A class of G-protein-coupled receptors that are specific for CANNABINOIDS such as those derived from CANNABIS. They also bind a structurally distinct class of endogenous factors referred to as ENDOCANNABINOIDS. The receptor class may play a role in modulating the release of signaling molecules such as NEUROTRANSMITTERS and CYTOKINES.
Compounds that interact with and modulate the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on central and peripheral NEURONS where it may play a role modulating NEUROTRANSMITTER release.
A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on immune cells where it may play a role modulating release of CYTOKINES.
Compounds that interact with and stimulate the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
A structurally diverse group of compounds distinguished from ESTROGENS by their ability to bind and activate ESTROGEN RECEPTORS but act as either an agonist or antagonist depending on the tissue type and hormonal milieu. They are classified as either first generation because they demonstrate estrogen agonist properties in the ENDOMETRIUM or second generation based on their patterns of tissue specificity. (Horm Res 1997;48:155-63)
Compounds having the cannabinoid structure. They were originally extracted from Cannabis sativa L. The most pharmacologically active constituents are TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL; CANNABINOL; and CANNABIDIOL.
Compounds that inhibit or block the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.
Fatty acid derivatives that have specificity for CANNABINOID RECEPTORS. They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR AGONISTS.
Monohydroxy derivatives of cyclohexanes that contain the general formula R-C6H11O. They have a camphorlike odor and are used in making soaps, insecticides, germicides, dry cleaning, and plasticizers.
OXAZINES with a fused BENZENE ring.
A psychoactive compound extracted from the resin of Cannabis sativa (marihuana, hashish). The isomer delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is considered the most active form, producing characteristic mood and perceptual changes associated with this compound.
Azoles of two nitrogens at the 1,2 positions, next to each other, in contrast with IMIDAZOLES in which they are at the 1,3 positions.
Amides composed of unsaturated aliphatic FATTY ACIDS linked with AMINES by an amide bond. They are most prominent in ASTERACEAE; PIPERACEAE; and RUTACEAE; and also found in ARISTOLOCHIACEAE; BRASSICACEAE; CONVOLVULACEAE; EUPHORBIACEAE; MENISPERMACEAE; POACEAE; and SOLANACEAE. They are recognized by their pungent taste and for causing numbing and salivation.
A second generation selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) used to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. It has estrogen agonist effects on bone and cholesterol metabolism but behaves as a complete estrogen antagonist on mammary gland and uterine tissue.
A family of hexahydropyridines.
Proteins that bind specific drugs with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Drug receptors are generally thought to be receptors for some endogenous substance not otherwise specified.
Two-ring crystalline hydrocarbons isolated from coal tar. They are used as intermediates in chemical synthesis, as insect repellents, fungicides, lubricants, preservatives, and, formerly, as topical antiseptics.
Arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids, specifically a type of omega-6 fatty acid, that are essential for human nutrition and play crucial roles in various biological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors to eicosanoids, which are hormone-like substances that mediate a wide range of physiological responses.
Morpholines are organic compounds containing a morpholine ring, which is a saturated six-membered heterocycle made up of four carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms (OCC1CCO), often used as functional groups in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials science due to their versatile chemical properties.
Bornanes are a class of bicyclic organic compounds, specifically sesquiterpenes, that contain a bornane skeleton, consisting of a cyclohexane ring fused to a cyclopentane ring, and can be found in various essential oils and plants.
GLYCEROL esterified with FATTY ACIDS.
Pregnadienes which have undergone ring contractions or are lacking carbon-18 or carbon-19.
Substances that possess antiestrogenic actions but can also produce estrogenic effects as well. They act as complete or partial agonist or as antagonist. They can be either steroidal or nonsteroidal in structure.
Compound isolated from Cannabis sativa extract.
Amidohydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of amides and related compounds, playing a crucial role in various biological processes including the breakdown and synthesis of bioactive molecules.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of glycerol monoesters of long-chain fatty acids EC 3.1.1.23.
One of the SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATORS with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the ENDOMETRIUM.
Compounds which inhibit or antagonize the action or biosynthesis of estrogenic compounds.
Compounds capable of relieving pain without the loss of CONSCIOUSNESS.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
A physiologically inactive constituent of Cannabis sativa L.
Substances that do not act as agonists or antagonists but do affect the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID receptor-ionophore complex. GABA-A receptors (RECEPTORS, GABA-A) appear to have at least three allosteric sites at which modulators act: a site at which BENZODIAZEPINES act by increasing the opening frequency of GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-activated chloride channels; a site at which BARBITURATES act to prolong the duration of channel opening; and a site at which some steroids may act. GENERAL ANESTHETICS probably act at least partly by potentiating GABAergic responses, but they are not included here.
Thiophenes are aromatic heterocyclic organic compounds containing a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom, which are found in various natural substances and synthesized for use in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.
A molecule that binds to another molecule, used especially to refer to a small molecule that binds specifically to a larger molecule, e.g., an antigen binding to an antibody, a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, or a substrate or allosteric effector binding to an enzyme. Ligands are also molecules that donate or accept a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond with the central metal atom of a coordination complex. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
The plant genus in the Cannabaceae plant family, Urticales order, Hamamelidae subclass. The flowering tops are called many slang terms including pot, marijuana, hashish, bhang, and ganja. The stem is an important source of hemp fiber.
Derivatives of propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol). They are used as humectants and solvents in pharmaceutical preparations.
Benzopyrroles with the nitrogen at the number one carbon adjacent to the benzyl portion, in contrast to ISOINDOLES which have the nitrogen away from the six-membered ring.
One of the ESTROGEN RECEPTORS that has marked affinity for ESTRADIOL. Its expression and function differs from, and in some ways opposes, ESTROGEN RECEPTOR BETA.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
Cytoplasmic proteins that bind estrogens and migrate to the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. Evaluation of the state of estrogen receptors in breast cancer patients has become clinically important.
The surgical removal of one or both ovaries.
A subfamily of lysophospholipid receptors with specificity for LYSOSPHINGOLIPIDS such as sphingosine-1-phosphate and sphingosine phosphorylcholine.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A benign tumor derived from smooth muscle tissue, also known as a fibroid tumor. They rarely occur outside of the UTERUS and the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT but can occur in the SKIN and SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE, probably arising from the smooth muscle of small blood vessels in these tissues.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A first generation selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM). Like TAMOXIFEN, it is an estrogen agonist for bone tissue and cholesterol metabolism but is antagonistic on mammary and uterine tissue.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Pyrrolidines are saturated, heterocyclic organic compounds containing a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom (NRCH2CH2), commonly found as structural components in various alkaloids and used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic materials.
Partially saturated 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene compounds.
Proteins, generally found in the CYTOPLASM, that specifically bind ANDROGENS and mediate their cellular actions. The complex of the androgen and receptor migrates to the CELL NUCLEUS where it induces transcription of specific segments of DNA.
Compounds that interact with ESTROGEN RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of ESTRADIOL. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female SEX CHARACTERISTICS. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds.
Compounds that contain the radical R2C=N.OH derived from condensation of ALDEHYDES or KETONES with HYDROXYLAMINE. Members of this group are CHOLINESTERASE REACTIVATORS.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Derivatives of carbamic acid, H2NC(=O)OH. Included under this heading are N-substituted and O-substituted carbamic acids. In general carbamate esters are referred to as urethanes, and polymers that include repeating units of carbamate are referred to as POLYURETHANES. Note however that polyurethanes are derived from the polymerization of ISOCYANATES and the singular term URETHANE refers to the ethyl ester of carbamic acid.
A class of drugs that act by selective inhibition of calcium influx through cellular membranes.
Compounds that contain a BENZENE ring fused to a furan ring.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Compounds that interact with ANDROGEN RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of TESTOSTERONE. Depending on the target tissues, androgenic effects can be on SEX DIFFERENTIATION; male reproductive organs, SPERMATOGENESIS; secondary male SEX CHARACTERISTICS; LIBIDO; development of muscle mass, strength, and power.
Guanosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate), monoanhydride with phosphorothioic acid. A stable GTP analog which enjoys a variety of physiological actions such as stimulation of guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, phosphoinositide hydrolysis, cyclic AMP accumulation, and activation of specific proto-oncogenes.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
Cell surface proteins which bind GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID and contain an integral membrane chloride channel. Each receptor is assembled as a pentamer from a pool of at least 19 different possible subunits. The receptors belong to a superfamily that share a common CYSTEINE loop.
Compounds based on benzene fused to oxole. They can be formed from methylated CATECHOLS such as EUGENOL.
One of the ESTROGEN RECEPTORS that has greater affinity for ISOFLAVONES than ESTROGEN RECEPTOR ALPHA does. There is great sequence homology with ER alpha in the DNA-binding domain but not in the ligand binding and hinge domains.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Preclinical testing of drugs in experimental animals or in vitro for their biological and toxic effects and potential clinical applications.
Phenomena and pharmaceutics of compounds that bind to the same receptor binding-site as an agonist (DRUG AGONISM) for that receptor but exerts the opposite pharmacological effect.
The molecular designing of drugs for specific purposes (such as DNA-binding, enzyme inhibition, anti-cancer efficacy, etc.) based on knowledge of molecular properties such as activity of functional groups, molecular geometry, and electronic structure, and also on information cataloged on analogous molecules. Drug design is generally computer-assisted molecular modeling and does not include pharmacokinetics, dosage analysis, or drug administration analysis.
Unsaturated derivatives of the ESTRANES with methyl groups at carbon-13, with no carbon at carbon-10, and with no more than one carbon at carbon-17. They must contain one or more double bonds.
Tumors or cancer of the UTERUS.
CELL LINE derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus (CRICETULUS). The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.
Metabolic disorder associated with fractures of the femoral neck, vertebrae, and distal forearm. It occurs commonly in women within 15-20 years after menopause, and is caused by factors associated with menopause including estrogen deficiency.
These compounds stimulate anabolism and inhibit catabolism. They stimulate the development of muscle mass, strength, and power.
Phenols substituted in any position by an amino group.
The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.
A subgroup of TRP cation channels named after vanilloid receptor. They are very sensitive to TEMPERATURE and hot spicy food and CAPSAICIN. They have the TRP domain and ANKYRIN repeats. Selectivity for CALCIUM over SODIUM ranges from 3 to 100 fold.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
The hollow thick-walled muscular organ in the female PELVIS. It consists of the fundus (the body) which is the site of EMBRYO IMPLANTATION and FETAL DEVELOPMENT. Beyond the isthmus at the perineal end of fundus, is CERVIX UTERI (the neck) opening into VAGINA. Beyond the isthmi at the upper abdominal end of fundus, are the FALLOPIAN TUBES.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
Compounds that bind to and inhibit the activation of ANDROGEN RECEPTORS.
AMINO ALCOHOLS containing the ETHANOLAMINE; (-NH2CH2CHOH) group and its derivatives.
Quantitative determination of receptor (binding) proteins in body fluids or tissue using radioactively labeled binding reagents (e.g., antibodies, intracellular receptors, plasma binders).
Specific proteins found in or on cells of progesterone target tissues that specifically combine with progesterone. The cytosol progesterone-receptor complex then associates with the nucleic acids to initiate protein synthesis. There are two kinds of progesterone receptors, A and B. Both are induced by estrogen and have short half-lives.
The excessive use of marijuana with associated psychological symptoms and impairment in social or occupational functioning.
Blocking the process leading to OVULATION. Various factors are known to inhibit ovulation, such as neuroendocrine, psychological, and pharmacological agents.
The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.
A plant species in the PIPERACEAE plant family. It is a common spice on foods and is used medicinally to increase gastrointestinal assimilation of other supplements and drugs. Piperine is a key component. Black pepper is picked unripe and heaped for a few days to ferment. White Pepper is the ripe fruit dehulled by maceration in water.
Six-carbon alicyclic hydrocarbons.
Resorcinols are aromatic organic compounds containing two hydroxyl groups attached to a benzene ring, known for their antiseptic and antibacterial properties, used in various medical and cosmetic applications.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Chemical substances which inhibit the function of the endocrine glands, the biosynthesis of their secreted hormones, or the action of hormones upon their specific sites.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the MENSTRUAL CYCLE and PREGNANCY. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize MENSTRUATION. After successful FERTILIZATION, it serves to sustain the developing embryo.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
An electrophysiologic technique for studying cells, cell membranes, and occasionally isolated organelles. All patch-clamp methods rely on a very high-resistance seal between a micropipette and a membrane; the seal is usually attained by gentle suction. The four most common variants include on-cell patch, inside-out patch, outside-out patch, and whole-cell clamp. Patch-clamp methods are commonly used to voltage clamp, that is control the voltage across the membrane and measure current flow, but current-clamp methods, in which the current is controlled and the voltage is measured, are also used.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Tumors or cancer of the human BREAST.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, resulting from its continued administration. It should be differentiated from DRUG RESISTANCE wherein an organism, disease, or tissue fails to respond to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should also be differentiated from MAXIMUM TOLERATED DOSE and NO-OBSERVED-ADVERSE-EFFECT LEVEL.
Drugs capable of inducing illusions, hallucinations, delusions, paranoid ideations, and other alterations of mood and thinking. Despite the name, the feature that distinguishes these agents from other classes of drugs is their capacity to induce states of altered perception, thought, and feeling that are not experienced otherwise.
Inbred ICR mice are a strain of albino laboratory mice that have been selectively bred for consistent genetic makeup and high reproductive performance, making them widely used in biomedical research for studies involving reproduction, toxicology, pharmacology, and carcinogenesis.
An alkylamide found in CAPSICUM that acts at TRPV CATION CHANNELS.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
The modification of the reactivity of ENZYMES by the binding of effectors to sites (ALLOSTERIC SITES) on the enzymes other than the substrate BINDING SITES.
Agents that inhibit BONE RESORPTION and/or favor BONE MINERALIZATION and BONE REGENERATION. They are used to heal BONE FRACTURES and to treat METABOLIC BONE DISEASES such as OSTEOPOROSIS.
The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included.
Organic compounds containing the -CO-NH2 radical. Amides are derived from acids by replacement of -OH by -NH2 or from ammonia by the replacement of H by an acyl group. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
One of the virulence factors produced by BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS. It is a multimeric protein composed of five subunits S1 - S5. S1 contains mono ADPribose transferase activity.
An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by NERVE ENDINGS of NOCICEPTIVE NEURONS.
An increased sensation of pain or discomfort produced by mimimally noxious stimuli due to damage to soft tissue containing NOCICEPTORS or injury to a peripheral nerve.
Antineoplastic agents that are used to treat hormone-sensitive tumors. Hormone-sensitive tumors may be hormone-dependent, hormone-responsive, or both. A hormone-dependent tumor regresses on removal of the hormonal stimulus, by surgery or pharmacological block. Hormone-responsive tumors may regress when pharmacologic amounts of hormones are administered regardless of whether previous signs of hormone sensitivity were observed. The major hormone-responsive cancers include carcinomas of the breast, prostate, and endometrium; lymphomas; and certain leukemias. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual 1994, p2079)
Steroids containing the fundamental tetracyclic unit with no methyl groups at C-10 and C-13 and with no side chain at C-17. The concept includes both saturated and unsaturated derivatives.
Anilides are organic compounds resulting from the reaction of aniline (a primary aromatic amine) with carboxylic acids or their derivatives, forming amides, which have various applications in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.
Drugs intended to prevent damage to the brain or spinal cord from ischemia, stroke, convulsions, or trauma. Some must be administered before the event, but others may be effective for some time after. They act by a variety of mechanisms, but often directly or indirectly minimize the damage produced by endogenous excitatory amino acids.
A group of 16-carbon fatty acids that contain no double bonds.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
The phenomenon whereby compounds whose molecules have the same number and kind of atoms and the same atomic arrangement, but differ in their spatial relationships. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Compounds which inhibit or antagonize the biosynthesis or actions of androgens.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
The largest family of cell surface receptors involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION. They share a common structure and signal through HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEINS.
The surgical removal of one or both testicles.
A type I keratin that is found associated with the KERATIN-4 in the internal stratified EPITHELIUM. Defects in gene for keratin 13 cause HEREDITARY MUCOSAL LEUKOKERATOSIS.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Chemical substances or agents with contraceptive activity in males. Use for male contraceptive agents in general or for which there is no specific heading.
Product of the CANNABIS plant, CANNABINOIDS, or synthetic derivatives thereof, used in the treatment of a wide range of clinical symptoms.
An enzyme inhibitor that inactivates IRC-50 arvin, subtilisin, and the fatty acid synthetase complex.
An amino alcohol with a long unsaturated hydrocarbon chain. Sphingosine and its derivative sphinganine are the major bases of the sphingolipids in mammals. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Depolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during neurotransmission. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials can singly or in summation reach the trigger threshold for ACTION POTENTIALS.
A family of heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein alpha subunits that were originally identified by their ability to inhibit ADENYLYL CYCLASES. Members of this family can couple to beta and gamma G-protein subunits that activate POTASSIUM CHANNELS. The Gi-Go part of the name is also spelled Gi/Go.
The function of opposing or restraining the excitation of neurons or their target excitable cells.
An adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH.
A genus of the family Muridae consisting of eleven species. C. migratorius, the grey or Armenian hamster, and C. griseus, the Chinese hamster, are the two species used in biomedical research.
A subclass of analgesic agents that typically do not bind to OPIOID RECEPTORS and are not addictive. Many non-narcotic analgesics are offered as NONPRESCRIPTION DRUGS.
A class of opioid receptors recognized by its pharmacological profile. Mu opioid receptors bind, in decreasing order of affinity, endorphins, dynorphins, met-enkephalin, and leu-enkephalin. They have also been shown to be molecular receptors for morphine.
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
Steroidal compounds related to ESTRADIOL, the major mammalian female sex hormone. Estradiol congeners include important estradiol precursors in the biosynthetic pathways, metabolites, derivatives, and synthetic steroids with estrogenic activities.
Heterocyclic compounds of a ring with SULFUR and two NITROGEN atoms fused to a BENZENE ring. Members inhibit SODIUM-POTASSIUM-CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS and are used as DIURETICS.
Inhaling and exhaling the smoke from CANNABIS.
A loosely defined grouping of drugs that have effects on psychological function. Here the psychotropic agents include the antidepressive agents, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing agents (including the antipsychotics and anti-anxiety agents).
A group of two-ring heterocyclic compounds consisting of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine ring.
Reduction of bone mass without alteration in the composition of bone, leading to fractures. Primary osteoporosis can be of two major types: postmenopausal osteoporosis (OSTEOPOROSIS, POSTMENOPAUSAL) and age-related or senile osteoporosis.
A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The physiological period following the MENOPAUSE, the permanent cessation of the menstrual life.
Potent activator of the adenylate cyclase system and the biosynthesis of cyclic AMP. From the plant COLEUS FORSKOHLII. Has antihypertensive, positive inotropic, platelet aggregation inhibitory, and smooth muscle relaxant activities; also lowers intraocular pressure and promotes release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
Drugs designed and synthesized, often for illegal street use, by modification of existing drug structures (e.g., amphetamines). Of special interest are MPTP (a reverse ester of meperidine), MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine). Many drugs act on the aminergic system, the physiologically active biogenic amines.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
A group of compounds that are derivatives of methoxybenzene and contain the general formula R-C7H7O.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
Central gray matter surrounding the CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT in the MESENCEPHALON. Physiologically it is probably involved in RAGE reactions, the LORDOSIS REFLEX; FEEDING responses, bladder tonus, and pain.
2-, 3-, or 4-Pyridinecarboxylic acids. Pyridine derivatives substituted with a carboxy group at the 2-, 3-, or 4-position. The 3-carboxy derivative (NIACIN) is active as a vitamin.
Administration of a drug or chemical by the individual under the direction of a physician. It includes administration clinically or experimentally, by human or animal.
Intense or aching pain that occurs along the course or distribution of a peripheral or cranial nerve.
Alkaloids extracted from various species of Cinchona.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
Physiological and psychological symptoms associated with withdrawal from the use of a drug after prolonged administration or habituation. The concept includes withdrawal from smoking or drinking, as well as withdrawal from an administered drug.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID.
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
Scales, questionnaires, tests, and other methods used to assess pain severity and duration in patients or experimental animals to aid in diagnosis, therapy, and physiological studies.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen (specifically, hydrogen-3) that contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it radioactive with a half-life of about 12.3 years, and is used in various applications including nuclear research, illumination, and dating techniques due to its low energy beta decay.
Regulatory proteins that down-regulate phosphorylated G-protein membrane receptors, including rod and cone photoreceptors and adrenergic receptors.
A benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID activity.
Regulatory proteins that act as molecular switches. They control a wide range of biological processes including: receptor signaling, intracellular signal transduction pathways, and protein synthesis. Their activity is regulated by factors that control their ability to bind to and hydrolyze GTP to GDP. EC 3.6.1.-.
The process of finding chemicals for potential therapeutic use.
The third type of glial cell, along with astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (which together form the macroglia). Microglia vary in appearance depending on developmental stage, functional state, and anatomical location; subtype terms include ramified, perivascular, ameboid, resting, and activated. Microglia clearly are capable of phagocytosis and play an important role in a wide spectrum of neuropathologies. They have also been suggested to act in several other roles including in secretion (e.g., of cytokines and neural growth factors), in immunological processing (e.g., antigen presentation), and in central nervous system development and remodeling.
A set of forebrain structures common to all mammals that is defined functionally and anatomically. It is implicated in the higher integration of visceral, olfactory, and somatic information as well as homeostatic responses including fundamental survival behaviors (feeding, mating, emotion). For most authors, it includes the AMYGDALA; EPITHALAMUS; GYRUS CINGULI; hippocampal formation (see HIPPOCAMPUS); HYPOTHALAMUS; PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS; SEPTAL NUCLEI; anterior nuclear group of thalamus, and portions of the basal ganglia. (Parent, Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy, 9th ed, p744; NeuroNames, http://rprcsgi.rprc.washington.edu/neuronames/index.html (September 2, 1998)).
Striped GRAY MATTER and WHITE MATTER consisting of the NEOSTRIATUM and paleostriatum (GLOBUS PALLIDUS). It is located in front of and lateral to the THALAMUS in each cerebral hemisphere. The gray substance is made up of the CAUDATE NUCLEUS and the lentiform nucleus (the latter consisting of the GLOBUS PALLIDUS and PUTAMEN). The WHITE MATTER is the INTERNAL CAPSULE.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
The smooth muscle coat of the uterus, which forms the main mass of the organ.
The use of hormonal agents with estrogen-like activity in postmenopausal or other estrogen-deficient women to alleviate effects of hormone deficiency, such as vasomotor symptoms, DYSPAREUNIA, and progressive development of OSTEOPOROSIS. This may also include the use of progestational agents in combination therapy.
PLANT EXTRACTS and compounds, primarily ISOFLAVONES, that mimic or modulate endogenous estrogens, usually by binding to ESTROGEN RECEPTORS.
Hyperpolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during NEUROTRANSMISSION. They are local changes which diminish responsiveness to excitatory signals.
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
A cell line generated from human embryonic kidney cells that were transformed with human adenovirus type 5.
A specialized CONNECTIVE TISSUE that is the main constituent of the SKELETON. The principle cellular component of bone is comprised of OSTEOBLASTS; OSTEOCYTES; and OSTEOCLASTS, while FIBRILLAR COLLAGENS and hydroxyapatite crystals form the BONE MATRIX.
A genus of ascomycetous fungi in the family Trichocomaceae, order EUROTIALES. Health effects, allergenicity, and toxicity of Eurotium are closely related to its anamorph ASPERGILLUS.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
BENZOIC ACID amides.
Most generally any NEURONS which are not motor or sensory. Interneurons may also refer to neurons whose AXONS remain within a particular brain region in contrast to projection neurons, which have axons projecting to other brain regions.
Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the INFERIOR HORN OF THE LATERAL VENTRICLE of the TEMPORAL LOBE. The amygdala is part of the limbic system.
The motor activity of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
An antiandrogen with about the same potency as cyproterone in rodent and canine species.
Agents that reduce the frequency or rate of spontaneous or induced tumors independently of the mechanism involved.
A plant genus of the family RUTACEAE. Some members of Zanthoxylum are reclassified from ELEUTHEROCOCCUS, Melicope, and EVODIA. The twigs are used as dental brushing sticks (TOOTHBRUSHING). Most plants that are called Fagara have been reclassified as Zanthoxylum, however some Fagara were reclassified to MELICOPE (also in the Rutacea family) or to GLEDITSIA (a genus in the FABACEAE family).
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that bind to and activate GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID receptors (RECEPTORS, GABA).
A group of fatty acids that contain 18 carbon atoms and a double bond at the omega 9 carbon.
An analytical method used in determining the identity of a chemical based on its mass using mass analyzers/mass spectrometers.
The principal alkaloid in opium and the prototype opiate analgesic and narcotic. Morphine has widespread effects in the central nervous system and on smooth muscle.

