Digestive System Diseases
Digestive System
Nervous System Neoplasms
Peripheral Nervous System Neoplasms
Digestive System and Oral Physiological Phenomena
Digestive System Physiological Phenomena
Digestive System Processes
Digestive System Fistula
Gastrointestinal Tract
Clemastine
Gastrointestinal Neoplasms
Central Nervous System Neoplasms
Diagnostic Techniques, Digestive System
Gastrointestinal Diseases
Pancreas
Intestines
Neoplasms
Stomach
Larva
Tissue Distribution
Pancreatic Neoplasms
Cause of Death
Encyclopedias as Topic
Copyright
Organizations, Nonprofit
Gastrointestinal surgical workload in the DGH and the upper gastrointestinal surgeon. (1/276)
Workload implications of upper gastrointestinal (UGI) subspecialisation within the district general hospital (DGH) have been assessed by prospective data collection over a 12-month period in a DGH with six general surgeons serving a population of 320,000. The single UGI surgeon (UGIS) performed all ten oesophageal resections, ten of 11 gastric resections for malignancy and all eight pancreatic operations. He also performed 91 of the 182 cholecystectomies, 164 of the 250 endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatograms (ERCP) and all endoscopic procedures for the palliation of unresected oesophageal tumours. The UGIS was responsible for the management of all patients with severe pancreatitis, yet he also performed 51 colorectal resections over the 12-month period. Successful management of severely ill patients with upper GI disease requires consultant supervision on a day-to-day basis. If such UGI disease is to be managed in the DGH, two surgeons with UGI experience will be required if high quality care and reasonable working conditions are to be achieved. Such UGIS will continue to perform some colorectal surgery. (+info)Role of the surgical trainee in upper gastrointestinal resectional surgery. (2/276)
The 'New Deal' set out by the Department of Health in 1991, together with the introduction of specialist 6-year training grades by Calman in 1993, has resulted in a decrease in available training time for surgeons in the UK. There is also an emerging belief that surgical procedures performed by trainees might compromise patient outcome. This study examines the level of trainee experience in a specialist gastrointestinal unit and whether operation by a trainee surgeon adversely affects patient outcome. All patients in the University Department of Surgery, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, undergoing oesophagogastric, hepatic or pancreatic resection between January 1994 and December 1996 were entered into the study. The early clinical outcome (in-hospital mortality and morbidity, considered in three groups: anastomotic leak, other technique-related complications and non-technique-related complications) was evaluated with regard to the grade of surgeon (consultant or trainee) performing the operation. Of the 222 patients undergoing major upper gastrointestinal resection during the study period, 100 (45%) were operated on by trainees. Trainees were assisted and closely supervised by consultants in all but six resections. There was no major difference in mortality rate (consultant, 4.1% vs trainee, 5%), incidence of non-technique-related complications (consultant, 6.7% vs trainee, 7.1%), anastomotic leaks (consultant, 10.7% vs trainee, 5%) or technique-related complications (consultant, 18.9% vs trainee, 15%) between the two grades of surgeon. In a specialist unit, the early clinical outcome of patients undergoing major upper gastrointestinal resection by supervised trainees is no worse than in those operated on by consultants. Participation of trainees in such complex procedures enhances surgical training and does not jeopardise patient care. (+info)O6-benzylguanine: a clinical trial establishing the biochemical modulatory dose in tumor tissue for alkyltransferase-directed DNA repair. (3/276)
Early phase evaluation of anticancer drugs has traditionally used toxicity (usually hematological) rather than efficacy end points to establish appropriate dosing schedules. To establish a biochemical efficacy end point for overcoming alkylguanine DNA alkyltransferase (AGT)-mediated tumor cell resistance to 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea, we performed a novel dose escalation clinical trial for the AGT-depleting agent O6-benzylguanine (BG). The dose of BG required to deplete AGT to undetectable levels (BMD(T)) in sequential computed tomography-guided tumor tissue biopsies before BG and 18 h after BG was determined. Thirty patients received doses of BG ranging from 10 to 120 mg/m2. In tumor tissue, AGT depletion >86% of baseline was demonstrated at all doses tested. Residual tumor AGT activity, present 18 h after BG doses of 10-80 mg/m2, was eliminated at the 120 mg/m2 dose and is thus the BMD(T) of BG. BG pharmacokinetics are characterized by the rapid, dose-independent clearance of BG from plasma Metabolism of BG to its biologically active metabolite, 8-oxo-benzylguanine (8-oxo-BG), was found. The t(1/2) of 8-oxo-BG is longer than BG. Plasma concentrations of 8-oxo-BG well above 200 ng/ml 18 h after the end of the BG infusion were observed at the highest dose levels tested and appeared to correlate with depletion of AGT activity to undetectable levels in tumor tissue. AGT activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells at baseline did not correlate with tumor tissue AGT activity. Depletion of AGT activity to undetectable levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells occurred at lower doses and was not a reliable predictor for tumor tissue depletion. No serious side effects were observed with administration of BG alone or in combination with 13 mg/m2 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. This is the first clinical study in which biochemical analyses from pre- and posttreatment tumor biopsies have been used as an efficacy end point for the clinical development of an anticancer agent. From our tumor tissue biopsy data, we have established that a BG dose of 120 mg/m2 infused over 1 h should be used in Phase II clinical trials. (+info)Multi-institutional randomized clinical study on the comparative effects of intracavital chemotherapy alone versus immunotherapy alone versus immunochemotherapy for malignant effusion. (4/276)
