Blood Substitutes
Hydroxyethyl Starch Derivatives
Fluorocarbons
Hemoglobins
Poloxalene
Plasma Substitutes
Methemoglobin
Oxygen
Oxyhemoglobins
Hemodilution
Polyethylene Glycols
Drug Combinations
Bone Substitutes
Controlled safety study of a hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier, DCLHb, in acute ischemic stroke. (1/255)
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) is a purified, cell-free human hemoglobin solution. In animal stroke models its use led to a significant reduction in the extent of brain injury. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the safety of DCLHb in patients with acute ischemic stroke. METHODS: DCLHb or saline was administered to 85 patients with acute ischemic stroke in the anterior circulation, within 18 hours of onset of symptoms, in a multicenter, randomized, single-blind, dose-finding, controlled safety trial, consisting of 3 parts: 12 doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg DCLHb over 72 hours. RESULTS: DCLHb caused a rapid rise in mean arterial blood pressure. The pressor effect was not accompanied by complications or excessive need for antihypertensive treatment. Two patients in the 100 mg/kg group had adverse events that were possibly drug related: one suffered fatal brain and pulmonary edema, the other transient renal and pancreatic insufficiency. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that a severe stroke at baseline and treatment with DCLHb (OR, 4.0; CI, 1.4 to 12.0) were independent predictors of a worse outcome (Rankin Scale score of 3 to 6) at 3 months. CONCLUSIONS: Outcome scale scores were worse in the DCLHb group, and more serious adverse events and deaths occurred in DCLHb-treated patients than in control patients. We recommend that additional safety studies be performed, preferably with a second generation, genetically engineered hemoglobin. (+info)Effects of a perfluorochemical emulsion on the fate of circulating Pseudomonas aeruginosa. (2/255)
Because mononuclear phagocytes take up perfluorochemical emulsions (PFCE), we examined how prior treatment with PFCE affects the fate of circulating bacteria. Rats were preinjected with three daily intravenous injections of PFCE (2.0 ml/100 g) containing 12.5% (vol/vol) of a 4:1 mixture of F-dimethyl adamantane and F-trimethylbicyclo-nonane, 2.5% (wt/vol) Pluronic F-68 as the emulsifying agent, and 3% (wt/vol) hydroxyethyl starch as the oncotic agent. Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus were injected 4 h after the third PFCE injection. PFCE pretreatment decreased the rate and extent of vascular clearance of P. aeruginosa, with decreased uptake by the liver. Importantly, there were significant decreases in killing of P. aeruginosa in the liver, lungs, spleen, and kidneys of PFCE animals. PFCE did not alter the clearance of S. aureus from the circulation. However, hepatic uptake was reduced, with concomitant increases in lung and kidney uptake. Ultrastructure of Kupffer cells revealed PFCE inclusions and extensive vacuolization. These experiments demonstrate that the clearance kinetics and organ distribution of circulating P. aeruginosa and their subsequent killing are altered by PFCE. Diminished hepatic phagocyte function leads to a decrease in vascular clearance of circulating bacteria, increased uptake in other reticuloendothelial organs, and decreased bactericidal activity versus P. aeruginosa. (+info)Perflubron emulsion delays blood transfusions in orthopedic surgery. European Perflubron Emulsion Study Group. (3/255)
BACKGROUND: Fluorocarbon emulsions have been proposed as temporary artificial oxygen carriers. The aim of the present study is to compare the effectiveness of perflubron emulsion with the effectiveness of autologous blood or colloid infusion for reversal of physiologic transfusion triggers. METHODS: A multinational, multicenter, randomized, controlled, single-blind, parallel group study was performed in 147 orthopedic patients. Patients underwent acute normovolemic hemodilution with colloid to a target hemoglobin of 9 g/dl with an inspiratory oxygen fraction (FIO2) of 0.40. Patients were then randomized into one of four treatment groups after having reached any of the protocol-defined transfusion triggers including tachycardia (heart rate > 125% of posthemodilution rate or > 110 bpm), hypotension (mean arterial pressure < 75% of posthemodilution level