Adenosine Diphosphate Glucose
Glucose-1-Phosphate Adenylyltransferase
Uridine Diphosphate Glucose
Uridine Diphosphate Sugars
Uridine Diphosphate Glucose Dehydrogenase
Adenosine Diphosphate
Adenosine
Glucose
Chromatography, Paper
Glucosyltransferases
Platelet Aggregation
Receptor, Adenosine A2A
Receptor, Adenosine A1
Blood Platelets
Granule-bound starch synthase I in isolated starch granules elongates malto-oligosaccharides processively. (1/45)
Isoforms of starch synthase belonging to the granule-bound starch synthase I (GBSSI) class synthesize the amylose component of starch in plants. Other granule-bound isoforms of starch synthase, such as starch synthase II (SSII), are unable to synthesize amylose. The kinetic properties of GBSSI and SSII that are responsible for these functional differences have been investigated using starch granules from embryos of wild-type peas and rug5 and lam mutant peas, which contain, respectively, both GBSSI and SSII, GBSSI but not SSII and SSII but not GBSSI. We show that GBSSI in isolated granules elongates malto-oligosaccharides processively, adding more than one glucose molecule for each enzyme-glucan encounter. Granule-bound SSII can elongate malto-oligosaccharides, but has a lower affinity for these than GBSSI and does not elongate processively. As a result of these properties GBSSI synthesizes longer malto-oligosaccharides than SSII. The significance of these results with respect to the roles of GBSSI and SSII in vivo is discussed. (+info)Cloning, expression and characterization of YSA1H, a human adenosine 5'-diphosphosugar pyrophosphatase possessing a MutT motif. (2/45)
The human homologue of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae YSA1 protein, YSA1H, has been expressed as a thioredoxin fusion protein in Escherichia coli. It is an ADP-sugar pyrophosphatase with similar activities towards ADP-ribose and ADP-mannose. Its activities with ADP-glucose and diadenosine diphosphate were 56% and 20% of that with ADP-ribose respectively, whereas its activity towards other nucleoside 5'-diphosphosugars was typically 2-10%. cADP-ribose was not a substrate. The products of ADP-ribose hydrolysis were AMP and ribose 5-phosphate. K(m) and k(cat) values with ADP-ribose were 60 microM and 5.5 s(-1) respectively. The optimal activity was at alkaline pH (7.4-9.0) with 2.5-5 mM Mg(2+) or 100-250 microM Mn(2+) ions; fluoride was inhibitory, with an IC(50) of 20 microM. The YSA1H gene, which maps to 10p13-p14, is widely expressed in all human tissues examined, giving a 1.4 kb transcript. The 41.6 kDa fusion protein behaved as an 85 kDa dimer on gel filtration. After cleavage with enterokinase, the 24.4 kDa native protein fragment ran on SDS/PAGE with an apparent molecular mass of 33 kDa. Immunoblot analysis with a polyclonal antibody raised against the recombinant YSA1H revealed the presence of a protein of apparent molecular mass 33 kDa in various human cells, including erythrocytes. The sequence of YSA1H contains a MutT sequence signature motif. A major proposed function of the MutT motif proteins is to eliminate toxic nucleotide metabolites from the cell. Hence the function of YSA1H might be to remove free ADP-ribose arising from NAD(+) and protein-bound poly- and mono-(ADP-ribose) turnover to prevent the occurrence of non-enzymic protein glycation. (+info)A possible role for pyrophosphate in the coordination of cytosolic and plastidial carbon metabolism within the potato tuber. (3/45)
The early stages of tuber development are characterized by cell division, high metabolic activity, and the predominance of invertase as the sucrose (Suc) cleaving activity. However, during the subsequent phase of starch accumulation the cleavage of Suc occurs primarily by the action of Suc synthase. The mechanism that is responsible for this switch in Suc cleaving activities is currently unknown. One striking difference between the invertase and Suc synthase mediated cleavage of Suc is the direct involvement of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) in the latter case. There is presently no convincing explanation of how the PPi required to support this process is generated in potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers. The major site of PPi production in a maturing potato tubers is likely to be the reaction catalyzed by ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, the first committed step of starch biosynthesis in amyloplasts. We present data based on the analysis of the PPi levels in various transgenic plants altered in starch and Suc metabolism that support the hypothesis that PPi produced in the plastid is used to support cytosolic Suc breakdown and that PPi is an important coordinator of cytosolic and plastidial metabolism in potato tubers. (+info)Legume embryos develop in a hypoxic environment. (4/45)
Specific morphological and biochemical characteristics of seeds can cause oxygen deficiency within maternal and embryonic tissues. In this study, optical sensors were used to measure O(2) profiles across developing seeds of Vicia faba and Pisum sativum and developmental and environmental modulations of internal O(2) levels were studied. In addition, the metabolic state of developing embryos was analysed by monitoring adenylate energy charge, adenylate nucleotides and the levels of nucleotide sugars. Within the seed coat O(2) concentration decreased sharply to approximately 3% towards the inner border. Lowest O(2) levels were detected within the endospermal cavity between the seed coat and embryo. It is probable that low seed coat permeability provides an hypoxic environment for legume embryo development. The O(2) concentration in embryonic tissue changed during development with the lowest levels in the early stages. Measured in darkness, the levels were below 3%, but increased upon illumination indicating that photosynthesis significantly contributes to internal O(2) levels. Only in very young embryos were ATP levels and energy charge low. Otherwise they were maintained at a constant higher value. ADP-glucose and UDP-glucose did not show large fluctuations. Throughout embryo development fermentative activity did not play a major role. Obviously, specific mechanisms prevent seed tissues from becoming anoxic during development. The possible role of low oxygen on seed metabolism and on the control of seed development in legumes is discussed. (+info)Starch synthesis and carbon partitioning in developing endosperm. (5/45)