Biosynthesis and inactivation of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol in circulating and tumoral macrophages. (1/954)

The stimulus-induced biosynthesis of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in intact mouse J774 macrophages and the inactivation of 2-AG by the same cells or by rat circulating macrophages was studied. By using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we found that ionomycin (5 microM) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 200 microg x mL-1) cause a 24-fold and 2.5-fold stimulation of 2-AG levels in J774 cells, respectively, thus providing unprecedented evidence that this cannabimimetic metabolite can be synthesized by macrophages. In J774 cells, LPS also induced a 7.8-fold increase of the levels of the other endocannabinoid, anandamide, and, in rat circulating macrophages, an almost twofold increase of 2-AG levels. Extracellular [3H]2-AG was cleared from the medium of intact J774 macrophages (t1/2 = 19-28 min) and esterified to phospholipids, diacylglycerols and triglycerides or hydrolyzed to [3H]arachidonic acid and glycerol. These catabolic processes were attenuated differentially by various enzyme inhibitors. Rat circulating macrophages were shown to contain enzymatic activities for the hydrolysis of 2-AG, including: (a) fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme responsible for anandamide breakdown and previously shown to catalyse also 2-AG hydrolysis, and (b) a 2-AG hydrolase activity different from FAAH and down-regulated by LPS. High levels of FAAH mRNA were found in circulating macrophages but not platelets, which, however, contain a 2-AG hydrolase. Both platelets and macrophages were shown to express the mRNA for the CB1 cannabinoid receptor. A macrophage 2-AG hydrolase with apparent Km = 110 microM and Vmax = 7.9 nmol x min-1 x (mg protein)-1 was partially characterized in J774 cells and found to exhibit an optimal pH of 6-7 and little or no sensitivity to typical FAAH inhibitors. These findings demonstrate for the first time that macrophages participate in the homeostasis of the hypotensive and immunomodulatory endocannabinoid 2-AG through metabolic mechanisms that are subject to regulation.  (+info)

The endothelial component of cannabinoid-induced relaxation in rabbit mesenteric artery depends on gap junctional communication. (2/954)

1. We have shown that the endocannabinoid anandamide and its stable analogue methanandamide relax rings of rabbit superior mesenteric artery through endothelium-dependent and -independent mechanisms that are unaffected by blockade of NO synthase and cyclooxygenase. 2. The endothelium-dependent component of the responses was attenuated by the gap junction inhibitor 18alpha-glycyrrhetinic acid (18alpha-GA; 50 microM), and a synthetic connexin-mimetic peptide homologous to the extracellular Gap 27 sequence of connexin 43 (43Gap 27, SRPTEKTIFII; 300 microM). By contrast, the corresponding connexin 40 peptide (40Gap 27, SRPTEKNVFIV) was inactive. 3. The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (10 microM) also attenuated endothelium-dependent relaxations but this inhibition was not observed with the CB1 receptor antagonist LY320135 (10 microM). Furthermore, SR141716A mimicked the effects of 43Gap 27 peptide in blocking Lucifer Yellow dye transfer between coupled COS-7 cells (a monkey fibroblast cell line), whereas LY320135 was without effect, thus suggesting that the action of SR141716A was directly attributable to effects on gap junctions. 4. The endothelium-dependent component of cannabinoid-induced relaxation was also attenuated by AM404 (10 microM), an inhibitor of the high-affinity anandamide transporter, which was without effect on dye transfer. 5. Taken together, the findings suggest that cannabinoids derived from arachidonic acid gain access to the endothelial cytosol via a transporter mechanism and subsequently stimulate relaxation by promoting diffusion of an to adjacent smooth muscle cells via gap junctions. 6. Relaxations of endothelium-denuded preparations to anandamide and methanandamide were unaffected by 43Gap 27 peptide, 18alpha-GA, SR141716A, AM404 and indomethacin and their genesis remains to be established.  (+info)

Comparison of novel cannabinoid partial agonists and SR141716A in the guinea-pig small intestine. (3/954)

The controversial nature of the CB(1) receptor antagonist, SR141716A, in the guinea-pig small intestine was investigated by comparing it with four analogues of Delta(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(8)-THC): O-1184, O-1238, O-584 and O-1315. These compounds (10 - 1000 nM) inhibited the electrically-evoked contractions with a rank order of potency of O-1238>O-1184>O-584>O-1315. Log concentration-response curves for O-1238, O-1184 and O-1315 were significantly shifted to the right by SR141716A and the maxima were significantly less than that of the CB(1) agonist, WIN55212-2, an indication of partial agonism. Partial saturation of the triple bond in O-1184 to a cis double bond (O-1238) increased its potency as an agonist (pEC(50) from 6.42 to 7.63) and as an antagonist of WIN55212-2, (pK(B), from 8.36 to 9.49). Substitution of the terminal azide group by an ethyl group (O-584) or removal of the phenolic hydroxyl group (O-1315) had no significant effect on the agonist or antagonist potency. None of these analogues increased the twitch response in a manner resembling that of SR141716A. O-1184 (10 and 100 nM) shifted the log concentration-response curve of WIN55212-2 for inhibition of the twitch responses to the right with pK(B) values of 8.29 and 8.38, respectively. We conclude that these Delta(8)-THC analogues behave as partial agonists rather than silent antagonists at CB(1) binding sites in this tissue. There was no evidence of antagonism of endocannabinoids thus supporting the hypothesis that, in this tissue, SR141716A is an inverse agonist of constitutively active CB(1) receptors.  (+info)

Reversal of dopamine D(2) receptor responses by an anandamide transport inhibitor. (4/954)

We characterized the pharmacological properties of the anandamide transport inhibitor N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-arachidonamide (AM404) in rats and investigated the effects of this drug on behavioral responses associated with activation of dopamine D(2) family receptors. Rat brain slices accumulated [(3)H]anandamide via a high-affinity transport mechanism that was blocked by AM404. When administered alone in vivo, AM404 caused a mild and slow-developing hypokinesia that was significant 60 min after intracerebroventricular injection of the drug and was reversed by the CB1 cannabinoid receptor antagonist SR141716A. AM404 produced no significant catalepsy or analgesia, two typical effects of direct-acting cannabinoid agonists. However, AM404 prevented the stereotypic yawning produced by systemic administration of a low dose of apomorphine, an effect that was dose-dependent and blocked by SR141716A. Furthermore, AM404 reduced the stimulation of motor behaviors elicited by the selective D(2) family receptor agonist quinpirole. Finally, AM404 reduced hyperactivity in juvenile spontaneously hypertensive rats, a putative model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The results support a primary role of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of psychomotor activity and point to anandamide transport as a potential target for neuropsychiatric medicines.  (+info)

Endocannabinoid 2-arachidonyl glycerol is a full agonist through human type 2 cannabinoid receptor: antagonism by anandamide. (5/954)

The endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG) bind to G protein-coupled central and peripheral cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, respectively. Due to the relatively high expression of the CB2 isotype on peripheral immune cells, it has been hypothesized that this receptor mediates the immunosuppressive effects of cannabinoids. Unfortunately, there was a dearth of pharmacological studies with the endocannabinoids and human CB2 (hCB2). These studies compare and contrast the potency and efficacy of anandamide, 2-AG, and the synthetic cannabinoid HU210 at hCB2. Using [(35)S]guanosine-5'-O-(3-thio)triphosphate (GTPgammaS) and radioligand bindings in insect Sf9-hCB2 membranes, we showed that both endocannabinoids bound hCB2 with similar affinity and that the cannabinoids acted as full agonists in stimulating [(35)S]GTPgammaS exchange, although 2-AG was 3-fold more potent than anandamide (EC(50) = 38.9 +/- 3.1 and 121 +/- 29 nM, respectively). In a mammalian expression system (Chinese hamster ovary-hCB2 cells), HU210 and 2-AG maximally inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP synthesis (IC(50) = 1.61 +/- 0.42 nM and 1.30 +/- 0.37 microM, respectively) although anandamide was ineffective. In Chinese hamster ovary-hCB2 membranes, HU210 and 2-AG were also full agonists in stimulating [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding (EC(50) = 1.96 +/- 0.35 and 122 +/- 17 nM, respectively), but anandamide was a weak partial agonist (EC(50) = 261 +/- 91 nM; 34 +/- 4% of maximum). Due to its low intrinsic activity, coincubation with anandamide effectively attenuated the functional activity of 2-AG at hCB2. Collectively, the data showed that both endocannabinoids bound hCB2 with similar affinity, but only 2-AG functioned as a full agonist. Moreover, the agonistic activity of 2-AG was attenuated by anandamide.  (+info)

Are anandamide and cannabinoid receptors involved in ethanol tolerance? A review of the evidence. (6/954)

There have been significant developments towards the elucidation of molecular and cellular changes in neuronal second messenger pathways involved in the development of tolerance to and dependence on ethanol (EtOH). The long-term exposure to EtOH has been shown to affect several aspects of neuronal signal transduction as well as ligand-gated ion channels and receptor systems, including the receptors that are coupled to the superfamily of GTP binding regulatory proteins (G-proteins). The recent identification of a G-protein coupled receptor that was activated by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major psychoactive component of marijuana, led to the discovery of endogenous agonists. One such agonist found to exist in mammalian brain was characterized to be an arachidonic acid (AA) metabolite and was named anandamide (AnNH). AnNH has been shown to bind specifically to the cannabinoid receptor (CB(1)) and mimic many of the pharmacological and behavioural effects of THC including tolerance development. The role of endocannabinoids and the CB(1) receptor signal transduction system in tolerance development to drugs of abuse has not been explored until recently. The findings presented in this review provide evidence for the first time that some of the pharmacological actions of EtOH including tolerance development may be mediated through participation of the endocannabinoid-CB(1) receptor signal transduction system. Recent studies have shown that chronic EtOH exposure produces downregulation of CB(1) receptors and an inhibition of CB(1) receptor agonist-stimulated GTPgammaS binding in mouse brain synaptic plasma membranes (SPM). The observed receptor downregulation results from the persistent stimulation of the receptors by the endogenous CB(1) receptor agonist AnNH, the synthesis of which is increased by chronic EtOH exposure. Further, the CB(1) receptor antagonist SR-141716A has been shown to block voluntary EtOH intake in rats and mice. Based on these studies, a hypothesis is presented to explain the possible involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the pharmacological and behavioural effects of EtOH.  (+info)

Down-regulation of anandamide hydrolase in mouse uterus by sex hormones. (7/954)

Endocannabinoids are an emerging class of lipid mediators, which mimic several effects of cannabinoids. Anandamide (arachidonoylethanolamide) is a major endocannabinoid, which has been shown to impair pregnancy and embryo development. The activity of anandamide is controlled by cellular uptake through a specific transporter and intracellular degradation by the enzyme anandamide hydrolase (fatty acid amide hydrolase, FAAH). We characterized FAAH in mouse uterus by radiochromatographic and immunochemical techniques, showing that the enzyme is confined to the epithelium and its activity decreases appreciably during pregnancy or pseudopregnancy because of lower gene expression at the translational level. Ovariectomy prevented the decrease in FAAH, and both progesterone and estrogen further reduced its basal levels, suggesting hormonal control of the enzyme. Anandamide was shown to induce programmed cell death in mouse blastocysts, through a pathway independent of type-1 cannabinoid receptor. Blastocysts, however, have a specific anandamide transporter and FAAH, which scavenge this lipid. Taken together, these results provide evidence of an interplay between endocannabinoids and sex hormones in pregnancy. These findings may also be relevant for human fertility, as epithelial cells from healthy human uterus showed FAAH activity and expression, which in adenocarcinoma cells was increased fivefold.  (+info)

Age dependent accumulation of N-acyl-ethanolamine phospholipids in ischemic rat brain. A (31)P NMR and enzyme activity study. (8/954)

N-acyl-ethanolamine phospholipids (NAPE) can be formed as a stress response during neuronal injury, and they are precursors for N-acyl-ethanolamines (NAE), some of which are endocannabinoids. The levels of NAPE accumulated during post-decapitative ischemia (6 h at 37 degrees C) were studied in rat brains of various age (1, 6, 12, 19, 30, and approximately 70 days) by the use of (31)P NMR spectroscopy of lipid extracts. This ability to accumulate NAPE was compared with the activity of N-acyltransferase and of NAPE-hydrolyzing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) in brain microsomes. These two enzymes are involved in the formation and degradation of NAPE, respectively. The results showed that 1) the ability to accumulate NAPE during post-decapitative ischemia is especially high in the youngest rats and is markedly reduced in older brains [in 1-day-old rat brains NAPE accumulated to 1.5% of total phospholipids, while in 30-day-old rat brains NAPE accumulation could not be detected (detection limit 0.09%)] and 2) this age pattern of accumulation can be explained by a combination of the decreased activity of N-acyltransferase and the increased activity of NAPE-PLD during development. These results point out that it would be advantageous to investigate a potential cytoprotective role of NAPE in the brains of very young rats.  (+info)

Cannabinoid receptors are a class of cell membrane receptors in the endocannabinoid system that are activated by cannabinoids. The two major types of cannabinoid receptors are CB1 receptors, which are predominantly found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are primarily found in the immune system and peripheral tissues. These receptors play a role in regulating various physiological processes such as appetite, pain-sensation, mood, and memory. They can be activated by endocannabinoids (cannabinoids produced naturally in the body), phytocannabinoids (found in cannabis plants), and synthetic cannabinoids.

Cannabinoid receptor modulators are a class of compounds that interact with and modify the function of cannabinoid receptors, which are part of the endocannabinoid system in the human body. These receptors play a role in regulating various physiological processes such as pain, mood, memory, appetite, and immunity.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in the immune system and peripheral tissues. Cannabinoid receptor modulators can be classified into three categories based on their effects on these receptors:

1. Agonists: These compounds bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, leading to a range of effects such as pain relief, anti-inflammation, and mood enhancement. Examples include THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the psychoactive component of marijuana, and synthetic cannabinoids like dronabinol (Marinol) and nabilone (Cesamet).
2. Antagonists: These compounds bind to cannabinoid receptors but do not activate them, instead blocking or reducing the effects of agonist compounds. Examples include rimonabant (Acomplia), which was withdrawn from the market due to psychiatric side effects, and SR141716A.
3. Inverse Agonists: These compounds bind to cannabinoid receptors and produce effects opposite to those of agonist compounds. Examples include CBD (cannabidiol), a non-psychoactive component of marijuana that has anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective properties.

Cannabinoid receptor modulators have potential therapeutic applications in various medical conditions such as chronic pain, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, cancer, and mental health disorders. However, further research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential side effects.

A cannabinoid receptor, CB1, is a G protein-coupled receptor that is primarily found in the brain and central nervous system. It is one of the two main types of cannabinoid receptors, the other being CB2, and is activated by the endocannabinoid anandamide and the phytocannabinoid Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis. The activation of CB1 receptors is responsible for many of the psychological effects of cannabis, including euphoria, altered sensory perception, and memory impairment. CB1 receptors are also found in peripheral tissues, such as the adipose tissue, liver, and muscles, where they play a role in regulating energy metabolism, appetite, and pain perception.

A cannabinoid receptor CB2 is a G-protein coupled receptor that is primarily found in the immune system and cells associated with the immune system. They are expressed on the cell surface and are activated by endocannabinoids, plant-derived cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids) like those found in marijuana, and synthetic cannabinoids.

CB2 receptors are involved in a variety of physiological processes including inflammation, pain perception, and immune function. They have been shown to play a role in modulating the release of cytokines, which are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity and inflammation. CB2 receptors may also be found in the brain, although at much lower levels than CB1 receptors.

CB2 receptor agonists have been studied as potential treatments for a variety of conditions including pain management, neuroinflammation, and autoimmune disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand their therapeutic potential and any associated risks.

Cannabinoid receptor agonists are compounds that bind to and activate cannabinoid receptors, which are part of the endocannabinoid system in the human body. These receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including pain modulation, appetite regulation, memory, and mood.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in the immune system and peripheral tissues.

Cannabinoid receptor agonists can be classified based on their chemical structure and origin. Some naturally occurring cannabinoids, such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol), are found in the Cannabis sativa plant and can activate cannabinoid receptors. Synthetic cannabinoids, on the other hand, are human-made compounds designed to mimic or enhance the effects of natural cannabinoids.

Examples of cannabinoid receptor agonists include:

1. THC (tetrahydrocannabinol): The primary psychoactive component of marijuana, THC binds to CB1 receptors and produces feelings of euphoria or "high." It also has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and appetite-stimulating properties.
2. CBD (cannabidiol): A non-psychoactive compound found in cannabis, CBD has a more complex interaction with the endocannabinoid system. While it does not bind strongly to CB1 or CB2 receptors, it can influence their activity and modulate the effects of other cannabinoids. CBD is known for its potential therapeutic benefits, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective properties.
3. Synthetic cannabinoids: These are human-made compounds designed to mimic or enhance the effects of natural cannabinoids. Examples include dronabinol (Marinol), a synthetic THC used to treat nausea and vomiting in cancer patients, and nabilone (Cesamet), another synthetic THC used to manage pain and nausea in cancer and AIDS patients.
4. CP 55,940: A potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist that binds to both CB1 and CB2 receptors with high affinity. It is used in research to study the endocannabinoid system and its functions.
5. WIN 55,212-2: Another synthetic cannabinoid agonist that binds to both CB1 and CB2 receptors. It is often used in research to investigate the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids.

It's important to note that while some cannabinoid receptor agonists have demonstrated therapeutic benefits, they can also have side effects and potential risks, particularly when used in high doses or without medical supervision. Always consult a healthcare professional before using any cannabinoid-based medication or supplement.

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are a class of medications that act as either agonists or antagonists on the estrogen receptors in different tissues of the body. They selectively bind to estrogen receptors and can have opposite effects depending on the target tissue. In some tissues, such as bone and liver, SERMs behave like estrogens and stimulate estrogen receptors, promoting bone formation and reducing cholesterol levels. In contrast, in other tissues, such as breast and uterus, SERMs block the effects of estrogen, acting as estrogen antagonists and preventing the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors.

Examples of SERMs include:

* Tamoxifen: used for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer in both pre- and postmenopausal women.
* Raloxifene: used for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, as well as for reducing the risk of invasive breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women.
* Toremifene: used for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive tumors.
* Lasofoxifene: used for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, as well as reducing the risk of invasive breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women.

It is important to note that SERMs can have side effects, including hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and an increased risk of blood clots. The choice of a specific SERM depends on the individual patient's needs, medical history, and potential risks.

Cannabinoids are a class of chemical compounds that are produced naturally in the resin of the cannabis plant (also known as marijuana). There are more than 100 different cannabinoids that have been identified, the most well-known of which are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).

THC is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis, meaning it is responsible for the "high" or euphoric feeling that people experience when they use marijuana. CBD, on the other hand, does not have psychoactive effects and is being studied for its potential therapeutic uses in a variety of medical conditions, including pain management, anxiety, and epilepsy.

Cannabinoids work by interacting with the body's endocannabinoid system, which is a complex network of receptors and chemicals that are involved in regulating various physiological processes such as mood, appetite, pain sensation, and memory. When cannabinoids bind to these receptors, they can alter or modulate these processes, leading to potential therapeutic effects.

It's important to note that while some cannabinoids have been shown to have potential medical benefits, marijuana remains a controlled substance in many countries, and its use is subject to legal restrictions. Additionally, the long-term health effects of using marijuana or other forms of cannabis are not fully understood and are the subject of ongoing research.

Cannabinoid receptor antagonists are a class of compounds that bind to and block cannabinoid receptors, which are specialized proteins found on the surface of certain cells in the body. These receptors play an important role in regulating various physiological processes, including pain perception, appetite regulation, and memory formation.

There are two main types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are primarily found in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are mainly found in immune cells and other peripheral tissues.

Cannabinoid receptor antagonists work by preventing the activation of these receptors by natural cannabinoids such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), the main psychoactive component of marijuana. By blocking the effects of THC, cannabinoid receptor antagonists can be used to treat conditions that are exacerbated by THC, such as substance use disorders and psychosis.

One example of a cannabinoid receptor antagonist is rimonabant, which was approved in Europe for the treatment of obesity but was later withdrawn from the market due to concerns about psychiatric side effects. Other cannabinoid receptor antagonists are currently being investigated for their potential therapeutic uses, including the treatment of pain, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring compounds in the body that bind to cannabinoid receptors, which are found in various tissues and organs throughout the body. These compounds play a role in regulating many physiological processes, including appetite, mood, pain sensation, and memory. They are similar in structure to the active components of cannabis (marijuana), called phytocannabinoids, such as THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and CBD (cannabidiol). However, endocannabinoids are produced by the body itself, whereas phytocannabinoids come from the cannabis plant. The two most well-known endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG).

Cyclohexanols are a class of organic compounds that contain a cyclohexane ring (a six-carbon saturated ring) with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to it. The hydroxyl group makes these compounds alcohols, and the cyclohexane ring provides a unique structure that can adopt different conformations.

The presence of the hydroxyl group in cyclohexanols allows them to act as solvents, intermediates in chemical synthesis, and starting materials for the production of other chemicals. They are used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and polymers.

Cyclohexanols can exist in different forms, such as cis- and trans-isomers, depending on the orientation of the hydroxyl group relative to the cyclohexane ring. The physical and chemical properties of these isomers can differ significantly due to their distinct structures and conformations.

Examples of cyclohexanols include cyclohexanol itself (C6H11OH), as well as its derivatives, such as methylcyclohexanol (C7H13OH) and phenylcyclohexanol (C12H15OH).

Benzoxazines are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a benzene fused to an oxazine ring. They are known for their diverse chemical and pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumor activities. Some benzoxazines also exhibit potential as building blocks in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and materials. However, it is important to note that specific medical definitions for individual compounds within this class may vary depending on their unique structures and properties.

Dronabinol is a synthetic form of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the main psychoactive compound found in cannabis. It is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy in cancer patients, as well as to stimulate appetite and weight gain in patients with AIDS wasting syndrome.

Dronabinol is available in capsule form and is typically taken two to three times a day, depending on the prescribed dosage. It may take several days or even weeks of regular use before the full therapeutic effects are achieved.

Like cannabis, dronabinol can cause psychoactive effects such as euphoria, altered mood, and impaired cognitive function. Therefore, it is important to follow the prescribing instructions carefully and avoid driving or operating heavy machinery while taking this medication. Common side effects of dronabinol include dizziness, drowsiness, dry mouth, and difficulty with coordination.

Pyrazoles are heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds that contain a six-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 2. The chemical structure of pyrazoles consists of a pair of nitrogen atoms adjacent to each other in the ring, which makes them unique from other azole heterocycles such as imidazoles or triazoles.

Pyrazoles have significant biological activities and are found in various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and natural products. Some pyrazole derivatives exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, and anticancer properties.

In the medical field, pyrazoles are used in various drugs to treat different conditions. For example, celecoxib (Celebrex) is a selective COX-2 inhibitor used for pain relief and inflammation reduction in arthritis patients. It contains a pyrazole ring as its core structure. Similarly, febuxostat (Uloric) is a medication used to treat gout, which also has a pyrazole moiety.

Overall, pyrazoles are essential compounds with significant medical applications and potential for further development in drug discovery and design.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Polyunsaturated Alkamides" is not a widely recognized medical term or concept. It seems to be a combination of two different terms: "polyunsaturated" which relates to fatty acid chemistry, and "alkamides" which are a type of compound found in certain plants.

1. Polyunsaturated: This term refers to fatty acids that have multiple double bonds in their carbon chain. These fatty acids are essential to the human diet and are commonly found in foods like fish, nuts, and seeds. They are often referred to as Omega-3 or Omega-6 fatty acids.

2. Alkamides: These are a type of compound found in some plants, including Echinacea species. They have been studied for their potential biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

Without more context, it's difficult to provide a precise definition or medical interpretation of "Polyunsaturated Alkamides." If you have more information about how these terms are being used together, I'd be happy to try to provide a more specific answer.

Raloxifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that is used in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. It works by mimicking the effects of estrogen on some tissues, such as bones, while blocking its effects on others, such as breast tissue. This can help to reduce the risk of fractures and breast cancer in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.

Raloxifene is available in tablet form and is typically taken once a day. Common side effects include hot flashes, leg cramps, and sweating. It may also increase the risk of blood clots, so it is important to discuss any history of blood clots or other medical conditions with your healthcare provider before starting treatment with raloxifene.

It's important to note that Raloxifene should not be used in premenopausal women or in men, and it should not be taken during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. It is also important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and to discuss any concerns with your healthcare provider before taking this medication.

Piperidines are not a medical term per se, but they are a class of organic compounds that have important applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Medically relevant piperidines include various drugs such as some antihistamines, antidepressants, and muscle relaxants.

A piperidine is a heterocyclic amine with a six-membered ring containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. The structure can be described as a cyclic secondary amine. Piperidines are found in some natural alkaloids, such as those derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum), which gives piperidines their name.

In a medical context, it is more common to encounter specific drugs that belong to the class of piperidines rather than the term itself.

Drug receptors are specific protein molecules found on the surface of cells, to which drugs can bind. These receptors are part of the cell's communication system and are responsible for responding to neurotransmitters, hormones, and other signaling molecules in the body. When a drug binds to its corresponding receptor, it can alter the receptor's function and trigger a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately lead to a biological response.

Drug receptors can be classified into several types based on their function, including:

1. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These are the largest family of drug receptors and are involved in various physiological processes such as vision, olfaction, neurotransmission, and hormone signaling. They activate intracellular signaling pathways through heterotrimeric G proteins.
2. Ion channel receptors: These receptors form ion channels that allow the flow of ions across the cell membrane when activated. They are involved in rapid signal transduction and can be directly gated by ligands or indirectly through G protein-coupled receptors.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors have an intracellular domain that functions as an enzyme, activating intracellular signaling pathways when bound to a ligand. Examples include receptor tyrosine kinases and receptor serine/threonine kinases.
4. Nuclear receptors: These receptors are located in the nucleus and function as transcription factors, regulating gene expression upon binding to their ligands.

Understanding drug receptors is crucial for developing new drugs and predicting their potential therapeutic and adverse effects. By targeting specific receptors, drugs can modulate cellular responses and produce desired pharmacological actions.

Naphthalene is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with the formula C10H8. It is a white crystalline solid that is aromatic and volatile, and it is known for its distinctive mothball smell. In a medical context, naphthalene is primarily relevant as a potential toxin or irritant.

Naphthalene can be found in some chemical products, such as mothballs and toilet deodorant blocks. Exposure to high levels of naphthalene can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and headaches. Long-term exposure has been linked to anemia and damage to the liver and nervous system.

In addition, naphthalene is a known environmental pollutant that can be found in air, water, and soil. It is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels and is also released from some industrial processes. Naphthalene has been shown to have toxic effects on aquatic life and may pose a risk to human health if exposure levels are high enough.

Arachidonic acids are a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that is primarily found in the phospholipids of cell membranes. They contain 20 carbon atoms and four double bonds (20:4n-6), with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon atom from the methyl end.

Arachidonic acids are derived from linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources such as meat, fish, and eggs. Once ingested, linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid in a series of enzymatic reactions.

Arachidonic acids play an important role in various physiological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules that include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. These eicosanoids have diverse biological activities, such as modulating blood flow, platelet aggregation, and pain perception, among others.

However, excessive production of arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoids has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including inflammation, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Therefore, the regulation of arachidonic acid metabolism is an important area of research for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Morpholines" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of heterocyclic organic compounds containing one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom in the ring. They are widely used as intermediates in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and dyes. If you have any questions about a medical issue or term, I'd be happy to try to help answer those for you!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "bornanes" is not a medical term or concept. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of compounds called bornane derivatives, which are structurally related to the naturally occurring compound bornane. These compounds have various uses in chemistry and materials science, but they do not have specific relevance to medicine or human health.