The current prospective randomized study was designed to compare the effects of intracavitary (i.c.) chemotherapy vs immunotherapy vs immunochemotherapy for malignant effusion. Between 1992 and 1995, a total of 42 patients with malignant effusion were registered, and 41 patients were eligible for statistical analysis. The primary diseases of the eligible patients included 27 gastric, four colorectal, four pancreatic, three lung, two liver and one oesophageal cancers. The patients with malignant effusion were randomly assigned into one of three i.c. therapeutic regimens: chemotherapy alone with weekly injection of anticancer agents (ACAs: cisplatin, mitomycin-C, adriamycin, etc.) (Group A, n = 13); immunotherapy alone with weekly injection of streptococcal preparation OK-432 (Group B, n = 14); or immunochemotherapy with ACAs and OK-432 (Group C, n = 14). The response of the effusion, patient survival and the kinetics of cytokines in the effusion were compared. There were no differences in the patients' backgrounds. The side-effects of the regimens included pain, anorexia, fever, leucopenia and anaemia and there were no differences in their incidence among the three groups. One patient died after cisplatin (CDDP) administration in Group A. Cytologic examination revealed that tumour cells in the effusion disappeared in 23% of Group A cases, 36% of Group B cases and 36% of Group C cases. The malignant effusion did not disappear in any of the Group A cases; however, the effusion disappeared in 29% of Group B cases and 43% of Group C cases (P = 0.03, Group A vs Group C). Furthermore, the 50% survival period was 1.6 months for Group A, 2.4 months for Group B and 3.5 months for Group C. The 6-month survival rate was 7% for Group A, 6% for Group B and 34% for Group C, and the 1-year survival rate was 0%, 0% and 17% respectively (P = 0.048, Group A vs Group C by the log-rank test). The analysis of the cytokine kinetics revealed a prominent increase in the level of interleukin-6 in the effusion in Group C. These results suggest that i.c. immunochemotherapy with OK-432 and ACAs may be more beneficial than i.c. chemotherapy alone or immunotherapy alone. (+info)Analyzing health surveys for cancer-related objectives. (5/276)
Large-scale health surveys conducted by government agencies record information on a large number of health-related variables. We review the use of these data for performing analyses that address cancer-related objectives. After describing the conduct of a large-scale health survey (the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES III]), we discuss some of the issues involved in analyzing data collected in such a survey. In particular, the use of sample weights in the analysis and the importance of accounting for the complex survey design when estimating standard errors are discussed. Six applications are then presented that involve the following: 1) estimating demographic factors associated with snuff use, 2) estimating the association of type of health insurance with the probability of receiving a digital rectal examination, 3) estimating the association of body iron stores with the probability of later developing cancer, 4) estimating the changing rates of mammography screening in the United States between 1987 and 1992, 5) evaluating smoking and alcohol consumption as risk factors for digestive cancer by use of a population-based, case-control study, and 6) evaluating a randomized community-intervention experiment to encourage smoking cessation. These applications use data from the National Health Interview Survey, the NHANES I Epidemiologic Followup Study, the 1986 National Mortality Followback Survey, and the Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation. The availability of public-use data files is discussed for surveys sponsored by the U.S. government that collect health-related information. We demonstrate that statistical methods and computer software are available for analyzing public-use data files of surveys to address different types of cancer-related objectives. (+info)High inter- and intrapatient variation in 5-fluorouracil plasma concentrations during a prolonged drug infusion. (6/276)