The biosynthesis of starch is the major determinant of yield in cereal grains. In this short review, attention is focused on the synthesis of the soluble substrate for starch synthesis, ADPglucose (ADPG). Consideration is given to the pathway of ADPG production, its subcellular compartmentation, and the role of metabolite transporters in mediating its delivery to the site of starch synthesis. As ADPG is an activated sugar, the dependence of its production on respiration, changes which occur during development, and the constraints which ATP production may place on carbon partitioning into different end-products are discussed. (+info)A low-starch barley mutant, riso 16, lacking the cytosolic small subunit of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, reveals the importance of the cytosolic isoform and the identity of the plastidial small subunit. (6/45)
To provide information on the roles of the different forms of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) in barley (Hordeum vulgare) endosperm and the nature of the genes encoding their subunits, a mutant of barley, Riso 16, lacking cytosolic AGPase activity in the endosperm was identified. The mutation specifically abolishes the small subunit of the cytosolic AGPase and is attributable to a large deletion within the coding region of a previously characterized small subunit gene that we have called Hv.AGP.S.1. The plastidial AGPase activity in the mutant is unaffected. This shows that the cytosolic and plastidial small subunits of AGPase are encoded by separate genes. We purified the plastidial AGPase protein and, using amino acid sequence information, we identified the novel small subunit gene that encodes this protein. Studies of the Riso 16 mutant revealed the following. First, the reduced starch content of the mutant showed that a cytosolic AGPase is required to achieve the normal rate of starch synthesis. Second, the mutant makes both A- and B-type starch granules, showing that the cytosolic AGPase is not necessary for the synthesis of these two granule types. Third, analysis of the phylogenetic relationships between the various small subunit proteins both within and between species, suggest that the cytosolic AGPase single small subunit gene probably evolved from a leaf single small subunit gene. (+info)Identification and characterization of a critical region in the glycogen synthase from Escherichia coli. (7/45)
The cysteine-specific reagent 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) inactivates the Escherichia coli glycogen synthase (Holmes, E., and Preiss, J. (1982) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 216, 736-740). To find the responsible residue, all cysteines, Cys(7), Cys(379), and Cys(408), were substituted combinatorially by Ser. 5,5'-Dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) modified and inactivated the enzyme if and only if Cys(379) was present and it was prevented by the substrate ADP-glucose (ADP-Glc). Mutations C379S and C379A increased the S(0.5) for ADP-Glc 40- and 77-fold, whereas the specific activity was decreased 5.8- and 4.3-fold, respectively. Studies of inhibition by glucose 1-phosphate and AMP indicated that Cys(379) was involved in the interaction of the enzyme with the phosphoglucose moiety of ADP-Glc. Other mutations, C379T, C379D, and C379L, indicated that this site is intolerant for bulkier side chains. Because Cys(379) is in a conserved region, other residues were scanned by mutagenesis. Replacement of Glu(377) by Ala and Gln decreased V(max) more than 10,000-fold without affecting the apparent affinity for ADP-Glc and glycogen binding. Mutation of Glu(377) by Asp decreased V(max) only 57-fold indicating that the negative charge of Glu(377) is essential for catalysis. The activity of the mutation E377C, on an enzyme form without other Cys, was chemically restored by carboxymethylation. Other conserved residues in the region, Ser(374) and Gln(383), were analyzed by mutagenesis but found not essential. Comparison with the crystal structure of other glycosyltransferases suggests that this conserved region is a loop that is part of the active site. The results of this work indicate that this region is critical for catalysis and substrate binding. (+info)Protein phosphorylation in amyloplasts regulates starch branching enzyme activity and protein-protein interactions. (8/45)
Protein phosphorylation in amyloplasts and chloroplasts of Triticum aestivum (wheat) was investigated after the incubation of intact plastids with gamma-(32)P-ATP. Among the soluble phosphoproteins detected in plastids, three forms of starch branching enzyme (SBE) were phosphorylated in amyloplasts (SBEI, SBEIIa, and SBEIIb), and both forms of SBE in chloroplasts (SBEI and SBEIIa) were shown to be phosphorylated after sequencing of the immunoprecipitated (32)P-labeled phosphoproteins using quadrupole-orthogonal acceleration time of flight mass spectrometry. Phosphoamino acid analysis of the phosphorylated SBE forms indicated that the proteins are all phosphorylated on Ser residues. Analysis of starch granule-associated phosphoproteins after incubation of intact amyloplasts with gamma-(32)P-ATP indicated that the granule-associated forms of SBEII and two granule-associated forms of starch synthase (SS) are phosphorylated, including SSIIa. Measurement of SBE activity in amyloplasts and chloroplasts showed that phosphorylation activated SBEIIa (and SBEIIb in amyloplasts), whereas dephosphorylation using alkaline phosphatase reduced the catalytic activity of both enzymes. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation had no effect on the measurable activity of SBEI in amyloplasts and chloroplasts, and the activities of both granule-bound forms of SBEII in amyloplasts were unaffected by dephosphorylation. Immunoprecipitation experiments using peptide-specific anti-SBE antibodies showed that SBEIIb and starch phosphorylase each coimmunoprecipitated with SBEI in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, suggesting that these enzymes may form protein complexes within the amyloplast in vivo. Conversely, dephosphorylation of immunoprecipitated protein complex led to its disassembly. This article reports direct evidence that enzymes of starch metabolism (amylopectin synthesis) are regulated by protein phosphorylation and indicate a wider role for protein phosphorylation and protein-protein interactions in the control of starch anabolism and catabolism. (+info)Adenosine diphosphate glucose (ADP-glucose) is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of glycogen, which is a complex carbohydrate that serves as a primary form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. In this process, ADP-glucose is formed from glucose-1-phosphate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through the action of the enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase. Once synthesized, ADP-glucose is then used as a substrate for the enzyme glycogen synthase, which catalyzes the addition of glucose units to an existing glycogen molecule, leading to its growth and expansion. This pathway plays a crucial role in regulating cellular energy metabolism and maintaining glucose homeostasis within the body.
Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, also known as ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase or AGPase, is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism, specifically in the synthesis of starch. It catalyzes the reaction between ATP and glucose-1-phosphate to produce ADP-glucose and pyrophosphate. This reaction is the first committed step in the biosynthetic pathway of starch in plants, algae, and some bacteria. In humans, defects in this enzyme can lead to a rare genetic disorder called glycogen storage disease type Ib.
Uridine Diphosphate Glucose (UDP-glucose) is a nucleotide sugar that plays a crucial role in the synthesis and metabolism of carbohydrates in the body. It is formed from uridine triphosphate (UTP) and glucose-1-phosphate through the action of the enzyme UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase.
UDP-glucose serves as a key intermediate in various biochemical pathways, including glycogen synthesis, where it donates glucose molecules to form glycogen, a large polymeric storage form of glucose found primarily in the liver and muscles. It is also involved in the biosynthesis of other carbohydrate-containing compounds such as proteoglycans and glycolipids.
Moreover, UDP-glucose is an essential substrate for the enzyme glucosyltransferase, which is responsible for adding glucose molecules to various acceptor molecules during the process of glycosylation. This post-translational modification is critical for the proper folding and functioning of many proteins.
Overall, UDP-glucose is a vital metabolic intermediate that plays a central role in carbohydrate metabolism and protein function.
Uridine diphosphate sugars (UDP-sugars) are nucleotide sugars that play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of glycans, which are complex carbohydrates found on the surface of many cell types. UDP-sugars consist of a uridine diphosphate molecule linked to a sugar moiety, such as glucose, galactose, or xylose. These molecules serve as activated donor substrates for glycosyltransferases, enzymes that catalyze the transfer of sugar residues to acceptor molecules, including proteins and other carbohydrates. UDP-sugars are essential for various biological processes, such as cell recognition, signaling, and protein folding. Dysregulation of UDP-sugar metabolism has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer and congenital disorders of glycosylation.
Uridine Diphosphate (UDP) Glucose Dehydrogenase is an enzyme that plays a role in carbohydrate metabolism. Its systematic name is UDP-glucose:NAD+ oxidoreductase, and it catalyzes the following chemical reaction:
UDP-glucose + NAD+ -> UDP-glucuronate + NADH + H+
This enzyme helps convert UDP-glucose into UDP-glucuronate, which is a crucial component in the biosynthesis of various substances in the body, such as glycosaminoglycans and other glyconjugates. The reaction also results in the reduction of NAD+ to NADH, which is an essential coenzyme in numerous metabolic processes.
UDP-glucose dehydrogenase is widely distributed in various tissues, including the liver, kidney, and intestine. Deficiencies or mutations in this enzyme can lead to several metabolic disorders, such as glucosuria and hypermethioninemia.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a chemical compound that plays a crucial role in energy transfer within cells. It is a nucleotide, which consists of a adenosine molecule (a sugar molecule called ribose attached to a nitrogenous base called adenine) and two phosphate groups.
In the cell, ADP functions as an intermediate in the conversion of energy from one form to another. When a high-energy phosphate bond in ADP is broken, energy is released and ADP is converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which serves as the main energy currency of the cell. Conversely, when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it is converted back to ADP, releasing energy for the cell to use.
ADP also plays a role in blood clotting and other physiological processes. In the coagulation cascade, ADP released from damaged red blood cells can help activate platelets and initiate the formation of a blood clot.
Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that is composed of a sugar (ribose) and the base adenine. It plays several important roles in the body, including serving as a precursor for the synthesis of other molecules such as ATP, NAD+, and RNA.
In the medical context, adenosine is perhaps best known for its use as a pharmaceutical agent to treat certain cardiac arrhythmias. When administered intravenously, it can help restore normal sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) by slowing conduction through the atrioventricular node and interrupting the reentry circuit responsible for the arrhythmia.
Adenosine can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help differentiate between narrow-complex tachycardias of supraventricular origin and those that originate from below the ventricles (such as ventricular tachycardia). This is because adenosine will typically terminate PSVT but not affect the rhythm of VT.
It's worth noting that adenosine has a very short half-life, lasting only a few seconds in the bloodstream. This means that its effects are rapidly reversible and generally well-tolerated, although some patients may experience transient symptoms such as flushing, chest pain, or shortness of breath.