Glycerides are esters formed from glycerol and one, two, or three fatty acids. They include monoglycerides (one fatty acid), diglycerides (two fatty acids), and triglycerides (three fatty acids). Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and they are a major form of energy storage in animals and plants. High levels of triglycerides in the blood, also known as hypertriglyceridemia, can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Norpregnadienes are a type of steroid hormone that are structurally similar to progesterone, but with certain chemical groups (such as the methyl group at C10) removed. They are formed through the metabolism of certain steroid hormones and can be further metabolized into other compounds.

Norpregnadienes have been studied for their potential role in various physiological processes, including the regulation of reproductive function and the development of certain diseases such as cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand their functions and clinical significance.

Estrogen receptor modulators (ERMs) are a class of medications that act on the estrogen receptors in the body. They can have mixed estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects, depending on the target tissue. In some tissues, ERMs behave as estrogen agonists, activating the estrogen receptor and mimicking the effects of estrogen. In other tissues, they act as estrogen antagonists, blocking the effects of estrogen.

ERMs are often used in hormone replacement therapy and to treat certain types of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is a well-known example of an ERM that is commonly used to treat estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. It works by blocking the effects of estrogen on cancer cells, thereby slowing or stopping the growth of the tumor. Other examples of ERMs include raloxifene and toremifene.

While ERMs can be effective in treating certain conditions, they can also have side effects, including an increased risk of blood clots, hot flashes, and mood changes. It is important for individuals taking ERMs to be monitored by a healthcare provider to manage any potential side effects and ensure that the medication is working effectively.

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a chemical compound found in the Cannabis sativa plant, also known as cannabis or marijuana. It is one of many such compounds, known as cannabinoids, that are found in the plant. Unlike tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the main psychoactive component of cannabis and is responsible for the "high" associated with its use, CBD does not have psychoactive effects.

CBD has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses in a variety of medical conditions, including epilepsy, anxiety, and chronic pain. It is available in various forms, such as oils, capsules, and topical creams, and can be taken orally or applied to the skin. However, it is important to note that the use of CBD is not currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of any medical condition, except for the treatment of certain forms of epilepsy. As with any medication or supplement, it is important to talk to your doctor before using CBD, especially if you are taking other medications or have underlying health conditions.

Amidohydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of amides and related compounds, resulting in the formation of an acid and an alcohol. This reaction is also known as amide hydrolysis or amide bond cleavage. Amidohydrolases play important roles in various biological processes, including the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) and endogenous compounds (those naturally produced within an organism).

The term "amidohydrolase" is a broad one that encompasses several specific types of enzymes, such as proteases, esterases, lipases, and nitrilases. These enzymes have different substrate specificities and catalytic mechanisms but share the common ability to hydrolyze amide bonds.

Proteases, for example, are a major group of amidohydrolases that specifically cleave peptide bonds in proteins. They are involved in various physiological processes, such as protein degradation, digestion, and regulation of biological pathways. Esterases and lipases hydrolyze ester bonds in various substrates, including lipids and other organic compounds. Nitrilases convert nitriles into carboxylic acids and ammonia by cleaving the nitrile bond (C≡N) through hydrolysis.

Amidohydrolases are found in various organisms, from bacteria to humans, and have diverse applications in industry, agriculture, and medicine. For instance, they can be used for the production of pharmaceuticals, biofuels, detergents, and other chemicals. Additionally, inhibitors of amidohydrolases can serve as therapeutic agents for treating various diseases, such as cancer, viral infections, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Monoacylglycerol lipases (MAGLs) are a type of enzyme that play a role in the metabolism of lipids, specifically by breaking down monoacylglycerols into glycerol and free fatty acids. Monoacylglycerols are formed during the digestion of dietary fats and are also produced endogenously as a result of the breakdown of complex lipids.

MAGLs are widely distributed throughout the body, but are particularly abundant in tissues that utilize large amounts of fatty acids for energy, such as the liver, heart, and skeletal muscle. In addition to their role in lipid metabolism, MAGLs have been implicated in various physiological processes, including inflammation, pain perception, and cancer.

Inhibition of MAGL activity has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of various diseases, including obesity, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. However, further research is needed to fully understand the role of MAGLs in these processes and to determine the safety and efficacy of MAGL inhibitors as drugs.

Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) medication that is primarily used in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. It works by blocking the action of estrogen in the body, particularly in breast tissue. This can help to stop or slow the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors.

Tamoxifen has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in both men and women. It is often used as a part of adjuvant therapy, which is treatment given after surgery to reduce the risk of cancer recurrence. Tamoxifen may also be used to treat metastatic breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

Common side effects of tamoxifen include hot flashes, vaginal discharge, and changes in mood or vision. Less commonly, tamoxifen can increase the risk of blood clots, stroke, and endometrial cancer (cancer of the lining of the uterus). However, for many women with breast cancer, the benefits of taking tamoxifen outweigh the risks.

It's important to note that while tamoxifen can be an effective treatment option for some types of breast cancer, it is not appropriate for all patients. A healthcare professional will consider a variety of factors when determining whether tamoxifen is the right choice for an individual patient.

Estrogen antagonists, also known as antiestrogens, are a class of drugs that block the effects of estrogen in the body. They work by binding to estrogen receptors and preventing the natural estrogen from attaching to them. This results in the inhibition of estrogen-mediated activities in various tissues, including breast and uterine tissue.

There are two main types of estrogen antagonists: selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and pure estrogen receptor downregulators (PERDS), also known as estrogen receptor downregulators (ERDs). SERMs, such as tamoxifen and raloxifene, can act as estrogen agonists or antagonists depending on the tissue type. For example, they may block the effects of estrogen in breast tissue while acting as an estrogen agonist in bone tissue, helping to prevent osteoporosis.

PERDS, such as fulvestrant, are pure estrogen receptor antagonists and do not have any estrogen-like activity. They are used primarily for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

Overall, estrogen antagonists play an important role in the management of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer and other conditions where inhibiting estrogen activity is beneficial.

Analgesics are a class of drugs that are used to relieve pain. They work by blocking the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system, allowing individuals to manage their pain levels more effectively. There are many different types of analgesics available, including both prescription and over-the-counter options. Some common examples include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil or Motrin), and opioids such as morphine or oxycodone.

The choice of analgesic will depend on several factors, including the type and severity of pain being experienced, any underlying medical conditions, potential drug interactions, and individual patient preferences. It is important to use these medications as directed by a healthcare provider, as misuse or overuse can lead to serious side effects and potential addiction.

In addition to their pain-relieving properties, some analgesics may also have additional benefits such as reducing inflammation (like in the case of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) or causing sedation (as with certain opioids). However, it is essential to weigh these potential benefits against the risks and side effects associated with each medication.

When used appropriately, analgesics can significantly improve a person's quality of life by helping them manage their pain effectively and allowing them to engage in daily activities more comfortably.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Cannabinol (CBN) is a chemical compound found in cannabis plants. It is one of the many cannabinoids that can be extracted from the plant, but it is not as well-known or widely studied as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD).

CBN is formed when THC degrades over time due to exposure to air, heat, and light. As a result, older or improperly stored cannabis may contain higher levels of CBN than fresh or properly stored cannabis.

CBN has been shown to have some therapeutic potential, including as a sedative, an anti-inflammatory, and an appetite stimulant. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and potential medical uses. It's worth noting that CBN does not produce the psychoactive effects associated with THC.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) modulators are substances that affect the function of GABA, which is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. GABA plays a crucial role in regulating neuronal excitability and reducing the activity of overactive nerve cells.

GABA modulators can either enhance or decrease the activity of GABA receptors, depending on their specific mechanism of action. These substances can be classified into two main categories:

1. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs): These compounds bind to a site on the GABA receptor that is distinct from the neurotransmitter binding site and enhance the activity of GABA at the receptor, leading to increased inhibitory signaling in the brain. Examples of positive allosteric modulators include benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and certain non-benzodiazepine drugs used for anxiolysis, sedation, and muscle relaxation.
2. Negative allosteric modulators (NAMs): These compounds bind to a site on the GABA receptor that reduces the activity of GABA at the receptor, leading to decreased inhibitory signaling in the brain. Examples of negative allosteric modulators include certain antiepileptic drugs and alcohol, which can reduce the effectiveness of GABA-mediated inhibition and contribute to their proconvulsant effects.

It is important to note that while GABA modulators can have therapeutic benefits in treating various neurological and psychiatric conditions, they can also carry risks for abuse, dependence, and adverse side effects, particularly when used at high doses or over extended periods.

Thiophenes are organic compounds that contain a heterocyclic ring made up of four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom. The structure of thiophene is similar to benzene, with the benzene ring being replaced by a thiophene ring. Thiophenes are aromatic compounds, which means they have a stable, planar ring structure and delocalized electrons.

Thiophenes can be found in various natural sources such as coal tar, crude oil, and some foods like onions and garlic. They also occur in certain medications, dyes, and pesticides. Some thiophene derivatives have been synthesized and studied for their potential therapeutic uses, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor activities.

In the medical field, thiophenes are used in some pharmaceuticals as building blocks to create drugs with various therapeutic effects. For example, tipepidine, a cough suppressant, contains a thiophene ring. Additionally, some anesthetics and antipsychotic medications also contain thiophene moieties.

It is important to note that while thiophenes themselves are not typically considered medical terms, they play a role in the chemistry of various pharmaceuticals and other medical-related compounds.

A ligand, in the context of biochemistry and medicine, is a molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein or a larger biomolecule, such as an enzyme or a receptor. This binding interaction can modify the function or activity of the target protein, either activating it or inhibiting it. Ligands can be small molecules, like hormones or neurotransmitters, or larger structures, like antibodies. The study of ligand-protein interactions is crucial for understanding cellular processes and developing drugs, as many therapeutic compounds function by binding to specific targets within the body.

Cannabis is a plant genus that includes three species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. It contains psychoactive compounds called cannabinoids, the most notable of which is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which produces the "high" associated with marijuana use.

Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica are primarily used for recreational and medicinal purposes, while Cannabis ruderalis has a lower THC content and is mainly used for industrial purposes, such as hemp fiber production.

Medicinally, cannabis is used to treat various conditions, including pain, nausea, and loss of appetite associated with cancer and HIV/AIDS, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), among others. However, its use remains controversial due to its psychoactive effects and potential for abuse. Its legal status varies widely around the world, ranging from outright prohibition to decriminalization or full legalization for medical and/or recreational purposes.

Propylene glycol is not a medical term, but rather a chemical compound. Medically, it is classified as a humectant, which means it helps retain moisture. It is used in various pharmaceutical and cosmetic products as a solvent, preservative, and moisturizer. In medical settings, it can be found in topical creams, oral and injectable medications, and intravenous (IV) fluids.

The chemical definition of propylene glycol is:

Propylene glycol (IUPAC name: propan-1,2-diol) is a synthetic organic compound with the formula CH3CH(OH)CH2OH. It is a viscous, colorless, and nearly odorless liquid that is miscible with water, acetone, and chloroform. Propylene glycol is used as an antifreeze when mixed with water, as a solvent in the production of polymers, and as a moisturizer in various pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. It has a sweet taste and is considered generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as a food additive.

Indole is not strictly a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that can be found in the human body and has relevance to medical and biological research. Indoles are organic compounds that contain a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring.

In the context of medicine, indoles are particularly relevant due to their presence in certain hormones and other biologically active molecules. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contains an indole ring, as does the hormone melatonin. Indoles can also be found in various plant-based foods, such as cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, kale), and have been studied for their potential health benefits.

Some indoles, like indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, are found in these vegetables and can have anti-cancer properties by modulating estrogen metabolism, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells. However, it is essential to note that further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with indoles.

Estrogen Receptor alpha (ERα) is a type of nuclear receptor protein that is activated by the hormone estrogen. It is encoded by the gene ESR1 and is primarily expressed in the cells of the reproductive system, breast, bone, liver, heart, and brain tissue.

When estrogen binds to ERα, it causes a conformational change in the receptor, which allows it to dimerize and translocate to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, ERα functions as a transcription factor, binding to specific DNA sequences called estrogen response elements (EREs) and regulating the expression of target genes.

ERα plays important roles in various physiological processes, including the development and maintenance of female reproductive organs, bone homeostasis, and lipid metabolism. It is also a critical factor in the growth and progression of certain types of breast cancer, making ERα status an important consideration in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Estrogen receptors (ERs) are a type of nuclear receptor protein that are expressed in various tissues and cells throughout the body. They play a critical role in the regulation of gene expression and cellular responses to the hormone estrogen. There are two main subtypes of ERs, ERα and ERβ, which have distinct molecular structures, expression patterns, and functions.

ERs function as transcription factors that bind to specific DNA sequences called estrogen response elements (EREs) in the promoter regions of target genes. When estrogen binds to the ER, it causes a conformational change in the receptor that allows it to recruit co-activator proteins and initiate transcription of the target gene. This process can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including changes in cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism.

Estrogen receptors are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including the development and maintenance of female reproductive tissues, bone homeostasis, cardiovascular function, and cognitive function. They have also been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as breast cancer, endometrial cancer, and osteoporosis. As a result, ERs are an important target for therapeutic interventions in these diseases.

Ovariectomy is a surgical procedure in which one or both ovaries are removed. It is also known as "ovary removal" or "oophorectomy." This procedure is often performed as a treatment for various medical conditions, including ovarian cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and pelvic pain. Ovariectomy can also be part of a larger surgical procedure called an hysterectomy, in which the uterus is also removed.

In some cases, an ovariectomy may be performed as a preventative measure for individuals at high risk of developing ovarian cancer. This is known as a prophylactic ovariectomy. After an ovariectomy, a person will no longer have menstrual periods and will be unable to become pregnant naturally. Hormone replacement therapy may be recommended in some cases to help manage symptoms associated with the loss of hormones produced by the ovaries.

Lysosphingolipid receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to lysosphingolipids, which are bioactive lipids derived from the degradation of sphingolipids. Sphingolipids are a class of lipids that play important roles in cell signaling and membrane structure.

Lysosphingolipids, such as lysosulfatide, lyso-Gb1 (lysoganglioside GM1), and lyso-PS (lysophosphatidylserine), have been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Lysosphingolipid receptors include several proteins, such as P2X7 receptor, G2A receptor, and Mas-related G protein-coupled receptor member X2 (MRGX2), that have been identified to interact with lysosphingolipids and mediate their downstream signaling.

Abnormal accumulation of lysosphingolipids has been associated with several diseases, including lysosomal storage disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the biology of lysosphingolipid receptors may provide insights into the development of new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Leiomyoma is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor that originates from the smooth muscle cells. It most commonly occurs in the uterus, where it is also known as a fibroid, but can also develop in other parts of the body such as the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and genitourinary system. Leiomyomas are typically slow-growing and often cause no symptoms, although they can lead to various complications depending on their size and location. Treatment options for leiomyomas include surveillance, medication, or surgical removal.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Toremifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that is primarily used in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive tumors. It works by binding to estrogen receptors and blocking the effects of estrogen, which can help slow or stop the growth of certain types of breast cancer cells.

Toremifene may also be used to reduce the risk of invasive breast cancer in postmenopausal women who are at high risk for the disease. It is important to note that Toremifene can have significant side effects, including hot flashes, mood changes, and an increased risk of blood clots, and should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Pyrrolidines are not a medical term per se, but they are a chemical compound that can be encountered in the field of medicine and pharmacology. Pyrrolidine is an organic compound with the molecular formula (CH2)4NH. It is a cyclic secondary amine, which means it contains a nitrogen atom surrounded by four carbon atoms in a ring structure.

Pyrrolidines can be found in certain natural substances and are also synthesized for use in pharmaceuticals and research. They have been used as building blocks in the synthesis of various drugs, including some muscle relaxants, antipsychotics, and antihistamines. Additionally, pyrrolidine derivatives can be found in certain plants and fungi, where they may contribute to biological activity or toxicity.

It is important to note that while pyrrolidines themselves are not a medical condition or diagnosis, understanding their chemical properties and uses can be relevant to the study and development of medications.

Tetrahydronaphthalenes are organic compounds that consist of a naphthalene ring with two hydrogens replaced by saturated carbon chains. It is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with a chemical formula C10H12. Tetrahydronaphthalenes can be found in various natural sources, including coal tar and some essential oils. They also have potential applications in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds.

Androgen receptors (ARs) are a type of nuclear receptor protein that are expressed in various tissues throughout the body. They play a critical role in the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and reproductive function. ARs are activated by binding to androgens, which are steroid hormones such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Once activated, ARs function as transcription factors that regulate gene expression, ultimately leading to various cellular responses.

In the context of medical definitions, androgen receptors can be defined as follows:

Androgen receptors are a type of nuclear receptor protein that bind to androgens, such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, and mediate their effects on gene expression in various tissues. They play critical roles in the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and reproductive function, and are involved in the pathogenesis of several medical conditions, including prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and androgen deficiency syndromes.

Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and regulation of female sexual characteristics and reproductive functions. They are also present in lower levels in males. The main estrogen hormone is estradiol, which plays a key role in promoting the growth and development of the female reproductive system, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and breasts. Estrogens also help regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain bone density, and have important effects on the cardiovascular system, skin, hair, and cognitive function.

Estrogens are produced primarily by the ovaries in women, but they can also be produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estrogens are produced from the conversion of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, through a process called aromatization.

Estrogen levels vary throughout a woman's life, with higher levels during reproductive years and lower levels after menopause. Estrogen therapy is sometimes used to treat symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness, or to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. However, estrogen therapy also carries risks, including an increased risk of certain cancers, blood clots, and stroke, so it is typically recommended only for women who have a high risk of these conditions.

Oximes are a class of chemical compounds that contain the functional group =N-O-, where two organic groups are attached to the nitrogen atom. In a clinical context, oximes are used as antidotes for nerve agent and pesticide poisoning. The most commonly used oxime in medicine is pralidoxime (2-PAM), which is used to reactivate acetylcholinesterase that has been inhibited by organophosphorus compounds, such as nerve agents and certain pesticides. These compounds work by forming a bond with the phosphoryl group of the inhibited enzyme, allowing for its reactivation and restoration of normal neuromuscular function.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Carbamates are a group of organic compounds that contain the carbamate functional group, which is a carbon atom double-bonded to oxygen and single-bonded to a nitrogen atom (> N-C=O). In the context of pharmaceuticals and agriculture, carbamates are a class of drugs and pesticides that have carbamate as their core structure.

Carbamate insecticides work by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which is responsible for breaking down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the synapses of the nervous system. When this enzyme is inhibited, acetylcholine accumulates in the synaptic cleft, leading to overstimulation of the nervous system and ultimately causing paralysis and death in insects.

Carbamate drugs are used for a variety of medical indications, including as anticonvulsants, muscle relaxants, and psychotropic medications. They work by modulating various neurotransmitter systems in the brain, such as GABA, glutamate, and dopamine. Carbamates can also be used as anti- parasitic agents, such as ivermectin, which is effective against a range of parasites including nematodes, arthropods, and some protozoa.

It's important to note that carbamate pesticides can be toxic to non-target organisms, including humans, if not used properly. Therefore, it's essential to follow all safety guidelines when handling or using these products.

Calcium channel blockers (CCBs) are a class of medications that work by inhibiting the influx of calcium ions into cardiac and smooth muscle cells. This action leads to relaxation of the muscles, particularly in the blood vessels, resulting in decreased peripheral resistance and reduced blood pressure. Calcium channel blockers also have anti-arrhythmic effects and are used in the management of various cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, angina, and certain types of arrhythmias.

Calcium channel blockers can be further classified into two main categories based on their chemical structure: dihydropyridines (e.g., nifedipine, amlodipine) and non-dihydropyridines (e.g., verapamil, diltiazem). Dihydropyridines are more selective for vascular smooth muscle and have a greater effect on blood pressure than heart rate or conduction. Non-dihydropyridines have a more significant impact on cardiac conduction and contractility, in addition to their vasodilatory effects.

It is important to note that calcium channel blockers may interact with other medications and should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Potential side effects include dizziness, headache, constipation, and peripheral edema.

Benzofurans are a class of organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring fused to a furan ring. The furan ring is a five-membered aromatic heterocycle containing one oxygen atom and four carbon atoms. Benzofurans can be found in various natural and synthetic substances. Some benzofuran derivatives have biological activity and are used in medicinal chemistry, while others are used as flavorings or fragrances. However, some benzofuran compounds are also known to have psychoactive effects and can be abused as recreational drugs.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Androgens are a class of hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and reproductive function. Testosterone is the most well-known androgen, but other androgens include dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).

Androgens are produced primarily by the testes in men and the ovaries in women, although small amounts are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. They play a critical role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such as the growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.

In addition to their role in sexual development and function, androgens also have important effects on bone density, mood, and cognitive function. Abnormal levels of androgens can contribute to a variety of medical conditions, including infertility, erectile dysfunction, acne, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), and prostate cancer.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

GABA-A receptors are ligand-gated ion channels in the membrane of neuronal cells. They are the primary mediators of fast inhibitory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. When the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) binds to these receptors, it opens an ion channel that allows chloride ions to flow into the neuron, resulting in hyperpolarization of the membrane and decreased excitability of the neuron. This inhibitory effect helps to regulate neural activity and maintain a balance between excitation and inhibition in the nervous system. GABA-A receptors are composed of multiple subunits, and the specific combination of subunits can determine the receptor's properties, such as its sensitivity to different drugs or neurotransmitters.

Benzodioxoles are chemical compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a six-carbon cyclic structure with alternating double bonds) linked to two oxide groups through methane bridges. They can be found naturally in some plants, such as nutmeg and tea, but they are also synthesized for use in various pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs.

In the medical field, benzodioxoles are used in the synthesis of certain drugs, including some antimicrobials, antihelmintics (drugs that treat parasitic worm infections), and muscle relaxants. However, they are perhaps best known for their use as a structural component in certain illicit drugs, such as ecstasy (MDMA) and related substances.

It's important to note that while benzodioxoles themselves may have some medical uses, many of the drugs that contain this structure can be dangerous when used improperly or without medical supervision.

Estrogen Receptor beta (ER-β) is a protein that is encoded by the gene ESR2 in humans. It belongs to the family of nuclear receptors, which are transcription factors that regulate gene expression in response to hormonal signals. ER-β is one of two main estrogen receptors, the other being Estrogen Receptor alpha (ER-α), and it plays an important role in mediating the effects of estrogens in various tissues, including the breast, uterus, bone, brain, and cardiovascular system.

Estrogens are steroid hormones that play a critical role in the development and maintenance of female reproductive and sexual function. They also have important functions in other tissues, such as maintaining bone density and promoting cognitive function. ER-β is widely expressed in many tissues, including those outside of the reproductive system, suggesting that it may have diverse physiological roles beyond estrogen-mediated reproduction.

ER-β has been shown to have both overlapping and distinct functions from ER-α, and its expression patterns differ between tissues. For example, in the breast, ER-β is expressed at higher levels in normal tissue compared to cancerous tissue, suggesting that it may play a protective role against breast cancer development. In contrast, in the uterus, ER-β has been shown to have anti-proliferative effects and may protect against endometrial cancer.

Overall, ER-β is an important mediator of estrogen signaling and has diverse physiological roles in various tissues. Understanding its functions and regulation may provide insights into the development of novel therapies for a range of diseases, including cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular disease.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Preclinical drug evaluation refers to a series of laboratory tests and studies conducted to determine the safety and effectiveness of a new drug before it is tested in humans. These studies typically involve experiments on cells and animals to evaluate the pharmacological properties, toxicity, and potential interactions with other substances. The goal of preclinical evaluation is to establish a reasonable level of safety and understanding of how the drug works, which helps inform the design and conduct of subsequent clinical trials in humans. It's important to note that while preclinical studies provide valuable information, they may not always predict how a drug will behave in human subjects.

Drug inverse agonism is a property of certain drugs that can bind to and stabilize the inactive conformation of a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) or other type of receptor. This results in a reduction of the receptor's basal activity, which is the level of signaling that occurs in the absence of an agonist ligand.

An inverse agonist drug can have the opposite effect of an agonist drug, which binds to and stabilizes the active conformation of a receptor and increases its signaling activity. An inverse agonist drug can also have a greater effect than a simple antagonist drug, which binds to a receptor without activating or inhibiting it but rather prevents other ligands from binding.

Inverse agonism is an important concept in pharmacology and has implications for the development of drugs that target GPCRs and other types of receptors. For example, inverse agonist drugs have been developed to treat certain conditions such as anxiety disorders, where reducing the basal activity of a particular receptor may be beneficial.

"Drug design" is the process of creating and developing a new medication or therapeutic agent to treat or prevent a specific disease or condition. It involves identifying potential targets within the body, such as proteins or enzymes that are involved in the disease process, and then designing small molecules or biologics that can interact with these targets to produce a desired effect.

The drug design process typically involves several stages, including:

1. Target identification: Researchers identify a specific molecular target that is involved in the disease process.
2. Lead identification: Using computational methods and high-throughput screening techniques, researchers identify small molecules or biologics that can interact with the target.
3. Lead optimization: Researchers modify the chemical structure of the lead compound to improve its ability to interact with the target, as well as its safety and pharmacokinetic properties.
4. Preclinical testing: The optimized lead compound is tested in vitro (in a test tube or petri dish) and in vivo (in animals) to evaluate its safety and efficacy.
5. Clinical trials: If the preclinical testing is successful, the drug moves on to clinical trials in humans to further evaluate its safety and efficacy.

The ultimate goal of drug design is to create a new medication that is safe, effective, and can be used to improve the lives of patients with a specific disease or condition.

I apologize, but "estrenes" is not a term commonly used in medical terminology in English. It may be a term used in another language or context. If you could provide more context or clarify what you are looking for, I would be happy to help further.

Uterine neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the uterus, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can originate from different types of cells within the uterus, leading to various types of uterine neoplasms. The two main categories of uterine neoplasms are endometrial neoplasms and uterine sarcomas.

Endometrial neoplasms develop from the endometrium, which is the inner lining of the uterus. Most endometrial neoplasms are classified as endometrioid adenocarcinomas, arising from glandular cells in the endometrium. Other types include serous carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and mucinous carcinoma.

