication was approved for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), ... MILAN ― Numerous unresolved questions surround progressive pulmonary fibrosis (PPF) treatment, according to Elisabeth Bendstrup ... Cite this: Progressive Pulmonary Fibrosis: Treatment and Support - Medscape - Sep 19, 2023. ...
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease of the mucus and sweat glands. The symptoms and severity of CF can vary. Get the ... Consider Tube Feeding (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation) * Day-to-Day Exercise and Cystic Fibrosis (CF) (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation) ... Infections and Cystic Fibrosis (Cystic Fibrosis Foundation) * Marvels of Mucus and Phlegm: The Slime That Keeps You Healthy ( ... Cystic fibrosis: MedlinePlus Genetics (National Library of Medicine) * Learning about Cystic Fibrosis (National Human Genome ...
Joshi subsequently coined the termed oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) for the condition in 1953. ... encoded search term (Oral Submucous Fibrosis) and Oral Submucous Fibrosis What to Read Next on Medscape ... in patients with oral submucous fibrosis, which may be central to the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis. [38] ... A light microscopic study of fibrosis involving muscle in oral submucous fibrosis. Indian J Dent Res. 2005 Oct-Dec. 16(4):131-4 ...
... of cystic fibrosis patients are diagnosed with nasal polyposis and, despite surgical intervention, most will suffer recurrence. ... Cystic Fibrosis and Nasal Polyposis. MedGenMed 2(1), 2000 [formerly published in Medscape Pulmonary Medicine eJournal 4(1), ... Nasal polyposis is a sinonasal manifestation of cystic fibrosis (CF)--an autosomal recessive exocrinopathy. Up to 67% of all CF ...
... is the most common lethal genetic disease in white populations. The outlook for patients with the disease has ... Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator / genetics * Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator / ... Cystic fibrosis Lancet. 2009 May 30;373(9678):1891-904. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60327-5. Epub 2009 May 4. ... Cystic fibrosis is the most common lethal genetic disease in white populations. The outlook for patients with the disease has ...
Hepatic stellate cell activation represents a critical event in fibrosis because these cells become the primary source of ... Liver fibrosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide due to chronic viral hepatitis and, more recently, from ... Pathogenesis of liver fibrosis Annu Rev Pathol. 2011:6:425-56. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-011110-130246. ... Liver fibrosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide due to chronic viral hepatitis and, more recently, from ...
... of free crystalline silica in conjunction with other minerals leads to a characteristic stellate nodule of mixed-dust fibrosis. ... Mixed-Dust Fibrosis. In some industrial settings, such as foundry work or coal mining, the inhalation of free crystalline ... 22). There may be associated diffuse alveolar septal fibrosis and small, cellular, poorly formed silicotic nodules [Silicosis ... Cellular silicotic nodules may resemble granulomas in the early stages, with progression to massive conglomerate fibrosis in ...
Cystic fibrosis is a prevalent condition that people can be carriers of without knowing. Testing is available to help a person ... People with cystic fibrosis (CF) have an increased risk of contracting and passing on harmful bacteria to other people with CF ... The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation notes that if people with CF are having difficulty speaking with their partner about their ... According to the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, people with CF need to keep a distance of 6 feet between each other and between ...
... clinical trials and a coordinated care team for children with cystic fibrosis. Learn more. ... Cystic Fibrosis Program Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Program. Claude Prestidge Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Center .st0{fill:#FFFFFF;} .st1{ ... Read more about Cystic fibrosis wont define Kinseys future Siblings with cystic fibrosis share a special bond Sebastian, or ... Read more about Sisters share a common bond and strength as they live with cystic fibrosis Twins fight cystic fibrosis together ...
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... the majority of cystic fibrosis patients will develop sinonasal manifestations as well. This paper outlines the etiology, ... evaluation, and management of the nasal and sinus manifestations in patients with cystic fibrosis. ... Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease, characterized by accumulation of thickened mucous secretions in exocrine glands. Although ... K. Cheng, D. Ashby, and R. Smyth, "Oral steroids for cystic fibrosis," Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, no. 2, Article ...
... accurate cystic fibrosis diagnosis - including sweat testing appointments within 72 hours - and expert disease management for a ... Meet our cystic fibrosis care providers Meet our cystic fibrosis care providers Cystic Fibrosis Tests and Treatments * Genetic ... Among the Best in the U.S. for Cystic Fibrosis Care. The Rush Cystic Fibrosis Center is accredited by the Cystic Fibrosis ... The Rush Approach to Cystic Fibrosis Care. If you or your child has cystic fibrosis, comprehensive care is key to managing the ...
Evaluating the Impact of Precision Medicine: How Ivacaftor Reduces Hospitalizations of Patients with Cystic Fibrosis. Precision ... cystic fibrosis - Genomics and Precision Health Blog ...
Johns Hopkins All Childrens Hospital is now offering a new drug therapy to cystic fibrosis patients that will help an ... Cystic Fibrosis: Kelsies Story Cystic Fibrosis: Evelyns Story Cystic Fibrosis Liver Disease Cystic Fibrosis ... Sam at the Cystic Fibrosis Care Center.. Patient Story Highlights *Sam, a 14-year-old with cystic fibrosis, became the first ... Cystic Fibrosis Center at Johns Hopkins All Childrens Hospital The Cystic Fibrosis Center at Johns Hopkins All Childrens ...
An experimental drug that has proven effective in treating muscular dystrophy also works for cystic fibrosis, according to ... Tags: Biopharmaceutical, Compound, Cystic Fibrosis, DNA, Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Fibrosis, Food, Gene, Genes, Genetic, ... An experimental drug that has proven effective in treating muscular dystrophy also works for cystic fibrosis, according to ... MHRA extends the license of two cystic fibrosis drugs for children aged two to five years old ...