Nucleotidyltransferases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of nucleotides to an acceptor molecule, such as RNA or DNA. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, including DNA replication, repair, and recombination, as well as RNA synthesis and modification.
The reaction catalyzed by nucleotidyltransferases typically involves the donation of a nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) to an acceptor molecule, resulting in the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the nucleotides. The reaction can be represented as follows:
NTP + acceptor → NMP + pyrophosphate
where NTP is the nucleoside triphosphate donor and NMP is the nucleoside monophosphate product.
There are several subclasses of nucleotidyltransferases, including polymerases, ligases, and terminases. These enzymes have distinct functions and substrate specificities, but all share the ability to transfer nucleotides to an acceptor molecule.
Examples of nucleotidyltransferases include DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase, reverse transcriptase, telomerase, and ligase. These enzymes are essential for maintaining genome stability and function, and their dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.
Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.
In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.
Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.
Paper chromatography is a type of chromatography technique that involves the separation and analysis of mixtures based on their components' ability to migrate differently upon capillary action on a paper medium. This simple and cost-effective method utilizes a paper, typically made of cellulose, as the stationary phase. The sample mixture is applied as a small spot near one end of the paper, and then the other end is dipped into a developing solvent or a mixture of solvents (mobile phase) in a shallow container.
As the mobile phase moves up the paper by capillary action, components within the sample mixture separate based on their partition coefficients between the stationary and mobile phases. The partition coefficient describes how much a component prefers to be in either the stationary or mobile phase. Components with higher partition coefficients in the mobile phase will move faster and further than those with lower partition coefficients.
Once separation is complete, the paper is dried and can be visualized under ultraviolet light or by using chemical reagents specific for the components of interest. The distance each component travels from the origin (point of application) and its corresponding solvent front position are measured, allowing for the calculation of Rf values (retardation factors). Rf is a dimensionless quantity calculated as the ratio of the distance traveled by the component to the distance traveled by the solvent front.
Rf = (distance traveled by component) / (distance traveled by solvent front)
Paper chromatography has been widely used in various applications, such as:
1. Identification and purity analysis of chemical compounds in pharmaceuticals, forensics, and research laboratories.
2. Separation and detection of amino acids, sugars, and other biomolecules in biological samples.
3. Educational purposes to demonstrate the principles of chromatography and separation techniques.
Despite its limitations, such as lower resolution compared to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and less compatibility with volatile or nonpolar compounds, paper chromatography remains a valuable tool for quick, qualitative analysis in various fields.
Glucosyltransferases (GTs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a glucose molecule from an activated donor to an acceptor molecule, resulting in the formation of a glycosidic bond. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of complex carbohydrates, cell wall synthesis, and protein glycosylation. In some cases, GTs can also contribute to bacterial pathogenesis by facilitating the attachment of bacteria to host tissues through the formation of glucans, which are polymers of glucose molecules.
GTs can be classified into several families based on their sequence similarities and catalytic mechanisms. The donor substrates for GTs are typically activated sugars such as UDP-glucose, TDP-glucose, or GDP-glucose, which serve as the source of the glucose moiety that is transferred to the acceptor molecule. The acceptor can be a wide range of molecules, including other sugars, proteins, lipids, or small molecules.
In the context of human health and disease, GTs have been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as cancer, inflammation, and microbial infections. For example, some GTs can modify proteins on the surface of cancer cells, leading to increased cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Additionally, GTs can contribute to bacterial resistance to antibiotics by modifying the structure of bacterial cell walls or by producing biofilms that protect bacteria from host immune responses and antimicrobial agents.
Overall, Glucosyltransferases are essential enzymes involved in various biological processes, and their dysregulation has been associated with several human diseases. Therefore, understanding the structure, function, and regulation of GTs is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these enzymes and treat related pathological conditions.
Platelet aggregation is the clumping together of platelets (thrombocytes) in the blood, which is an essential step in the process of hemostasis (the stopping of bleeding) after injury to a blood vessel. When the inner lining of a blood vessel is damaged, exposure of subendothelial collagen and tissue factor triggers platelet activation. Activated platelets change shape, become sticky, and release the contents of their granules, which include ADP (adenosine diphosphate).
ADP then acts as a chemical mediator to attract and bind additional platelets to the site of injury, leading to platelet aggregation. This forms a plug that seals the damaged vessel and prevents further blood loss. Platelet aggregation is also a crucial component in the formation of blood clots (thrombosis) within blood vessels, which can have pathological consequences such as heart attacks and strokes if they obstruct blood flow to vital organs.
Adenosine A2A receptor is a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds to the endogenous purine nucleoside, adenosine. It is a subtype of the A2 receptor along with the A2B receptor and is widely distributed throughout the body, particularly in the brain, heart, and immune system.
The A2A receptor plays an essential role in various physiological processes, including modulation of neurotransmission, cardiovascular function, and immune response. In the brain, activation of A2A receptors can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects on neuronal activity, depending on the location and context.
In the heart, A2A receptor activation has a negative chronotropic effect, reducing heart rate, and a negative inotropic effect, decreasing contractility. In the immune system, A2A receptors are involved in regulating inflammation and immune cell function.
Pharmacologically, A2A receptor agonists have been investigated for their potential therapeutic benefits in various conditions, including Parkinson's disease, chronic pain, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and cancer. Conversely, A2A receptor antagonists have also been studied as a potential treatment for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, and addiction.