or < or = 60 mmHg), elevated cardiac output (> 150% of posthemodilution level) or decreased mixed venous oxygen partial pressure (PVO2; < 38 mmHg). Treatments in the four groups were 450 ml autologous blood harvested during acute normovolemic hemodilution given at FO2 = 0.40; 450 ml colloid at FIO2 = 1.0; 0.9 g/kg perflubron emulsion with colloid (total = 450 ml) at FIO2 = 1.0; and 1.8 g/kg perflubron emulsion with colloid (total = 450 ml) at FIO2 = 1.0. The primary endpoint was duration of transfusion-trigger reversal. A secondary end-point was percentage of transfusion-trigger reversal. RESULTS: Perflubron emulsion was well tolerated with no serious adverse event attributed to drug treatment. Duration of reversal was longest in the 1.8 g/kg perflubron group (median, 80 min; 95% confidence interval, 60-100 min; P = 0.014 vs. autologous blood, P < 0.001 vs. colloid) followed by the 0.9 g/kg perflubron group (median, 59 min; 95% confidence interval, 40-90 min), the autologous blood group (median, 55 min; 95% confidence interval, 30-70 min) and the colloid group (median, 30 min; 95% confidence interval, 27-60 min). Percentage of reversal was also highest in the 1.8 g/kg perflubron group (97%; P < 0.001 vs. autologous blood; P = 0.014 vs. colloid), followed by 0.9 g/kg perflubron (82%), colloid (76%), and autologous blood (60%). CONCLUSIONS: Perflubron emulsion (1.8 g/kg) combined with 100% oxygen ventilation is more effective than autologous blood or colloid infusion in reversing physiologic transfusion triggers. (+info)Diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin effectively restores pancreatic microcirculatory failure in hemorrhagic shock. (4/255)
BACKGROUND: Microvascular reperfusion failure of splanchnic organs is a crucial hallmark in organ damage induced by hemorrhagic shock, which should be prevented by a resuscitation solution. Because the vasoactive properties of the hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) could adversely influence restoration of pancreatic capillary perfusion during resuscitation, the authors investigated its effects on the microcirculation of the rat pancreas in comparison with whole blood and 6% hydroxyethylstarch resuscitation from severe hemorrhagic shock. METHODS: Twenty-eight pentobarbital-anaesthetized rats were bled to a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 40 mmHg and maintained at this level for 1 h. Using an intravital microscope, mean arterial pressure, the length of erythrocyte-perfused pancreatic capillaries per observation area (functional capillary density), the adherence of leukocytes in postcapillary venules, and pancreatic lipid peroxidation, measured as thiobarbituric acid-reactive material in pancreatic tissue, were determined in animals resuscitated by volumes of hydroxyethylstarch, DCLHb, and whole blood (WB) equivalent to the shed blood volume or in control animals without shock induction for a period of 2 h after resuscitation. RESULTS: Compared with control animals (366+/-28 cm(-1)), animals resuscitated with DCLHb (294+/-45 cm(-1)), WB (306+/-11 cm(-1)), and hydroxyethylstarch (241+/-34 cm(-1)) showed a significant reduction of functional capillary density after 2 h of resuscitation. DCLHb was as effective as WB and superior to hydroxyethylstarch in restoring functional capillary density and mean arterial pressure. Leukocyte adherence in postcapillary venules was not enhanced by DCLHb (369+/-148/mm2) infusion when compared with hydroxyethylstarch- (615+/-283/mm2) and WB-treated (510+/-415/mm2) animals. Lipid peroxidation of pancreatic tissue was significantly elevated after treatment with both oxygen-carrying solutions compared with hydroxyethylstarch. CONCLUSION: DCLHb is as effective as WB for preservation of the pancreatic microcirculation. (+info)Influence of hemodilution on the renal blood flow autoregulation during acute expansion in rats. (5/255)