Uterine sarcomas, on the other hand, are less common and originate from the connective tissue (stroma) or muscle (myometrium) of the uterus. Uterine sarcomas can be further divided into several subtypes, such as leiomyosarcoma, endometrial stromal sarcoma, and undifferentiated uterine sarcoma.

Uterine neoplasms can cause various symptoms, including abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge, pelvic pain, and difficulty urinating or having bowel movements. The diagnosis typically involves a combination of imaging tests (such as ultrasound, CT, or MRI scans) and tissue biopsies to determine the type and extent of the neoplasm. Treatment options depend on the type, stage, and patient's overall health but may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or hormone therapy.

CHO cells, or Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, are a type of immortalized cell line that are commonly used in scientific research and biotechnology. They were originally derived from the ovaries of a female Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) in the 1950s.

CHO cells have several characteristics that make them useful for laboratory experiments. They can grow and divide indefinitely under appropriate conditions, which allows researchers to culture large quantities of them for study. Additionally, CHO cells are capable of expressing high levels of recombinant proteins, making them a popular choice for the production of therapeutic drugs, vaccines, and other biologics.

In particular, CHO cells have become a workhorse in the field of biotherapeutics, with many approved monoclonal antibody-based therapies being produced using these cells. The ability to genetically modify CHO cells through various methods has further expanded their utility in research and industrial applications.

It is important to note that while CHO cells are widely used in scientific research, they may not always accurately represent human cell behavior or respond to drugs and other compounds in the same way as human cells do. Therefore, results obtained using CHO cells should be validated in more relevant systems when possible.

Postmenopausal osteoporosis is a specific type of osteoporosis that occurs in women after they have gone through menopause. It is defined as a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength, leading to an increased risk of fractures. In this condition, the decline in estrogen levels that occurs during menopause accelerates bone loss, resulting in a decrease in bone density and quality, which can lead to fragility fractures, particularly in the hips, wrists, and spine.

It's important to note that while postmenopausal osteoporosis is more common in women, men can also develop osteoporosis due to other factors such as aging, lifestyle choices, and medical conditions.

Anabolic agents are a class of drugs that promote anabolism, the building up of body tissues. These agents are often used medically to help people with certain medical conditions such as muscle wasting diseases, osteoporosis, and delayed puberty. Anabolic steroids are one type of anabolic agent. They mimic the effects of testosterone, the male sex hormone, leading to increased muscle mass and strength. However, anabolic steroids also have significant side effects and can be addictive. Therefore, their use is regulated and they are only available by prescription in many countries. Abuse of anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes, such as to improve athletic performance or appearance, is illegal and can lead to serious health consequences.

Aminophenols are organic compounds that consist of an amino group (-NH2) attached to a phenol group (aromatic ring with a hydroxyl group, -OH). There are two primary aminophenols: para-aminophenol (PAP) and ortho-aminophenol (OAP), which differ in the position of the amino group on the aromatic ring.

Para-aminophenol (PAP):
Chemical formula: C6H5NOH
IUPAC name: 4-Aminophenol

Ortho-aminophenol (OAP):
Chemical formula: C6H5NOH
IUPAC name: 2-Aminophenol

These compounds have various applications, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, and chemical intermediates. However, they can also be toxic and pose health risks if not handled properly. For instance, PAP is a metabolite of the analgesic drug paracetamol (acetaminophen), and overexposure to it can lead to liver damage.

"Competitive binding" is a term used in pharmacology and biochemistry to describe the behavior of two or more molecules (ligands) competing for the same binding site on a target protein or receptor. In this context, "binding" refers to the physical interaction between a ligand and its target.

When a ligand binds to a receptor, it can alter the receptor's function, either activating or inhibiting it. If multiple ligands compete for the same binding site, they will compete to bind to the receptor. The ability of each ligand to bind to the receptor is influenced by its affinity for the receptor, which is a measure of how strongly and specifically the ligand binds to the receptor.

In competitive binding, if one ligand is present in high concentrations, it can prevent other ligands with lower affinity from binding to the receptor. This is because the higher-affinity ligand will have a greater probability of occupying the binding site and blocking access to the other ligands. The competition between ligands can be described mathematically using equations such as the Langmuir isotherm, which describes the relationship between the concentration of ligand and the fraction of receptors that are occupied by the ligand.

Competitive binding is an important concept in drug development, as it can be used to predict how different drugs will interact with their targets and how they may affect each other's activity. By understanding the competitive binding properties of a drug, researchers can optimize its dosage and delivery to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing unwanted side effects.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) cation channels are a subfamily of transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, which are non-selective cation channels that play important roles in various physiological processes such as nociception, thermosensation, and mechanosensation. TRPV channels are activated by a variety of stimuli including temperature, chemical ligands, and mechanical forces.

TRPV channels are composed of six transmembrane domains with intracellular N- and C-termini. The TRPV subfamily includes six members: TRPV1 to TRPV6. Among them, TRPV1 is also known as the vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1) and is activated by capsaicin, the active component of hot chili peppers, as well as noxious heat. TRPV2 is activated by noxious heat and mechanical stimuli, while TRPV3 and TRPV4 are activated by warm temperatures and various chemical ligands. TRPV5 and TRPV6 are primarily involved in calcium transport and are activated by low pH and divalent cations.

TRPV channels play important roles in pain sensation, neurogenic inflammation, and temperature perception. Dysfunction of these channels has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as chronic pain, inflammatory diseases, and cancer. Therefore, TRPV channels are considered promising targets for the development of novel therapeutics for these conditions.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ located in the female pelvic cavity, between the bladder and the rectum. It has a thick, middle layer called the myometrium, which is composed of smooth muscle tissue, and an inner lining called the endometrium, which provides a nurturing environment for the fertilized egg to develop into a fetus during pregnancy.

The uterus is where the baby grows and develops until it is ready for birth through the cervix, which is the lower, narrow part of the uterus that opens into the vagina. The uterus plays a critical role in the menstrual cycle as well, by shedding its lining each month if pregnancy does not occur.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Androgen receptor antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of androgens, which are hormones responsible for the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics. These drugs work by binding to the androgen receptors in cells, preventing the natural androgens such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone from binding and exerting their effects.

Androgen receptor antagonists are often used in the treatment of prostate cancer because androgens can stimulate the growth of prostate cancer cells. By blocking the action of androgens, these drugs can help to slow or stop the growth of prostate cancer tumors. Some examples of androgen receptor antagonists include flutamide, bicalutamide, and enzalutamide.

It's important to note that androgen receptor antagonists can have side effects, including hot flashes, breast tenderness or enlargement, decreased sex drive, and impotence. Additionally, long-term use of these drugs can lead to muscle loss, bone density loss, and an increased risk of fractures. As with any medication, it's important to discuss the potential benefits and risks with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Ethanolamines are a class of organic compounds that contain an amino group (-NH2) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a carbon atom. They are derivatives of ammonia (NH3) in which one or two hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a ethanol group (-CH2CH2OH).

The most common ethanolamines are:

* Monethanolamine (MEA), also called 2-aminoethanol, with the formula HOCH2CH2NH2.
* Diethanolamine (DEA), also called 2,2'-iminobisethanol, with the formula HOCH2CH2NHCH2CH2OH.
* Triethanolamine (TEA), also called 2,2',2''-nitrilotrisethanol, with the formula N(CH2CH2OH)3.

Ethanolamines are used in a wide range of industrial and consumer products, including as solvents, emulsifiers, detergents, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products. They also have applications as intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals. In the body, ethanolamines play important roles in various biological processes, such as neurotransmission and cell signaling.

A radioligand assay is a type of in vitro binding assay used in molecular biology and pharmacology to measure the affinity and quantity of a ligand (such as a drug or hormone) to its specific receptor. In this technique, a small amount of a radioactively labeled ligand, also known as a radioligand, is introduced to a sample containing the receptor of interest. The radioligand binds competitively with other unlabeled ligands present in the sample for the same binding site on the receptor. After allowing sufficient time for binding, the reaction is stopped, and the amount of bound radioligand is measured using a technique such as scintillation counting. The data obtained from this assay can be used to determine the dissociation constant (Kd) and maximum binding capacity (Bmax) of the receptor-ligand interaction, which are important parameters in understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs and other ligands.

Progesterone receptors (PRs) are a type of nuclear receptor proteins that are expressed in the nucleus of certain cells and play a crucial role in the regulation of various physiological processes, including the menstrual cycle, embryo implantation, and maintenance of pregnancy. These receptors bind to the steroid hormone progesterone, which is produced primarily in the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and during pregnancy.

Once progesterone binds to the PRs, it triggers a series of molecular events that lead to changes in gene expression, ultimately resulting in the modulation of various cellular functions. Progesterone receptors exist in two main isoforms, PR-A and PR-B, which differ in their size, structure, and transcriptional activity. Both isoforms are expressed in a variety of tissues, including the female reproductive tract, breast, brain, and bone.

Abnormalities in progesterone receptor expression or function have been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as uterine fibroids, endometriosis, breast cancer, and osteoporosis. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying PR signaling is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these disorders.

"Marijuana Abuse" is not a term that is typically used in the medical field. Instead, the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which is used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental conditions, uses the term "Cannabis Use Disorder." This disorder is defined as a problematic pattern of cannabis use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, with symptoms including:

1. Taking larger amounts of cannabis over a longer period than intended.
2. A persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control cannabis use.
3. Spending a lot of time obtaining, using, or recovering from the effects of cannabis.
4. Craving or a strong desire to use cannabis.
5. Recurrent cannabis use resulting in failure to fulfill major role obligations at work, school, or home.
6. Continued cannabis use despite having persistent or recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of cannabis.
7. Giving up or reducing important activities because of cannabis use.
8. Recurrent cannabis use in situations in which it is physically hazardous.
9. Continued cannabis use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or exacerbated by cannabis.
10. Tolerance, as defined by either:
a) A need for markedly increased amounts of cannabis to achieve intoxication or desired effect.
b) Markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount of cannabis.
11. Withdrawal, as manifested by either:
a) The characteristic withdrawal syndrome for cannabis.
b) Cannabis is taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms.

The diagnosis of a mild, moderate, or severe Cannabis Use Disorder depends on the number of symptoms present.

Ovulation inhibition is a term used in reproductive medicine to describe the prevention or delay of ovulation, which is the release of a mature egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. This can be achieved through various means, such as hormonal contraceptives (birth control pills, patches, rings), injectable hormones, or intrauterine devices (IUDs) that release hormones.

Hormonal contraceptives typically contain synthetic versions of the hormones estrogen and progestin, which work together to inhibit the natural hormonal signals that trigger ovulation. By suppressing the surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), these methods prevent the development and release of a mature egg from the ovaries.

In addition to preventing ovulation, hormonal contraceptives can also thicken cervical mucus, making it more difficult for sperm to reach the egg, and thin the lining of the uterus, reducing the likelihood of implantation in case fertilization does occur. It is important to note that while ovulation inhibition is a reliable method of birth control, it may not provide protection against sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another cell, such as another neuron or a muscle cell, across a junction called a synapse. It involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, leading to changes in the electrical or chemical properties of the target cell. This process is critical for the transmission of signals within the nervous system and for controlling various physiological functions in the body.

'Piper nigrum' is not a medical term, but it is a botanical name. It refers to the black pepper plant, which is native to South India and Southeast Asia. The fruit of the plant, known as peppercorns, is used as a spice and has various medicinal properties.

Black pepper contains piperine, an alkaloid that gives it its pungent flavor and may have several health benefits, such as improving digestion, reducing inflammation, and enhancing bioavailability of nutrients in other foods when consumed together. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits and establish appropriate dosages for medical use.

Cyclohexanes are organic compounds that consist of a six-carbon ring arranged in a cyclic structure, with each carbon atom joined to two other carbon atoms by single bonds. This gives the molecule a shape that resembles a hexagonal ring. The carbons in the ring can be saturated, meaning that they are bonded to hydrogen atoms, or they can contain double bonds between some of the carbon atoms.

Cyclohexanes are important intermediates in the production of many industrial and consumer products, including plastics, fibers, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. They are also used as solvents and starting materials for the synthesis of other organic compounds.

One of the most well-known properties of cyclohexane is its ability to exist in two different conformations: a "chair" conformation and a "boat" conformation. In the chair conformation, the carbon atoms are arranged in such a way that they form a puckered ring, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbons and two hydrogens. This conformation is more stable than the boat conformation, in which the carbon atoms form a flattened, saddle-shaped ring.

Cyclohexanes are relatively nonpolar and have low water solubility, making them useful as solvents for nonpolar substances. They also have a relatively high boiling point compared to other hydrocarbons of similar molecular weight, due to the fact that they can form weak intermolecular forces called London dispersion forces.

Cyclohexane is a flammable liquid with a mild, sweet odor. It is classified as a hazardous substance and should be handled with care. Exposure to cyclohexane can cause irritation of the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract, and prolonged exposure can lead to more serious health effects, including neurological damage.

Resorcinols are a type of chemical compound that contain a resorcinol moiety, which is made up of a benzene ring with two hydroxyl groups in the ortho position. In medicine, resorcinol and its derivatives have been used for various purposes, including as antiseptics, antibacterials, and intermediates in the synthesis of other pharmaceuticals.

Resorcinol itself has some medicinal properties, such as being able to reduce pain and inflammation, and it has been used topically to treat conditions like eczema, psoriasis, and acne. However, resorcinol can also be toxic in large amounts, so it must be used with caution.

It's important to note that while resorcinol is a chemical compound, the term "resorcinols" may also refer to a group of related compounds that contain the resorcinol moiety. These compounds can have different medicinal properties and uses depending on their specific structure and function.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system. It plays a crucial role in regulating neuronal excitability and preventing excessive neuronal firing, which helps to maintain neural homeostasis and reduce the risk of seizures. GABA functions by binding to specific receptors (GABA-A, GABA-B, and GABA-C) on the postsynaptic membrane, leading to hyperpolarization of the neuronal membrane and reduced neurotransmitter release from presynaptic terminals.

In addition to its role in the central nervous system, GABA has also been identified as a neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system, where it is involved in regulating various physiological processes such as muscle relaxation, hormone secretion, and immune function.

GABA can be synthesized in neurons from glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, through the action of the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD). Once synthesized, GABA is stored in synaptic vesicles and released into the synapse upon neuronal activation. After release, GABA can be taken up by surrounding glial cells or degraded by the enzyme GABA transaminase (GABA-T) into succinic semialdehyde, which is further metabolized to form succinate and enter the Krebs cycle for energy production.

Dysregulation of GABAergic neurotransmission has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including epilepsy, anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances. Therefore, modulating GABAergic signaling through pharmacological interventions or other therapeutic approaches may offer potential benefits for the treatment of these conditions.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Hormone antagonists are substances or drugs that block the action of hormones by binding to their receptors without activating them, thereby preventing the hormones from exerting their effects. They can be classified into two types: receptor antagonists and enzyme inhibitors. Receptor antagonists bind directly to hormone receptors and prevent the hormone from binding, while enzyme inhibitors block the production or breakdown of hormones by inhibiting specific enzymes involved in their metabolism. Hormone antagonists are used in the treatment of various medical conditions, such as cancer, hormonal disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

The endometrium is the innermost layer of the uterus, which lines the uterine cavity and has a critical role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. It is composed of glands and blood vessels that undergo cyclic changes under the influence of hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone. During the menstrual cycle, the endometrium thickens in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, it will break down and be shed, resulting in menstruation. In contrast, if implantation takes place, the endometrium provides essential nutrients to support the developing embryo and placenta throughout pregnancy.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

Patch-clamp techniques are a group of electrophysiological methods used to study ion channels and other electrical properties of cells. These techniques were developed by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991 for their work. The basic principle of patch-clamp techniques involves creating a high resistance seal between a glass micropipette and the cell membrane, allowing for the measurement of current flowing through individual ion channels or groups of channels.

There are several different configurations of patch-clamp techniques, including:

1. Cell-attached configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is attached to the outer surface of the cell membrane, and the current flowing across a single ion channel can be measured. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of individual channels in their native environment.
2. Whole-cell configuration: Here, the micropipette breaks through the cell membrane, creating a low resistance electrical connection between the pipette and the inside of the cell. This configuration allows for the measurement of the total current flowing across all ion channels in the cell membrane.
3. Inside-out configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the inner surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in isolation from other cellular components.
4. Outside-out configuration: Here, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the outer surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in their native environment, but with the ability to control the composition of the extracellular solution.

Patch-clamp techniques have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of ion channel function and have contributed to numerous breakthroughs in neuroscience, pharmacology, and physiology.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Breast neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the breast tissue that can be benign or malignant. Benign breast neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors or growths, while malignant breast neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

Breast neoplasms can arise from different types of cells in the breast, including milk ducts, milk sacs (lobules), or connective tissue. The most common type of breast cancer is ductal carcinoma, which starts in the milk ducts and can spread to other parts of the breast and nearby structures.

Breast neoplasms are usually detected through screening methods such as mammography, ultrasound, or MRI, or through self-examination or clinical examination. Treatment options for breast neoplasms depend on several factors, including the type and stage of the tumor, the patient's age and overall health, and personal preferences. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Drug tolerance is a medical concept that refers to the decreased response to a drug following its repeated use, requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect. This occurs because the body adapts to the presence of the drug, leading to changes in the function or expression of targets that the drug acts upon, such as receptors or enzymes. Tolerance can develop to various types of drugs, including opioids, benzodiazepines, and alcohol, and it is often associated with physical dependence and addiction. It's important to note that tolerance is different from resistance, which refers to the ability of a pathogen to survive or grow in the presence of a drug, such as antibiotics.

Hallucinogens are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and thought, often causing hallucinations, which are profound distortions in a person's perceptions of reality. These substances work by disrupting the normal functioning of the brain, particularly the parts that regulate mood, sensory perception, sleep, hunger, and sexual behavior.

Hallucinogens can be found in various forms, including plants, mushrooms, and synthetic compounds. Some common examples of hallucinogens include LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (found in certain species of mushrooms), DMT (dimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca (a plant-based brew from South America).

The effects of hallucinogens can vary widely depending on the specific substance, the dose, the individual's personality, mood, and expectations, and the environment in which the drug is taken. These effects can range from pleasant sensory experiences and heightened emotional awareness to terrifying hallucinations and overwhelming feelings of anxiety or despair.

It's important to note that hallucinogens can be dangerous, particularly when taken in high doses or in combination with other substances. They can also cause long-term psychological distress and may trigger underlying mental health conditions. As such, they should only be used under the guidance of a trained medical professional for therapeutic purposes.

ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) is a strain of albino Swiss mice that are widely used in scientific research. They are an outbred strain, which means that they have been bred to maintain maximum genetic heterogeneity. However, it is also possible to find inbred strains of ICR mice, which are genetically identical individuals produced by many generations of brother-sister mating.

Inbred ICR mice are a specific type of ICR mouse that has been inbred for at least 20 generations. This means that they have a high degree of genetic uniformity and are essentially genetically identical to one another. Inbred strains of mice are often used in research because their genetic consistency makes them more reliable models for studying biological phenomena and testing new therapies or treatments.

It is important to note that while inbred ICR mice may be useful for certain types of research, they do not necessarily represent the genetic diversity found in human populations. Therefore, it is important to consider the limitations of using any animal model when interpreting research findings and applying them to human health.

Capsaicin is defined in medical terms as the active component of chili peppers (genus Capsicum) that produces a burning sensation when it comes into contact with mucous membranes or skin. It is a potent irritant and is used topically as a counterirritant in some creams and patches to relieve pain. Capsaicin works by depleting substance P, a neurotransmitter that relays pain signals to the brain, from nerve endings.

Here is the medical definition of capsaicin from the Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary:

caпсаісіn : an alkaloid (C18H27NO3) that is the active principle of red peppers and is used in topical preparations as a counterirritant and analgesic.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that lies behind the brainstem and is involved in the regulation of motor movements, balance, and coordination. It contains two hemispheres and a central portion called the vermis. The cerebellum receives input from sensory systems and other areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to motor areas of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum can result in problems with movement, balance, and coordination.

Allosteric regulation is a process that describes the way in which the binding of a molecule (known as a ligand) to an enzyme or protein at one site affects the ability of another molecule to bind to a different site on the same enzyme or protein. This interaction can either enhance (positive allosteric regulation) or inhibit (negative allosteric regulation) the activity of the enzyme or protein, depending on the nature of the ligand and its effect on the shape and/or conformation of the enzyme or protein.

In an allosteric regulatory system, the binding of the first molecule to the enzyme or protein causes a conformational change in the protein structure that alters the affinity of the second site for its ligand. This can result in changes in the activity of the enzyme or protein, allowing for fine-tuning of biochemical pathways and regulatory processes within cells.

Allosteric regulation is a fundamental mechanism in many biological systems, including metabolic pathways, signal transduction cascades, and gene expression networks. Understanding allosteric regulation can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying various physiological and pathological processes, and can inform the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of disease.

Bone density conservation agents, also known as anti-resorptive agents or bone-sparing drugs, are a class of medications that help to prevent the loss of bone mass and reduce the risk of fractures. They work by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, the cells responsible for breaking down and reabsorbing bone tissue during the natural remodeling process.

Examples of bone density conservation agents include:

1. Bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate, risedronate, ibandronate, zoledronic acid) - These are the most commonly prescribed class of bone density conservation agents. They bind to hydroxyapatite crystals in bone tissue and inhibit osteoclast activity, thereby reducing bone resorption.
2. Denosumab (Prolia) - This is a monoclonal antibody that targets RANKL (Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-κB Ligand), a key signaling molecule involved in osteoclast differentiation and activation. By inhibiting RANKL, denosumab reduces osteoclast activity and bone resorption.
3. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) (e.g., raloxifene) - These medications act as estrogen agonists or antagonists in different tissues. In bone tissue, SERMs mimic the bone-preserving effects of estrogen by inhibiting osteoclast activity and reducing bone resorption.
4. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) - Estrogen hormone replacement therapy has been shown to preserve bone density in postmenopausal women; however, its use is limited due to increased risks of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and thromboembolic events.
5. Calcitonin - This hormone, secreted by the thyroid gland, inhibits osteoclast activity and reduces bone resorption. However, it has largely been replaced by other more effective bone density conservation agents.

These medications are often prescribed for individuals at high risk of fractures due to conditions such as osteoporosis or metabolic disorders that affect bone health. It is essential to follow the recommended dosage and administration guidelines to maximize their benefits while minimizing potential side effects. Regular monitoring of bone density, blood calcium levels, and other relevant parameters is also necessary during treatment with these medications.

Presynaptic terminals, also known as presynaptic boutons or nerve terminals, refer to the specialized structures located at the end of axons in neurons. These terminals contain numerous small vesicles filled with neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it triggers the influx of calcium ions into the terminal, leading to the fusion of the vesicles with the presynaptic membrane and the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, a small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic terminals.

The released neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic terminal, leading to the generation of an electrical or chemical signal that can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Presynaptic terminals play a crucial role in regulating synaptic transmission and are targets for various drugs and toxins that modulate neuronal communication.

An amide is a functional group or a compound that contains a carbonyl group (a double-bonded carbon atom) and a nitrogen atom. The nitrogen atom is connected to the carbonyl carbon atom by a single bond, and it also has a lone pair of electrons. Amides are commonly found in proteins and peptides, where they form amide bonds (also known as peptide bonds) between individual amino acids.

The general structure of an amide is R-CO-NHR', where R and R' can be alkyl or aryl groups. Amides can be classified into several types based on the nature of R and R' substituents:

* Primary amides: R-CO-NH2
* Secondary amides: R-CO-NHR'
* Tertiary amides: R-CO-NR''R'''

Amides have several important chemical properties. They are generally stable and resistant to hydrolysis under neutral or basic conditions, but they can be hydrolyzed under acidic conditions or with strong bases. Amides also exhibit a characteristic infrared absorption band around 1650 cm-1 due to the carbonyl stretching vibration.

In addition to their prevalence in proteins and peptides, amides are also found in many natural and synthetic compounds, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, and polymers. They have a wide range of applications in chemistry, biology, and materials science.

Pertussis toxin is an exotoxin produced by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis, which is responsible for causing whooping cough in humans. This toxin has several effects on the host organism, including:

1. Adenylyl cyclase activation: Pertussis toxin enters the host cell and modifies a specific G protein (Gαi), leading to the continuous activation of adenylyl cyclase. This results in increased levels of intracellular cAMP, which disrupts various cellular processes.
2. Inhibition of immune response: Pertussis toxin impairs the host's immune response by inhibiting the migration and function of immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages. It also interferes with antigen presentation and T-cell activation, making it difficult for the body to clear the infection.
3. Increased inflammation: The continuous activation of adenylyl cyclase by pertussis toxin leads to increased production of proinflammatory cytokines, contributing to the severe coughing fits and other symptoms associated with whooping cough.

Pertussis toxin is an essential virulence factor for Bordetella pertussis, and its effects contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of whooping cough. Vaccination against pertussis includes inactivated or genetically detoxified forms of pertussis toxin, which provide immunity without causing disease symptoms.

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. It is a complex phenomenon that can result from various stimuli, such as thermal, mechanical, or chemical irritation, and it can be acute or chronic. The perception of pain involves the activation of specialized nerve cells called nociceptors, which transmit signals to the brain via the spinal cord. These signals are then processed in different regions of the brain, leading to the conscious experience of pain. It's important to note that pain is a highly individual and subjective experience, and its perception can vary widely among individuals.

Hyperalgesia is a medical term that describes an increased sensitivity to pain. It occurs when the nervous system, specifically the nociceptors (pain receptors), become excessively sensitive to stimuli. This means that a person experiences pain from a stimulus that normally wouldn't cause pain or experiences pain that is more intense than usual. Hyperalgesia can be a result of various conditions such as nerve damage, inflammation, or certain medications. It's an important symptom to monitor in patients with chronic pain conditions, as it may indicate the development of tolerance or addiction to pain medication.

Antineoplastic agents, hormonal, are a class of drugs used to treat cancers that are sensitive to hormones. These agents work by interfering with the production or action of hormones in the body. They can be used to slow down or stop the growth of cancer cells and may also help to relieve symptoms caused by the spread of cancer.

Hormonal therapies can work in one of two ways: they can either block the production of hormones or prevent their action on cancer cells. For example, some hormonal therapies work by blocking the action of estrogen or testosterone, which are hormones that can stimulate the growth of certain types of cancer cells.