Epix Pharmaceuticals and Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics (CFFT), a nonprofit affiliate of the Cystic Fibrosis ... BiomoleculesCellular, Molecular and Developmental BiologyCystic fibrosisGenetic variantsGeneticsMedicine, Diagnosis, and ... CFTR is believed to be the key protein associated with cystic fibrosis. ... virtual 3-D molecule of the full-length Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) in January. ...
A liver biopsy is considered the gold standard for assessing the stage of hepatic fibrosis, but it has many limitations. During ... This paper will focus on the various noninvasive biochemical markers used to stage liver fibrosis. ... the last decade, several noninvasive markers for assessing the stage of hepatic fibrosis have been developed. Some have been ... NIBMs for liver fibrosis are grouped into two main categories: class 1 fibrosis markers, or direct biomarkers, and class 2 ...
... is a disease of fibrosis of the skin and internal organs reminiscent but distinct from scleroderma or scleromyxedema. It is ... Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), also known as nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy (NFD), ... Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), also known as nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy (NFD), is a disease of fibrosis of the skin ... 10] Endothelin-1/endothelin receptor signaling plays a role in the calcification and fibrosis of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. ...
Learn about the role of the CFTR protein and how a mutation in the gene that codes for it causes cystic fibrosis. ... Cystic Fibrosis vs. Pulmonary Fibrosis: Whats the Difference?. Cystic fibrosis and pulmonary fibrosis are chronic conditions ... What Are the Symptoms of Cystic Fibrosis in Children?. Cystic fibrosis symptoms in children include respiratory things like ... 2018). Cystic Fibrosis Foundation pulmonary guidelines. Use of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator modulator ...
being a teenager and having cystic fibrosis is the hardest thing i believe us cfers will ever go through.we know we shouldnt ... being a teenager and having cystic fibrosis is the hardest thing i believe us cfers will ever go through.we know we shouldnt ...
... is a national charitable not-for-profit corporation committed to finding a cure for cystic fibrosis (CF ... CYSTIC FIBROSIS CANADA ASKS CANADIANS TO MAKE ONE DAY NOW THIS HOLIDAY SEASON. November 28, 2023 ... Cystic Fibrosis Canada is excited to announce the return of Wrapping for a Cure located in North Hill Centre & Southcentre Mall ... 2023 Cystic Fibrosis Canada. All Rights Reserved. Privacy Policy , Digital Accessibility Statement , Site Map ...
... teens with cystic fibrosis have some specific nutritional needs. Find out more. ... What Is Cystic Fibrosis?. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic condition that affects the bodys epithelial cells. These cells are ... How Does Cystic Fibrosis Affect Nutrition?. The sticky mucus from cystic fibrosis can block normal absorption of key nutrients ... What Extras Do Teens With Cystic Fibrosis Need?. Teens with CF have some specific nutritional needs:. Salt. Teens with CF lose ...
Cystic fibrosis or CF, is an inherited disease of the secretory glands. Secretory glands include glands that make mucus and ... Cystic fibrosis or CF, is an inherited disease of the secretory glands. Secretory glands include glands that make mucus and ...
Two studies investigated the connection between lower urinary tract symptoms and fibrosis in both human and mouse models. ... Fibrosis is the deposition of large amounts of collagen-rich connective tissue that can lead to organ damage. The most common ... Strategies that target IL-4 and IL-13 could thus be tested to see if they reduce the fibrosis and pain associated with LUTS/BPH ... Prostate transition zone fibrosis is associated with clinical progression in the MTOPS Study. J Urol 202: 1-8, 2019. ...
  • You'll be the first to get insights on living with cystic fibrosis, research updates and more. (childrens.com)
  • Nicki Perkins is a 50-year-old CrossFit trainer living with cystic fibrosis and 28% lung function. (cysticfibrosis.ca)
  • In this webinar from February 2, 2021 experts answer community questions about the COVID-19 vaccines in Canada, prioritization and information specific to Canadians living with cystic fibrosis. (cysticfibrosis.ca)
  • Building a national resource to rapidly develop effective treatments for every person living with Cystic Fibrosis. (sickkidsfoundation.com)
  • As of 2022, approximately 40,000 people in the U.S. are living with cystic fibrosis. (medpagetoday.com)
  • MILAN ― Numerous unresolved questions surround progressive pulmonary fibrosis (PPF) treatment, according to Elisabeth Bendstrup, MD, PhD, a researcher and clinical professor in the Department of Clinical Medicine ― Department of Respiratory Diseases and Allergy, Aarhus University, Denmark. (medscape.com)
  • Drawing from nearly a decade ago when the first antifibrotic medication was approved for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), Kreuter noted its effectiveness in slowing disease progression, although it does not reverse it. (medscape.com)
  • Fibrosis can occur in many tissues within the body, typically as a result of inflammation or damage, and examples include: Fibrothorax Pulmonary fibrosis Cystic fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (idiopathic meaning the cause is unknown) Radiation-induced lung injury (following treatment for cancer) Bridging fibrosis An advanced stage of liver fibrosis seen in the progressive form of chronic liver diseases. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pulmonary fibrosis and rheumatoid arthritis: What is the link? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Over time, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) can lead to lung tissue damage, which can result in a condition doctors call pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It can also affect other organs, such as the lungs, causing severe breathing problems that health experts call pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • What is RA-linked pulmonary fibrosis? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Pulmonary fibrosis is a type of interstitial lung disease . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • When such a condition also causes scarring, health experts refer to it as pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Doctors still do not fully understand the link between RA and pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • However, evidence shows that 40% of people with RA have some degree of pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Typically, pulmonary fibrosis and related lung problems develop in people who have lived with RA for several years. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This means that doctors usually diagnose RA before pulmonary fibrosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Complications from RA-linked pulmonary fibrosis can become life threatening if a person does not receive prompt treatment. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The standard test to diagnose pulmonary fibrosis is a high-resolution CT scan . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • IBIO ), a leading provider of plant-based biotechnology for developing and manufacturing biopharmaceutical products, has added a proprietary biotherapeutic product for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and systemic sclerosis to its product pipeline. (globenewswire.com)
  • Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or IPF, is a condition that causes progressive scarring of the lungs. (ucsfhealth.org)
  • UCSF offers specialized care for all types of interstitial lung disease, including idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. (ucsfhealth.org)
  • Diagnosing idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis requires input from pulmonologists, radiologists and, in many cases, pathologists experienced in evaluating patients with interstitial lung disease. (ucsfhealth.org)
  • Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a severe, chronic, progressive, fibrotic interstitial disease of unknown etiology, which remains an unmet need despite approved treatments which are limited by side effects. (prnewswire.com)
  • Bleomycin, an anti-neoplastic agent that causes lung fibrosis in human patients, has been used extensively in rodent models to mimic IPF and serves as the standard agent for induction of experimental pulmonary fibrosis in animals. (prnewswire.com)
  • Impact This study will generate potential new therapeutic approaches to fibrotic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. (ca.gov)
  • Research Objective Understanding regulators of human alveolar lung stem cell function will promote more normal lung regeneration after injury and avoid the nearly untreatable problem of advanced pulmonary fibrosis. (ca.gov)
  • Impact Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF), Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), and other chronic fibrotic lung disorders. (ca.gov)
  • Pharmacological regenerative treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis targeting the senescent niche of lung progenitor cells. (ca.gov)
  • Area of Impact 1) Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and 2) Other diseases and conditions caused or exacerbated by short telomeres. (ca.gov)
  • Researchers at the University of Georgia have discovered that the drug triciribine may reverse or halt the progression of pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension, two respiratory diseases that are almost invariably fatal. (news-medical.net)
  • Pulmonary fibrosis occurs when lung tissue becomes scarred, leading to loss of lung function and reduced oxygen supply to the blood. (news-medical.net)
  • Although no definitive cause for the disease has been identified, pulmonary fibrosis affects nearly 130,000 people in the U.S., with about 48,000 new cases diagnosed annually, according to the Coalition for Pulmonary Fibrosis. (news-medical.net)
  • The researchers used mouse models that mimic the disease characteristics of pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary fibrosis in humans to study the effect of triciribine, which inhibits production of a protein called Akt1. (news-medical.net)
  • To our knowledge, this is the first direct evidence that Akt1 causes disease onset and progression of pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension,' Shenoy said. (news-medical.net)
  • My mother died at age 80 from Pulmonary Fibrosis, and her suffering was intense and very painful to watch. (news-medical.net)
  • Azithromycin: Hope for Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis? (medscape.com)
  • Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive lung disorder of unknown etiology for which there is no effective therapy. (medscape.com)
  • DPLD may be idiopathic, a classic illustration of which is idiopathic interstitial fibrosis (IPF), which is discussed in another article (see Pulmonary Fibrosis, Idiopathic ). (medscape.com)
  • This article presents a broad overview, with an emphasis on those etiologies that result in pulmonary fibrosis not discussed elsewhere in this series. (medscape.com)
  • It is thought to begin with acute injury to the pulmonary parenchyma, leading to chronic interstitial inflammation, then to fibroblast activation and proliferation, and finally progressing to the common endpoint of pulmonary fibrosis and tissue destruction. (medscape.com)
  • Is it safe for people with cystic fibrosis to be together? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • People with cystic fibrosis (CF) have an increased risk of contracting and passing on harmful bacteria to other people with CF. This means people with CF need to avoid close physical contact with other people with the condition. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • People with cystic fibrosis have a gene mutation that causes problems with the protein. (healthline.com)
  • People with cystic fibrosis (CF) may be continuing to have anxiety about their health during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. (nationaljewish.org)
  • Even though the CDC masking guidelines have eliminated the need for fully vaccinated people to wear a mask in most places, people with cystic fibrosis need to continue to take some precautions to stay healthy and prevent catching COVID-19 or other diseases. (nationaljewish.org)
  • There are also detailed recommendations on treating the most common infections in people with cystic fibrosis. (nice.org.uk)
  • 12] Unusually viscous emissions in the airway of the lungs and in ducts of the pancreas in people with cystic fibrosis cause hindrances that prompt aggravation, tissue harm and destruction of both organ systems. (bartleby.com)
  • CF results from mutations (changes) in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) gene , which has instructions for making the CFTR protein. (cdc.gov)
  • When your child has cystic fibrosis (CF) , the CFTR protein that causes thick mucous in the lungs also causes thick mucus in the gut that hinders appropriate digestion. (childrens.com)
  • It's due to a genetic mutation that affects the production or function of a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). (healthline.com)
  • What happens to CFTR in cystic fibrosis? (healthline.com)
  • The expanded agreement follows on the heels of Epix' development of a validated, virtual 3-D molecule of the full-length Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) in January. (genengnews.com)
  • CFTR is believed to be the key protein associated with cystic fibrosis. (genengnews.com)
  • Genetic therapies - including mRNA therapy, gene therapy, and gene editing - could potentially benefit anyone with cystic fibrosis, including those who can't take CFTR modulators. (cff.org)
  • An individual with cystic fibrosis has a specific mutation in a gene and protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). (bartleby.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis is caused by mutations in a single gene that produces a protein called CFTR, responsible for balancing the salt content of cells lining the lungs and other organs. (seattletimes.com)