Adenosine A1 receptor is a type of G protein-coupled receptor that binds to the endogenous purine nucleoside adenosine. When activated, it inhibits the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) in the cell by inhibiting adenylyl cyclase activity. This results in various physiological effects, such as decreased heart rate and reduced force of heart contractions, increased potassium conductance, and decreased calcium currents. The Adenosine A1 receptor is widely distributed throughout the body, including the brain, heart, kidneys, and other organs. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including cardiovascular function, neuroprotection, and inflammation.
Blood platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that play an essential role in normal blood clotting. They are formed in the bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes and circulate in the blood in an inactive state until they are needed to help stop bleeding. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets become activated and change shape, releasing chemicals that attract more platelets to the site of injury. These activated platelets then stick together to form a plug, or clot, that seals the wound and prevents further blood loss. In addition to their role in clotting, platelets also help to promote healing by releasing growth factors that stimulate the growth of new tissue.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) sugars, also known as sugar nucleotides, are molecules that play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of complex carbohydrates, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids. These molecules consist of a sugar molecule, usually glucose or galactose, linked to a molecule of adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
The ADP portion of the molecule provides the energy needed for the transfer of the sugar moiety to other molecules during the process of glycosylation. The reaction is catalyzed by enzymes called glycosyltransferases, which transfer the sugar from the ADP-sugar donor to an acceptor molecule, such as a protein or lipid.
ADP-sugars are important in various biological processes, including cell recognition, signal transduction, and protein folding. Abnormalities in the metabolism of ADP-sugars have been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, inflammation, and neurodegenerative disorders.
Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase
Aldose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase
Adenosine diphosphate
Serratia
Starch synthase
Edmond H. Fischer
Weakness
Muscle weakness
List of MeSH codes (D09)
P2Y receptor
Muscle fatigue
Exercise physiology
Hydrolysis
Glucokinase
Phosphorylation
Outline of cell biology
Phosphofructokinase deficiency
Glycolysis
Metabolism
Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase
Metabolic pathway
Chemiosmosis
Glutamate dehydrogenase
Oxidative phosphorylation
Chloroplast
Kinase
Bisphosphate
Thiamine triphosphate
List of biomolecules
Ribose 5-phosphate
Glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase - Wikipedia
RCSB PDB - 1CZA: MUTANT MONOMER OF RECOMBINANT HUMAN HEXOKINASE TYPE I COMPLEXED WITH GLUCOSE, GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE, AND ADP
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非结构性碳水化合物与氮分配
When ATP is converted to ADP
Triphosphate23
- The enzyme hexokinase (HK) catalyzes the reaction between glucose and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to form glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). (cdc.gov)
- In anaerobic glycolysis, substrate-linked phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) occurs at 2 steps along the pathway from glucose metabolism to lactate. (aao.org)
- In rats with RF, brain levels of creatine phosphate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and glucose are increased, whereas levels of adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and lactate are decreased. (medscape.com)
- This pump is driven by the energy stored in ATP (Adenosine TriPhosphate) molecules manufactured in the mitochondria. (benbest.com)
- In a similar manner, when phosphate is added to adenosine diphosphate it results in adenosine triphosphate. (vedantu.com)
- The Krebs cycle is part of the aerobic degradative process in eukaryotes known as cellular respiration, which is a process that generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by oxidizing energy-rich fuel molecules. (encyclopedia.com)
- An organism's cells cannot use the energy directly, but a molecule called ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is made and acts as a secondary chemical potential energy store. (docbrown.info)
- FThe essential element required to produce movement in the human body is ATP (adenosine triphosphate). (kymira.com)
- ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is a high-energy molecule that serves as the primary source of energy for cells. (vumc.org)
- The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules adenosine triphosphate ATP and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH. (vumc.org)
- The end products of glycolysis are: pyruvic acid pyruvate , adenosine triphosphate ATP , reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide NADH , protons hydrogen ions H 2+ , and water H 2O. (vumc.org)
- Adenosine Triphosphate Energy is stored in the bonds joining the phosphate groups yellow. (vumc.org)
- Adenosine Triphosphate ATP Adenosine Triphosphate ATP is a nucleotide, that is used in various biochemical reactions as a coenzyme. (vumc.org)
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), in small amounts, is used rapidly at the onset of activity but is quickly depleted. (todaysveterinarypractice.com)
- Along the way, some of the energy stored in glucose is transferred to other molecules, such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). (stemcelldaily.com)
- 1: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell. (github.io)
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate) functions as the energy currency for cells. (texasgateway.org)
- Identify four things ATP - ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate. (sciencespo-lille.com)
- Adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is the principal cellular transporter of chemical energy. (xaktly.com)