The purpose of the study was to examine inter- and intrapatient variation in 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) plasma concentrations in adult cancer patients receiving a 3-day drug infusion. Fourteen patients received 1266 mg/m2 N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-aspartate (PALA) infused i.v. over 15 min on day 1, followed immediately by a loading dose of 500 mg/m2 calcium leucovorin over 30 min. Then a prolonged infusion of leucovorin at 500 mg/m2/day and 5-FU at 1750 mg/m2/day was administered as either a constant rate or as a circadian infusion over 72 h. During constant rate infusions, 5-FU concentrations within individuals varied by 1.7-fold, but no uniform time of peak or trough concentration was observed. Transformation of these data by setting the time of peak to 0 h and by expressing concentrations as the percentage of the 24-h mean value revealed a nonrandom distribution of the time from peak to trough with a median time of 12 h (P = 0.027). These transformed data were also successfully fit to a circadian cosinor function (P < 0.001). During multiple constant rate 5-FU infusions, the intrapatient variability was high; the times of peak 5-FU concentration occurred at the same approximate sampling time 43% of the time, and troughs coincided 17% of the time. No difference in clinical toxicity was observed when matched constant rate and circadian infusions of 5-FU were compared. High inter- and intrapatient variability exists in 5-FU plasma concentrations in adult cancer patients during constant rate infusions with no evidence of a consistent circadian rhythm in untransformed data. (+info)Fish consumption and cancer risk. (7/276)
BACKGROUND: Although several studies have investigated the relation between fish consumption and the risk of cardiovascular diseases, less attention has been paid to the relation between fish consumption and cancer risk. OBJECTIVE: The relation between frequency of consumption of fish and risk of selected neoplasms was analyzed by using data from an integrated series of case-control studies conducted in northern Italy between 1983 and 1996. DESIGN: The overall data set included the following incident, histologically confirmed neoplasms: oral cavity and pharynx (n = 181), esophagus (n = 316), stomach (n = 745), colon (n = 828), rectum (n = 498), liver (n = 428), gallbladder (n = 60), pancreas (n = 362), larynx (n = 242), breast (n = 3412), endometrium (n = 750), ovary (n = 971), prostate (n = 127), bladder (n = 431), kidney (n = 190), thyroid (n = 208), Hodgkin disease (n = 80), non-Hodgkin lymphomas (n = 200), and multiple myelomas (n = 120). Control subjects were 7990 patients admitted for acute, nonneoplastic conditions unrelated to long-term modifications of diet. Odds ratios (ORs) were computed for subsequent levels of fish consumption compared with no or occasional consumption (<1 serving/wk) by using multiple logistic regression, including terms for several covariates. RESULTS: There was a consistent pattern of protection against the risk of digestive tract cancers with fish consumption: oral cavity and pharynx, OR = 0.5 for the highest compared with the lowest level of consumption; esophagus, OR = 0.6; stomach, OR = 0.7; colon, OR = 0.6; rectum, OR = 0.5; and pancreas, OR = 0.7. There were inverse trends in risk of larynx (OR = 0.7), endometrial (OR = 0.8), and ovarian (OR = 0.7) cancers and multiple myeloma (OR = 0.5). No pattern of cancer risk in relation to fish consumption was observed for cancers of the liver, gallbladder, breast, bladder, kidney, or thyroid or for lymphomas. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that the consumption of even relatively small amounts of fish is a favorable indicator of the risk of several cancers, especially of the digestive tract. (+info)Nuclear retinoid acid receptor beta in bronchial epithelium of smokers before and during chemoprevention. (8/276)
BACKGROUND: Retinoids can reverse neoplastic lesions and prevent second primary tumors in the aerodigestive tract. These effects are thought to be mediated by nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs), each receptor group including three subtypes (alpha, beta, and gamma). Previously, we found that RARbeta expression was suppressed in lung cancer. In this study, we investigated whether expression of RARbeta is modulated by chemopreventive intervention. METHODS: Using in situ hybridization, we analyzed RARbeta messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in bronchial biopsy specimens from heavy smokers, at baseline and after 6 months of treatment with 13-cis-retinoic acid (13-cis-RA) or placebo. Since we had previously detected RARbeta expression in 90% of bronchial specimens from nonsmokers, we considered loss of RARbeta mRNA expression in at least one of six biopsy specimens at baseline in this study to be aberrant. RESULTS: RARbeta mRNA expression was aberrant in 30 (85.7%) of 35 subjects in the 13-cis-RA group and in 24 (72.7%) of 33 subjects in the placebo group. After 6 months of 13-cis-RA treatment, the number of subjects who were RARbeta positive in all six biopsy specimens increased from five of 35 to 13 of 35 (2.6-fold), so that the percentage of individuals with aberrant RARbeta expression decreased to 62.9% (22 of 35), which represents a statistically significant difference from baseline expression (two-sided P =.01). In the placebo group, no statistically significant difference in RARbeta expression was observed between baseline and 6 months. RARbeta expression was not related to current smoking status or reversal of squamous metaplasia. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that RARbeta is an independent marker of response to 13-cis-RA and may serve as an intermediate biomarker in chemoprevention trials of upper aerodigestive tract cancers. (+info)'Digestive System Neoplasms' refer to new and abnormal growths of tissue in the digestive system that can be benign or malignant. These growths are also known as tumors, and they can occur in any part of the digestive system, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon and rectum), liver, bile ducts, pancreas, and gallbladder. Neoplasms in the digestive system can interfere with normal digestion and absorption of nutrients, cause bleeding, obstruct the digestive tract, and spread to other parts of the body (metastasis) if they are malignant.