  • Symdeko (tezacaftor/ivacaftor tablets and ivacaftor tablets) and Orkambi (lumacaftor/ivacaftor) are combinations of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) potentiators indicated for the treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis ( CF ) aged 12 years and older who are homozygous for the F508del mutation. (rxlist.com)
  • Symdeko is also used to treat patients with cystic fibrosis who have at least one mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene that is responsive to tezacaftor/ivacaftor based on in vitrodata and/or clinical evidence. (rxlist.com)
  • Symdeko (tezacaftor/ivacaftor tablets and ivacaftor tablets) is a combination drug indicated for the treatment of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) aged 12 years and older who are homozygous for the F508delmutation or who have at least one mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene that is responsive to tezacaftor/ivacaftor based on in vitrodata and/or clinical evidence. (rxlist.com)
  • Orkambi (lumacaftor/ivacaftor) is a combination of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) potentiators indicated for the treatment of cystic fibrosis (CF) in patients age 12 years and older who are homozygous for the F508del mutation in the CFTR gene. (rxlist.com)
  • The three-drug combination's expanded label now covers children ages 2 to 5 years who have cystic fibrosis and either a F508del mutation in the CFTR gene or a CFTR gene mutation that has been shown to be responsive to the triplet based on in vitro data. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Early intervention with CFTR modulator therapies like Trikafta can offer the potential to improve the trajectory of [cystic fibrosis] lung disease," said trial investigator Jennifer Goralski, MD, of University of North Carolina School of Medicine in Chapel Hill, in a statement. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Based on the results of two randomized trials, the triplet combination first won approval in 2019 for adolescents and adults with susceptible CFTR gene mutations, a group representing an estimated 90% of the population of patients with cystic fibrosis at that time. (medpagetoday.com)
  • The sensitivity and specificity of such testing can now be improved as a result of the recent discovery of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulatory (CFTR) gene. (cdc.gov)
  • The discovery of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulatory (CFTR) gene (5) renewed interest in this possibility, as the sensitivity and specificity of testing could be improved through DNA-based testing. (cdc.gov)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive condition caused by the mutation of the cystic fibrosis trans-membrane regulator gene (CFTR) on chromosome 7. (who.int)
  • We have been directly working on this for many years at our center, ever since one of the drugs that now is also one-third of the medication that comprises Trikafta was first studied in 2011," says Green, who will attend the North American Cystic Fibrosis Conference this week in Nashville. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • NTM have been increasingly isolated from the sputum of performed by using Microsoft Excel 2007 (Microsoft, Red- patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) ( 7,8 ). (cdc.gov)
  • As part of the Cystic Fibrosis Therapeutics Development Network, we offer patients access to cutting-edge research and clinical trials. (childrens.com)
  • Sharing information collaboratively with other network treatment centers has helped us continuously improve patient outcomes - our rates of cystic fibrosis flare-ups have fallen while our patients' pulmonary function has risen. (childrens.com)
  • Although the major clinical manifestations of the disease are pancreatic and pulmonary disease, the majority of cystic fibrosis patients will develop sinonasal manifestations as well. (hindawi.com)
  • This paper outlines the etiology, evaluation, and management of the nasal and sinus manifestations in patients with cystic fibrosis. (hindawi.com)
  • The Rush Cystic Fibrosis Center is accredited by the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation (CFF) and has been selected as a CFF partner on quality initiatives aimed at improving care for all cystic fibrosis patients. (rush.edu)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis almost always occurs in patients with renal insufficiency who have had imaging studies (eg, magnetic resonance angiography) with gadolinium, a contrast agent used in imaging studies. (medscape.com)
  • Evidence for a link between nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium was first described in a case series of 13 patients, all of whom developed nephrogenic systemic fibrosis after being exposed to gadolinium. (medscape.com)
  • Patients with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis may develop large areas of indurated skin with fibrotic nodules and plaques. (medscape.com)
  • Although most patients with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis have undergone hemodialysis for renal failure, some have never undergone dialysis and others have received only peritoneal dialysis. (medscape.com)
  • The pathophysiology of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis is related to the exposure of patients with renal insufficiency to gadolinium in association with imaging studies. (medscape.com)
  • Sam, a 14-year-old with cystic fibrosis, became the first patient at Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital to take Trikafta, a new drug therapy that will help an estimated 90% of cystic fibrosis patients. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • This is definitely expected to be a life-changing medication for the majority of my patients," says Deanna Green, M.D., M.H.S. , medical director of the nationally accredited Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Care Center and the CF Therapeutic Development Center at Johns Hopkins All Children's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Cystic fibrosis patients are used to social distancing and taking extra precautions to keep from getting sick. (nationaljewish.org)
  • In fact, these habits may be the reason that fewer than expected cystic fibrosis patients have reported contracting COVID-19. (nationaljewish.org)
  • The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation recommends that patients see their doctors quarterly for an in depth checkup. (nationaljewish.org)
  • Colony morphologies of 96 Burkholderia cenocepacia isolates from cystic fibrosis patients. (drexel.edu)
  • Scientists have made new headway in understanding how a deadly pathogen evolves during chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis patients. (drexel.edu)
  • The researchers collected 215 bacterial samples isolated from 16 cystic fibrosis patients over a time, spanning a period of up to 20 years for each patient. (drexel.edu)