- Chemiosmosis is involved in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the main molecule used for energy by the cell. (biologydictionary.net)
- It is done through the formation of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from ADP (adenosine diphosphate). (brussels-scientific.com)
- In order for cells to use the energy from foods, the body must first convert the energy in foods to adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, a molecule that contains three strongly bound phosphates. (sdsucollegian.com)
- Oxidative phosphorylation is a process that uses oxygen and simple sugars to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy source. (medlineplus.gov)
Monophosphate4
- The net breakdown of ATP from glycolysis results in ADP, AMP (Adenosine MonoPhosphate), phosphate, lactate and acid accumulation (acidosis). (benbest.com)
- For example, when phosphate is added to glucose, it becomes glucose monophosphate. (vedantu.com)
- Likewise, energy is also released when a phosphate is removed from ADP to form adenosine monophosphate (AMP). (github.io)
- In the hydrolysis of ATP, free energy is supplied when a phosphate group or two are detached, and either ADP (adenosine diphosphate) or AMP (adenosine monophosphate) is produced. (texasgateway.org)
Glycolysis13
- In high-glucose conditions, hexokinase becomes inhibited by products of glycolysis, and aldose reductase becomes relatively increased, converting more glucose to sorbitol. (aao.org)
- Most of the energy (ATP) generated in the mitochondria requires oxygen, but in the absence of oxygen some energy can be generated in the cytoplasm outside of the mitochondria by glycolysis , wherein a glucose molecule produces two molecules of ATP and lactate. (benbest.com)
- Aspirin: its effect on platelet glycolysis and release of adenosine diphosphate. (mcmaster.ca)
- Glycolysis is a very important process in which the glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate in many steps with the help of various enzymes initiating the reaction at several stages. (vedantu.com)
- Now when the phosphorylation of glucose happens in the first stage of glycolysis, glucose gets converted into glucose-6-phosphate which is relatively a bigger molecule than glucose. (vedantu.com)
- In glycolysis, the 6-carbon glucose is connected to two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules, and then to the 2-carbon acetyl-CoA. (encyclopedia.com)
- It is produced during glycolysis through the transfer of a phosphate group from glucose to ADP (adenosine diphosphate). (vumc.org)
- What Is The Three Carbon Product Of Glycolysis Glycolysis, or the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of glucose and one molecule of carbon dioxide, is a process that occurs in all living cells. (vumc.org)
- What Are The Energy Containing Products Of Glycolysis Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose into smaller molecules. (vumc.org)
- The answer is glycolysis, a series of biochemical reactions that break down glucose into smaller molecules, releasing energy in the process. (stemcelldaily.com)
- As the name suggests, glycolysis involves the splitting of a six-carbon glucose molecule into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvate. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Glycolysis is a central pathway for glucose catabolism because it connects glucose with other metabolic pathways. (stemcelldaily.com)
- The glycolysis equation summarizes the process of breaking down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, along with the production of ATP and NADH. (stemcelldaily.com)
Pyrophosphorylase4
- Other names in common use include ADP glucose pyrophosphorylase, glucose 1-phosphate adenylyltransferase, adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase, adenosine diphosphoglucose pyrophosphorylase, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, ADP-glucose synthase, ADP-glucose synthetase, ADPG pyrophosphorylase, ADP:alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase and AGPase. (wikipedia.org)
- Adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase. (wikipedia.org)
- Genetic studies of Escherichia coli K 12 mutants with alterations in glycogenesis and properties of an altered adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase. (yale.edu)
- The higher adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase activity facilitated the production of starch in P. deltoides than in P. cathayana . (plant-ecology.com)
Nicotinamide adenine dinu1
- In the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), G-6-P is oxidized by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G-6-PD) to 6-phosphogluconate and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). (cdc.gov)
Lactate1
- In the absence of oxygen, when anaerobic respiration occurs, such as in fermentation, glucose is degraded to lactate and lactic acid , and only a small fraction of the available energy of the original glucose molecule is released. (encyclopedia.com)
Metabolism11
- See Figure 3-2 for an overall diagram of glucose metabolism in the lens. (aao.org)
- In the lens, energy production largely depends on glucose metabolism. (aao.org)
- This pathway is much less efficient than the aerobic citric acid cycle (also called the tricarboxylic acid cycle or the Krebs cycle), because only 2 net molecules of ATP are produced for each glucose molecule utilized, whereas the aerobic citric acid cycle produces an additional 36 molecules of ATP from each metabolized glucose molecule (oxidative metabolism). (aao.org)
- Figure 3-2 Simplified scheme of glucose metabolism in the lens. (aao.org)
- Diabetes mellitus (or simply diabetes ) is a syndrome characterised by disordered glucose metabolism and overly high blood sugar levels (hyperglycaemia). (scienceinschool.org)
- What Is The Reactant And Product Of Glucose Glucose is the product of glucose metabolism. (vumc.org)
- Glucose is subsequently used for aerobic or anaerobic metabolism, and glycogen provides reserves for moderate exercise. (todaysveterinarypractice.com)
- Short bursts of explosive activity, known as supramaximal exercise , can be sustained only as long as glycogen provides glucose for anaerobic metabolism. (todaysveterinarypractice.com)
- Energy derived from the metabolism of glucose is used to convert ADP to ATP during cellular respiration. (texasgateway.org)