Autoregulation of renal blood flow (RBF) was studied in rats that underwent equivalent blood volume expansion with saline (Sal; 5% body wt), 7% BSA solution (1.4% body wt), and reconstituted whole blood from donor rats (WBL; 1.4% body wt). Renal perfusion pressure (RPP) and renal neural reflexes were prevented by clamping RPP and sectioning the vagus, baro/chemoreceptor, and renal nerves. Sal and BSA expansion increased RBF by approximately 60%, whereas no effect was observed with WBL. RBF autoregulation was markedly attenuated after expansion with cell-free solutions, but no change occurred in WBL-expanded rats. Correction of the fall in hematocrit in Sal- and BSA-expanded rats restored RBF and its autoregulation to control levels. Expansion with Sal or BSA after inhibition of renal vascular tone with intrarenal infusion of papaverine still increased RBF and further changed the RBF-RPP relationship. These findings suggest that the hemodilution plays a central role in the reduction of renal vascular resistance and in the attenuation of the autoregulatory efficiency of renal circulation that accompany expansion with cell-free solutions. (+info)Chemical characterization of pyridoxalated hemoglobin polyoxyethylene conjugate. (6/255)
Pyridoxalated hemoglobin polyoxyethylene conjugate (PHP) was developed in the 1980s as an oxygen carrier and is now under development for treatment of nitric oxide-dependent, volume refractory shock. PHP is made by derivatizing human stroma-free hemoglobin with pyridoxal-5-phosphate and polyoxyethylene (POE). A unique aspect of using POE for modification is that unlike its mono-methoxy polyethylene glycol (PEG) relatives, POE is bifunctional. The result of derivatization of stroma-free hemoglobin is a complex mixture of modified hemoglobin and other red cell proteins. The molecular weight profile, based on size exclusion chromatography, is bimodal and has a number average molecular weight of approximately 105 inverted question mark omitted inverted question mark000 and a weight average molecular weight of approximately 187 inverted question mark omitted inverted question mark000. The mixture of hemoglobin molecules has on average 3.3 pyridoxal and 5.0 polyoxyethylene units per tetramer. A portion of the tetramers are linked by POE crosslinks. The hemoglobin tetramers retain their ability to dissociate into dimer pairs and only a small percentage of the dimer pairs are not modified with POE. The SDS-PAGE profile exhibits the ladder-like appearance commonly associated with polyethylene glycol-modified proteins. The isoelectric focusing profile is broad, demonstrating a pI range of 5.0-6.5. The hydrodynamic size of PHP was determined to be approximately 7.2 nm by dynamic light scattering. Soluble red blood cell proteins, such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, and carbonic anhydrase, are present in PHP and are also modified by POE. (+info)The reduction of the allogenic transfusion requirement in aortic surgery with a hemoglobin-based solution. (7/255)
OBJECTIVE: Because of allogenic red blood cell (RBC) availability and infection problems, novel alternatives, including hemoglobin-based oxygen-carrying solutions (HBOC), are being explored to minimize the perioperative requirement of RBC transfusions. This study evaluated HBOC-201, a room-temperature stable, polymerized, bovine-HBOC, as a substitute for allogenic RBC transfusion in patients undergoing elective infrarenal aortic operations. METHODS: In a single blind, multicenter trial, 72 patients were prospectively randomized two-to-one to HBOC (n = 48) or allogenic RBC (n = 24) at the time of the first transfusion decision, either during or after elective infrarenal aortic reconstruction. Patients randomized to the HBOC group received 60 g of HBOC for the initial transfusion and had the option to receive three more doses (30 g each) within 96 hours. In this group, any further blood requirement was met with allogenic RBCs. Patients randomized to the allogenic RBC group received only standard RBC transfusions. The efficacy analysis was a means of assessing the ability of HBOC to eliminate the requirement for any allogenic RBC transfusions from the time of randomization through 28 days. Safety was evaluated by means of standard clinical trial methods. RESULTS: The two treatment groups were comparable for all baseline characteristics. Although all patients in the allogenic RBC group required at least one allogenic RBC transfusion, 13 of 48 patients (27%; 95% CI, 15% to 42%) in the HBOC group did not require any allogenic RBC transfusions. The only significant changes documented were a 15% increase in mean arterial pressure and a three-fold peak increase in serum urea nitrogen concentration after HBOC. The complications were similar in both groups, with no allergic reactions. There were two perioperative deaths (8%) in the allogenic RBC group and three perioperative deaths (6%) in the HBOC group (P = 1.0). CONCLUSION: HBOC significantly eliminated the need for any allogenic RBC transfusion in 27% of patients undergoing infrarenal aortic reconstruction, but did not reduce the median allogenic RBC requirement. HBOC transfusion was well tolerated and did not influence morbidity or mortality rates. (+info)Haemodynamic effects of diaspirin crosslinked haemoglobin (DCLHb) given before abdominal aortic aneurysm surgery. (8/255)