  • The new findings, together with the robust anti-fibrotic effects demonstrated in clinical studies of patients with NASH and advanced fibrosis could potentially enable Galmed to quickly transition to Phase 2/3 clinical studies with Aramchol in indications with unmet need and faster development pathways. (prnewswire.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis is a chronic, progressive, and usually fatal inherited disease, though most patients with the condition live into at least their 30s. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • Respiratory infections are very common in patients with cystic fibrosis since bacteria that would normally be removed with the clearing of mucus are trapped. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • When cystic fibrosis was first documented in 1938, the life expectancy was only a few months for the patients (O'Sullivan & Freedman, 2009). (bartleby.com)
  • So far, doctors have grown mini guts - just the size of a pencil point - for 450 of the Netherlands' roughly 1,500 cystic fibrosis patients. (seattletimes.com)
  • In the Netherlands, the mini guts are used as a stand-in for cystic fibrosis patients to see if those with rare mutations might benefit from a number of pricey drugs, including Orkambi. (seattletimes.com)
  • About 50 to 60 patients across the Netherlands have been treated after drugs were tested on organoids using their cells, said Dr. Kors van der Ent, a cystic fibrosis specialist at the Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, who leads the research. (seattletimes.com)
  • To see if certain drugs might help cystic fibrosis patients, the medicines are given to their custom-made organoids in the lab. (seattletimes.com)
  • Conclusively, N23Ps are a novel class of highly potent compounds inhibiting organ fibrosis in patients. (lu.se)
  • In 2008, Marckmann et al found possibly enhanced gadolinium excretion in dialysate, but they did not observe major clinical benefits with 3-5 months of treatment with sodium thiosulfate in patients in the late stages of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Incidence of Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis Using Gadobenate Dimeglumine in 1423 Patients With Renal Insufficiency Compared With Gadodiamide. (medscape.com)
  • We review clinical care for cystic fibrosis and discuss recent advances in the understanding of its pathogenesis, implementation of screening of neonates, and development of therapies aimed at treating the basic defect. (nih.gov)
  • Our physicians also serve as faculty at UT Southwestern, leading the next generation of doctors and advancing the standard of care for cystic fibrosis. (childrens.com)
  • The transition from pediatric to adult care for cystic fibrosis at Rush is seamless: You'll come to the same location, see many of the same specialists and continue the trusted relationships you've formed over the years with our small, tightly integrated team. (rush.edu)
  • Repeated injuries, chronic inflammation and repair are susceptible to fibrosis, where an accidental excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, such as the collagen, is produced by fibroblasts, leading to the formation of a permanent fibrotic scar. (wikipedia.org)
  • Oral submucous fibrosis is a chronic debilitating disease of the oral cavity characterized by inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the submucosal tissues (lamina propria and deeper connective tissues). (medscape.com)
  • Chronic liver disease progresses through different pathological stages that vary from mild hepatic inflammation without fibrosis to advanced hepatic fibrosis and cirrhosis [ 6 - 8 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Fibrosis is a common complication of chronic inflammation and can affect all organs and tissues. (prnewswire.com)
  • Aramchol's ability to modulate hepatic lipid metabolism was discovered and validated in animal models, demonstrating downregulation of the three key pathologies of NASH: steatosis, inflammation and fibrosis. (prnewswire.com)
  • Senescence of hepatic stellate cells could prevent progression of liver fibrosis, although this has not been implemented as a therapy, and would carry the risk of hepatic dysfunction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hepatic stellate cell activation represents a critical event in fibrosis because these cells become the primary source of extracellular matrix in liver upon injury. (nih.gov)
  • A liver biopsy is considered the gold standard for assessing the stage of hepatic fibrosis, but it has many limitations. (hindawi.com)
  • During the last decade, several noninvasive markers for assessing the stage of hepatic fibrosis have been developed. (hindawi.com)
  • 2. Is the Liver Biopsy Really the Gold Standard and Reference Method for Evaluating Hepatic Fibrosis? (hindawi.com)
  • 2) The process of hepatic fibrosis is not linear, and biopsies from different areas have shown different stages of fibrosis. (hindawi.com)
  • The ideal NIM for assessing hepatic fibrosis must be simple, readily available, reliable, inexpensive, safe, and well validated in different forms of chronic liver disease. (hindawi.com)
  • Cirrhosis is defined histologically as a diffuse hepatic process characterized by fibrosis and conversion of the normal liver architecture into structurally abnormal nodules. (medscape.com)
  • [ 1 ] Joshi subsequently coined the termed oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) for the condition in 1953. (medscape.com)
  • Oral submucous fibrosis results in marked rigidity and an eventual inability to open the mouth. (medscape.com)
  • The pathogenesis of the disease is not well established, but the cause of oral submucous fibrosis is believed to be multifactorial. (medscape.com)
  • The areca nut component of betel quid plays a major role in the pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • [ 15 ] but their addition to areca nut chewing can be a risk for oral submucous fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • [ 15 ] Commercially freeze-dried products such as pan masala, guthka, and mawa have higher concentrations of areca nut per chew and appear to cause oral submucous fibrosis more rapidly than self-prepared conventional betel quid, which contains smaller amounts of areca nut. (medscape.com)
  • [ 16 ] In one study, arecoline was found to elevate the mRNA and protein expression of cystatin C, a nonglycosylated basic protein consistently up-regulated in a variety of fibrotic diseases, in a dose-dependent manner in persons with oral submucous fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF) is a high-risk precancerous condition that predominantly affects Indian youngsters due to the habit of gutkha chewing. (bvsalud.org)
  • Liver fibrosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide due to chronic viral hepatitis and, more recently, from fatty liver disease associated with obesity. (nih.gov)
  • This paper will focus on the various noninvasive biochemical markers used to stage liver fibrosis. (hindawi.com)
  • Recently many noninvasive markers (NIMs) for assessing liver fibrosis have been developed, and they are frequently used in clinical practice. (hindawi.com)
  • They have been validated in different studies, and some were found to be highly accurate in the assessment of liver fibrosis compared with liver biopsies [ 16 - 19 ], which have always been used as the standard reference method for evaluating the accuracy of noninvasive methods. (hindawi.com)
