A superfamily of large integral ATP-binding cassette membrane proteins whose expression pattern is consistent with a role in lipid (cholesterol) efflux. It is implicated in TANGIER DISEASE characterized by accumulation of cholesteryl ester in various tissues.
A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.
The most abundant protein component of HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS or HDL. This protein serves as an acceptor for CHOLESTEROL released from cells thus promoting efflux of cholesterol to HDL then to the LIVER for excretion from the body (reverse cholesterol transport). It also acts as a cofactor for LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE that forms CHOLESTEROL ESTERS on the HDL particles. Mutations of this gene APOA1 cause HDL deficiency, such as in FAMILIAL ALPHA LIPOPROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISEASE and in some patients with TANGIER DISEASE.
A sequence-related subfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS that actively transport organic substrates. Although considered organic anion transporters, a subset of proteins in this family have also been shown to convey drug resistance to neutral organic drugs. Their cellular function may have clinical significance for CHEMOTHERAPY in that they transport a variety of ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS. Overexpression of proteins in this class by NEOPLASMS is considered a possible mechanism in the development of multidrug resistance (DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE). Although similar in function to P-GLYCOPROTEINS, the proteins in this class share little sequence homology to the p-glycoprotein family of proteins.
An autosomal recessively inherited disorder caused by mutation of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS involved in cellular cholesterol removal (reverse-cholesterol transport). It is characterized by near absence of ALPHA-LIPOPROTEINS (high-density lipoproteins) in blood. The massive tissue deposition of cholesterol esters results in HEPATOMEGALY; SPLENOMEGALY; RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA; large orange tonsils; and often sensory POLYNEUROPATHY. The disorder was first found among inhabitants of Tangier Island in the Chesapeake Bay, MD.
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
A broad category of receptor-like proteins that may play a role in transcriptional-regulation in the CELL NUCLEUS. Many of these proteins are similar in structure to known NUCLEAR RECEPTORS but appear to lack a functional ligand-binding domain, while in other cases the specific ligands have yet to be identified.
The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
A 170-kDa transmembrane glycoprotein from the superfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS. It serves as an ATP-dependent efflux pump for a variety of chemicals, including many ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS. Overexpression of this glycoprotein is associated with multidrug resistance (see DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE).
Fluorinated hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting primarily of carbon and fluorine atoms, where hydrogen atoms may also be present, known for their high stability, chemical resistance, and various industrial applications, including refrigerants, fire extinguishing agents, and electrical insulation materials.
A class of lipoproteins of small size (4-13 nm) and dense (greater than 1.063 g/ml) particles. HDL lipoproteins, synthesized in the liver without a lipid core, accumulate cholesterol esters from peripheral tissues and transport them to the liver for re-utilization or elimination from the body (the reverse cholesterol transport). Their major protein component is APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I. HDL also shuttle APOLIPOPROTEINS C and APOLIPOPROTEINS E to and from triglyceride-rich lipoproteins during their catabolism. HDL plasma level has been inversely correlated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Lipid-protein complexes involved in the transportation and metabolism of lipids in the body. They are spherical particles consisting of a hydrophobic core of TRIGLYCERIDES and CHOLESTEROL ESTERS surrounded by a layer of hydrophilic free CHOLESTEROL; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and APOLIPOPROTEINS. Lipoproteins are classified by their varying buoyant density and sizes.
The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water.
A group of enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP. The hydrolysis reaction is usually coupled with another function such as transporting Ca(2+) across a membrane. These enzymes may be dependent on Ca(2+), Mg(2+), anions, H+, or DNA.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.
Intracellular receptors that can be found in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. They bind to extracellular signaling molecules that migrate through or are transported across the CELL MEMBRANE. Many members of this class of receptors occur in the cytoplasm and are transported to the CELL NUCLEUS upon ligand-binding where they signal via DNA-binding and transcription regulation. Also included in this category are receptors found on INTRACELLULAR MEMBRANES that act via mechanisms similar to CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of molecules across a biological membrane. Included in this broad category are proteins involved in active transport (BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT, ACTIVE), facilitated transport and ION CHANNELS.
Proteins found in any species of fungus.
A subfamily of transmembrane proteins from the superfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS that are closely related in sequence to P-GLYCOPROTEIN. When overexpressed, they function as ATP-dependent efflux pumps able to extrude lipophilic drugs, especially ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS, from cells causing multidrug resistance (DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE). Although P-Glycoproteins share functional similarities to MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS they are two distinct subclasses of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS, and have little sequence homology.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Simultaneous resistance to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
Periplasmic proteins that scavenge or sense diverse nutrients. In the bacterial environment they usually couple to transporters or chemotaxis receptors on the inner bacterial membrane.
The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The ability of fungi to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance phenotype may be attributed to multiple gene mutations.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
A family of sterols commonly found in plants and plant oils. Alpha-, beta-, and gamma-isomers have been characterized.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
A family of scavenger receptors that are predominately localized to CAVEOLAE of the PLASMA MEMBRANE and bind HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.
Proteins obtained from ESCHERICHIA COLI.
An oligopeptide produced by various bacteria which acts as a protease inhibitor.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
Proteins involved in the transport of organic anions. They play an important role in the elimination of a variety of endogenous substances, xenobiotics and their metabolites from the body.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
The movement of materials across cell membranes and epithelial layers against an electrochemical gradient, requiring the expenditure of metabolic energy.
Proteins obtained from the species SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE. The function of specific proteins from this organism are the subject of intense scientific interest and have been used to derive basic understanding of the functioning similar proteins in higher eukaryotes.
An anthracenedione-derived antineoplastic agent.
An antidiabetic sulfonylurea derivative with actions similar to those of chlorpropamide.
A class of organic compounds known as STEROLS or STEROIDS derived from plants.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Chemical substances that are foreign to the biological system. They include naturally occurring compounds, drugs, environmental agents, carcinogens, insecticides, etc.
The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.
A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.
Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.
Adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). An adenine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety at the 5'-position.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
Resistance or diminished response of a neoplasm to an antineoplastic agent in humans, animals, or cell or tissue cultures.
The process by which two molecules of the same chemical composition form a condensation product or polymer.
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.