We studied 34 patients undergoing elective repair of an abdominal aortic aneurysm under combined general anaesthesia and epidural block to evaluate the acute effects of diaspirin crosslinked haemoglobin (DCLHb) 50, 100 and 200 mg kg-1 i.v. Haemodynamic variables were measured continuously using pulmonary and radial artery catheters, and oxygen delivery and consumption were calculated at regular intervals. DCLHb was shown to be vasoactive, producing an increase in mean arterial pressure of approximately 25% with each dose, with small decreases in cardiac index and calculated oxygen delivery. These effects persisted beyond the end of infusion and provided a degree of cardiovascular stability during the operative procedure. The effects of DCLHb on oxygen consumption at these doses were minimal. (+info)Blood substitutes, also known as artificial blood or blood surrogates, are fluids that are designed to mimic some of the properties and functions of human blood. They are used as a replacement for blood transfusions in situations where blood is not available or when it is not safe to use. Blood substitutes can be divided into two main categories: oxygen-carrying and non-oxygen-carrying.
Oxygen-carrying blood substitutes contain artificial molecules called hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) that are designed to carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues. These HBOCs can be derived from human or animal hemoglobin, or they can be synthetically produced.
Non-oxygen-carrying blood substitutes, on the other hand, do not contain hemoglobin and are used primarily to restore intravascular volume and maintain blood pressure in cases of hypovolemia (low blood volume) caused by bleeding or dehydration. These products include crystalloids, such as saline solution and lactated Ringer's solution, and colloids, such as albumin and hydroxyethyl starch solutions.
It is important to note that while blood substitutes can be useful in certain situations, they are not a perfect substitute for human blood. They do not provide all of the functions of blood, such as immune defense and clotting, and their use is associated with some risks, including allergic reactions, kidney damage, and increased oxygen free radical production. Therefore, they should only be used when there is no suitable alternative available.
Hydroxyethyl starch derivatives are modified starches that are used as plasma expanders in medicine. They are created by chemically treating corn, potato, or wheat starch with hydroxylethyl groups, which makes the starch more soluble and less likely to be broken down by enzymes in the body. This results in a large molecule that can remain in the bloodstream for an extended period, increasing intravascular volume and improving circulation.
These derivatives are available in different molecular weights and substitution patterns, which affect their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. They are used to treat or prevent hypovolemia (low blood volume) due to various causes such as bleeding, burns, or dehydration. Common brand names include Hetastarch, Pentastarch, and Voluven.
It's important to note that the use of hydroxyethyl starch derivatives has been associated with adverse effects, including kidney injury, coagulopathy, and pruritus (severe itching). Therefore, their use should be carefully monitored and restricted to specific clinical situations.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fluorocarbons" are not typically associated with medical definitions. Fluorocarbons are chemical compounds that contain carbon atoms bonded to fluorine atoms. They are often used in a variety of applications including refrigerants, fire extinguishing agents, and in the manufacturing of Teflon and other non-stick coatings.
If you have any medical terms or concepts you'd like me to define or explain, please let me know!