  • The rapid development of new medications for the treatment of some liver diseases, such as CHB, CHC, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), increases the requirement for more frequent evaluation of liver fibrosis to assess treatment response. (hindawi.com)
  • TEL AVIV, Israel , July 7, 2022 /PRNewswire/ -- Galmed Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (Nasdaq: GLMD) ("Galmed" or the "Company"), a clinical-stage biopharmaceutical company for liver, metabolic, fibrosis and inflammatory diseases, announced today results showing significant effects of Aramchol in pre-clinical model of both lung and gastrointestinal (GI) fibrosis. (prnewswire.com)
  • I am excited with today's news showing that established data about the role of SCD1 in lipid metabolism and fibrosis in the liver, is being replicated in other organs. (prnewswire.com)
  • Aramchol (arachidyl amido cholanoic acid) is a novel fatty acid bile acid conjugate, liver targeted SCD1 modulator, developed as an oral therapy for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis ("NASH") and fibrosis. (prnewswire.com)
  • Defined by the pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, fibrosis results in scarring and thickening of the affected tissue - it is in essence an exaggerated wound healing response which interferes with normal organ function. (wikipedia.org)
  • Myofibroblast activation and partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition (pEMT) are the key steps of fibrosis that synthesize and deposit extracellular matrix and progressively destroy kidney structure [ 3 , 4 ]. (nature.com)
  • Fibrosis, also known as fibrotic scarring, is a pathological wound healing in which connective tissue replaces normal parenchymal tissue to the extent that it goes unchecked, leading to considerable tissue remodelling and the formation of permanent scar tissue. (wikipedia.org)
  • Physiologically, fibrosis acts to deposit connective tissue, which can interfere with or totally inhibit the normal architecture and function of the underlying organ or tissue. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fibrosis can be used to describe the pathological state of excess deposition of fibrous tissue, as well as the process of connective tissue deposition in healing. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fibrosis is similar to the process of scarring, in that both involve stimulated fibroblasts laying down connective tissue, including collagen and glycosaminoglycans. (wikipedia.org)
  • a complication of coal workers' pneumoconiosis Retroperitoneal fibrosis (soft tissue of the retroperitoneum) Scleroderma/systemic sclerosis (skin, lungs) Some forms of adhesive capsulitis (shoulder) Wynn TA (August 2004). (wikipedia.org)
  • Gadolinium can be found in tissue samples of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, and alternative contrast agents are being sought. (medscape.com)
  • Fibrosis is the deposition of large amounts of collagen-rich connective tissue that can lead to organ damage. (nih.gov)
  • Antifibrotic activity of N23Ps was verified by proteomics in a human ex vivo tissue fibrosis disease model, suppressing profibrotic markers SERPINE1 and CXCL8. (lu.se)
  • As COVID-19 symptoms get worse for a cystic fibrosis patient, they may need to go to the hospital for more intense treatment. (nationaljewish.org)
  • Two recent studies have highlighted the importance of fibrosis in lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in men and in mouse models. (nih.gov)
  • The signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis vary depending on the severity of the disease. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • Symptoms may include fatigue, salty-tasting skin, persistent cough with phlegm, wheezing and shortness of breath, lung infections, and poor growth and weight loss (Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms, Causes & Risk Factors, 2018). (bartleby.com)
  • The 14-year-old from Sarasota has cystic fibrosis , a genetic disease that can cause persistent lung infections and limits the ability to breathe over time. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Cystic fibrosis affects the body by producing thick mucus in varying organ systems which can cause chronic sinus tract infections, respiratory infections, malabsorption disorders, increased metabolic demand, pancreatic dysfunction and potential sterility in males. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Cystic fibrosis is a life-threatening genetic disorder causing difficulty breathing and coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. (nzherald.co.nz)
  • Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects the lungs, pancreas, and other organs. (cff.org)
  • Their study, published in Genome Research this week, provides the first comprehensive genome-phenome analyses of B. cenocepacia infection in cystic fibrosis lungs. (drexel.edu)
  • Cystic Fibrosis, commonly known as CF, is a life-threatening, lethal genetic disease that mostly affects the lungs and digestive system (O'Sullivan & Freedman, 2009). (bartleby.com)
  • Cystic Fibrosis is a life threatening condition that causes severe damage to the lungs and digestive system. (bartleby.com)
  • When these cells become unregulated, they create scarring, which leads to fibrosis and loss of functional blood vessels in the lungs. (news-medical.net)
  • UTRECHT, Netherlands (AP) - Els van der Heijden, who has cystic fibrosis, was finding it ever harder to breathe as her lungs filled with thick, sticky mucus. (seattletimes.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), also known as nephrogenic fibrosing dermopathy (NFD), is a disease of fibrosis of the skin and internal organs reminiscent but distinct from scleroderma or scleromyxedema. (medscape.com)
  • [ 4 ] Sometimes articles are published that state a patient with renal impairment developed nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, but these are likely instances when an inadequate history has been taken. (medscape.com)
  • [ 5 ] One case of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis developed 10 years after gadolinium exposure. (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis resembles scleroderma and eosinophilic fasciitis clinically and scleromyxedema histopathologically. (medscape.com)
  • Histopathologically, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis resembles scleromyxedema in that it manifests with a proliferation of dermal fibroblasts and dendritic cells, thickened collagen bundles, increased elastic fibers, and mucin deposition. (medscape.com)
  • The chelated forms of the less stable gadolinium chelates might have a significant role, but it appears that dissociated gadolinium's gradual release is pivotal in the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and its sometimes delayed onset. (medscape.com)
  • [ 10 ] Endothelin-1/endothelin receptor signaling plays a role in the calcification and fibrosis of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Toll-like receptors (TLR), in particular TLR4 and TLR7, play a role in the development of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • [ 13 ] noted that more than 90% of proven nephrogenic systemic fibrosis cases are related to gadodiamide (Omniscan) and some to gadopentetate (Magnevist). (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis lesions may be treatable earlier in the disease course, becoming recalcitrant after significant fibrosis has occurred. (medscape.com)