- Combining experimental results from batch fermentations with genome analysis, reconstruction of central carbon metabolism and metabolic flux analysis (MFA), this study shed light on glucose catabolism of the thermophilic alkalitolerant bacterium C. celer . (biomedcentral.com)
- Glucose - A simple sugar that has an important role in metabolism and energy production. (biologydictionary.net)
Alpha-D-glucose 1-phospha3
- In enzymology, a glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase (EC 2.7.7.27) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + alpha-D-glucose 1-phosphate ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } diphosphate + ADP-glucose Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are ATP and alpha-D-glucose 1-phosphate, whereas its two products are diphosphate and ADP-glucose. (wikipedia.org)
- The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:alpha-D-glucose-1-phosphate adenylyltransferase. (wikipedia.org)
- An ATP-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the addition of ADP to alpha-D-glucose 1-phosphate to form ADP-glucose and diphosphate. (wakehealth.edu)
Pyruvate2
- It is the process by which glucose, a simple sugar, is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. (vumc.org)
- The equation shows that one molecule of glucose (a six-carbon sugar) is converted into two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound) by a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. (stemcelldaily.com)
Platelet4
- Intensive glucose control with insulin in patients with an acute coronary syndrome reduces platelet reactivity during hospitalization, compared to conventional control. (revespcardiol.org)
- However, the effect of strict, long-term glucose control on platelet reactivity in these patients remains uncertain. (revespcardiol.org)
- The primary endpoint was assessment of platelet aggregation after stimulation with adenosine diphosphate 20 μM at 12-month follow-up. (revespcardiol.org)
- This initial interaction (platelet adhesion) sets the stage for other adhesive reactions that allow the platelets to interact with other agonists in the vicinity of vessel injury, such as adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP), subendothelial collagen, and thrombin. (medscape.com)
Starch2
- One series of experiments detects whether or not a solution contains starch, proteins, or sugars such as glucose, lactose or sucrose. (scienceinschool.org)
- Students receive five samples, labelled A to E, which contain starch, protein (bovine serum albumin), the monosaccharide glucose, or the disaccharides lactose or sucrose. (scienceinschool.org)
Glycogen2
- Glucose is a simple saccharide that the body transforms to energy as ATP and stores in muscles, liver and other tissues in a form of glycogen . (digitalnaturopath.com)
- To create a large amount of ATP in this way, a large amount of glucose is consumed, causing the glycogen stores in the body to decline rapidly. (kymira.com)
Anaerobic4
- The monosaccharide glucose is the most important source of energy in the living eukaryotic organism and is used by cells in aerobic or anaerobic respiration. (scienceinschool.org)
- Anaerobic activity, such as sprinting, requires glucose very quickly to cope with sudden and major energy needs. (kymira.com)
- However, instead of producing the usual 38 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose, the body can only make 2 using this anaerobic reaction. (kymira.com)
- Caloramator celer is a strict anaerobic, alkalitolerant, thermophilic bacterium capable of converting glucose to hydrogen (H 2 ), carbon dioxide, acetate, ethanol and formate by a mixed acid fermentation. (biomedcentral.com)
Hydrogen1
- The liberation of phosphate from ATP is a source of cellular energy that results in ADP (Adenosine DiPhosphate) and hydrogen ion (acid). (benbest.com)
Carbon dioxide and water3
- Glucose , under the right conditions, can be completely oxidised to carbon dioxide and water . (docbrown.info)
- Under these conditions, the glucose is only partially broken down and is converted into lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide and water. (kymira.com)
- During photosynthesis, light energy converts carbon dioxide and water the reactants into glucose and oxygen the products. (vumc.org)
Reaction2
- Once the sugars are identified, further experiments determine, using an enzymatic reaction, which samples contain lactose or glucose. (scienceinschool.org)
- Light reaction does not produce NADPH ATP Glucose protons 4. (sciencespo-lille.com)
Oxygen3
- Respiration is the process of transferring chemical energy to power the chemistry of ALL cells by breaking down sugars like glucose - aerobically with oxygen or anaerobically without oxygen and overall the process is exothermic - energy releasing. (docbrown.info)
- To deal with these sudden explosions of power, glucose bypasses the normal energy-generating pathways which use oxygen. (kymira.com)
- Through oxygen and glucose, ATP is ultimately created through the phosphorylation of ADP. (biologydictionary.net)
Simple sugars1
- In the human body, simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are the most abundant, although there are also different sugars such as maltose and dextrose. (myhomeworkgeeks.com)
Blood glucose levels2
- The principle of these experiments is the same as in assays to determine blood glucose levels for the diagnosis of diabetes, or to measure glucose and/or lactose levels, for example in fruit juices, milk and dairy products. (scienceinschool.org)
- It also plays a role in regulating blood glucose levels and responding to hormonal signals. (stemcelldaily.com)
Mitochondria1
- The mitochondria convert glucose, fatty acids, and ketones into ATP through the Krebs Cycle or TCA cycle. (tigerfitness.com)
Electron trans2
- NADH serves as an electron carrier, transferring electrons from glucose to the electron transport chain, where they are used to generate ATP. (vumc.org)
- The flow of electrons throughout photosynthesis is a half of what drives glucose synthesis, and mobile respiration has its own electron transport chain. (imsyaf.com)
Oxidation1
- The process also involves the oxidation of glucose and the reduction of NAD+, resulting in the formation of two NADH molecules. (stemcelldaily.com)
Protons1