Examples of hormonal agents used to treat cancer include:

* Aromatase inhibitors (such as letrozole, anastrozole, and exemestane), which block the production of estrogen in postmenopausal women
* Selective estrogen receptor modulators (such as tamoxifen and raloxifene), which block the action of estrogen on cancer cells
* Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists (such as leuprolide, goserelin, and triptorelin), which block the production of testosterone in men
* Antiandrogens (such as bicalutamide, flutamide, and enzalutamide), which block the action of testosterone on cancer cells

Hormonal therapies are often used in combination with other treatments, such as surgery or radiation therapy. They may be used to shrink tumors before surgery, to kill any remaining cancer cells after surgery, or to help control the spread of cancer that cannot be removed by surgery. Hormonal therapies can also be used to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life in people with advanced cancer.

It's important to note that hormonal therapies are not effective for all types of cancer. They are most commonly used to treat breast, prostate, and endometrial cancers, which are known to be sensitive to hormones. Hormonal therapies may also be used to treat other types of cancer in certain situations.

Like all medications, hormonal therapies can have side effects. These can vary depending on the specific drug and the individual person. Common side effects of hormonal therapies include hot flashes, fatigue, mood changes, and sexual dysfunction. Some hormonal therapies can also cause more serious side effects, such as an increased risk of osteoporosis or blood clots. It's important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of hormonal therapy with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.

"Gonanes" is not a recognized medical term. However, in the field of chemistry and pharmacology, gonanes refer to a class of steroidal compounds that have a chemical structure similar to testosterone, which is the primary male sex hormone. These compounds are often used as the basis for developing drugs that can affect the reproductive system or other systems in the body that are influenced by testosterone and its derivatives.

It's important to note that while gonanes may have implications for medical research and drug development, they do not have a specific medical definition in the same way that terms like "myocardial infarction" or "diabetes mellitus" do.

Anilides are chemical compounds that result from the reaction between aniline (a organic compound with the formula C6H5NH2) and a carboxylic acid or its derivative. The resulting compound has the general structure R-CO-NH-C6H5, where R represents the rest of the carboxylic acid molecule.

Anilides are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry to produce various drugs, such as analgesics, anti-inflammatory agents, and antifungal agents. Some examples of anilide-based drugs include acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol), fenacetin, and flufenamic acid.

It's worth noting that some anilides have been found to have toxic effects on the liver and kidneys, so they must be used with caution and under medical supervision.

Neuroprotective agents are substances that protect neurons or nerve cells from damage, degeneration, or death caused by various factors such as trauma, inflammation, oxidative stress, or excitotoxicity. These agents work through different mechanisms, including reducing the production of free radicals, inhibiting the release of glutamate (a neurotransmitter that can cause cell damage in high concentrations), promoting the growth and survival of neurons, and preventing apoptosis (programmed cell death). Neuroprotective agents have been studied for their potential to treat various neurological disorders, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and multiple sclerosis. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and to develop effective therapies.

Palmitic acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, which is a common component in many foods and also produced by the body. Its chemical formula is C16:0, indicating that it contains 16 carbon atoms and no double bonds. Palmitic acid is found in high concentrations in animal fats, such as butter, lard, and beef tallow, as well as in some vegetable oils, like palm kernel oil and coconut oil.

In the human body, palmitic acid can be synthesized from other substances or absorbed through the diet. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy storage, membrane structure formation, and signaling pathways regulation. However, high intake of palmitic acid has been linked to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases due to its potential to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood.

It is essential to maintain a balanced diet and consume palmitic acid-rich foods in moderation, along with regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle, to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Stereoisomerism is a type of isomerism (structural arrangement of atoms) in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but differ in the three-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space. This occurs when the molecule contains asymmetric carbon atoms or other rigid structures that prevent free rotation, leading to distinct spatial arrangements of groups of atoms around a central point. Stereoisomers can have different chemical and physical properties, such as optical activity, boiling points, and reactivities, due to differences in their shape and the way they interact with other molecules.

There are two main types of stereoisomerism: enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) and diastereomers (non-mirror-image isomers). Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other, but cannot be superimposed on one another. Diastereomers, on the other hand, are non-mirror-image stereoisomers that have different physical and chemical properties.

Stereoisomerism is an important concept in chemistry and biology, as it can affect the biological activity of molecules, such as drugs and natural products. For example, some enantiomers of a drug may be active, while others are inactive or even toxic. Therefore, understanding stereoisomerism is crucial for designing and synthesizing effective and safe drugs.

Androgen antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of androgens, which are hormones that contribute to male sexual development and characteristics. They work by binding to androgen receptors in cells, preventing the natural androgens from attaching and exerting their effects. This can be useful in treating conditions that are caused or worsened by androgens, such as prostate cancer, hirsutism (excessive hair growth in women), and acne. Examples of androgen antagonists include flutamide, bicalutamide, and spironolactone.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a family of membrane receptors that play an essential role in cellular signaling and communication. These receptors possess seven transmembrane domains, forming a structure that spans the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. They are called "G-protein-coupled" because they interact with heterotrimeric G proteins upon activation, which in turn modulate various downstream signaling pathways.

When an extracellular ligand binds to a GPCR, it causes a conformational change in the receptor's structure, leading to the exchange of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) on the associated G protein's α subunit. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G protein into its α and βγ subunits, which then interact with various effector proteins to elicit cellular responses.

There are four main families of GPCRs, classified based on their sequence similarities and downstream signaling pathways:

1. Gq-coupled receptors: These receptors activate phospholipase C (PLC), which leads to the production of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 induces calcium release from intracellular stores, while DAG activates protein kinase C (PKC).
2. Gs-coupled receptors: These receptors activate adenylyl cyclase, which increases the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and subsequently activates protein kinase A (PKA).
3. Gi/o-coupled receptors: These receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase, reducing cAMP levels and modulating PKA activity. Additionally, they can activate ion channels or regulate other signaling pathways through the βγ subunits.
4. G12/13-coupled receptors: These receptors primarily activate RhoGEFs, which in turn activate RhoA and modulate cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility.

GPCRs are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and sensory perception. Dysregulation of GPCR function has been implicated in numerous diseases, making them attractive targets for drug development.

Orchiectomy is a surgical procedure where one or both of the testicles are removed. It is also known as castration. This procedure can be performed for various reasons, including the treatment of testicular cancer, prostate cancer, or other conditions that may affect the testicles. It can also be done to reduce levels of male hormones in the body, such as in the case of transgender women undergoing gender affirming surgery. The specific medical definition may vary slightly depending on the context and the extent of the procedure.

Keratin-13 is a type of keratin protein that is primarily found in the differentiated suprabasal layers of the epithelial tissues, including the oral mucosa and the esophageal mucosa. It is a component of the intermediate filament cytoskeleton of the epithelial cells and plays an important role in maintaining the structural integrity and function of these tissues.

Mutations in the gene that encodes keratin-13 have been associated with several inherited skin disorders, including epidermolysis bullosa simplex, a group of blistering diseases characterized by fragility of the skin and mucous membranes. These mutations can lead to abnormalities in the structure and stability of keratin-13, resulting in the formation of blisters and sores in response to minor trauma or friction.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Contraceptive agents for males are substances or methods that are used to prevent pregnancy by reducing the likelihood of fertilization. These can include:

1. Barrier methods: Condoms, diaphragms, and spermicides create a physical barrier that prevents sperm from reaching the egg.
2. Hormonal methods: Testosterone and progestin hormone therapies can decrease sperm production and reduce fertility.
3. Intrauterine devices (IUDs) for men: These are still in the experimental stage, but they involve placing a device in the male reproductive tract to prevent sperm from reaching the female reproductive system.
4. Withdrawal method: This involves the man withdrawing his penis from the vagina before ejaculation, although this is not a highly reliable form of contraception.
5. Fertility awareness methods: These involve tracking the woman's menstrual cycle and avoiding sexual intercourse during her fertile period.
6. Sterilization: Vasectomy is a surgical procedure that blocks or cuts the vas deferens, preventing sperm from leaving the body. It is a permanent form of contraception for men.

It's important to note that no contraceptive method is 100% effective, and individuals should consult with their healthcare provider to determine which option is best for them based on their personal needs, lifestyle, and medical history.

Medical marijuana refers to the use of the unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat a disease or symptom. The plant contains more than 100 different chemicals called cannabinoids, which have various effects on the body. The most well-known active cannabinoid is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which causes the "high" that people feel when they smoke marijuana or ingest it in other forms.

The FDA has approved only one cannabis-derived and three cannabis-related products for medical use: dronabinol (Marinol, Syndros), nabilone (Cesamet), a CBD product (Epidiolex), and cannabis itself for the treatment of certain types of epilepsy.

Medical marijuana is used to treat a variety of conditions, including:

* Alzheimer's disease
* Appetite loss
* Cancer
* Crohn's disease
* Eating disorders such as anorexia
* Epilepsy
* Glaucoma
* Mental health conditions like schizophrenia and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
* Multiple sclerosis
* Muscle spasms
* Nausea
* Pain
* Wasting syndrome (cachexia)

It's important to note that while some studies have suggested that marijuana or its components may be beneficial in treating certain diseases or symptoms, more research is needed before the FDA can approve marijuana as a safe and effective medicine. Additionally, marijuana use comes with potential risks, including addiction, decreased cognitive function, and lung damage from smoking.

Therefore, it's important to consult with a healthcare provider before using medical marijuana to weigh the potential benefits and risks.

Phenylmethylsulfonyl Fluoride (PMSF) is not a medication or a treatment, but it is a chemical compound with the formula C8H9FO3S. It is commonly used in biochemistry and molecular biology research as a serine protease inhibitor.

Proteases are enzymes that break down other proteins by cleaving specific peptide bonds. Serine proteases are a class of proteases that use a serine residue in their active site to carry out the hydrolysis reaction. PMSF works by irreversibly modifying this serine residue, inhibiting the enzyme's activity.

PMSF is used in laboratory settings to prevent protein degradation during experiments such as protein purification or Western blotting. It is important to note that PMSF is highly toxic and must be handled with care, using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and safety measures.

Sphingosine is not a medical term per se, but rather a biological compound with importance in the field of medicine. It is a type of sphingolipid, a class of lipids that are crucial components of cell membranes. Sphingosine itself is a secondary alcohol with an amino group and two long-chain hydrocarbons.

Medically, sphingosine is significant due to its role as a precursor in the synthesis of other sphingolipids, such as ceramides, sphingomyelins, and gangliosides, which are involved in various cellular processes like signal transduction, cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Moreover, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a derivative of sphingosine, is an important bioactive lipid mediator that regulates various physiological functions, including immune response, vascular maturation, and neuronal development. Dysregulation of S1P signaling has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, inflammation, and cardiovascular disorders.

In summary, sphingosine is a crucial biological compound with medical relevance due to its role as a precursor for various sphingolipids involved in cellular processes and as a precursor for the bioactive lipid mediator S1P.

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) are electrical signals that occur in the dendrites and cell body of a neuron, or nerve cell. They are caused by the activation of excitatory synapses, which are connections between neurons that allow for the transmission of information.

When an action potential, or electrical impulse, reaches the end of an axon, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, the small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes. The excitatory neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, causing a local depolarization of the membrane potential. This depolarization is known as an EPSP.

EPSPs are responsible for increasing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated in the postsynaptic neuron. When multiple EPSPs occur simultaneously or in close succession, they can summate and cause a large enough depolarization to trigger an action potential. This allows for the transmission of information from one neuron to another.

It's important to note that there are also inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) which decrease the likelihood that an action potential will be generated in the postsynaptic neuron, by causing a local hyperpolarization of the membrane potential.

GTP-binding protein alpha subunits, Gi-Go, are a type of heterotrimeric G proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways associated with many hormones and neurotransmitters. These G proteins are composed of three subunits: alpha, beta, and gamma. The "Gi-Go" specifically refers to the alpha subunit of these G proteins, which can exist in two isoforms, Gi and Go.

When a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is activated by an agonist, it undergoes a conformational change that allows it to act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF). The GEF activity of the GPCR promotes the exchange of GDP for GTP on the alpha subunit of the heterotrimeric G protein. Once GTP is bound, the alpha subunit dissociates from the beta-gamma dimer and can then interact with downstream effectors to modulate various cellular responses.

The Gi-Go alpha subunits are inhibitory in nature, meaning that they typically inhibit the activity of adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme responsible for converting ATP to cAMP. This reduction in cAMP levels can have downstream effects on various cellular processes, such as gene transcription, ion channel regulation, and metabolic pathways.

In summary, GTP-binding protein alpha subunits, Gi-Go, are heterotrimeric G proteins that play an essential role in signal transduction pathways by modulating adenylyl cyclase activity upon GPCR activation, ultimately influencing various cellular responses through cAMP regulation.

Neural inhibition is a process in the nervous system that decreases or prevents the activity of neurons (nerve cells) in order to regulate and control communication within the nervous system. It is a fundamental mechanism that allows for the balance of excitation and inhibition necessary for normal neural function. Inhibitory neurotransmitters, such as GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and glycine, are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, reducing its likelihood of firing an action potential. This results in a decrease in neural activity and can have various effects depending on the specific neurons and brain regions involved. Neural inhibition is crucial for many functions including motor control, sensory processing, attention, memory, and emotional regulation.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.

Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

"Cricetulus" is a genus of rodents that includes several species of hamsters. These small, burrowing animals are native to Asia and have a body length of about 8-15 centimeters, with a tail that is usually shorter than the body. They are characterized by their large cheek pouches, which they use to store food. Some common species in this genus include the Chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus) and the Daurian hamster (Cricetulus dauuricus). These animals are often kept as pets or used in laboratory research.

Analgesics, non-narcotic are a class of medications used to relieve pain that do not contain narcotics or opioids. They work by blocking the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system or by reducing inflammation and swelling. Examples of non-narcotic analgesics include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve), and aspirin. These medications are often used to treat mild to moderate pain, such as headaches, menstrual cramps, muscle aches, and arthritis symptoms. They can be obtained over-the-counter or by prescription, depending on the dosage and formulation. It is important to follow the recommended dosages and usage instructions carefully to avoid adverse effects.

Opioid mu receptors, also known as mu-opioid receptors (MORs), are a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds to opioids, a class of chemicals that include both natural and synthetic painkillers. These receptors are found in the brain, spinal cord, and gastrointestinal tract, and play a key role in mediating the effects of opioid drugs such as morphine, heroin, and oxycodone.

MORs are involved in pain modulation, reward processing, respiratory depression, and physical dependence. Activation of MORs can lead to feelings of euphoria, decreased perception of pain, and slowed breathing. Prolonged activation of these receptors can also result in tolerance, where higher doses of the drug are required to achieve the same effect, and dependence, where withdrawal symptoms occur when the drug is discontinued.

MORs have three main subtypes: MOR-1, MOR-2, and MOR-3, with MOR-1 being the most widely studied and clinically relevant. Selective agonists for MOR-1, such as fentanyl and sufentanil, are commonly used in anesthesia and pain management. However, the abuse potential and risk of overdose associated with these drugs make them a significant public health concern.

Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.

Estradiol congeners refer to chemical compounds that are structurally similar to estradiol, which is the most potent and prevalent form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol congeners can be naturally occurring or synthetic and may have similar or different biological activities compared to estradiol.

These compounds can be found in various sources, including plants, animals, and industrial products. Some estradiol congeners are used in pharmaceuticals as hormone replacement therapies, while others are considered environmental pollutants and may have endocrine-disrupting effects on wildlife and humans.

Examples of estradiol congeners include:

1. Estrone (E1): a weak estrogen that is produced in the body from estradiol and is also found in some plants.
2. Estriol (E3): a weaker estrogen that is produced in large quantities during pregnancy.
3. Diethylstilbestrol (DES): a synthetic estrogen that was prescribed to pregnant women from the 1940s to the 1970s to prevent miscarriage, but was later found to have serious health effects on their offspring.
4. Zeranol: a synthetic non-steroidal estrogen used as a growth promoter in livestock.
5. Bisphenol A (BPA): a chemical used in the production of plastics and epoxy resins, which has been shown to have weak estrogenic activity and may disrupt the endocrine system.

Benzothiadiazines are a class of heterocyclic chemical compounds that contain a benzene fused to a thiadiazine ring. They have been used in the synthesis of various pharmaceutical drugs, particularly those used for their anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and diuretic properties.

One of the most well-known benzothiadiazines is benothiazine itself, which has been used as a precursor in the synthesis of various dyes and pigments. However, it is not used in medical applications.

The benzothiadiazines that are used medically are typically derivatives of the parent compound, such as clotrimazole and ftorafur. Clotrimazole is an antifungal medication used to treat various fungal infections, while ftorafur is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of certain types of cancer.

It's important to note that benzothiadiazines are not a commonly used class of drugs in medicine, and their use is typically limited to specific indications where they have been shown to be effective.

'Marijuana smoking' is not typically defined in a medical context, but it generally refers to the act of inhaling smoke from burning marijuana leaves or flowers, which are often dried and rolled into a cigarette (known as a "joint"), pipe, or bong. The active ingredients in marijuana, primarily delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are absorbed through the lungs and enter the bloodstream, leading to various psychological and physiological effects.

It's worth noting that marijuana smoking is associated with several potential health risks, including respiratory problems such as bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as well as potential cognitive impairments and an increased risk of mental health disorders such as psychosis and schizophrenia in vulnerable individuals.

Psychotropic drugs, also known as psychoactive drugs, are a class of medications that affect the function of the central nervous system, leading to changes in consciousness, perception, mood, cognition, or behavior. These drugs work by altering the chemical neurotransmitters in the brain, such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, which are involved in regulating mood, thought, and behavior.

Psychotropic drugs can be classified into several categories based on their primary therapeutic effects, including:

1. Antipsychotic drugs: These medications are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, and other related disorders. They work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, which helps reduce hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking.
2. Antidepressant drugs: These medications are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and some chronic pain conditions. They work by increasing the availability of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain, which helps improve mood and reduce anxiety.
3. Mood stabilizers: These medications are used to treat bipolar disorder and other mood disorders. They help regulate the ups and downs of mood swings and can also be used as adjunctive treatment for depression and anxiety.
4. Anxiolytic drugs: Also known as anti-anxiety medications, these drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders, panic attacks, and insomnia. They work by reducing the activity of neurotransmitters such as GABA, which can help reduce anxiety and promote relaxation.
5. Stimulant drugs: These medications are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. They work by increasing the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, which helps improve focus, concentration, and alertness.

It is important to note that psychotropic drugs can have significant side effects and should only be used under the close supervision of a qualified healthcare provider.

Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs that have been widely used for their sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. They act by enhancing the inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders, insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms. They can also be used as premedication before medical procedures to produce sedation, amnesia, and anxiolysis. Some examples of benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin), lorazepam (Ativan), and temazepam (Restoril).

While benzodiazepines are effective in treating various medical conditions, they can also cause physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms. Long-term use of benzodiazepines can lead to tolerance, meaning that higher doses are needed to achieve the same effect. Abrupt discontinuation of benzodiazepines can result in severe withdrawal symptoms, including seizures, hallucinations, and anxiety. Therefore, it is important to taper off benzodiazepines gradually under medical supervision.

Benzodiazepines are classified as Schedule IV controlled substances in the United States due to their potential for abuse and dependence. It is essential to use them only as directed by a healthcare provider and to be aware of their potential risks and benefits.

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass, deterioration of bone tissue, and disruption of bone architecture, leading to increased risk of fractures, particularly in the spine, wrist, and hip. It mainly affects older people, especially postmenopausal women, due to hormonal changes that reduce bone density. Osteoporosis can also be caused by certain medications, medical conditions, or lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and a lack of calcium and vitamin D in the diet. The diagnosis is often made using bone mineral density testing, and treatment may include medication to slow bone loss, promote bone formation, and prevent fractures.

Glutamic acid is an alpha-amino acid, which is one of the 20 standard amino acids in the genetic code. The systematic name for this amino acid is (2S)-2-Aminopentanedioic acid. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2CO2H.

Glutamic acid is a crucial excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain, and it plays an essential role in learning and memory. It's also involved in the metabolism of sugars and amino acids, the synthesis of proteins, and the removal of waste nitrogen from the body.

Glutamic acid can be found in various foods such as meat, fish, beans, eggs, dairy products, and vegetables. In the human body, glutamic acid can be converted into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), another important neurotransmitter that has a calming effect on the nervous system.

Postmenopause is a stage in a woman's life that follows 12 months after her last menstrual period (menopause) has occurred. During this stage, the ovaries no longer release eggs and produce lower levels of estrogen and progesterone hormones. The reduced levels of these hormones can lead to various physical changes and symptoms, such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and mood changes. Postmenopause is also associated with an increased risk of certain health conditions, including osteoporosis and heart disease. It's important for women in postmenopause to maintain a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and routine medical check-ups to monitor their overall health and manage any potential risks.

Colforsin is a drug that belongs to a class of medications called phosphodiesterase inhibitors. It works by increasing the levels of a chemical called cyclic AMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) in the body, which helps to relax and widen blood vessels.

Colforsin is not approved for use in humans in many countries, including the United States. However, it has been used in research settings to study its potential effects on heart function and other physiological processes. In animals, colforsin has been shown to have positive inotropic (contractility-enhancing) and lusitropic (relaxation-enhancing) effects on the heart, making it a potential therapeutic option for heart failure and other cardiovascular conditions.

It is important to note that while colforsin has shown promise in preclinical studies, more research is needed to establish its safety and efficacy in humans. Therefore, it should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional and in the context of a clinical trial or research study.

Designer drugs are synthetic or chemically altered substances that are designed to mimic the effects of controlled substances. They are often created in clandestine laboratories and marketed as legal alternatives to illegal drugs. These drugs are called "designer" because they are intentionally modified to avoid detection and regulation by law enforcement agencies and regulatory bodies.

Designer drugs can be extremely dangerous, as their chemical composition is often unknown or only partially understood. They may contain potentially harmful impurities or variations that can lead to unpredictable and sometimes severe health consequences. Examples of designer drugs include synthetic cannabinoids (such as "Spice" or "K2"), synthetic cathinones (such as "bath salts"), and novel psychoactive substances (NPS).

It is important to note that while some designer drugs may be legal at the time they are manufactured and sold, their possession and use may still be illegal under federal or state laws. Additionally, many designer drugs have been made illegal through scheduling by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) or through legislation specifically targeting them.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

Anisoles are organic compounds that consist of a phenyl ring (a benzene ring with a hydroxyl group replaced by a hydrogen atom) attached to a methoxy group (-O-CH3). The molecular formula for anisole is C6H5OCH3. Anisoles are aromatic ethers and can be found in various natural sources, including anise plants and some essential oils. They have a wide range of applications, including as solvents, flavoring agents, and intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is a region in the midbrain, surrounding the cerebral aqueduct (a narrow channel connecting the third and fourth ventricles within the brain). It is a column of neurons that plays a crucial role in the modulation of pain perception, cardiorespiratory regulation, and defensive behaviors. The PAG is involved in the descending pain modulatory system, where it receives input from various emotional and cognitive areas and sends output to the rostral ventromedial medulla, which in turn regulates nociceptive processing at the spinal cord level. Additionally, the PAG is implicated in the regulation of fear, anxiety, and stress responses, as well as sexual behavior and reward processing.

Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is a form of vitamin B3 (B-complex vitamin) that is used by the body to turn food into energy. It is found in various foods including meat, fish, milk, eggs, green vegetables, and cereal grains. Niacin is also available as a dietary supplement and prescription medication.

As a medication, niacin is primarily used to treat high cholesterol levels. It works by reducing the production of LDL (bad) cholesterol in the body and increasing the levels of HDL (good) cholesterol. Niacin can also help lower triglycerides, another type of fat found in the blood.

Niacin is available in immediate-release, sustained-release, and extended-release forms. The immediate-release form can cause flushing of the skin, itching, tingling, and headaches, which can be uncomfortable but are not usually serious. The sustained-release and extended-release forms may have fewer side effects, but they can also increase the risk of liver damage and other serious side effects.

It is important to note that niacin should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can interact with other medications and have potentially serious side effects.

Self-administration, in the context of medicine and healthcare, refers to the act of an individual administering medication or treatment to themselves. This can include various forms of delivery such as oral medications, injections, or topical treatments. It is important that individuals who self-administer are properly trained and understand the correct dosage, timing, and technique to ensure safety and effectiveness. Self-administration promotes independence, allows for timely treatment, and can improve overall health outcomes.

Neuralgia is a type of pain that occurs along the pathway of a nerve, often caused by damage or irritation to the nerve. It is typically described as a sharp, stabbing, burning, or electric-shock like pain that can be severe and debilitating. Neuralgia can affect any nerve in the body, but it most commonly occurs in the facial area (trigeminal neuralgia) or in the nerves related to the spine (postherpetic neuralgia). The pain associated with neuralgia can be intermittent or constant and may be worsened by certain triggers such as touch, temperature changes, or movement. Treatment for neuralgia typically involves medications to manage pain, as well as other therapies such as nerve blocks, surgery, or lifestyle modifications.

Cinchona alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that are found in the bark of Cinchona trees, which are native to South America. These alkaloids have been used for centuries in traditional medicine to treat various ailments, most notably malaria. The main cinchona alkaloids include quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine.

Quinine is the most well-known of these alkaloids and has been used for centuries as an effective antimalarial agent. It works by interfering with the reproduction of the malaria parasite in the red blood cells. Quinine is also used to treat other medical conditions, such as leg cramps and restless legs syndrome.

Quinidine is another important cinchona alkaloid that is used primarily as an antiarrhythmic agent to treat irregular heart rhythms. It works by slowing down the electrical conduction in the heart and stabilizing its rhythm.

Cinchonine and cinchonidine have more limited medical uses, mainly as bitter-tasting ingredients in tonics and other beverages. However, they also have some medicinal properties, such as being used as antimalarial agents and antiarrhythmic drugs in some countries.