Leukocyte differentiation antigens and major platelet membrane glycoproteins present on MONOCYTES; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; PLATELETS; and mammary EPITHELIAL CELLS. They play major roles in CELL ADHESION; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; and regulation of angiogenesis. CD36 is a receptor for THROMBOSPONDINS and can act as a scavenger receptor that recognizes and transports oxidized LIPOPROTEINS and FATTY ACIDS.
A large group of membrane transport proteins that shuttle MONOSACCHARIDES across CELL MEMBRANES.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The level of protein structure in which regular hydrogen-bond interactions within contiguous stretches of polypeptide chain give rise to alpha helices, beta strands (which align to form beta sheets) or other types of coils. This is the first folding level of protein conformation.
An X-linked recessive disorder characterized by the accumulation of saturated very long chain fatty acids in the LYSOSOMES of ADRENAL CORTEX and the white matter of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. This disease occurs almost exclusively in the males. Clinical features include the childhood onset of ATAXIA; NEUROBEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS; HYPERPIGMENTATION; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; SEIZURES; MUSCLE SPASTICITY; and DEMENTIA. The slowly progressive adult form is called adrenomyeloneuropathy. The defective gene ABCD1 is located at Xq28, and encodes the adrenoleukodystrophy protein (ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS).
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Proteins whose abnormal expression (gain or loss) are associated with the development, growth, or progression of NEOPLASMS. Some neoplasm proteins are tumor antigens (ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM), i.e. they induce an immune reaction to their tumor. Many neoplasm proteins have been characterized and are used as tumor markers (BIOMARKERS, TUMOR) when they are detectable in cells and body fluids as monitors for the presence or growth of tumors. Abnormal expression of ONCOGENE PROTEINS is involved in neoplastic transformation, whereas the loss of expression of TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEINS is involved with the loss of growth control and progression of the neoplasm.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Steroids with a hydroxyl group at C-3 and most of the skeleton of cholestane. Additional carbon atoms may be present in the side chain. (IUPAC Steroid Nomenclature, 1987)
A dextrodisaccharide from malt and starch. It is used as a sweetening agent and fermentable intermediate in brewing. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides see GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS) or sphingosine (SPHINGOLIPIDS). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
The product of conjugation of cholic acid with taurine. Its sodium salt is the chief ingredient of the bile of carnivorous animals. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as a cholagogue and cholerectic.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES that occurs with formation of ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES within the ARTERIAL INTIMA.
A ubiquitously expressed glucose transporter that is important for constitutive, basal GLUCOSE transport. It is predominately expressed in ENDOTHELIAL CELLS and ERYTHROCYTES at the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and is responsible for GLUCOSE entry into the BRAIN.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
Diminished or failed response of an organism, disease or tissue to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should be differentiated from DRUG TOLERANCE which is the progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, as a result of continued administration.
Membrane transporters that co-transport two or more dissimilar molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Usually the transport of one ion or molecule is against its electrochemical gradient and is "powered" by the movement of another ion or molecule with its electrochemical gradient.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of serotonergic neurons. They are different than SEROTONIN RECEPTORS, which signal cellular responses to SEROTONIN. They remove SEROTONIN from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS. Regulates signal amplitude and duration at serotonergic synapses and is the site of action of the SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
A family of proteins involved in the transport of monocarboxylic acids such as LACTIC ACID and PYRUVIC ACID across cellular membranes.
The naturally occurring or experimentally induced replacement of one or more AMINO ACIDS in a protein with another. If a functionally equivalent amino acid is substituted, the protein may retain wild-type activity. Substitution may also diminish, enhance, or eliminate protein function. Experimentally induced substitution is often used to study enzyme activities and binding site properties.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of dopaminergic neurons. They remove DOPAMINE from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS and are the target of DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
Commonly observed structural components of proteins formed by simple combinations of adjacent secondary structures. A commonly observed structure may be composed of a CONSERVED SEQUENCE which can be represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
A positive regulatory effect on physiological processes at the molecular, cellular, or systemic level. At the molecular level, the major regulatory sites include membrane receptors, genes (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION), mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), and proteins.
Bactericidal cationic quaternary ammonium surfactant used as a topical anti-infective agent. It is an ingredient in medicaments, deodorants, mouthwashes, etc., and is used to disinfect apparatus, etc., in the food processing and pharmaceutical industries, in surgery, and also as a preservative. The compound is toxic orally as a result of neuromuscular blockade.
Lipid-laden macrophages originating from monocytes or from smooth muscle cells.
Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of negatively charged molecules (anions) across a biological membrane.
A molecule that binds to another molecule, used especially to refer to a small molecule that binds specifically to a larger molecule, e.g., an antigen binding to an antibody, a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor, or a substrate or allosteric effector binding to an enzyme. Ligands are also molecules that donate or accept a pair of electrons to form a coordinate covalent bond with the central metal atom of a coordination complex. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A glutamate plasma membrane transporter protein found in ASTROCYTES and in the LIVER.
Oxyvanadium ions in various states of oxidation. They act primarily as ion transport inhibitors due to their inhibition of Na(+)-, K(+)-, and Ca(+)-ATPase transport systems. They also have insulin-like action, positive inotropic action on cardiac ventricular muscle, and other metabolic effects.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A neuronal and epithelial type glutamate plasma membrane transporter protein.
Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of positively charged molecules (cations) across a biological membrane.
5'-Adenylic acid, monoanhydride with imidodiphosphoric acid. An analog of ATP, in which the oxygen atom bridging the beta to the gamma phosphate is replaced by a nitrogen atom. It is a potent competitive inhibitor of soluble and membrane-bound mitochondrial ATPase and also inhibits ATP-dependent reactions of oxidative phosphorylation.
A family of POTASSIUM and SODIUM-dependent acidic amino acid transporters that demonstrate a high affinity for GLUTAMIC ACID and ASPARTIC ACID. Several variants of this system are found in neuronal tissue.
Organic or inorganic compounds that contain the -N3 group.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
A chloride channel that regulates secretion in many exocrine tissues. Abnormalities in the CFTR gene have been shown to cause cystic fibrosis. (Hum Genet 1994;93(4):364-8)
An organic cation transporter found in kidney. It is localized to the basal lateral membrane and is likely to be involved in the renal secretion of organic cations.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
A glial type glutamate plasma membrane transporter protein found predominately in ASTROCYTES. It is also expressed in HEART and SKELETAL MUSCLE and in the PLACENTA.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of noradrenergic neurons. They remove NOREPINEPHRINE from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS. It regulates signal amplitude and duration at noradrenergic synapses and is the target of ADRENERGIC UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
Salts and esters of CHOLIC ACID.