Hemoglobin (Hb or Hgb) is the main oxygen-carrying protein in the red blood cells, which are responsible for delivering oxygen throughout the body. It is a complex molecule made up of four globin proteins and four heme groups. Each heme group contains an iron atom that binds to one molecule of oxygen. Hemoglobin plays a crucial role in the transport of oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues, and also helps to carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs for exhalation.
There are several types of hemoglobin present in the human body, including:
* Hemoglobin A (HbA): This is the most common type of hemoglobin, making up about 95-98% of total hemoglobin in adults. It consists of two alpha and two beta globin chains.
* Hemoglobin A2 (HbA2): This makes up about 1.5-3.5% of total hemoglobin in adults. It consists of two alpha and two delta globin chains.
* Hemoglobin F (HbF): This is the main type of hemoglobin present in fetal life, but it persists at low levels in adults. It consists of two alpha and two gamma globin chains.
* Hemoglobin S (HbS): This is an abnormal form of hemoglobin that can cause sickle cell disease when it occurs in the homozygous state (i.e., both copies of the gene are affected). It results from a single amino acid substitution in the beta globin chain.
* Hemoglobin C (HbC): This is another abnormal form of hemoglobin that can cause mild to moderate hemolytic anemia when it occurs in the homozygous state. It results from a different single amino acid substitution in the beta globin chain than HbS.
Abnormal forms of hemoglobin, such as HbS and HbC, can lead to various clinical disorders, including sickle cell disease, thalassemia, and other hemoglobinopathies.
Poloxalene is not a medical term, but a chemical compound. It's an ether used as a non-ionic surfactant and emulsifying agent in the pharmaceutical industry. Poloxalene is also known for its ability to reduce the severity of bloat (gas distention) in animals, particularly in ruminants like cows, when included in their feed. However, it's not typically used as a human medication.
Plasma substitutes are fluids that are used to replace the plasma volume in conditions such as hypovolemia (low blood volume) or plasma loss, for example due to severe burns, trauma, or major surgery. They do not contain cells or clotting factors, but they help to maintain intravascular volume and tissue perfusion. Plasma substitutes can be divided into two main categories: crystalloids and colloids.
Crystalloid solutions contain small molecules that can easily move between intracellular and extracellular spaces. Examples include normal saline (0.9% sodium chloride) and lactated Ringer's solution. They are less expensive and have a lower risk of allergic reactions compared to colloids, but they may require larger volumes to achieve the same effect due to their rapid distribution in the body.
Colloid solutions contain larger molecules that tend to stay within the intravascular space for longer periods, thus increasing the oncotic pressure and helping to maintain fluid balance. Examples include albumin, fresh frozen plasma, and synthetic colloids such as hydroxyethyl starch (HES) and gelatin. Colloids may be more effective in restoring intravascular volume, but they carry a higher risk of allergic reactions and anaphylaxis, and some types have been associated with adverse effects such as kidney injury and coagulopathy.
The choice of plasma substitute depends on various factors, including the patient's clinical condition, the underlying cause of plasma loss, and any contraindications or potential side effects of the available products. It is important to monitor the patient's hemodynamic status, electrolyte balance, and coagulation profile during and after the administration of plasma substitutes to ensure appropriate resuscitation and avoid complications.
Methemoglobin is a form of hemoglobin in which the iron within the heme group is in the ferric (Fe3+) state instead of the ferrous (Fe2+) state. This oxidation reduces its ability to bind and transport oxygen effectively, leading to methemoglobinemia when methemoglobin levels become too high. Methemoglobin has a limited capacity to release oxygen to tissues, which can result in hypoxia (reduced oxygen supply) and cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes).
Methemoglobin is normally present in small amounts in the blood, but certain factors such as exposure to oxidizing agents, genetic predisposition, or certain medications can increase its levels. Elevated methemoglobin levels can be treated with methylene blue, which helps restore the iron within hemoglobin back to its ferrous state and improves oxygen transport capacity.
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.
Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.