It is important to note that cinchona alkaloids can have serious side effects if not used properly, so they should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Substance Withdrawal Syndrome is a medically recognized condition that occurs when an individual who has been using certain substances, such as alcohol, opioids, or benzodiazepines, suddenly stops or significantly reduces their use. The syndrome is characterized by a specific set of symptoms that can be physical, cognitive, and emotional in nature. These symptoms can vary widely depending on the substance that was being used, the length and intensity of the addiction, and individual factors such as genetics, age, and overall health.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association, provides the following diagnostic criteria for Substance Withdrawal Syndrome:

A. The development of objective evidence of withdrawal, referring to the specific physiological changes associated with the particular substance, or subjective evidence of withdrawal, characterized by the individual's report of symptoms that correspond to the typical withdrawal syndrome for the substance.

B. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

C. The symptoms are not better explained by co-occurring mental, medical, or other substance use disorders.

D. The withdrawal syndrome is not attributable to another medical condition and is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.

The DSM-5 also specifies that the diagnosis of Substance Withdrawal Syndrome should be substance-specific, meaning that it should specify the particular class of substances (e.g., alcohol, opioids, benzodiazepines) responsible for the withdrawal symptoms. This is important because different substances have distinct withdrawal syndromes and require different approaches to management and treatment.

In general, Substance Withdrawal Syndrome can be a challenging and potentially dangerous condition that requires professional medical supervision and support during the detoxification process. The specific symptoms and their severity will vary depending on the substance involved, but they may include:

* For alcohol: tremors, seizures, hallucinations, agitation, anxiety, nausea, vomiting, and insomnia.
* For opioids: muscle aches, restlessness, lacrimation (tearing), rhinorrhea (runny nose), yawning, perspiration, chills, mydriasis (dilated pupils), piloerection (goosebumps), nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps.
* For benzodiazepines: anxiety, irritability, insomnia, restlessness, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, and increased heart rate and blood pressure.

It is essential to consult with a healthcare professional if you or someone you know is experiencing symptoms of Substance Withdrawal Syndrome. They can provide appropriate medical care, support, and referrals for further treatment as needed.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Enzyme inhibitors are substances that bind to an enzyme and decrease its activity, preventing it from catalyzing a chemical reaction in the body. They can work by several mechanisms, including blocking the active site where the substrate binds, or binding to another site on the enzyme to change its shape and prevent substrate binding. Enzyme inhibitors are often used as drugs to treat various medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, abnormal heart rhythms, and bacterial infections. They can also be found naturally in some foods and plants, and can be used in research to understand enzyme function and regulation.

Organ specificity, in the context of immunology and toxicology, refers to the phenomenon where a substance (such as a drug or toxin) or an immune response primarily affects certain organs or tissues in the body. This can occur due to various reasons such as:

1. The presence of specific targets (like antigens in the case of an immune response or receptors in the case of drugs) that are more abundant in these organs.
2. The unique properties of certain cells or tissues that make them more susceptible to damage.
3. The way a substance is metabolized or cleared from the body, which can concentrate it in specific organs.

For example, in autoimmune diseases, organ specificity describes immune responses that are directed against antigens found only in certain organs, such as the thyroid gland in Hashimoto's disease. Similarly, some toxins or drugs may have a particular affinity for liver cells, leading to liver damage or specific drug interactions.

GABAergic neurons are a type of neuron that releases the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mature central nervous system, meaning it functions to decrease the excitability of neurons it acts upon.

GABAergic neurons are widely distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord and play a crucial role in regulating neural activity by balancing excitation and inhibition. They form synapses with various types of neurons, including both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, and their activation can lead to hyperpolarization or decreased firing rates of the target cells.

Dysfunction in GABAergic neurotransmission has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as epilepsy, anxiety, and sleep disorders.

Molecular conformation, also known as spatial arrangement or configuration, refers to the specific three-dimensional shape and orientation of atoms that make up a molecule. It describes the precise manner in which bonds between atoms are arranged around a molecular framework, taking into account factors such as bond lengths, bond angles, and torsional angles.

Conformational isomers, or conformers, are different spatial arrangements of the same molecule that can interconvert without breaking chemical bonds. These isomers may have varying energies, stability, and reactivity, which can significantly impact a molecule's biological activity and function. Understanding molecular conformation is crucial in fields such as drug design, where small changes in conformation can lead to substantial differences in how a drug interacts with its target.

Pain measurement, in a medical context, refers to the quantification or evaluation of the intensity and/or unpleasantness of a patient's subjective pain experience. This is typically accomplished through the use of standardized self-report measures such as numerical rating scales (NRS), visual analog scales (VAS), or categorical scales (mild, moderate, severe). In some cases, physiological measures like heart rate, blood pressure, and facial expressions may also be used to supplement self-reported pain ratings. The goal of pain measurement is to help healthcare providers better understand the nature and severity of a patient's pain in order to develop an effective treatment plan.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.

Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.

In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

Arrestins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. There are four main types of arrestins: visual arrestin (also known as arr1 or S-arrestin), β-arrestin1 (also known as arr2 or Kon/Vec), β-arrestin2 (also known as arr3 or hTHT), and arrestin-domain containing protein 1 (ARRDC1).

Arrestins bind to the intracellular domains of activated GPCRs, which leads to several outcomes:

1. They prevent further activation of G proteins by the receptor, effectively "arresting" the signal transduction process.
2. They promote the internalization (endocytosis) of the receptor from the cell membrane into endosomes, where it can be either degraded or recycled back to the cell surface.
3. They act as scaffolds for various signaling complexes and mediate interactions between GPCRs and other intracellular signaling proteins, leading to the activation of different signaling pathways.

Overall, arrestins play a critical role in fine-tuning GPCR signaling, ensuring appropriate cellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, and other extracellular signals.

Diazepam is a medication from the benzodiazepine class, which typically has calming, sedative, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant properties. Its medical uses include the treatment of anxiety disorders, alcohol withdrawal syndrome, end-of-life sedation, seizures, muscle spasms, and as a premedication for medical procedures. Diazepam is available in various forms, such as tablets, oral solution, rectal gel, and injectable solutions. It works by enhancing the effects of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which results in the modulation of nerve impulses in the brain, producing a sedative effect.

It is important to note that diazepam can be habit-forming and has several potential side effects, including drowsiness, dizziness, weakness, and impaired coordination. It should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional and according to the prescribed dosage to minimize the risk of adverse effects and dependence.

GTP-binding proteins, also known as G proteins, are a family of molecular switches present in many organisms, including humans. They play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways, particularly those involved in cellular responses to external stimuli such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and sensory signals like light and odorants.

G proteins are composed of three subunits: α, β, and γ. The α-subunit binds GTP (guanosine triphosphate) and acts as the active component of the complex. When a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) is activated by an external signal, it triggers a conformational change in the associated G protein, allowing the α-subunit to exchange GDP (guanosine diphosphate) for GTP. This activation leads to dissociation of the G protein complex into the GTP-bound α-subunit and the βγ-subunit pair. Both the α-GTP and βγ subunits can then interact with downstream effectors, such as enzymes or ion channels, to propagate and amplify the signal within the cell.

The intrinsic GTPase activity of the α-subunit eventually hydrolyzes the bound GTP to GDP, which leads to re-association of the α and βγ subunits and termination of the signal. This cycle of activation and inactivation makes G proteins versatile signaling elements that can respond quickly and precisely to changing environmental conditions.

Defects in G protein-mediated signaling pathways have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of GTP-binding proteins is essential for developing targeted therapeutic strategies.

Drug discovery is the process of identifying new chemical entities or biological agents that have the potential to be used as therapeutic or preventive treatments for diseases. This process involves several stages, including target identification, lead identification, hit-to-lead optimization, lead optimization, preclinical development, and clinical trials.

Target identification is the initial stage of drug discovery, where researchers identify a specific molecular target, such as a protein or gene, that plays a key role in the disease process. Lead identification involves screening large libraries of chemical compounds or natural products to find those that interact with the target molecule and have potential therapeutic activity.

Hit-to-lead optimization is the stage where researchers optimize the chemical structure of the lead compound to improve its potency, selectivity, and safety profile. Lead optimization involves further refinement of the compound's structure to create a preclinical development candidate. Preclinical development includes studies in vitro (in test tubes or petri dishes) and in vivo (in animals) to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of the drug candidate.

Clinical trials are conducted in human volunteers to assess the safety, tolerability, and efficacy of the drug candidate in treating the disease. If the drug is found to be safe and effective in clinical trials, it may be approved by regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in patients.

Overall, drug discovery is a complex and time-consuming process that requires significant resources, expertise, and collaboration between researchers, clinicians, and industry partners.

Microglia are a type of specialized immune cell found in the brain and spinal cord. They are part of the glial family, which provide support and protection to the neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia account for about 10-15% of all cells found in the CNS.

The primary role of microglia is to constantly survey their environment and eliminate any potentially harmful agents, such as pathogens, dead cells, or protein aggregates. They do this through a process called phagocytosis, where they engulf and digest foreign particles or cellular debris. In addition to their phagocytic function, microglia also release various cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors that help regulate the immune response in the CNS, promote neuronal survival, and contribute to synaptic plasticity.

Microglia can exist in different activation states depending on the nature of the stimuli they encounter. In a resting state, microglia have a small cell body with numerous branches that are constantly monitoring their surroundings. When activated by an injury, infection, or neurodegenerative process, microglia change their morphology and phenotype, retracting their processes and adopting an amoeboid shape to migrate towards the site of damage or inflammation. Based on the type of activation, microglia can release both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors that contribute to either neuroprotection or neurotoxicity.

Dysregulation of microglial function has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Therefore, understanding the role of microglia in health and disease is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

The limbic system is a complex set of structures in the brain that includes the hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, cingulate gyrus, and other nearby areas. It's associated with emotional responses, instinctual behaviors, motivation, long-term memory formation, and olfaction (smell). The limbic system is also involved in the modulation of visceral functions and drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual drive.

The structures within the limbic system communicate with each other and with other parts of the brain, particularly the hypothalamus and the cortex, to regulate various physiological and psychological processes. Dysfunctions in the limbic system can lead to a range of neurological and psychiatric conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and certain types of memory impairment.

The corpus striatum is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in movement, learning, and cognition. It consists of two structures called the caudate nucleus and the putamen, which are surrounded by the external and internal segments of the globus pallidus. Together, these structures form the basal ganglia, a group of interconnected neurons that help regulate voluntary movement.

The corpus striatum receives input from various parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and other brainstem nuclei. It processes this information and sends output to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, which then project to the thalamus and back to the cerebral cortex. This feedback loop helps coordinate and fine-tune movements, allowing for smooth and coordinated actions.

Damage to the corpus striatum can result in movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and dystonia. These conditions are characterized by abnormal involuntary movements, muscle stiffness, and difficulty initiating or controlling voluntary movements.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

The myometrium is the middle and thickest layer of the uterine wall, composed mainly of smooth muscle cells. It is responsible for the strong contractions during labor and can also contribute to bleeding during menstruation or childbirth. The myometrium is able to stretch and expand to accommodate a growing fetus and then contract during labor to help push the baby out. It also plays a role in maintaining the structure and shape of the uterus, and in protecting the internal organs within the pelvic cavity.

Estrogen Replacement Therapy (ERT) is a medical treatment in which estrogen hormones are administered to replace the estrogen that is naturally produced by the ovaries but declines, especially during menopause. This therapy is often used to help manage symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes, night sweats, and vaginal dryness. It can also help prevent bone loss in postmenopausal women. ERT typically involves the use of estrogen alone, but in some cases, a combination of estrogen and progestin may be prescribed for women with a uterus to reduce the risk of endometrial cancer. However, ERT is associated with certain risks, including an increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and stroke, so it's important for women to discuss the potential benefits and risks with their healthcare provider before starting this therapy.

Phytoestrogens are compounds found in plants that have estrogen-like properties. They can bind to and activate or inhibit the action of estrogen receptors in the body, depending on their structure and concentration. Phytoestrogens are present in a variety of foods, including soy products, nuts, seeds, fruits, and vegetables.

Phytoestrogens have been studied for their potential health benefits, such as reducing the risk of hormone-dependent cancers (e.g., breast cancer), improving menopausal symptoms, and promoting bone health. However, their effects on human health are complex and not fully understood, and some studies suggest that high intake of phytoestrogens may have adverse effects in certain populations or under specific conditions.

It is important to note that while phytoestrogens can mimic the effects of estrogen in the body, they are generally weaker than endogenous estrogens produced by the human body. Therefore, their impact on hormonal balance and health outcomes may vary depending on individual factors such as age, sex, hormonal status, and overall diet.

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) are electrical signals that occur in the postsynaptic neuron when an inhibitory neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic neuron and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. This binding causes a decrease in the excitability of the postsynaptic neuron, making it less likely to fire an action potential.

IPSPs are typically caused by neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine, which open chloride channels in the postsynaptic membrane. The influx of negatively charged chloride ions into the neuron causes a hyperpolarization of the membrane potential, making it more difficult for the neuron to reach the threshold needed to generate an action potential.

IPSPs play an important role in regulating the activity of neural circuits and controlling the flow of information through the nervous system. By inhibiting the activity of certain neurons, IPSPs can help to sharpen the signals that are transmitted between neurons and prevent unwanted noise or interference from disrupting communication within the circuit.

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

HEK293 cells, also known as human embryonic kidney 293 cells, are a line of cells used in scientific research. They were originally derived from human embryonic kidney cells and have been adapted to grow in a lab setting. HEK293 cells are widely used in molecular biology and biochemistry because they can be easily transfected (a process by which DNA is introduced into cells) and highly express foreign genes. As a result, they are often used to produce proteins for structural and functional studies. It's important to note that while HEK293 cells are derived from human tissue, they have been grown in the lab for many generations and do not retain the characteristics of the original embryonic kidney cells.

"Bone" is the hard, dense connective tissue that makes up the skeleton of vertebrate animals. It provides support and protection for the body's internal organs, and serves as a attachment site for muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bone is composed of cells called osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which are responsible for bone formation and resorption, respectively, and an extracellular matrix made up of collagen fibers and mineral crystals.

Bones can be classified into two main types: compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone is dense and hard, and makes up the outer layer of all bones and the shafts of long bones. Spongy bone is less dense and contains large spaces, and makes up the ends of long bones and the interior of flat and irregular bones.

The human body has 206 bones in total. They can be further classified into five categories based on their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones.

'Eurotium' is a genus of filamentous fungi that are commonly found in various environments, such as soil, plant material, and food. These fungi are known for their ability to produce a variety of secondary metabolites, including pigments, toxins, and antibiotics.

Eurotium species are characterized by their production of brightly colored, dry, and leathery spores that are resistant to heat, desiccation, and other harsh environmental conditions. These spores can survive for long periods in the environment and can serve as a source of infection or contamination in various settings.

In medical contexts, Eurotium species have been implicated in a variety of opportunistic infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. For example, these fungi have been known to cause respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and invasive systemic infections in immunocompromised patients.

However, it is worth noting that Eurotium infections are relatively rare, and the majority of encounters with these fungi do not result in illness or disease. Nonetheless, medical professionals should be aware of the potential for Eurotium to cause infection in susceptible individuals and take appropriate precautions when necessary.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

Benzamides are a class of organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a aromatic hydrocarbon) attached to an amide functional group. The amide group can be bound to various substituents, leading to a variety of benzamide derivatives with different biological activities.

In a medical context, some benzamides have been developed as drugs for the treatment of various conditions. For example, danzol (a benzamide derivative) is used as a hormonal therapy for endometriosis and breast cancer. Additionally, other benzamides such as sulpiride and amisulpride are used as antipsychotic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia and related disorders.

It's important to note that while some benzamides have therapeutic uses, others may be toxic or have adverse effects, so they should only be used under the supervision of a medical professional.

Interneurons are a type of neuron that is located entirely within the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. They are called "inter" neurons because they connect and communicate with other nearby neurons, forming complex networks within the CNS. Interneurons receive input from sensory neurons and/or other interneurons and then send output signals to motor neurons or other interneurons.

Interneurons are responsible for processing information and modulating neural circuits in the CNS. They can have either excitatory or inhibitory effects on their target neurons, depending on the type of neurotransmitters they release. Excitatory interneurons release neurotransmitters such as glutamate that increase the likelihood of an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron, while inhibitory interneurons release neurotransmitters such as GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) or glycine that decrease the likelihood of an action potential.

Interneurons are diverse and can be classified based on various criteria, including their morphology, electrophysiological properties, neurochemical characteristics, and connectivity patterns. They play crucial roles in many aspects of CNS function, such as sensory processing, motor control, cognition, and emotion regulation. Dysfunction or damage to interneurons has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and autism spectrum disorder.

The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain, specifically in the anterior portion of the temporal lobes and near the hippocampus. It forms a key component of the limbic system and plays a crucial role in processing emotions, particularly fear and anxiety. The amygdala is involved in the integration of sensory information with emotional responses, memory formation, and decision-making processes.

In response to emotionally charged stimuli, the amygdala can modulate various physiological functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and stress hormone release, via its connections to the hypothalamus and brainstem. Additionally, it contributes to social behaviors, including recognizing emotional facial expressions and responding appropriately to social cues. Dysfunctions in amygdala function have been implicated in several psychiatric and neurological conditions, such as anxiety disorders, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Gastrointestinal motility refers to the coordinated muscular contractions and relaxations that propel food, digestive enzymes, and waste products through the gastrointestinal tract. This process involves the movement of food from the mouth through the esophagus into the stomach, where it is mixed with digestive enzymes and acids to break down food particles.

The contents are then emptied into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed, and the remaining waste products are moved into the large intestine for further absorption of water and electrolytes and eventual elimination through the rectum and anus.

Gastrointestinal motility is controlled by a complex interplay between the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and local reflexes. Abnormalities in gastrointestinal motility can lead to various symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or constipation.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Flutamide is an anti-androgen medication, which is primarily used to treat prostate cancer. It works by blocking the action of androgens (male hormones), such as testosterone, on cancer cells. This helps to slow down or stop the growth of prostate cancer cells. Flutamide may be given in combination with other medications, such as a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist, to enhance its effectiveness. It is usually taken by mouth in the form of tablets.

Flutamide can have side effects, including breast tenderness and enlargement, hot flashes, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of sexual desire. In rare cases, it may cause more serious side effects such as liver damage. It is important to be monitored by a healthcare professional while taking this medication to ensure that it is working properly and to manage any potential side effects.

Anticarcinogenic agents are substances that prevent, inhibit or reduce the development of cancer. They can be natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with the process of carcinogenesis at various stages, such as initiation, promotion, and progression. Anticarcinogenic agents may work by preventing DNA damage, promoting DNA repair, reducing inflammation, inhibiting cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death), or modulating immune responses.

Examples of anticarcinogenic agents include chemopreventive agents, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and retinoids; phytochemicals found in fruits, vegetables, and other plant-based foods; and medications used to treat cancer, such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies.

It is important to note that while some anticarcinogenic agents have been shown to be effective in preventing or reducing the risk of certain types of cancer, they may also have potential side effects and risks. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before using any anticarcinogenic agent for cancer prevention or treatment purposes.

Zanthoxylum is a genus of plants belonging to the family Rutaceae. Commonly known as "prickly ash" or "toothache tree," these plants have a long history of use in traditional medicine. The bark, roots, and fruits of various Zanthoxylum species have been used to treat ailments such as digestive issues, pain, and skin conditions.

The active constituents of Zanthoxylum include alkaloids, volatile oils, and resins. Some of the alkaloids found in these plants, such as sanguinarine and chelerythrine, have been studied for their potential medicinal properties, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial effects.

However, it's important to note that while Zanthoxylum species have a long history of traditional use, more research is needed to fully understand their safety and efficacy as medical treatments. Additionally, some Zanthoxylum species contain potentially toxic compounds, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before using these plants for medicinal purposes.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) agonists are substances that bind to and activate GABA receptors in the brain, mimicking the actions of GABA, which is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. These agents can produce various effects such as sedation, anxiolysis, muscle relaxation, and anticonvulsant activity by enhancing the inhibitory tone in the brain. They are used clinically to treat conditions such as anxiety disorders, seizures, and muscle spasticity. Examples of GABA agonists include benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and certain non-benzodiazepine hypnotics.

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid that is commonly found in various natural oils such as olive oil, sunflower oil, and grapeseed oil. Its chemical formula is cis-9-octadecenoic acid, and it is a colorless liquid at room temperature. Oleic acid is an important component of human diet and has been shown to have potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease and improving immune function. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, and other personal care products.

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify the chemical components of a mixture or compound. It works by ionizing the sample, generating charged molecules or fragments, and then measuring their mass-to-charge ratio in a vacuum. The resulting mass spectrum provides information about the molecular weight and structure of the analytes, allowing for identification and characterization.

In simpler terms, mass spectrometry is a method used to determine what chemicals are present in a sample and in what quantities, by converting the chemicals into ions, measuring their masses, and generating a spectrum that shows the relative abundances of each ion type.

Morphine is a potent opioid analgesic (pain reliever) derived from the opium poppy. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking the transmission of pain signals and reducing the perception of pain. Morphine is used to treat moderate to severe pain, including pain associated with cancer, myocardial infarction, and other conditions. It can also be used as a sedative and cough suppressant.

Morphine has a high potential for abuse and dependence, and its use should be closely monitored by healthcare professionals. Common side effects of morphine include drowsiness, respiratory depression, constipation, nausea, and vomiting. Overdose can result in respiratory failure, coma, and death.

Pain threshold is a term used in medicine and research to describe the point at which a stimulus begins to be perceived as painful. It is an individual's subjective response and can vary from person to person based on factors such as their pain tolerance, mood, expectations, and cultural background.

The pain threshold is typically determined through a series of tests where gradually increasing levels of stimuli are applied until the individual reports feeling pain. This is often used in research settings to study pain perception and analgesic efficacy. However, it's important to note that the pain threshold should not be confused with pain tolerance, which refers to the maximum level of pain a person can endure.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

Gliosis is a term used in histopathology and neuroscience to describe the reaction of support cells in the brain, called glial cells, to injury or disease. This response includes an increase in the number and size of glial cells, as well as changes in their shape and function. The most common types of glial cells involved in gliosis are astrocytes and microglia.

Gliosis can be triggered by a variety of factors, including trauma, infection, inflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, and stroke. In response to injury or disease, astrocytes become hypertrophied (enlarged) and undergo changes in their gene expression profile that can lead to the production of various proteins, such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). These changes can result in the formation of a dense network of astrocytic processes, which can contribute to the formation of a glial scar.

Microglia, another type of glial cell, become activated during gliosis and play a role in the immune response in the central nervous system (CNS). They can release pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species that contribute to the inflammatory response.

While gliosis is a protective response aimed at containing damage and promoting tissue repair, it can also have negative consequences. For example, the formation of glial scars can impede axonal regeneration and contribute to neurological deficits. Additionally, chronic activation of microglia has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

A synapse is a structure in the nervous system that allows for the transmission of signals from one neuron (nerve cell) to another. It is the point where the axon terminal of one neuron meets the dendrite or cell body of another, and it is here that neurotransmitters are released and received. The synapse includes both the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements, as well as the cleft between them.

At the presynaptic side, an action potential travels down the axon and triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic side, which can either excite or inhibit the receiving neuron. The strength of the signal between two neurons is determined by the number and efficiency of these synapses.

Synapses play a crucial role in the functioning of the nervous system, allowing for the integration and processing of information from various sources. They are also dynamic structures that can undergo changes in response to experience or injury, which has important implications for learning, memory, and recovery from neurological disorders.

Bone density refers to the amount of bone mineral content (usually measured in grams) in a given volume of bone (usually measured in cubic centimeters). It is often used as an indicator of bone strength and fracture risk. Bone density is typically measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans, which provide a T-score that compares the patient's bone density to that of a young adult reference population. A T-score of -1 or above is considered normal, while a T-score between -1 and -2.5 indicates osteopenia (low bone mass), and a T-score below -2.5 indicates osteoporosis (porous bones). Regular exercise, adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, and medication (if necessary) can help maintain or improve bone density and prevent fractures.

Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are a class of drugs that are primarily used in the treatment of hormone-sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women. They work by inhibiting the enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for converting androgens into estrogens. By blocking this conversion, AIs decrease the amount of estrogen in the body, thereby depriving hormone-sensitive breast cancer cells of the estrogen they need to grow and multiply.

There are three main types of aromatase inhibitors:

1. Letrozole (Femara) - a non-steroidal AI that is taken orally once a day.
2. Anastrozole (Arimidex) - another non-steroidal AI that is also taken orally once a day.
3. Exemestane (Aromasin) - a steroidal AI that is taken orally once a day.

In addition to their use in breast cancer treatment, AIs are also sometimes used off-label for the treatment of estrogen-dependent conditions such as endometriosis and uterine fibroids. However, it's important to note that the use of aromatase inhibitors can have significant side effects, including hot flashes, joint pain, and bone loss, so they should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Opioid receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) found in the cell membranes of certain neurons in the central and peripheral nervous system. They bind to opioids, which are chemicals that can block pain signals and produce a sense of well-being. There are four main types of opioid receptors: mu, delta, kappa, and nociceptin. These receptors play a role in the regulation of pain, reward, addiction, and other physiological functions. Activation of opioid receptors can lead to both therapeutic effects (such as pain relief) and adverse effects (such as respiratory depression and constipation).

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Heroin is a highly addictive drug that is processed from morphine, a naturally occurring substance extracted from the seed pod of the Asian opium poppy plant. It is a "downer" or depressant that affects the brain's pleasure systems and interferes with the brain's ability to perceive pain.

Heroin can be injected, smoked, or snorted. It is sold as a white or brownish powder or as a black, sticky substance known as "black tar heroin." Regardless of how it is taken, heroin enters the brain rapidly and is highly addictive.

The use of heroin can lead to serious health problems, including fatal overdose, spontaneous abortion, and infectious diseases like HIV and hepatitis. Long-term use of heroin can lead to physical dependence and addiction, a chronic disease that can be difficult to treat.

HL-60 cells are a type of human promyelocytic leukemia cell line that is commonly used in scientific research. They are named after the hospital where they were first isolated, the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania (HUP) and the 60th culture attempt to grow these cells.

HL-60 cells have the ability to differentiate into various types of blood cells, such as granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages, when exposed to certain chemical compounds or under specific culturing conditions. This makes them a valuable tool for studying the mechanisms of cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

HL-60 cells are also often used in toxicity studies, drug discovery and development, and research on cancer, inflammation, and infectious diseases. They can be easily grown in the lab and have a stable genotype, making them ideal for use in standardized experiments and comparisons between different studies.