Alternative sulfonylurea receptor expression defines metabolic sensitivity of K-ATP channels in dopaminergic midbrain neurons. (1/7249)

ATP-sensitive potassium (K-ATP) channels couple the metabolic state to cellular excitability in various tissues. Several isoforms of the K-ATP channel subunits, the sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) and inwardly rectifying K channel (Kir6.X), have been cloned, but the molecular composition and functional diversity of native neuronal K-ATP channels remain unresolved. We combined functional analysis of K-ATP channels with expression profiling of K-ATP subunits at the level of single substantia nigra (SN) neurons in mouse brain slices using an RT-multiplex PCR protocol. In contrast to GABAergic neurons, single dopaminergic SN neurons displayed alternative co-expression of either SUR1, SUR2B or both SUR isoforms with Kir6.2. Dopaminergic SN neurons expressed alternative K-ATP channel species distinguished by significant differences in sulfonylurea affinity and metabolic sensitivity. In single dopaminergic SN neurons, co-expression of SUR1 + Kir6.2, but not of SUR2B + Kir6.2, correlated with functional K-ATP channels highly sensitive to metabolic inhibition. In contrast to wild-type, surviving dopaminergic SN neurons of homozygous weaver mouse exclusively expressed SUR1 + Kir6.2 during the active period of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Therefore, alternative expression of K-ATP channel subunits defines the differential response to metabolic stress and constitutes a novel candidate mechanism for the differential vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons in response to respiratory chain dysfunction in Parkinson's disease.  (+info)