Benign neoplasms are not cancerous and do not usually spread to other parts of the body. They can often be removed surgically and may not require further treatment. Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous and can invade nearby tissues and organs and spread to other parts of the body. Treatment for malignant neoplasms in the digestive system typically involves a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.
The causes of digestive system neoplasms are varied and include genetic factors, environmental exposures, lifestyle factors (such as diet and smoking), and infectious agents. Prevention strategies may include maintaining a healthy diet, avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption, practicing safe sex, getting vaccinated against certain viral infections, and undergoing regular screenings for certain types of neoplasms (such as colonoscopies for colorectal cancer).
The digestive system, also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is a series of organs that process food and liquids into nutrients and waste. Digestive system diseases refer to any conditions that affect the normal functioning of this system, leading to impaired digestion, absorption, or elimination of food and fluids.
Some common examples of digestive system diseases include:
1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): A condition where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms such as heartburn, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing.
2. Peptic Ulcer Disease: Sores or ulcers that develop in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infection or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
3. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A group of chronic inflammatory conditions that affect the intestines, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
4. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.
5. Celiac Disease: An autoimmune disorder where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine, impairing nutrient absorption.
6. Diverticular Disease: A condition that affects the colon, characterized by the formation of small pouches or sacs (diverticula) that can become inflamed or infected.
7. Constipation: A common digestive system issue where bowel movements occur less frequently than usual or are difficult to pass.
8. Diarrhea: Loose, watery stools that occur more frequently than normal, often accompanied by cramps and bloating.
9. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder, causing pain, inflammation, and potential blockages of the bile ducts.
10. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver, often caused by viral infections or toxins, leading to symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, and abdominal pain.
These are just a few examples of digestive system disorders that can affect overall health and quality of life. If you experience any persistent or severe digestive symptoms, it is important to seek medical attention from a healthcare professional.
The digestive system is a complex group of organs and glands that process food. It converts the food we eat into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. The digestive system also eliminates waste from the body. It is made up of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food.
The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Other organs that are part of the digestive system include the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands.
The process of digestion begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. The food then travels down the esophagus and into the stomach, where it is broken down further by stomach acids. The digested food then moves into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. The remaining waste material passes into the large intestine, where it is stored until it is eliminated through the anus.
The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder play important roles in the digestive process as well. The liver produces bile, a substance that helps break down fats in the small intestine. The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The gallbladder stores bile until it is needed in the small intestine.
Overall, the digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. It plays a critical role in maintaining our health and well-being.
Nervous system neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors that occur within the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. These tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and their growth can compress or infiltrate surrounding tissues, leading to various neurological symptoms. The causes of nervous system neoplasms are not fully understood but may involve genetic factors, exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, and certain viral infections. Treatment options depend on the type, location, and size of the tumor and can include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) neoplasms refer to tumors that originate in the peripheral nerves, which are the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. These tumors can be benign or malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors, such as schwannomas and neurofibromas, grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors, such as malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNSTs), can invade nearby tissues and may metastasize (spread) to other organs.
PNS neoplasms can cause various symptoms depending on their location and size. Common symptoms include pain, weakness, numbness, or tingling in the affected area. In some cases, PNS neoplasms may not cause any symptoms until they become quite large. Treatment options for PNS neoplasms depend on several factors, including the type, size, and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.
The digestive system is a series of organs and glands that work together to break down food into nutrients, which the body can absorb and use for energy, growth, and cell repair. The process begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva, which contains enzymes that begin breaking down carbohydrates.
The oral physiological phenomena refer to the functions and processes that occur in the mouth during eating and digestion. These include:
1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion: The physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces by chewing, which increases the surface area for enzymes to act on.