Virulence factors in Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium that causes whooping cough, refer to the characteristics or components of the organism that contribute to its ability to cause disease. These virulence factors include:

1. Pertussis Toxin (PT): A protein exotoxin that inhibits the immune response and affects the nervous system, leading to the characteristic paroxysmal cough of whooping cough.
2. Adenylate Cyclase Toxin (ACT): A toxin that increases the levels of cAMP in host cells, disrupting their function and contributing to the pathogenesis of the disease.
3. Filamentous Hemagglutinin (FHA): A surface protein that allows the bacterium to adhere to host cells and evade the immune response.
4. Fimbriae: Hair-like appendages on the surface of the bacterium that facilitate adherence to host cells.
5. Pertactin (PRN): A surface protein that also contributes to adherence and is a common component of acellular pertussis vaccines.
6. Dermonecrotic Toxin: A toxin that causes localized tissue damage and necrosis, contributing to the inflammation and symptoms of whooping cough.
7. Tracheal Cytotoxin: A toxin that damages ciliated epithelial cells in the respiratory tract, impairing mucociliary clearance and increasing susceptibility to infection.

These virulence factors work together to enable Bordetella pertussis to colonize the respiratory tract, evade the host immune response, and cause the symptoms of whooping cough.

Long-term synaptic depression (LTSD) is a form of prolonged decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission between neurons, which results from specific patterns of synaptic activity. It is characterized by a reduction in the amplitude and/or frequency of excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) or currents (EPSCs), reflecting a decrease in the efficiency of neurotransmitter release and/or decreased responsiveness of the postsynaptic neuron.

LTSD typically requires prolonged periods of low-frequency stimulation (1-5 Hz) and can last for hours to days, depending on the synapse and organism. The underlying mechanisms involve changes in both presynaptic and postsynaptic elements, including alterations in the number and function of neurotransmitter receptors, modifications in the release probability of neurotransmitters, and structural remodeling of the synaptic connections.

LTSD is thought to play a crucial role in various forms of synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory processes, particularly those involving the extinction or weakening of synaptic connections. Dysregulation of LTSD has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and depression.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Mifepristone is a synthetic steroid that is used in the medical termination of pregnancy (also known as medication abortion or RU-486). It works by blocking the action of progesterone, a hormone necessary for maintaining pregnancy. Mifepristone is often used in combination with misoprostol to cause uterine contractions and expel the products of conception from the uterus.

It's also known as an antiprogestin or progesterone receptor modulator, which means it can bind to progesterone receptors in the body and block their activity. In addition to its use in pregnancy termination, mifepristone has been studied for its potential therapeutic uses in conditions such as Cushing's syndrome, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and hormone-dependent cancers.

It is important to note that Mifepristone should be administered under the supervision of a licensed healthcare professional and it is not available over the counter. Also, it has some contraindications and potential side effects, so it's essential to have a consultation with a doctor before taking this medication.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

Nitriles, in a medical context, refer to a class of organic compounds that contain a cyano group (-CN) bonded to a carbon atom. They are widely used in the chemical industry and can be found in various materials, including certain plastics and rubber products.

In some cases, nitriles can pose health risks if ingested, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Short-term exposure to high levels of nitriles can cause irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract. Prolonged or repeated exposure may lead to more severe health effects, such as damage to the nervous system, liver, and kidneys.

However, it's worth noting that the medical use of nitriles is not very common. Some nitrile gloves are used in healthcare settings due to their resistance to many chemicals and because they can provide a better barrier against infectious materials compared to latex or vinyl gloves. But beyond this application, nitriles themselves are not typically used as medications or therapeutic agents.

The Rotarod performance test is not a medical diagnosis or condition, but rather a laboratory test used in both preclinical research and clinical settings to evaluate various aspects of motor function and balance in animals, including mice and rats. The test is often used to assess the neurological status, sensorimotor function, and coordination abilities of animals following drug treatments, surgical interventions, or in models of neurodegenerative diseases.

In this test, a rodent is placed on a rotating rod with a diameter that allows the animal to comfortably grip it. The rotation speed gradually increases over time, and the researcher records how long the animal can maintain its balance and stay on the rod without falling off. This duration is referred to as the "latency to fall" or "rotarod performance."

The Rotarod performance test offers several advantages, such as its sensitivity to various neurological impairments, ease of use, and ability to provide quantitative data for statistical analysis. It can help researchers evaluate potential therapeutic interventions, monitor disease progression, and investigate the underlying mechanisms of motor function and balance in health and disease.

Autoradiography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize and localize the distribution of radioactively labeled compounds within tissues or organisms. In this process, the subject is first exposed to a radioactive tracer that binds to specific molecules or structures of interest. The tissue is then placed in close contact with a radiation-sensitive film or detector, such as X-ray film or an imaging plate.

As the radioactive atoms decay, they emit particles (such as beta particles) that interact with the film or detector, causing chemical changes and leaving behind a visible image of the distribution of the labeled compound. The resulting autoradiogram provides information about the location, quantity, and sometimes even the identity of the molecules or structures that have taken up the radioactive tracer.

Autoradiography has been widely used in various fields of biology and medical research, including pharmacology, neuroscience, genetics, and cell biology, to study processes such as protein-DNA interactions, gene expression, drug metabolism, and neuronal connectivity. However, due to the use of radioactive materials and potential hazards associated with them, this technique has been gradually replaced by non-radioactive alternatives like fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or immunofluorescence techniques.

The prostate is a small gland that is part of the male reproductive system. Its main function is to produce a fluid that, together with sperm cells from the testicles and fluids from other glands, makes up semen. This fluid nourishes and protects the sperm, helping it to survive and facilitating its movement.

The prostate is located below the bladder and in front of the rectum. It surrounds part of the urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body. This means that prostate problems can affect urination and sexual function. The prostate gland is about the size of a walnut in adult men.

Prostate health is an important aspect of male health, particularly as men age. Common prostate issues include benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which is an enlarged prostate not caused by cancer, and prostate cancer, which is one of the most common types of cancer in men. Regular check-ups with a healthcare provider can help to detect any potential problems early and improve outcomes.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that are activated by the neurotransmitter glutamate, which is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. There are eight different subtypes of mGluRs, labeled mGluR1 through mGluR8, which are classified into three groups (Group I, II, and III) based on their sequence homology, downstream signaling pathways, and pharmacological properties.

Group I mGluRs include mGluR1 and mGluR5, which are primarily located postsynaptically in the central nervous system. Activation of Group I mGluRs leads to increased intracellular calcium levels and activation of protein kinases, which can modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity.

Group II mGluRs include mGluR2 and mGluR3, which are primarily located presynaptically in the central nervous system. Activation of Group II mGluRs inhibits adenylyl cyclase activity and reduces neurotransmitter release.

Group III mGluRs include mGluR4, mGluR6, mGluR7, and mGluR8, which are also primarily located presynaptically in the central nervous system. Activation of Group III mGluRs inhibits adenylyl cyclase activity and voltage-gated calcium channels, reducing neurotransmitter release.

Overall, metabotropic glutamate receptors play important roles in modulating synaptic transmission and plasticity, and have been implicated in various neurological disorders, including epilepsy, pain, anxiety, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Analgesics, opioid are a class of drugs used for the treatment of pain. They work by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord, blocking the transmission of pain signals to the brain. Opioids can be synthetic or natural, and include drugs such as morphine, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, fentanyl, and methadone. They are often used for moderate to severe pain, such as that resulting from injury, surgery, or chronic conditions like cancer. However, opioids can also produce euphoria, physical dependence, and addiction, so they are tightly regulated and carry a risk of misuse.

Analgesia is defined as the absence or relief of pain in a patient, achieved through various medical means. It is derived from the Greek word "an-" meaning without and "algein" meaning to feel pain. Analgesics are medications that are used to reduce pain without causing loss of consciousness, and they work by blocking the transmission of pain signals to the brain.

Examples of analgesics include over-the-counter medications such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin) and naproxen (Aleve). Prescription opioid painkillers, such as oxycodone (OxyContin, Percocet) and hydrocodone (Vicodin), are also used for pain relief but carry a higher risk of addiction and abuse.

Analgesia can also be achieved through non-pharmacological means, such as through nerve blocks, spinal cord stimulation, acupuncture, and other complementary therapies. The choice of analgesic therapy depends on the type and severity of pain, as well as the patient's medical history and individual needs.

Purkinje cells are a type of neuron located in the cerebellar cortex, which is the outer layer of the cerebellum, a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in motor control and coordination. These cells have large branching dendrites and receive input from many other neurons, particularly granule cells. The axons of Purkinje cells form the principal output pathway of the cerebellar cortex, synapsing with deep cerebellar nuclei. They are named after Johannes Evangelista Purkinje, a Czech physiologist who first described them in 1837.

Tyramine is not a medical condition but a naturally occurring compound called a biogenic amine, which is formed from the amino acid tyrosine during the fermentation or decay of certain foods. Medically, tyramine is significant because it can interact with certain medications, particularly monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), used to treat depression and other conditions.

The interaction between tyramine and MAOIs can lead to a hypertensive crisis, a rapid and severe increase in blood pressure, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly. Therefore, individuals taking MAOIs are often advised to follow a low-tyramine diet, avoiding foods high in tyramine, such as aged cheeses, cured meats, fermented foods, and some types of beer and wine.

The cerebellar cortex is the outer layer of the cerebellum, which is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in motor control, balance, and coordination of muscle movements. The cerebellar cortex contains numerous small neurons called granule cells, as well as other types of neurons such as Purkinje cells, basket cells, and stellate cells. These neurons are organized into distinct layers and microcircuits that process information related to motor function and possibly other functions such as cognition and emotion. The cerebellar cortex receives input from various sources, including the spinal cord, vestibular system, and cerebral cortex, and sends output to brainstem nuclei and thalamus, which in turn project to the cerebral cortex. Damage to the cerebellar cortex can result in ataxia, dysmetria, dysdiadochokinesia, and other motor symptoms.

Clinical trials are research studies that involve human participants and are designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new medical treatments, drugs, devices, or behavioral interventions. The purpose of clinical trials is to determine whether a new intervention is safe, effective, and beneficial for patients, as well as to compare it with currently available treatments. Clinical trials follow a series of phases, each with specific goals and criteria, before a new intervention can be approved by regulatory authorities for widespread use.

Clinical trials are conducted according to a protocol, which is a detailed plan that outlines the study's objectives, design, methodology, statistical analysis, and ethical considerations. The protocol is developed and reviewed by a team of medical experts, statisticians, and ethicists, and it must be approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before the trial can begin.

Participation in clinical trials is voluntary, and participants must provide informed consent before enrolling in the study. Informed consent involves providing potential participants with detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives, as well as their rights as research subjects. Participants can withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which they are entitled.

Clinical trials are essential for advancing medical knowledge and improving patient care. They help researchers identify new treatments, diagnostic tools, and prevention strategies that can benefit patients and improve public health. However, clinical trials also pose potential risks to participants, including adverse effects from experimental interventions, time commitment, and inconvenience. Therefore, it is important for researchers to carefully design and conduct clinical trials to minimize risks and ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

Contraceptive agents, female, are medications or devices specifically designed to prevent pregnancy in women. They work by interfering with the normal process of ovulation, fertilization, or implantation of a fertilized egg in the uterus. Some common examples of female contraceptive agents include:

1. Hormonal methods: These include combined oral contraceptives (COCs), progestin-only pills, patches, vaginal rings, and hormonal implants. They contain synthetic forms of the female hormones estrogen and/or progesterone, which work by preventing ovulation, thickening cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm to reach the egg, or thinning the lining of the uterus to prevent implantation of a fertilized egg.
2. Intrauterine devices (IUDs): These are small, T-shaped devices made of plastic or copper that are inserted into the uterus by a healthcare provider. They release hormones or copper ions that interfere with sperm movement and prevent fertilization or implantation.
3. Barrier methods: These include condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, and sponges. They work by physically preventing sperm from reaching the egg.
4. Emergency contraception: This includes medications such as Plan B or Ella, which can be taken up to 5 days after unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy. They work by delaying ovulation or preventing fertilization of the egg.
5. Fertility awareness-based methods (FABMs): These involve tracking a woman's menstrual cycle and avoiding sexual intercourse during her fertile window. Some FABMs also involve using barrier methods during this time.

It is important to note that different contraceptive agents have varying levels of effectiveness, side effects, and risks. Women should consult with their healthcare provider to determine the best method for their individual needs and circumstances.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Maze learning is not a medical term per se, but it is a concept that is often used in the field of neuroscience and psychology. It refers to the process by which an animal or human learns to navigate through a complex environment, such as a maze, in order to find its way to a goal or target.

Maze learning involves several cognitive processes, including spatial memory, learning, and problem-solving. As animals or humans navigate through the maze, they encode information about the location of the goal and the various landmarks within the environment. This information is then used to form a cognitive map that allows them to navigate more efficiently in subsequent trials.

Maze learning has been widely used as a tool for studying learning and memory processes in both animals and humans. For example, researchers may use maze learning tasks to investigate the effects of brain damage or disease on cognitive function, or to evaluate the efficacy of various drugs or interventions for improving cognitive performance.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