  • Wahba IM, Simpson EL, White K. Gadolinium is not the only trigger for nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: insights from two cases and review of the recent literature. (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: suspected causative role of gadodiamide used for contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. (medscape.com)
  • Ross C, De Rosa N, Marshman G, Astill D. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis in a gadolinium-naïve patient: successful treatment with oral sirolimus. (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis Manifesting a Decade After Exposure to Gadolinium. (medscape.com)
  • Idée JM, Fretellier N, Robic C, Corot C. The role of gadolinium chelates in the mechanism of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: A critical update. (medscape.com)
  • Cowper SE, Kuo PH, Bucala R. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium exposure: association and lessons for idiopathic fibrosing disorders. (medscape.com)
  • Gadolinium Compounds Signaling through TLR 4 and TLR 7 in Normal Human Macrophages: Establishment of a Proinflammatory Phenotype and Implications for the Pathogenesis of Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF): a late adverse reaction to some of the gadolinium based contrast agents. (medscape.com)
  • Bongartz G, Kucharczyk W. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis: Summary of the special symposium. (medscape.com)
  • Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis and gadolinium-based contrast media: updated ESUR Contrast Medium Safety Committee guidelines. (medscape.com)
  • Evaluating the role of recombinant erythropoietin in nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Saab G. Epoetin and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • The FDA expanded the indication for elexacaftor, tezacaftor, and ivacaftor (Trikafta) in cystic fibrosis to include even younger children, maker Vertex Pharmaceuticals announced . (medpagetoday.com)
  • You'll be the first to get expert cystic fibrosis health care tips and insights, hear the latest news on medical treatments, read exclusive patient stories and much more. (childrens.com)
  • Drawing from leading programs in stem cells, genetics, and cystic fibrosis, SickKids is the world's most advanced centre for research into the genetic basis of CF and the use of stem cells to identify new treatments. (sickkidsfoundation.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease of the mucus and sweat glands. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cystic fibrosis causes abnormal mucus glands due to an abnormal function of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • Nasal polyposis is a sinonasal manifestation of cystic fibrosis (CF)--an autosomal recessive exocrinopathy. (medscape.com)
  • Disability Overview Cystic fibrosis is the most common autosomal recessive disorder in Caucasian's with an incidence rate of 1 in every 2,500 births. (bartleby.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis is an existence restricting autosomal recessive disorder that influences 70,000 people around the world. (bartleby.com)
  • Previous studies have suggested that deposition of fibrosis in the prostate gland contributes to the development of LUTS/BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia) in men. (nih.gov)
  • Myocardial fibrosis consists of collagen deposition and fibroblast proliferation. (medscape.com)
  • Such organisms have emerged pdf) was sent to the lead CF physician in all UK pediat- as pathogens in immunocompetent adults, for example, af- ric and adult CF centers identified by the principal UK CF ter traumatic limb injuries sustained during the 2004 tsu- charity, the Cystic Fibrosis Trust, in 2009. (cdc.gov)
  • The COVID-19 pandemic has made getting treatment for cystic fibrosis at health care centers harder at some points. (nationaljewish.org)
  • Behavioral Health Screening in Military Cystic Fibrosis Centers: A Survey. (bvsalud.org)
  • Our team focuses on both pulmonology and gastroenterology to give your child the most thorough cystic fibrosis treatment possible. (childrens.com)
  • Endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF) is an idiopathic disorder of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world that is characterized by the development of restrictive cardiomyopathy and fibrotic changes in the endocardium, usually limited to the cardiac apex. (medscape.com)
  • Ultimately, after several years of disease activity, the fibrotic phase is reached, when the endocardium is replaced by collagenous fibrosis. (medscape.com)
  • Cirrhosis CYR61 induction of cellular senescence in the kidney is a potential therapy to limit fibrosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The preclinical and clinical data on PTC124 support our hope that this drug will be an important disease-modifying therapy for cystic fibrosis," said Robert J. Beall, Ph.D., president and chief executive officer of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation in Bethesda, Md. "We look forward to the next stage of clinical development to demonstrate the benefits of this promising therapy. (news-medical.net)
  • Together, Cystic Fibrosis Canada and SickKids will create the Program for Individualized CF Therapy at SickKid s - a national resource dedicated to individualized CF drug discovery. (sickkidsfoundation.com)
  • Support the fight against CF by making a donation to the Program for Individualized Cystic Fibrosis Therapy. (sickkidsfoundation.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessively inherited disease, caused by mutations in the CF gene located at chromosome 7. (hindawi.com)
  • Nearly 1 in every 30 Americans are a carrier of the recessive gene that leads to CF (About Cystic Fibrosis, n.d. (bartleby.com)
  • Together, Cystic Fibrosis Canada and SickKids have driven a number of landmark discoveries in cystic fibrosis (CF) research, including identification of the gene responsible for CF in 1989. (sickkidsfoundation.com)
  • Researchers are also using the mini guts to try another approach they hope will someday work in people - using a gene editing technique to repair the faulty cystic fibrosis gene in the organoid cells. (seattletimes.com)
  • The suspected diagnosis of cystic fibrosis was confirmed with a sweat chloride level of 120 mmol/L and homo-zygozity for the Delta F 508 gene on genetic studies. (who.int)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) affects about 70,000 people globally. (healthline.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic condition that affects the body's epithelial cells. (kidshealth.org)
  • The Cystic Fibrosis Therapeutics Development Network , is the largest cystic fibrosis clinical trials network in the world. (childrens.com)