3. Chemical digestion: The chemical breakdown of food molecules into simpler substances that can be absorbed and utilized by the body. In the mouth, this is initiated by salivary amylase, an enzyme found in saliva that breaks down starches into simple sugars.
4. Taste perception: The ability to detect different flavors through specialized taste buds located on the tongue and other areas of the oral cavity.
5. Olfaction: The sense of smell, which contributes to the overall flavor experience by interacting with taste perception in the brain.
6. Salivation: The production of saliva, which helps moisten food, making it easier to swallow, and contains enzymes that begin the digestion process.
7. Protective mechanisms: The mouth has several defense mechanisms to protect against harmful bacteria and other pathogens, such as the flow of saliva, which helps wash away food particles, and the presence of antibacterial compounds in saliva.
The digestive system is a complex network of organs and glands that work together to break down food into nutrients, which are then absorbed and utilized by the body for energy, growth, and cell repair. The physiological phenomena associated with the digestive system include:
1. Ingestion: This is the process of taking in food through the mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion: This involves the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces through processes such as chewing, churning, and segmentation.
3. Chemical digestion: This involves the chemical breakdown of food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed by the body. This is achieved through the action of enzymes produced by the mouth, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.
4. Motility: This refers to the movement of food through the digestive tract, which is achieved through a series of coordinated muscle contractions called peristalsis.
5. Secretion: This involves the production and release of various digestive juices and enzymes by glands such as the salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, and liver.
6. Absorption: This is the process of absorbing nutrients from the digested food into the bloodstream through the walls of the small intestine.
7. Defecation: This is the final process of eliminating undigested food and waste products from the body through the rectum and anus.
Overall, the coordinated functioning of these physiological phenomena ensures the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients, maintaining the health and well-being of the individual.
The digestive system is a series of organs and glands that work together to break down food into nutrients, absorb those nutrients into the body, and eliminate waste. The following are the main processes involved in the digestive system:
1. Ingestion: This is the process of taking food into the mouth and chewing it to make it easier to swallow.
2. Mechanical digestion: This involves physically breaking down food into smaller pieces through chewing, churning, and segmentation movements of the muscles in the stomach and intestines.
3. Chemical digestion: This is the process of breaking down food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed by the body. This is accomplished by enzymes secreted by various glands, including the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.
4. Absorption: Once food molecules are broken down into simple forms, they are absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the small intestine.
5. Distribution: The absorbed nutrients are then distributed to different cells and tissues throughout the body through the circulatory system.
6. Defecation: This is the process of eliminating waste products from the body through the rectum and anus.
Overall, the digestive system plays a critical role in maintaining health and providing the necessary nutrients for the body to function properly.
A digestive system fistula is an abnormal connection or passageway that forms between the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the stomach, small intestine, colon, or rectum, and another organ, tissue, or the skin. Fistulas can develop as a result of injury, surgery, infection, inflammation, or cancer.
In the digestive system, fistulas can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, and malnutrition. The severity of these symptoms depends on the location and size of the fistula, as well as the underlying cause. Treatment for a digestive system fistula may involve antibiotics to treat infection, nutritional support, and surgical repair of the fistula.
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is responsible for ingesting, digesting, absorbing, and excreting food and waste materials. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum, anus), and accessory organs such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The primary function of this system is to process and extract nutrients from food while also protecting the body from harmful substances, pathogens, and toxins.
Clemastine is an antihistamine medication that is used to relieve symptoms of allergies, such as runny nose, sneezing, and itchy or watery eyes. It works by blocking the action of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic symptoms. Clemastine is available in oral tablet and liquid forms, and is typically taken twice daily with a full glass of water.
Common side effects of clemastine include drowsiness, dry mouth, headache, and upset stomach. It is important to avoid activities that require mental alertness, such as driving or operating heavy machinery, until you know how the medication affects you. Clemastine may also cause dizziness, so it is best to avoid getting up too quickly from a sitting or lying position.
Like all medications, clemastine should be taken only as directed by your healthcare provider. It is important to inform them of any other medications you are taking, as well as any medical conditions you may have, as clemastine can interact with certain drugs and may not be suitable for everyone.
Gastrointestinal (GI) neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the gastrointestinal tract, which can be benign or malignant. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
Benign neoplasms are non-cancerous growths that do not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. They can sometimes be removed completely and may not cause any further health problems.
Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous growths that can invade nearby tissues and organs and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. These types of neoplasms can be life-threatening if not diagnosed and treated promptly.