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"Novel Machaeriol Analogues as Modulators of Cannabinoid Receptors: Structure-Activity Relationships of (+)- ...
"Novel Machaeriol Analogues as Modulators of Cannabinoid Receptors: Structure-Activity Relationships of (+)- ... May 2023). "Cannabinoid and Opioid Receptor Affinity and Modulation of Cancer-Related Signaling Pathways of Machaeriols and ... Cannabinoids, Benzopyrans, Phenols, Heterocyclic compounds with 3 rings, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... Lee HJ, Lee YR, Kim SH (July 2009). "Total Synthesis of (+)‐Machaeriols B and C and of Their Enantiomers with a Cannabinoid ...
Cannabinoids (e.g., nabilone, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)/cannabis) - cannabinoid receptor modulators NMDA receptor modulators ( ... dopamine receptor agonist, serotonin receptor modulator, adrenergic receptor modulator, and serotonin reuptake inhibitor [19] ... glutamate modulator [2] Cannabis extracts (various) - cannabinoid receptor modulators [3] 4'-Fluorocannabidiol (4'-F-CBD; ... cannabinoid receptor modulator, other actions [4] AbbVie/Rugen research programme - unspecified mechanism of action [5] ...
Foster MD (2011). Computational study of RTI-371, a positive allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor (PDF) (MSc ... "Positive allosteric modulation of the human cannabinoid (CB) receptor by RTI-371, a selective inhibitor of the dopamine ... It may be caused by lack of BBB penetration, or interactions at alternative receptor sites. List of cocaine analogues List of ...
It is shown that pepcan-12 opposite acts as a potent CB2 cannabinoid receptor positive allosteric modulator (PAM). This peptide ... shown to act as negative allosteric modulators (NAM) of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. ... Recently it was shown that RVD-Hpα (also called Pepcan-12) is a potent negative allosteric modulator at CB1 receptors, together ... is a CB2 receptor positive allosteric modulator constitutively secreted by adrenals and in liver upon tissue damage". ...
Additionally, indometacin has recently been found to be a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor. ... 2019-10-18). "Indomethacin Enhances Type 1 Cannabinoid Receptor Signaling". Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 12: 257. doi: ... By enhancing the binding and signalling of endogenous cannabinoids such as anandamide, PAMs may elicit increased cannabinergic ...
... is a drug which acts as a potent and selective negative allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Studies ... Cannabinoids, CB1 receptor antagonists, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... "Allosteric modulation of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor". Molecular Pharmacology. 68 (5): 1484-95. doi:10.1124/mol.105.016162. ... However while Org 27569 increases the ability of CB1 agonists to bind to the receptor, it decreases their efficacy at ...
"Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators, Their Processes of Preparation, and Use of Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators in Treating ... A comparatively safe new synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist entering the NPS market?". Drug Testing and Analysis. 11 (2): ... A review of the chemistry and pharmacology of newly emerging heterocyclic synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists". Drug ... Cannabinoids, Designer drugs, Gamma-Carbolines, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ...
... to be at least contributing in part by being a non competitive negative allosteric modulator of the Cannabinoid receptor type 1 ...
... which acts as a biased allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, representing a new class of compounds referred to ... Cannabinoids, Steroids, Ketones, Methoxy compounds, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... It is hoped that compounds of this type may be useful either as medications for the treatment of cannabinoid dependence, or ... June 2023). "Signaling-specific inhibition of the CB1 receptor for cannabis use disorder: phase 1 and phase 2a randomized ...
... cannabinoid receptor modulator and gabapentinoid [25] Ciforadenant (CPI-444, V-81444) - adenosine A2A receptor antagonist [26] ... cannabinoid receptor modulators [55] Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors / adrenergic receptor antagonists [Pfizer] (NRI-022, ... dopamine D2 receptor antagonist and serotonin receptor modulator (e.g., serotonin 5-HT2B and 5-HT2A receptor antagonist) - ... AMPA receptor modulator [70] CX-1739 - ampakine / AMPA receptor modulator [71] Donepezil (Aricept, Aricept D, Aricept Dry Syrup ...
Cannabinoids, GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... Gertsch, Anavi-Goffer (2012). "Methylhonokiol attenuates neuroinflammation: a role for cannabinoid receptors?". Journal of ... "Mechanisms of osteoclastogenesis inhibition by a novel class of biphenyl-type cannabinoid CB(2) receptor inverse agonists". ... 4-O-Methylhonokiol activates CB2 receptors and also inhibits the oxygenation of the major endocannabinoid 2-AG via COX-2 in a ...
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators, Cannabinoids, Biphenyls, Lignans, Phenols, Allyl compounds). ... Magnolol may interact with cannabinoid receptors, acting as a partial agonist of CB2 receptors, with lower affinity for the CB1 ... Activation of Cannabinoid CB 2 Receptors and Blockade of the Related GPR55". ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 4 (1): 41-45. doi ... It is known to act on the GABAA receptors in rat cells in vitro as well as having antifungal properties. Magnolol has a number ...
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators, Cannabinoids, Biphenyls, Allyl compounds). ... "Mechanisms of Osteoclastogenesis Inhibition by a Novel Class of Biphenyl-Type Cannabinoid CB2 Receptor Inverse Agonists". ... GABAA receptors control ligand-gated Cl− channels that can help increase seizure thresholds through the influx of chloride ... Honokiol is a weak CB2 receptor ligand but the naturally occurring derivative 4-O-methylhonokiol was shown to be a potent and ...
... cannabinoid receptor modulator, antioxidant, other actions CVN766 - Orexin receptor type 1 antagonist Deudextromethorphan (d-DM ... ML-007 - M1 and M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor agonist. NBI-1117568 (HTL 0016878) - M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor ... M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor positive allosteric modulator. KarXT (xanomeline/trospium) - combined M1 and M4 muscarinic ... 5-HT1A receptor and TAAR1 agonist Usmarapride (SUVN-D4010) - 5-HT4 receptor partial agonist Pomaglumetad methionil (DB-103, LY- ...
McPartland JM (2002). "Sourcing the Code: Searching for the Evolutionary Origins of Cannabinoid Receptors, Vanilloid Receptors ... "Cannabinoids and omega-3/6 endocannabinoids as cell death and anticancer modulators". Progress in Lipid Research. 52 (1): 80- ... that activate specific cannabinoid receptors, is why cannabinoids are found to be selective antitumour compounds, that can kill ... "Cannabinoid receptor-dependent and -independent anti-proliferative effects of omega-3 ethanolamides in androgen receptor- ...
THCV is a cannabinoid receptor type 1 antagonist or, at higher doses, a CB1 receptor agonist and cannabinoid receptor type 2 ... tetrahydrocannabivarin negative modulators of the endocannabinoid system? A systematic review". British Journal of Pharmacology ... "Evidence that the plant cannabinoid Delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin is a cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor antagonist". British ... Riedel G, Fadda P, McKillop-Smith S, Pertwee RG, Platt B, Robinson L (2009). "Synthetic and plant-derived cannabinoid receptor ...
... cannabinoid receptor modulator [24] CMX-020 - TRPV1 modulator as well as CB1 and CB2 receptor modulator [25] Dronabinol (Δ9-THC ... Cebranopadol (GRT-6005) - non-selective μ-opioid receptor, nociceptin receptor, and δ-opioid receptor full agonist and κ-opioid ... TRPV1 modulator as well as CB1 and CB2 receptor modulator [12] DWP-05195 (TR-1) - TRPV1 antagonist [13] GRC-6211 - TRPV1 ... LNGF receptor (p75NTR) fusion protein and decoy receptor for nerve growth factor [35] NRD135S-E1 - tyrosine kinase modulator[36 ...
In 2018, a study showed that perrottetinene is mild to moderately psychoactive through activation of the cannabinoid receptor 1 ... June 2019). "Cannabimimetic plants: are they new cannabinoidergic modulators?". Planta. 249 (6): 1681-1694. doi:10.1007/s00425- ... Cannabinoids, Benzochromenes, Phenols, All stub articles, Cannabinoid stubs). ... Perrottetinene is a naturally occurring cannabinoid compound found in liverworts from the genus Radula native to Japan, New ...
For example, SSRIs, SNRIs and tricyclic antidepressants acting on serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine and cannabinoid receptors ... including opioids and cannabinoids), COX inhibitors, acetylcholine modulators, melatonin analogs (such as Ramelton), adenosine ... by which cannabinoid CB1 receptors modulate the excitability of dorsal raphe serotonin neurons. Data suggest that the ... vanilloid-receptor agonists, catecholamine modulators, ion-channel blockers, anticonvulsants, GABA agonists ( ...
Structure of an allosteric modulator bound to the CB1 cannabinoid receptor ...
See also: Cannabinoid receptor modulators (cannabinoids by pharmacology). *List of: AM cannabinoids ... It has a CB1 receptor affinity of 2.0nM and a CB2 receptor affinity of 0.3nM.[1] Structurally, O-1871 is a cyclohexylphenol ... O-1871 is a potent cannabinoid agonist which was invented by Billy R Martin and Raj K Razdan at Organix Inc in 2002. ... This cannabinoid related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. ...
"Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators, Their Processes of Preparation, and use of Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators for Treating ... September 2002). "C-3 Amido-indole cannabinoid receptor modulators". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 12 (17): 2399- ... that acts as a potent and selective agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB2, with a Ki of 8 nM at CB2 and 500x selectivity ... over the related CB1 receptor. It has antiinflammatory effects and inhibits release of TNF-α. A-796,260 APP-FUBINACA JWH-200 ...
... is an agonist to both the CB1 and the CB2 subtype of cannabinoid receptors. It is available on prescription in several ... antagonists at the cannabinoid receptors and modulators of the endogenous cannabinoid system are also promising candidates for ... There is evidence that besides the two cannabinoid receptor subtypes cloned so far additional cannabinoid receptor subtypes and ... Cannabinoid receptors are distributed in the central nervous system and many peripheral tissues including spleen, leukocytes; ...
The presence of cannabinoid receptors in... , Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate ... Two cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, are expressed in mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish. ... In addition to neuronal effects, cannabinoids are potent modulators of immune functions. In this report, we investigated ... and named Cannabinoid Receptor 1 (CB1) and Cannabinoid Receptor 2 (CB2). After the discovery of these receptors, it was a short ...
Their unique chemical structures, receptors, and bioactions are being elucidated. Accruing data indicate that SPMs carry ... receptors, and bioactions are being elucidated. Accruing data indicate that SPM carry protective functions against unrelenting ... Of interest, LXA4 also functions as modulator of cannabinoid receptor CB1 (Pamplona et al., 2012), which may contribute to the ... 2012). Anti-inflammatory lipoxin A4 is an endogenous allosteric enhancer of CB1 cannabinoid receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ...
... under the prevailing view that the pathology is best treated using pharmaceutical medications that act on monoamine receptors. ... Cannabidiol is a negative allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2015, 172, 4790-4805. [Google ... The cannabinoid receptor 1 associates with NMDA receptors to produce glutamatergic hypofunction: Implications in psychosis and ... Karmaus, P.W.F.; Chen, W.; Crawford, R.B.; Harkema, J.R.; Kaplan, B.L.F.; Kaminski, N.E. Deletion of cannabinoid receptors 1 ...
Crystalline forms and processes for the preparation of cannabinoid receptor modulators Legal Events. Date. Code. Title. ... et al., Org-5222 "Antipsychotic Dopamine D2 Receptor Antagonist 5-HT2 Receptor Antagonist," Drugs of the Future, vol. 18, No. ... Acid salt of Sigma-1 receptor agonist, crystal form thereof, preparation method and application thereof ...
THC is a partial agonist of the cannabinoid receptor (CB1) in the brain and induces the psychoactive effects of cannabis [36]. ... CBD is an allosteric modulator of the CB1 receptor and has an analgesic effect that counteracts and complements the effects of ... Such research will hopefully enable future identification of the cannabinoid, or cannabinoid group, that most benefit ... Most research to date has focused on the effects of two cannabinoids: Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). ...
Receptor binding by cannabinoids leads to stimulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system, thereby causing endogenous ... with THC a partial agonist and CBD a negative allosteric modulator. ... CB1 receptors are most concentrated in the central nervous system (CNS). These receptors are neurochemically similar to opioid ... Both of these active ingredients act on the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), ...
Cannabidiol is a negative allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2015, 172, 4790-4805. [Google ... Legend: CB1-cannabinoid receptor 1; CB2-cannabinoid receptor 2; EC50-Half maximal effective concentration; GPR55-G-protein ... serotonin receptor 1A) receptor, PPARγ (nuclear peroxisome proliferation activated receptor γ) and glycine receptor subtypes [ ... receptors of the endogenous cannabinoid system, CBD has a weak affinity for the sites of the receptors (the orthostatic ones). ...
The hepatic cannabinoid 1 receptor as a modulator of hepatic energy state and food intake. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2014;77(1):21- ... The role of cannabinoid receptors in the development of psychiatric disorders is being widely studied as well, although the ... Another interesting example of common pathways and treatment can be found in the role of cannabinoid 1 receptor, which ... Cannabinoids for the treatment of mental disorders and symptoms of mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ...
As to CB1, CBD is considered to be a negative allosteric modulator, which means, it modifies this receptor in such a way that ... Cannabidiol (CBD), a major cannabinoid of hemp, does not bind to CB1 receptors and is therefore devoid of psychotomimetic ... CBD shows insufficient binding to the cannabinoid receptors, particularly to CB1, which is involved in psychotomimetic effects ... Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., a peer-reviewed journal, is dedicated to the scientific ...
... cannabinoid, and adenosine receptors, modulators of neuropeptide systems (NPY, CRF), and agents that alter signal transduction ... neurokinin receptors: NK1, NK2, NK3; heteromeric neuronal nicotinic receptor subunits; NMDA subunits; opioid receptors: mu, ... Receptors: adenosine; adrenergic: alpha 1, alpha 2; cannabinoid: CB1, CB2; corticotropin releasing hormone: CRF R1, CRF R2; ... Naltrexone is an opiate receptor antagonist. By attenuating opioid receptor activity, naltrexone reduces dopaminergic ...
Statin drugs cause muscle weakness and pain by suppressing cannabinoid receptor genes. ... The administration of synthetic cannabinoid receptor antagonists (rimonabant and AM251), which block the CB1 receptor, also ... But in the future cholesterol-regulating statins formulated with positive allosteric modulators, which enhance CB1 receptor ... cannabinoid receptors will downregulate as a compensatory response. (Chronic cannabis consumption downregulates cannabinoid ...
... antagonists at the cannabinoid receptors and modulators of the endogenous cannabinoid system are also promising candidates for ... There is evidence that besides the two cannabinoid receptor subtypes cloned so far additional cannabinoid receptor subtypes and ... Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators:pharmacology, Cannabinoids:pharmacology, Dose-Response Relationship, Drug, Endocannabinoids, ... Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators:physiology, Cannabinoids:pharmacology, Cardiovascular Physiological Phenomena:drug effects, ...
Filtering by: Keyword cannabinoid 2 receptor Remove constraint Keyword: cannabinoid 2 receptor ...
Testing cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) as a potential therapeutic target in ASD: a pilot study on a mouse model of maternal ... In this scenario, it is worthy of note that the endocannabinoid system (eCB) is a well-recognized modulator of both innate and ... Interestingly, pharmacological activation of cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2R) recently gained attention, because of its ... Recently we demonstrated that maternal anti-IL1 (IL1 receptor antagonist, Anakinra) therapy significantly decreases IA E. coli ...
Targeting type-2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2) is considered a feasible strategy to develop new drugs for the treatment of ... Targeting type-2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2) is considered a feasible strategy to develop new drugs for the treatment of ... This study provides a novel complete toolbox of CB2 functional modulators that derive from the same chemical scaffold. Such ... Keywords: Biphenyl-carboxamides; CB(2); CB(2) agonist; CB(2) antagonist; CB(2) inverse agonist; Cannabinoid receptor; ...
Unlike THC, which acts on the cannabinoid receptor type 1 as a partial agonist, CBD instead is a adverse allosteric modulator ... It rapidly became apparent that CBD and different minor cannabinoids like cannabigerol were working with our human ... The most famous cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol . ... of CB1 receptors. CBD has become extremely popular within the final decade as medical marijuana turn out to be extra readily ...
... as well as a range of enzymes and receptors for the ECS. Ex vivo exposure of first trimester testes to CBD, THC, or CBD/THC [ ... while CBD is thought to be a negative allosteric modulator for CB1. CBD displays a weak inverse agonism for CB2 and may also ... THC and CBD act on specific cannabinoid receptors called CB1 and CB2. Both of these receptors also respond to naturally ... Cannabinoid receptors expression in human fetal testis. (A) RNA-seq quantification of transcripts coding for CB1 (CNR1) and CB2 ...
Cannabinoid receptor modulators. Receptor. (ligands). CB1Tooltip Cannabinoid receptor type 1. *Agonists (abridged; see here for ... Receptor/signaling modulators. GABA receptor modulators. GABAA receptor positive modulators. Ionotropic glutamate receptor ... Receptor/signaling modulators. Estrogens and antiestrogens. Androgen receptor modulators. Progesterone receptor modulators. ... G Protein-Coupled Estrogen Receptor and Its Pharmacologic Modulators". Pharmacol. Rev. 67 (3): 505-40. doi:10.1124/pr. ...
Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators. Oral. Hoffmann-La Roche. Balovaptan/RO5285119/RO7017773. Phase III. Antagonist of the V1A ... Ribosomal protein modulators. Subcutaneous. Corbus Pharmaceuticals Inc.. Lenabasum. Phase II. Cannabinoid receptor CB2 agonists ... Cannabinoid receptor modulators, Cariprazine, CBDV, CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CM-AT, Curemark, CYP3A4 ... Categories Blog Tags Bacterial growth inhibitors, Cannabinoid receptor CB2 agonists, Cell membrane permeability enhancers, Cell ...
Novel analogs of PSNCBAM-1 as allosteric modulators of cannabinoid CB1 receptor 15-dic-2017 Bertini S.Chicca A.Gado F.Arena C. ... Allosteric modulators targeting cannabinoid cb1 and cb2 receptors: Implications for drug discovery 1-ago-2019 Gado F.Meini S. ... Allosteric modulators targeting cannabinoid cb1 and cb2 receptors: Implications for drug discovery. ... Novel analogs of PSNCBAM-1 as allosteric modulators of cannabinoid CB1 receptor. ...
Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators (0) * Cholinergic Agents (0) * Dopamine Agents (0) * Excitatory Amino Acid Agents (0) ... Mitosis Modulators (0) * Neurotransmitter Agents (2) * Adrenergic Agents (1) * Adrenergic Agonists (1) * Adrenergic alpha- ...
Cannabinoid Receptor Modulators (2004-2012). Cannabinoids (1992-2003). Public MeSH Note. 2013. History Note. 2013(2004). Date ... They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR ... They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR ... Fatty acid derivatives that have specificity for CANNABINOID RECEPTORS. ...
See also: Cannabinoid receptor modulators (cannabinoids by pharmacology). *List of: AM cannabinoids ... Probing the cannabinoid receptor subsite at C1". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 46 (15): 3221-9. doi:10.1021/jm020558c. PMID ... AMG-3 (part of the AM cannabinoid series) is an analgesic drug which is a cannabinoid agonist. It is a derivative of Δ8THC ... CB1 & CB2 receptors role in Cancer Texas Health Co-op is a subsidiary, in name reservation only, of Good Acts LLC. read more » ...
Cannabinoid receptor 1. MKSILDGLADTTFRTITTDLLYVGSNDIQYEDIKGDMASKLGYFPQKFPL.... unknown. antagonist,modulator. Cannabinoid ... a class of compounds that act upon endogenous cannabinoid receptors of the body [A32584]. Cannabinoid receptors are utilized ... These effects are largely mediated through two members of the G-protein coupled receptor family, cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 ... CBD has been shown to act as a negative allosteric modulator of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor, the most abundant G-Protein ...
See also: Cannabinoid receptor modulators (cannabinoids by pharmacology). *List of: AM cannabinoids ... It is moderately selective for the CB2 receptor with a CB1 receptor affinity of 18 nM and a CB2 receptor affinity of 2 nM.[1][2 ... CB1 & CB2 receptors role in Cancer Texas Health Co-op is a subsidiary, in name reservation only, of Good Acts LLC. read more » ... O-1656 is a cannabinoid agonist which was invented by Billy R Martin and Raj K Razdan at Organix Inc in 2002. ...
  • In addition to the endocannabinoids and their receptors, this endocannabinoid system (thereafter called ECS) comprises synthesis and degradation enzymes and transporters [ 14 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cannabinoid receptors are utilized endogenously by the body through the endocannabinoid system, which includes a group of lipid proteins, enzymes, and receptors that are involved in many physiological processes. (rcsb.org)
  • THCV also acts as an agonist of GPR55 and l-α-lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI), and beyond the endocannabinoid system , THCV also activate 5-HT1A receptors to produce an antipsychotic effect, that has shown therapeutic potential for ameliorating some of the negative, cognitive and positive symptoms of schizophrenia . (cannaqa.wiki)
  • 20:4, ω-6), respectively, therefore, it can also act as an indirect agonist at the cannabinoid receptors , by enhancing the activity of the endocannabinoid system (ECS). (cannaqa.wiki)
  • Instead, this provides for a modulator of your endocannabinoid system (ECS), which is a intricate system that adjusts many aspects of the health and wellbeing. (espositoinfissi.it)
  • However, when CBG is obtained, research suggests that it has potential to directly bind to CB1 and CB2 receptors in the brain-unlike CBD which has been thought to be a modulator of the endocannabinoid system without directly binding to the cannabinoid receptors. (elementapothec.com)
  • Both of these active ingredients act on the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), with THC a partial agonist and CBD a negative allosteric modulator. (news-medical.net)
  • As to CB1, CBD is considered to be a negative allosteric modulator, which means, it modifies this receptor in such a way that the binding of classical agonists such as anandamide (AEA), THC, or nabilone is dramatically reduced. (genengnews.com)
  • In a previous study, the RVD-hemopressin-α, an endogenous anorexigenic peptide, proved to be a negative allosteric modulator of CB1 [43] and to inhibit hypothalamic NE levels following peripheral administration despite being ineffective against DA and 5-HT levels [30]. (researchgate.net)
  • CBD is considered a "negative allosteric modulator" of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor . (tennesseemarijuanacard.com)
  • CBD is considered a negative allosteric modulator of the CB1 receptor because it actually reduces the efficiency of the psychoactive effects of THC on your system by changing the shape of the receptor to be less favorable to THC binding. (tennesseemarijuanacard.com)
  • CBD is a negative allosteric modulator of CB1, the cannabinoid receptor to which THC directly binds. (nuleafnaturals.com)
  • CBD can also act as a negative allosteric modulator of CB1, which changes how the receptors respond to other substances, without directly activating the receptors themselves. (purerawz.co)
  • O-1871 is a potent cannabinoid agonist which was invented by Billy R Martin and Raj K Razdan at Organix Inc in 2002. (wikipedia.org)
  • BMS-F is a chemical from the aminoalkylindole family invented by Bristol-Myers Squibb around 1999, that acts as a potent and selective agonist for the cannabinoid receptor CB2, with a Ki of 8 nM at CB2 and 500x selectivity over the related CB1 receptor. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dronabinol (Delta 9-tetrahydocannabinol, THC), the main source of the pharmacological effects caused by the use of cannabis, is an agonist to both the CB1 and the CB2 subtype of cannabinoid receptors. (nih.gov)
  • The efficacy of brexpiprazole may be mediated through a combination of partial agonist activity at serotonin 5-HT 1 A and dopamine D 2 receptors, and antagonist activity at serotonin 5-HT 2 A receptors. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • Cariprazine has a high affinity for Dopamine D3 receptors acting as a partial agonist at D3 receptors. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • AMG-3 (part of the AM cannabinoid series ) is an analgesic drug which is a cannabinoid agonist . (thcscience.wiki)
  • The primary psychoactive component of Cannabis, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), demonstrates its effects through weak partial agonist activity at Cannabinoid-1 (CB1R) and Cannabinoid-2 (CB2R) receptors. (rcsb.org)
  • THCV is a cannabinoid receptor type 1 antagonist or, at higher doses, a CB 1 receptor agonist and cannabinoid receptor type 2 partial agonist . (cannaqa.wiki)
  • Molecular dynamics simulations showed that the pentyl chain of THC could adopts an I-shape conformation, filling an intracellular cavity between Phe3.36 and Trp6.48 for initial agonist-induced receptor activation, in CB1R but not in CB2R. (bvsalud.org)
  • Additionally, JWH-133, a full CB2R agonist, contains a branched dimethyl moiety in the ligand chain that bridges Phe3.36 and Val6.51 for receptor activation. (bvsalud.org)
  • It has a low affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors, but it can act as an antagonist or inverse agonist at specific concentrations. (purerawz.co)
  • For CB2 receptors, CBD acts as a partial agonist. (purerawz.co)
  • Longboard is also evaluating LP659, a centrally acting, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor subtypes 1 and 5 modulator, in development for the potential treatment of multiple neurological diseases, and LP143, a centrally acting, full cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2) agonist, in development for the potential treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases and disorders. (longboardpharma.com)
  • They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR AGONISTS . (nih.gov)
  • There are 60 companies currently involved in the development of cannabinoid receptor agonists, according to Datamonitor. (pharmavoice.com)
  • Some of the most notable cannabinoids founds within cannabis include the potent psychoactive compound delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and anti-inflammatory cannabidiol (CBD). (news-medical.net)
  • Humans and animals alike naturally synthesize endocannabinoids, chemical compounds that activate the same receptors as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active component of marijuana ( Cannabis sativa ). (medscape.com)
  • In 2013, a study from the Journal of Biochemical Pharmacology also found that other cannabinoids, namely cannabigerol , can help reduce IBD in rats. (kn0vel.com)
  • GWP42006 is the non-psychoactive cannabinoid cannabidivarin (CBDV) extracted from the cannabis plant. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • Cannabidiol, or CBD, is one of at least 85 active cannabinoids identified within the Cannabis plant. (rcsb.org)
  • Despite their prevalence, THC and CBD are not the first cannabinoids produced by the cannabis plant. (noidsamsterdam.com)
  • And because the new law allows only a very small amount of THC in cannabis oil products, Tennessee will need to get good at isolating CBD and other cannabinoids from the cannabis plant, while leaving the THC behind. (tennesseemarijuanacard.com)
  • Cannabinoids get their name from the cannabis plant, since that's the first place we discovered them. (cbdthinker.com)
  • Although CBD and THC are by far the most popular and well-studied, there are more than 60 cannabinoids found in the cannabis plant. (nuleafnaturals.com)
  • Cannabinoids, a class of molecules specific to the cannabis plant, are some of the most relevant molecules under study today due to their widespread use and varying legal status. (bvsalud.org)
  • There are typically very low concentrations of CBG in a mature cannabis plant, so the extraction process requires a specific chromatography mechanism to isolate and filter the cannabinoid. (elementapothec.com)
  • RG7816 is a small molecule highly selective positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA α5 receptor, which is expressed in key brain regions for autism spectrum disorder. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • we therefore tested for cannabinoid receptors in seven representative species, using tritiated ligand binding assays with [3H]CP55,940 displaced by the CB1-selective antagonist SR141716A. (researchgate.net)
  • It is moderately selective for the CB 2 receptor with a CB 1 receptor affinity of 18 nM and a CB 2 receptor affinity of 2 nM. (thcscience.wiki)
  • LP352 is a highly selective, oral, centrally acting, next-generation 5-HT2c receptor superagonist in development for the potential treatment of seizures associated with developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) such as Dravet syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS), tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), CDKL5 deficiency disorder (CDD), and other epileptic disorders. (longboardpharma.com)
  • LP352 has novel chemistry and attributes, and was designed to be more specific and selective for the 5-HT2c receptor subtype, giving it the potential to reduce seizures in DEE patients while overcoming the known or perceived safety limitations of available drugs in the 5-HT2 class. (longboardpharma.com)
  • Longboard is working to advance a portfolio of centrally acting product candidates designed to be highly selective for specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). (longboardpharma.com)
  • Byproducts of plant-derived CBD are (-) cannabinoids, as the plant makes only one isomere, whereas impurities of synthetic CBD arise from remaining starting material and products formed during the synthesis. (genengnews.com)
  • Synthetic cannabinoids don't occur naturally. (cbdthinker.com)
  • Researchers also routinely use synthetic cannabinoids in research studies, such as HU-210 and WIN 55,212-2, two synthetic versions of THC ( 9 ). (cbdthinker.com)
  • Five endogenous cannabinoids have been detected so far, of whom anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol are best characterized. (nih.gov)
  • Receptor binding by cannabinoids leads to stimulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system, thereby causing endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) to change in level, with a concomitant reduction in the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate. (news-medical.net)
  • Endocannabinoids, including anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), are lipid neuromodulators that regulate excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission through the activation of cannabinoid receptors and impact a variety of behavioral indices, including cognitive function, emotional regulation, social motivation, and reward processing [ 5 ]. (nature.com)
  • We demonstrate the presence in the human fetal testis of two key endocannabinoids, 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) and to a lower level anandamide (AEA), as well as a range of enzymes and receptors for the ECS. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Both of these receptors also respond to naturally synthesized cannabinoids, namely anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonyl-glycerol (2-AG), so-called endocannabinoids. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The non-psychotropic cannabidiol (CBD), some analogues of natural cannabinoids and their metabolites, antagonists at the cannabinoid receptors and modulators of the endogenous cannabinoid system are also promising candidates for clinical research and therapeutic uses. (nih.gov)
  • Endocannabinoids are the cannabinoids our bodies naturally produce. (cbdthinker.com)
  • Details getting comparable version, it skills by conversing with out-cannabinoid receptors, avoiding reuptake of your own respective body's personalized endocannabinoids. (jamesons-pattaya.com)
  • Studies also show that cannabinoids, in general, have the ability to work in combination with other antibiotics to fight against gram-negative pathogens, revealing potential for the therapeutic uses of cannabinoids. (elementapothec.com)
  • Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are two types of cannabinoids found naturally in the resin of the marijuana plant, both of which interact with the cannabinoid receptors that are found throughout the body. (rcsb.org)
  • The findings revealed that seven out of the eleven trials demonstrated a significant analgesic effect of cannabinoids in treating chronic non-cancer pain. (purerawz.co)
  • THCV furthermore interacts with different transient receptor potential (TRP) channels including TRPV2 , which may contribute to the analgesic , anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects of cannabinoids and Cannabis extracts . (cannaqa.wiki)
  • Immune system modulator (interacts with cannabinoid type 2 receptors within the immune system). (livingnaturally.co.za)
  • Because full spectrum CBD oil interacts with cannabinoid receptors in the brain, it's not entirely accurate to describe it as non-psychoactive. (nuleafnaturals.com)
  • This is because THC interacts with cannabinoid receptors in the brain to make a high feeling. (espositoinfissi.it)
  • Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the principal psychoactive constituent of Cannabis, mediates its action by binding to two members of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family: the cannabinoid CB1 (CB1R) and CB2 (CB2R) receptors. (bvsalud.org)
  • These effects were not correlated to the content of major cannabinoids such as CBD or THC, but with the presence of a complex terpenes profile. (bvsalud.org)
  • Balovaptan (RG7314) is a potent and specific small molecule antagonist of the V1A vasopressin receptor, which is implicated in modulating emotional processing and key social deficits exhibited in patients with Autism Spectrum Disorders. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • THCV is an antagonist of THC at CB 1 receptors and lessens the psychoactive effects of THC. (cannaqa.wiki)
  • Solventless extracts usually contain more cannabinoids and terpenes than solvent-based extracts do, and in TN that means the plants would likely need to contain little or no THC from seed to harvest in order to produce solventless extracts from them. (tennesseemarijuanacard.com)
  • METHODS: Extracts from five different varieties ofCannabis sativa were performed and their cannabinoids and terpenes profiles were determined by liquid and gas chromatography. (bvsalud.org)
  • CBD works by interacting with certain receptors called cannabinoid receptors. (purerawz.co)
  • These certain receptors sway does moving from serotonin neurotransmission to cell progression and also energy. (jamesons-pattaya.com)
  • It has a CB 1 receptor affinity of 2.0nM and a CB 2 receptor affinity of 0.3nM. (wikipedia.org)
  • Brexpiprazole exhibits high affinity (subnanomolar) for these receptors as well as for noradrenaline alpha1B/2C receptors. (cmaxinsight.com)
  • This reduces THC's binding affinity to that receptor, thereby diminishing some of the effects of THC. (nuleafnaturals.com)
  • Cannabidiol (CBD), a major cannabinoid of hemp, does not bind to CB1 receptors and is therefore devoid of psychotomimetic properties. (genengnews.com)
  • Hemp seed oil, on the other hand, is derived solely from the seeds of the plant and contains no cannabinoids. (nuleafnaturals.com)
  • Cannabidiol is amid over man made supplies, called cannabinoids, located in marijuana plant presence, comprising of package and hemp. (jamesons-pattaya.com)
  • There is evidence that besides the two cannabinoid receptor subtypes cloned so far additional cannabinoid receptor subtypes and vanilloid receptors are involved in the complex physiological functions of the cannabinoid system that include motor coordination, memory procession, control of appetite, pain modulation and neuroprotection. (nih.gov)
  • LP352 has demonstrated negligible observed impact on 5-HT2b and 5-HT2a receptor subtypes in the Company's preclinical studies to date. (longboardpharma.com)
  • Longboard is evaluating LP352, an oral, centrally acting 5-hydroxytryptamine 2c (5-HT2c) receptor superagonist, with negligible observed impact on 5-HT2b and 5-HT2a receptor subtypes, in development for the potential treatment of seizures associated with a broad range of developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. (longboardpharma.com)
  • The marijuana plant contains more than 100 cannabinoids. (pharmavoice.com)
  • Currently, the two main cannabinoids from the marijuana plant that are of medical interest are THC and CBD. (pharmavoice.com)
  • Known by several names, such as marijuana for dried flower buds and hashish for plant resin blocks, cannabis contains multiple bioactive compounds like flavonoids, cannabinol, and cannabinoids. (news-medical.net)
  • The wellknown cannabinoids are Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabichromene (CBC) and their pharmacological properties and importance have been extensively studied. (thctotalhealthcare.com)
  • Cannabidiol CBD as well as its substantial sibling element tetrahydrocannabinol is commonly cannabinoids in weed. (jamesons-pattaya.com)
  • Research has largely been restricted to date due to cannabinoids being Schedule I. As more people recognize the therapeutic potential of these molecules, DEA licensed parties such as formulation labs, CDMOs, and academic labs are increasingly interested in participating in innovation. (pharmavoice.com)
  • Cannabis contains more than 400 different chemical compounds, of which 61 are considered cannabinoids, a class of compounds that act upon endogenous cannabinoid receptors of the body [A32584]. (rcsb.org)
  • Much of that reputation is thanks to a group of chemical compounds known as cannabinoids. (cbdthinker.com)
  • The U.S. approval of Epidiolex in June 2018 - the first plant-based cannabinoid to be approved by the FDA - is viewed as a huge shift forward for the science surrounding cannabis, providing a pathway for other cannabinoid-based drugs to come to the market. (pharmavoice.com)
  • From a pharmacological perspective, Cannabis' (and CBD's) diverse receptor profile explains its potential application for such a wide variety of medical conditions. (rcsb.org)
  • Kumar R.N., Chambers W.A., Pertwee R.G. Pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of cannabis and cannabinoids. (kn0vel.com)
  • CBD also exerts analgesic (pain-relieving) effects in rats by interacting with CB1 receptors involved in pain control. (purerawz.co)
  • The ECS incorporates a number of molecular targets, including the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. (espositoinfissi.it)
  • Munro S., Thomas K.L., Abu-Shaar M. Molecular characterization of a peripheral receptor for cannabinoids. (kn0vel.com)
  • Cannabinoid receptors include CB1, which is predominantly expressed in the brain, and CB2, which is primarily found on the cells of the immune system. (pharmavoice.com)
  • The fact that both CB1 and CB2 receptors have been found on immune cells suggests that cannabinoids play an important role in the regulation of the immune system. (pharmavoice.com)
  • CBD performs collectively with GABA receptor flagging, disconcerting lessen neurotransmission. (jamesons-pattaya.com)
  • Another key characteristic about CBG is its ability to restrict uptake of both serotonin and GABA receptors more effectively than CBD. (elementapothec.com)
  • In agreement with our computational results, THC could not decrease the forskolin-induced cAMP levels in cells expressing mutant CB1RL6.51V receptor but could activate the mutant CB2RV6.51L receptor as efficiently as wild-type CB1R. (bvsalud.org)
  • The next big breakthrough came in 1988 when researchers discovered the first cannabinoid receptor in mice and humans ( 12 ). (cbdthinker.com)
  • Physiological effects of using cannabis make sense in the context of its receptor activity as the hippocampus and amygdala are primarily involved with regulation of memory, fear, and emotion. (rcsb.org)
  • While both CBD and THC are used for medicinal purposes, they have different receptor activity, function, and physiological effects. (rcsb.org)
  • In addition, CB1 and CB2 receptors may increase dopamine release while reducing the release of acetylcholine and norepinephrine. (news-medical.net)
  • Over time, special enzymes in cannabis synthesize CBGA into other cannabinoid acids, such as THCA, CBDA, and CBCA. (noidsamsterdam.com)
  • This essentially means that CBD does not bind to the CB1 receptor in your body, but instead forms a different interaction by changing the shape of the receptor. (tennesseemarijuanacard.com)
  • These effects are largely mediated through two members of the G-protein coupled receptor family, cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2)[A32585,A32824]. (rcsb.org)
  • The complexity of medical cannabis stems from the millions of combinations of doses and cannabinoid/terpene profiles. (thcscience.wiki)
  • They allow researchers to overcome some limitations of phytocannabinoids (like the psychoactive effects of THC), enhance some of their impact, or tailor cannabinoids for a specific purpose. (cbdthinker.com)
  • Fatty acid derivatives that have specificity for CANNABINOID RECEPTORS . (nih.gov)
  • Additionally, CBD's potential immunological or anti-inflammatory effects are likely mediated through CB2 receptors. (purerawz.co)
  • These receptors are neurochemically similar to opioid receptors, thus influencing nociceptive pathways in the brain. (news-medical.net)
  • Such probes may be useful to investigate the biological role of CB2 receptors in cellular assays. (nih.gov)
  • CB1 receptors are found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, with the majority of receptors localized to the hippocampus and amygdala of the brain. (rcsb.org)
  • In contrast, CB2 receptors are mainly found peripherally in immune cells, lymphoid tissue, and peripheral nerve terminals [A32676]. (rcsb.org)
  • Direct activation of CB1, CB2 or both receptors alleviate murine colitis. (kn0vel.com)
  • 5-HT2b and 5-HT2a receptor agonism have been associated with significant adverse effects. (longboardpharma.com)
  • Simvastatin also reduces cannabinoid receptor expression. (projectcbd.org)
  • Plants with elevated levels of propyl cannabinoids (including THCV) have been found in populations of Cannabis sativa L. ssp. (cannaqa.wiki)
  • These cannabinoid receptors are normally found in all cells in the body, nonetheless they are extremely active within our brains and nervous systems. (espositoinfissi.it)
  • The first cannabinoid receptor was discovered in the late 1980s, and in the early 1990s, a second cannabinoid receptor was found. (pharmavoice.com)