  • Michael Boyle, M.D. , is an internationally recognized cystic fibrosis expert with Johns Hopkins Medicine in Baltimore and senior vice president of therapeutics development of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Epix Pharmaceuticals and Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics (CFFT), a nonprofit affiliate of the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation, expanded their collaboration. (genengnews.com)
  • 277.09, Cystic fibrosis with other manifestations. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • Some authors have argued that in tropical eosinophilia, where the eosinophil count does climb to levels as high as 12,500/dL, endomyocardial fibrosis is rarely seen and the cardiac manifestations are limited, while severe eosinophilia is absent in EMF. (medscape.com)
  • Researchers now have a more complete understanding of the molecular-biological defect that underlies cystic fibrosis, which is leading to new approaches to treatment. (nih.gov)
  • Taken together, these studies report that fibrosis underlies LUTS/BPH in both humans and the CP1-induced mouse model. (nih.gov)
  • Glial scar Myocardial fibrosis has mainly two forms: Interstitial fibrosis, which has been described in congestive heart failure, hypertension, and normal aging. (wikipedia.org)
  • Replacement fibrosis, which indicates an older myocardial infarction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Replacement fibrosis in myocardial infarction, being boundless and dense. (wikipedia.org)
  • the underlying mechanisms of myocardial fibrosis in this specific entity remain unclear. (medscape.com)
  • Whether the eosinophil actually induces myocardial necrosis and subsequent fibrosis or is attracted to the endocardial surface as a result of the initial insult is unknown. (medscape.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis is the most common lethal genetic disease in white populations. (nih.gov)
  • Cellular silicotic nodules may resemble granulomas in the early stages, with progression to massive conglomerate fibrosis in the later stages of the disease. (cdc.gov)
  • It is often difficult to determine whether isolation mycobacteria (NTM) is increasing among persons with cys- of NTM represents colonization or disease that requires tic fibrosis (CF). We assessed prevalence and management treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • Our team of experts believes that effectively treating cystic fibrosis means focusing on both the pulmonary aspects of the disease and the resulting digestive tract complications. (childrens.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease, characterized by accumulation of thickened mucous secretions in exocrine glands. (hindawi.com)
  • Rush offers fast, accurate cystic fibrosis diagnosis - including sweat testing appointments within 72 hours - and expert disease management for a lifetime. (rush.edu)
  • If you or your child has cystic fibrosis , comprehensive care is key to managing the disease and slowing its progression to enable a longer, better life. (rush.edu)
  • Everyone who has cystic fibrosis experiences the disease differently, so it's crucial to be treated by experts who tailor a care plan to your unique situation. (rush.edu)
  • Cystic fibrosis may make the effects of COVID-19 more severe for some people, so it's important to continue to lower your risk of contracting the disease. (nationaljewish.org)
  • The Cystic Fibrosis Foundation is the world's leader in the search for a cure for CF and supports a broad range of research initiatives to tackle the disease from all angles. (cff.org)
  • Progressive fibrosis is the major pathological feature of CKD, which leads to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). (nature.com)
  • Years ago, individuals with cystic fibrosis would rarely live beyond his or her childhood, but now many individuals with the disease are living well into their adulthood (Falvo, 2014). (bartleby.com)
  • Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disease which is progressive and limits breathing ability. (bartleby.com)
  • This experiment to help people with rare forms of cystic fibrosis in the Netherlands aims to grow mini intestines for every Dutch patient with the disease to figure out, in part, what treatment might work for them. (seattletimes.com)
  • Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease that can be detected in newborn infants (i.e., those aged less than or equal to 1 month) by immunotrypsinogen testing. (cdc.gov)
  • EMF is sometimes considered part of a spectrum of a single disease process that includes Löeffler endocarditis (nontropical eosinophilic endomyocardial fibrosis or fibroplastic parietal endocarditis with eosinophilia). (medscape.com)
  • The present research investigates some repercussions a chronicle disease as the cystic fibrosis has in this process. (bvsalud.org)
  • Sequencing of cystic fibrosis with the documented manifestation or complication depends on the circumstances of admission. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • If a patient with cystic fibrosis is admitted due to a manifestation or complication, such as pneumothorax or intussusception, the manifestation or complication should be sequenced as the principal diagnosis and cystic fibrosis as the secondary diagnosis. (fortherecordmag.com)
  • Because of our affiliation with this network, your child will benefit from the latest drug trials, clinical studies and a wealth of research in cystic fibrosis treatment. (childrens.com)
  • If a cystic fibrosis patient does become sick with COVID-19, the patient's treatment may look the same as a patient without CF. (nationaljewish.org)
  • Treatment with Aramchol resulted in statistically significant fibrosis improvement in a validated bleomycin model of lung fibrosis (IPF), comparable to Pirfenidone which is the gold standard treatment. (prnewswire.com)
  • Our lead compound, Aramcholâ„¢, a backbone drug candidate for the treatment of NASH and fibrosis is currently in a Phase 3 registrational study. (prnewswire.com)
  • Semi-directive interviews were realized with three adolescents with cystic fibrosis to understand theirs perceptions about puberty, and their future planning and treatment adherence. (bvsalud.org)
  • The researchers reported significant alterations in the architecture of collagen ( i.e ., a surrogate marker for fibrosis) in prostate specimens from men who exhibited clinical progression compared to those who did not. (nih.gov)
  • The effect of Aramchol on fibrosis is mediated by downregulation of steatosis and directly on human collagen producing cells. (prnewswire.com)
  • The common pathological feature of CKD is the loss of tubular cells and progressive interstitial fibrosis. (nature.com)
  • [ 2 ] (nontropical eosinophilic endomyocardial fibrosis or fibroplastic parietal endocarditis with eosinophilia). (medscape.com)
  • The program is also a Cystic Fibrosis Foundation-designated Therapeutic Development Center and specializes in clinical trials to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new therapies. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Since the development of the immunoreactive trypsinogen test (IRT) for cystic fibrosis (CF), experts in the field of CF have considered adding this test to the newborn screening panel. (cdc.gov)