GI neoplasms can cause various symptoms, including abdominal pain, bloating, changes in bowel habits, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and anemia. The specific symptoms may depend on the location and size of the neoplasm.
There are many types of GI neoplasms, including adenocarcinomas, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), lymphomas, and neuroendocrine tumors. The diagnosis of GI neoplasms typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies, and biopsy. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy.
Central nervous system (CNS) neoplasms refer to a group of abnormal growths or tumors that develop within the brain or spinal cord. These tumors can be benign or malignant, and their growth can compress or disrupt the normal functioning of surrounding brain or spinal cord tissue.
Benign CNS neoplasms are slow-growing and rarely spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause significant problems if they grow large enough to put pressure on vital structures within the brain or spinal cord. Malignant CNS neoplasms, on the other hand, are aggressive tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue. They may also spread to other parts of the CNS or, rarely, to other organs in the body.
CNS neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain or spinal cord, including nerve cells, glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), and supportive tissues such as blood vessels. The specific type of CNS neoplasm is often used to help guide treatment decisions and determine prognosis.
Symptoms of CNS neoplasms can vary widely depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis, vision or hearing changes, balance problems, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality. Treatment options for CNS neoplasms may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.
The digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that process food. Abnormalities in the digestive system can refer to a wide range of conditions that affect any part of the system, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. These abnormalities can be present at birth (congenital) or acquired later in life due to various factors such as infection, inflammation, injury, or disease.
Some examples of digestive system abnormalities include:
1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): A condition where the stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and damage to the esophageal lining.
2. Peptic Ulcers: Open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infections or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
3. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A group of chronic inflammatory conditions of the intestine, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
4. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits.
5. Celiac Disease: An autoimmune disorder where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine.
6. Diverticulosis: The presence of small pouches or sacs that form on the lining of the intestine, which can become inflamed or infected (diverticulitis).
7. Hiatal Hernia: A condition where a portion of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the chest cavity.
8. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver, often caused by viral infections or toxins.
9. Cirrhosis: A chronic liver disease characterized by scarring and loss of liver function, often due to long-term alcohol abuse or hepatitis.
10. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder and can cause pain and inflammation.
These are just a few examples of gastrointestinal disorders, and there are many others. If you are experiencing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, or difficulty swallowing, it is important to speak with your healthcare provider to determine the cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.
Diagnostic techniques for the digestive system are medical tests and procedures used to diagnose and evaluate various conditions and diseases related to the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and associated organs. These techniques can be categorized into invasive and non-invasive methods.
Non-invasive diagnostic techniques:
1. Imaging tests: These include X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) scans, and ultrasounds. They help visualize the structure and function of the digestive organs without requiring any invasive procedures.
2. Laboratory tests: Blood, stool, and urine samples can be analyzed to detect signs of infection, inflammation, or other abnormalities related to digestive system disorders. Examples include complete blood count (CBC), liver function tests (LFTs), coagulation studies, and fecal occult blood test (FOBT).
3. Breath tests: These are used to diagnose conditions like lactose intolerance, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), or helicobacter pylori infection by analyzing the patient's exhaled air after consuming a specific substance.
Invasive diagnostic techniques:
1. Endoscopy: A thin, flexible tube with a light and camera attached to its end is inserted through the mouth or rectum to directly visualize the GI tract's inner lining. There are different types of endoscopies, such as gastroscopy (esophagus, stomach, and duodenum), colonoscopy (colon and rectum), sigmoidoscopy (lower part of the colon), and enteroscopy (small intestine).
2. Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): This combines endoscopy with ultrasound technology to provide detailed images of the digestive organs' structure and surrounding tissues, allowing for accurate diagnosis and staging of conditions like cancer.
3. Biopsy: During an endoscopy or surgery, a small tissue sample can be taken from the affected area for further examination under a microscope to confirm a diagnosis or assess the severity of a condition.
4. Capsule endoscopy: A patient swallows a tiny camera-equipped capsule that transmits images as it passes through the GI tract, allowing doctors to diagnose conditions in the small intestine that may be difficult to reach with traditional endoscopes.
5. Imaging studies: Procedures like computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or positron emission tomography (PET) scans can provide detailed images of the digestive organs and help diagnose conditions like tumors, inflammation, or obstructions.
These diagnostic techniques help healthcare providers identify and manage various gastrointestinal conditions, ensuring appropriate treatment and improved patient outcomes.
Gastrointestinal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which includes the organs from the mouth to the anus, responsible for food digestion, absorption, and elimination of waste. These diseases can affect any part of the GI tract, causing various symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss.
Common gastrointestinal diseases include:
1. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - a condition where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and other symptoms.