Oxyhemoglobin is the form of hemoglobin that is combined with oxygen in red blood cells. It's created when oxygen molecules bind to the iron-containing heme groups of the hemoglobin protein inside the lungs, allowing for the transportation of oxygen from the lungs to body tissues. The affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is influenced by factors such as pH, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature, which can affect the release of oxygen from oxyhemoglobin in different parts of the body based on their specific needs.
Hemodilution is a medical term that refers to the reduction in the concentration of certain components in the blood, usually referring to red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin. This occurs when an individual's plasma volume expands due to the infusion of intravenous fluids or the body's own production of fluid, such as during severe infection or inflammation. As a result, the number of RBCs per unit of blood decreases, leading to a lower hematocrit and hemoglobin level. It is important to note that while hemodilution reduces the concentration of RBCs in the blood, it does not necessarily indicate anemia or blood loss.
Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are a family of synthetic, water-soluble polymers with a wide range of molecular weights. They are commonly used in the medical field as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations due to their ability to improve drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability. PEGs can also be used as laxatives to treat constipation or as bowel cleansing agents prior to colonoscopy examinations. Additionally, some PEG-conjugated drugs have been developed for use in targeted cancer therapies.
In a medical context, PEGs are often referred to by their average molecular weight, such as PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 1500, and so on. Higher molecular weight PEGs tend to be more viscous and have longer-lasting effects in the body.
It's worth noting that while PEGs are generally considered safe for use in medical applications, some people may experience allergic reactions or hypersensitivity to these compounds. Prolonged exposure to high molecular weight PEGs has also been linked to potential adverse effects, such as decreased fertility and developmental toxicity in animal studies. However, more research is needed to fully understand the long-term safety of PEGs in humans.
A drug combination refers to the use of two or more drugs in combination for the treatment of a single medical condition or disease. The rationale behind using drug combinations is to achieve a therapeutic effect that is superior to that obtained with any single agent alone, through various mechanisms such as:
* Complementary modes of action: When different drugs target different aspects of the disease process, their combined effects may be greater than either drug used alone.
* Synergistic interactions: In some cases, the combination of two or more drugs can result in a greater-than-additive effect, where the total response is greater than the sum of the individual responses to each drug.
* Antagonism of adverse effects: Sometimes, the use of one drug can mitigate the side effects of another, allowing for higher doses or longer durations of therapy.
Examples of drug combinations include:
* Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV infection, which typically involves a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
* Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where combinations of cytotoxic agents are used to target different stages of the cell cycle and increase the likelihood of tumor cell death.
* Fixed-dose combination products, such as those used in the treatment of hypertension or type 2 diabetes, which combine two or more active ingredients into a single formulation for ease of administration and improved adherence to therapy.
However, it's important to note that drug combinations can also increase the risk of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and medication errors. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the selection of appropriate drugs, dosing regimens, and monitoring parameters when using drug combinations in clinical practice.
Bone substitutes are materials that are used to replace missing or damaged bone in the body. They can be made from a variety of materials, including natural bone from other parts of the body or from animals, synthetic materials, or a combination of both. The goal of using bone substitutes is to provide structural support and promote the growth of new bone tissue.
Bone substitutes are often used in dental, orthopedic, and craniofacial surgery to help repair defects caused by trauma, tumors, or congenital abnormalities. They can also be used to augment bone volume in procedures such as spinal fusion or joint replacement.
There are several types of bone substitutes available, including:
1. Autografts: Bone taken from another part of the patient's body, such as the hip or pelvis.
2. Allografts: Bone taken from a deceased donor and processed to remove any cells and infectious materials.
3. Xenografts: Bone from an animal source, typically bovine or porcine, that has been processed to remove any cells and infectious materials.
4. Synthetic bone substitutes: Materials such as calcium phosphate ceramics, bioactive glass, and polymer-based materials that are designed to mimic the properties of natural bone.
The choice of bone substitute material depends on several factors, including the size and location of the defect, the patient's medical history, and the surgeon's preference. It is important to note that while bone substitutes can provide structural support and promote new bone growth, they may not have the same strength or durability as natural bone. Therefore, they may not be suitable for all applications, particularly those that require high load-bearing capacity.
"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.