Inward rectification in KATP channels: a pH switch in the pore. (2/7249)

Inward-rectifier potassium channels (Kir channels) stabilize the resting membrane potential and set a threshold for excitation in many types of cell. This function arises from voltage-dependent rectification of these channels due to blockage by intracellular polyamines. In all Kir channels studied to date, the voltage-dependence of rectification is either strong or weak. Here we show that in cardiac as well as in cloned KATP channels (Kir6.2 + sulfonylurea receptor) polyamine-mediated rectification is not fixed but changes with intracellular pH in the physiological range: inward-rectification is prominent at basic pH, while at acidic pH rectification is very weak. The pH-dependence of polyamine block is specific for KATP as shown in experiments with other Kir channels. Systematic mutagenesis revealed a titratable C-terminal histidine residue (H216) in Kir6.2 to be the structural determinant, and electrostatic interaction between this residue and polyamines was shown to be the molecular mechanism underlying pH-dependent rectification. This pH-dependent block of KATP channels may represent a novel and direct link between excitation and intracellular pH.  (+info)

Overexpression of the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP1) in human heavy metal-selected tumor cells. (3/7249)

Cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the resistance to cytotoxic heavy metals remain largely to be characterized in mammalian cells. To this end, we have analyzed a metal-resistant variant of the human lung cancer GLC4 cell line that we have selected by a step-wise procedure in potassium antimony tartrate. Antimony-selected cells, termed GLC4/Sb30 cells, poorly accumulated antimony through an enhanced cellular efflux of metal, thus suggesting up-regulation of a membrane export system in these cells. Indeed, GLC4/Sb30 cells were found to display a functional overexpression of the multidrug resistance-associated protein MRP1, a drug export pump, as demonstrated by Western blotting, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and calcein accumulation assays. Moreover, MK571, a potent inhibitor of MRP1 activity, was found to markedly down-modulate resistance of GLC4/Sb30 cells to antimony and to decrease cellular export of the metal. Taken together, our data support the conclusion that overexpression of functional MRP1 likely represents one major mechanism by which human cells can escape the cytotoxic effects of heavy metals.  (+info)

Neural modulation of cephalexin intestinal absorption through the di- and tripeptide brush border transporter of rat jejunum in vivo. (4/7249)

Intestinal absorption of beta-lactamine antibiotics (e.g., cefixime and cephalexin) has been shown to proceed through the dipeptide carrier system. In a previous study, nifedipine (NFP), an L-type calcium channel blocker, enhanced the absorption of cefixime in vivo but not in vitro, and it was suggested that neural mechanisms might be involved in the effect of NFP. The aim of the present study was to assess the involvement of the nervous system on the intestinal absorption of cephalexin (CFX). To investigate this, we used a single-pass jejunal perfusion technique in rats. NFP and diltiazem enhanced approximately 2-fold the plasma levels of CFX in treated rats versus untreated controls. NFP also increased approximately 2-fold the CFX level in portal plasma and increased urinary excretion of CFX, thus indicating that CFX did effectively increase CFX intestinal absorption. Perfusing high concentrations of dipeptides in the jejunal lumen competitively reduced CFX absorption and inhibited the enhancement of CFX absorption produced by NFP. Hexamethonium and lidocaine inhibited the effect of NFP, whereas atropine, capsaicin, clonidine, and isoproterenol enhanced CFX absorption by the same order of magnitude as NFP. Thus, complex neural networks can modulate the function of the intestinal di- and tripeptide transporter. Sympathetic noradrenergic fibers, intestinal sensory neurons, and nicotinic synapses are involved in the increase of CFX absorption produced by NFP.  (+info)

Expression of atrC - encoding a novel member of the ATP binding cassette transporter family in Aspergillus nidulans - is sensitive to cycloheximide. (5/7249)