2. Peptic ulcers - sores that develop in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infection or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
3. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) - a group of chronic inflammatory conditions of the intestine, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
4. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) - a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits.
5. Celiac disease - an autoimmune disorder where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine.
6. Diverticular disease - a condition that affects the colon, causing diverticula (small pouches) to form and potentially become inflamed or infected.
7. Constipation - a common gastrointestinal symptom characterized by infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, and difficulty passing stools.
8. Diarrhea - a common gastrointestinal symptom characterized by loose, watery stools and frequent bowel movements.
9. Food intolerances and allergies - adverse reactions to specific foods or food components that can cause various gastrointestinal symptoms.
10. Gastrointestinal infections - caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that can lead to a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.
The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.
The intestines, also known as the bowel, are a part of the digestive system that extends from the stomach to the anus. They are responsible for the further breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food, as well as the elimination of waste products. The intestines can be divided into two main sections: the small intestine and the large intestine.
The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that measures about 20 feet in length and is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase its surface area and enhance nutrient absorption. The small intestine is where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place.
The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a wider tube that measures about 5 feet in length and is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from digested food, forming stool, and eliminating waste products from the body. The large intestine includes several regions, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.
Together, the intestines play a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being by ensuring that the body receives the nutrients it needs to function properly.
Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.
Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.
Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.
In anatomical terms, the stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ located in the upper left portion of the abdomen. It is part of the gastrointestinal tract and plays a crucial role in digestion. The stomach's primary functions include storing food, mixing it with digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid to break down proteins, and slowly emptying the partially digested food into the small intestine for further absorption of nutrients.
The stomach is divided into several regions, including the cardia (the area nearest the esophagus), the fundus (the upper portion on the left side), the body (the main central part), and the pylorus (the narrowed region leading to the small intestine). The inner lining of the stomach, called the mucosa, is protected by a layer of mucus that prevents the digestive juices from damaging the stomach tissue itself.
In medical contexts, various conditions can affect the stomach, such as gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), peptic ulcers (sores in the stomach or duodenum), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and stomach cancer. Symptoms related to the stomach may include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, and difficulty swallowing.
A larva is a distinct stage in the life cycle of various insects, mites, and other arthropods during which they undergo significant metamorphosis before becoming adults. In a medical context, larvae are known for their role in certain parasitic infections. Specifically, some helminth (parasitic worm) species use larval forms to infect human hosts. These invasions may lead to conditions such as cutaneous larva migrans, visceral larva migrans, or gnathostomiasis, depending on the specific parasite involved and the location of the infection within the body.
The larval stage is characterized by its markedly different morphology and behavior compared to the adult form. Larvae often have a distinct appearance, featuring unsegmented bodies, simple sense organs, and undeveloped digestive systems. They are typically adapted for a specific mode of life, such as free-living or parasitic existence, and rely on external sources of nutrition for their development.
In the context of helminth infections, larvae may be transmitted to humans through various routes, including ingestion of contaminated food or water, direct skin contact with infective stages, or transmission via an intermediate host (such as a vector). Once inside the human body, these parasitic larvae can cause tissue damage and provoke immune responses, leading to the clinical manifestations of disease.
It is essential to distinguish between the medical definition of 'larva' and its broader usage in biology and zoology. In those fields, 'larva' refers to any juvenile form that undergoes metamorphosis before reaching adulthood, regardless of whether it is parasitic or not.
Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.
Liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the liver that can be benign or malignant. Benign liver neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant liver neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and spread to other organs.
Liver neoplasms can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or secondary, meaning they have metastasized (spread) to the liver from another part of the body. Primary liver neoplasms can be further classified into different types based on their cell of origin and behavior, including hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, and hepatic hemangioma.
The diagnosis of liver neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options depend on the type and extent of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or liver transplantation.
Stomach neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the stomach that can be benign or malignant. They include a wide range of conditions such as:
1. Gastric adenomas: These are benign tumors that develop from glandular cells in the stomach lining.
2. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs): These are rare tumors that can be found in the stomach and other parts of the digestive tract. They originate from the stem cells in the wall of the digestive tract.
3. Leiomyomas: These are benign tumors that develop from smooth muscle cells in the stomach wall.
4. Lipomas: These are benign tumors that develop from fat cells in the stomach wall.
5. Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs): These are tumors that develop from the neuroendocrine cells in the stomach lining. They can be benign or malignant.
6. Gastric carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the glandular cells in the stomach lining. They are the most common type of stomach neoplasm and include adenocarcinomas, signet ring cell carcinomas, and others.
7. Lymphomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the immune cells in the stomach wall.
Stomach neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and difficulty swallowing. The diagnosis of stomach neoplasms usually involves a combination of imaging tests, endoscopy, and biopsy. Treatment options depend on the type and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or targeted therapy.
Pancreatic neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the pancreas that can be benign or malignant. The pancreas is a gland located behind the stomach that produces hormones and digestive enzymes. Pancreatic neoplasms can interfere with the normal functioning of the pancreas, leading to various health complications.
Benign pancreatic neoplasms are non-cancerous growths that do not spread to other parts of the body. They are usually removed through surgery to prevent any potential complications, such as blocking the bile duct or causing pain.
Malignant pancreatic neoplasms, also known as pancreatic cancer, are cancerous growths that can invade and destroy surrounding tissues and organs. They can also spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or bones. Pancreatic cancer is often aggressive and difficult to treat, with a poor prognosis.
There are several types of pancreatic neoplasms, including adenocarcinomas, neuroendocrine tumors, solid pseudopapillary neoplasms, and cystic neoplasms. The specific type of neoplasm is determined through various diagnostic tests, such as imaging studies, biopsies, and blood tests. Treatment options depend on the type, stage, and location of the neoplasm, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences.
The "cause of death" is a medical determination of the disease, injury, or event that directly results in a person's death. This information is typically documented on a death certificate and may be used for public health surveillance, research, and legal purposes. The cause of death is usually determined by a physician based on their clinical judgment and any available medical evidence, such as laboratory test results, autopsy findings, or eyewitness accounts. In some cases, the cause of death may be uncertain or unknown, and the death may be classified as "natural," "accidental," "homicide," or "suicide" based on the available information.
An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
Copyright is a legal concept that gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to its use and distribution, usually for a limited period of time. In the medical field, copyright protection can apply to various works such as medical textbooks, journal articles, educational materials, software, and multimedia presentations. It is important to note that copyright law seeks to strike a balance between protecting the rights of creators and promoting the progress of science and knowledge by allowing for limited use of copyrighted material under certain circumstances, such as fair use.
It's worth mentioning that while copyright protection can apply to medical works, there are also exceptions and limitations to copyright law that may allow for the use of copyrighted material without permission from the copyright owner in certain situations. For example, in the United States, the "fair use" doctrine allows for limited use of copyrighted material without obtaining permission from the copyright owner, depending on factors such as the purpose and character of the use, the nature of the copyrighted work, the amount and substantiality of the portion used, and the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.
When using medical works that are protected by copyright, it is important to obtain permission from the copyright owner or ensure that the use falls under an exception or limitation to copyright law, such as fair use, in order to avoid infringing on the exclusive rights of the copyright owner.
Nonprofit organizations in the medical context are private entities that operate on a nonprofit basis and are typically dedicated to furthering a particular social, healthcare-related, or advocacy mission. They are usually tax-exempt and rely on donations, grants, and sometimes membership fees to support their work. Examples of nonprofit organizations in the medical field include hospitals, clinics, research institutions, patient advocacy groups, and health-related foundations. Their primary goal is to provide services or conduct activities that benefit the community or a specific group, rather than generating profits for shareholders or owners.
A patent, in the context of medicine and healthcare, generally refers to a government-granted exclusive right for an inventor to manufacture, use, or sell their invention for a certain period of time, typically 20 years from the filing date. In the medical field, patents may cover a wide range of inventions, including new drugs, medical devices, diagnostic methods, and even genetic sequences.
The purpose of patents is to provide incentives for innovation by allowing inventors to profit from their inventions. However, patents can also have significant implications for access to medical technologies and healthcare costs. For example, a patent on a life-saving drug may give the patent holder the exclusive right to manufacture and sell the drug, potentially limiting access and driving up prices.
It's worth noting that the patent system is complex and varies from country to country. In some cases, there may be ways to challenge or circumvent patents in order to increase access to medical technologies, such as through compulsory licensing or generic substitution.
Pancreaticoduodenectomy, also known as the Whipple procedure, is a complex surgical operation that involves the removal of the head of the pancreas, the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine), the gallbladder, and the distal common bile duct. In some cases, a portion of the stomach may also be removed. The remaining parts of the pancreas, bile duct, and intestines are then reconnected to allow for the digestion of food and drainage of bile.
This procedure is typically performed as a treatment for various conditions affecting the pancreas, such as tumors (including pancreatic cancer), chronic pancreatitis, or traumatic injuries. It is a major surgical operation that requires significant expertise and experience to perform safely and effectively.