- The flow of these protons down the gradient turns the rotor and stalk of the ATP synthase, which makes it possible for a phosphate group to join with adenosine diphosphate (ADP), forming ATP. (biologydictionary.net)
Fermentation1
- Glucose and maltose are the main types of sugar that help bread go through fermentation. (myhomeworkgeeks.com)
Enzyme1
- Most of the glucose transported into the lens is phosphorylated to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) by the enzyme hexokinase. (aao.org)
Sucrose1
- Some types of carbohydrates, such as sucrose and glucose, are easily fermented by bacteria to produce acid, which causes a decrease in the pH (acidity) of saliva. (jioh.org)
Photosynthesis2
- the light-dependent reactions can occur only in the light, the light-independent reactions only in the dark: B) photorespiration is more efficient at producing glucose than is photosynthesis: C) the light-dependent reactions produce the energy-rich compounds that are used to run the light-independent reactions: D) all of the above are true following structures: (diagrams at right and below from Taiz & Zeiger). (sciencespo-lille.com)
- The glucose is then turned again into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. (imsyaf.com)
Fatty acids2
- These fuel molecules, glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, are broken down and fed into the Krebs cycle, becoming oxidized to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) before entering the cycle. (encyclopedia.com)
- Before glucose, fatty acids, and most amino acids can be oxidized to CO2 and H2O in the Krebs cycle, they must first be broken down to acetyl CoA. (encyclopedia.com)
Phosphate groups2
- The process also involves the transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to glucose and from intermediate compounds to ADP, resulting in a net gain of two ATP molecules. (stemcelldaily.com)
- It has an adenosine backbone with three phosphate groups attached. (github.io)
Breakdown3
- A distinct phosphodiesterasic activity (EC 3.1.4) was found in both mono- and dicotyledonous plants that catalyzes the hydrolytic breakdown of ADPglucose (ADPG) to produce equimolar amounts of glucose-1-phosphate and AMP. (unavarra.es)
- During cell respiration, energy made available from the breakdown of glucose is used to change ADP to ATP. (github.io)
- The breakdown of glucose is used to change ADP to ATP. (imsyaf.com)
Adenylyltransferase3
- Glucose-1-Phosphate Adenylyltransferase" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (wakehealth.edu)
- This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Glucose-1-Phosphate Adenylyltransferase" by people in this website by year, and whether "Glucose-1-Phosphate Adenylyltransferase" was a major or minor topic of these publications. (wakehealth.edu)
- Below are the most recent publications written about "Glucose-1-Phosphate Adenylyltransferase" by people in Profiles. (wakehealth.edu)
Creatine2
- Adenosine diphosphate , with help from creatine phosphate, can be converted to ATP, but sustains activity only temporarily. (todaysveterinarypractice.com)
- To fuel the brain, molecules such as glucose, ketone bodies and creatine are necessary for normal ATP production. (sdsucollegian.com)
Convert1
- In the energy-investing phase, two molecules of ATP are used to activate glucose and convert it into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. (stemcelldaily.com)
NADH1
- The increase in NADH concentration is directly proportional to the glucose concentration and can be measured spectrophotometrically at 340 nm. (cdc.gov)
Aerobic respiration1
- In aerobic respiration, 38 ATP molecules are formed per glucose molecule. (biologydictionary.net)
Lactic1
- A high concentration of lactic acid is produced as a byproduct of this rapid glucose disruption. (kymira.com)
Form4
- A large amount of free energy is released when the phosphate-phosphate bond in ATP is broken in order to form adenosine diphosphate ADP. (vedantu.com)
- Each turn of the Krebs cycle therefore begins when one of the two acetyl-CoA molecules derived from the original 6-carbon glucose molecule yields its acetyl group to the 4-carbon compound oxaloacetate to form the 6-carbon tricarboxylic acid (citrate) molecule. (encyclopedia.com)
- If mannose and glucose were to bind together, they have the ability to form a disaccharide in about 80 different ways (Flitsch, 2003). (myhomeworkgeeks.com)
- The prefix di- in diphosphate, as in adenosine diphosphate, indicates that there are two phosphoryl groups linked by an anhydride bond to form a pyrophosphoryl group, specifically, they are directly bonded to one another. (tuline.co.uk)
Prevents1
- Alpha-Linolenic Acid Supplementation Prevents Exercise-Induced Improvements in White Adipose Tissue Mitochondrial Bioenergetics and Whole-Body Glucose Homeostasis in Obese Zucker Rats. (uoguelph.ca)
Adenine1
- Exposure of the monomer crystals to ADP in the complete absence of glucose 6-phosphate reveals a second binding site for adenine nucleotides at the putative active site (C-half), with conformational changes extending 15 A to the contact interface between the N and C-halves. (rcsb.org)
Pathways1
- It is essential for generating energy from glucose and providing intermediates for other metabolic pathways. (stemcelldaily.com)
Organisms1
- ATP , most complex organisms use a process called oxidative phosphorylation of ADP , adenosine di- phosphate. (xaktly.com)
Serum1
- Diabetes mellitus was assessed by measures of plasma glucose, serum insulin, and serum C-peptide in participants aged 12 years and over in the morning examination session only. (cdc.gov)
Biological1
- ATP when changed to a compound called adenosine diphosphate (ADP) releases energy for biological work in a cell. (github.io)
Bind1
- The mutant hexokinases bind both glucose 6-phosphate and glucose with high affinity to their N and C-terminal halves, and ADP, also with high affinity, to a site near the N terminus of the polypeptide chain. (rcsb.org)
Abundant1
- Glucose is the most abundant and versatile carbohydrate in nature. (stemcelldaily.com)
Process1
- When one phosphate group is removed by breaking a phosphoanhydride bond in a process called hydrolysis, energy is released, and ATP is converted to adenosine diphosphate (ADP). (github.io)
Water1
- glucose water P680 ATP. (sciencespo-lille.com)