A new member of the ABC superfamily of transmembrane proteins in Aspergillus nidulans has been cloned and characterized. The topology of conserved motifs subgroups AtrC in the P-glycoprotein cluster of ABC permeases, the members of this subfamily, are known to participate in multidrug resistance (MDR) in diverse organisms. Alignment results display significant amino acid similarity to AfuMDR1 and AflMDR1 from Aspergillus fumigatus and flavus, respectively. Northern analysis reveals that atrC mRNA levels are 10-fold increased in response to cycloheximide. Evidence for the existence of eight additional hitherto unpublished ABC transporter proteins in A. nidulans is provided.  (+info)

MalK forms a dimer independent of its assembly into the MalFGK2 ATP-binding cassette transporter of Escherichia coli. (6/7249)

The maltose transport complex (MTC) is a member of the ATP-binding cassette superfamily of membrane transport proteins and is a model for understanding the folding and assembly of hetero-oligomeric membrane protein complexes. The MTC is made up of two integral membrane proteins, MalF and MalG, and a peripheral membrane protein, MalK. These proteins associate with a stoichiometry of 1:1:2 to form the complex MalFGK2. In our studies of the oligomerization of this complex, we have shown that the ATP-binding component, MalK, forms a dimer in the absence of MalF and MalG. Epitope-tagged MalK coimmunoprecipitated with wild-type MalK, indicating that the MalK protein forms an oligomer. The relative amounts of tagged and wild-type MalK that were present in the whole cell extracts and in the immunoprecipitated complexes show that the MalK oligomer is a dimer. These hetero-oligomers can also be formed in vitro by mixing two extracts, each containing either tagged or wild-type MalK. The dimerization of MalK was also demonstrated in vivo using the bacteriophage lambda repressor fusion assay. The formation of a MalK dimer in the absence of MalF and MalG may represent an initial step in the assembly pathway of the MTC.  (+info)

Glucose-receptive neurones in the rat ventromedial hypothalamus express KATP channels composed of Kir6.1 and SUR1 subunits. (7/7249)

1. Patch-clamp recordings were made from rat ventromedial hypothalamic neurones in slices of brain tissue in vitro. In cell-attached recordings, removal of extracellular glucose or metabolic inhibition with sodium azide reduced the firing rate of a subpopulation of cells through the activation of a 65 pS channel that was blocked by the sulphonylureas tolbutamide and glibenclamide. 2. In whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, in the absence of ATP in the electrode solution, glucose-receptive neurones gradually hyperpolarized due to the induction of an outward current at -60 mV. This outward current and the resultant hyperpolarization were blocked by the sulphonylureas tolbutamide and glibenclamide. 3. In recordings where the electrode solution contained 4 mM ATP, this outward current was not observed. Under these conditions, 500 microM diazoxide was found to induce an outward current that was blocked by tolbutamide. 4. In cell-attached recordings diazoxide and the active fragment of leptin (leptin 22-56) reduced the firing rate of glucose-receptive neurones by the activation of a channel with similar properties to that induced by removal of extracellular glucose. 5. Reverse transcription followed by the polymerase chain reaction using cytoplasm from single glucose-receptive neurones demonstrated the expression of the ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channel subunits Kir6.1 and SUR1 but not Kir6.2 or SUR2. 6. It is concluded that glucose-receptive neurones within the rat ventromedial hypothalamus exhibit a KATP channel current with pharmacological and molecular properties similar to those reported in other tissues.  (+info)

Functional analysis of the promoter of the yeast SNQ2 gene encoding a multidrug resistance transporter that confers the resistance to 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide. (8/7249)

The yeast gene SNQ2, which encodes a multidrug resistance ABC superfamily protein, is required for resistance to the mutagen 4-nitroquinoline N-oxide (4-NQO). The expression of the SNQ2 gene is under the control of a regulatory network that involves the transcription factor Yrr1p, as well as Pdr1p/Pdr3p (Cui et al., Mol. Microbiol., 29, 1307-1315 (1998)). By 5'-deletion analysis of the promoter by using SNQ2-lacZ fusion constructs, four regions: -745 to -639 (region I), -639 to -578 (region II), -548 to -533 (region III) and -533 to -485 (region IV) were found to be important for SNQ2 expression. Genetic analysis suggested that the site in region IV was responsible for the Yrr1p-mediated SNQ2 expression. A consensus motif known for the binding of Pdr1p/Pdr3p (PDRE) was not found in region IV.  (+info)

ATP Binding Cassette Transporter 1 (ABC Transporter 1 or ABCB1) is a protein that belongs to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. These proteins utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport various substrates across membranes.

The ABCB1 gene encodes for the P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a 170 kDa protein, which is an efflux transporter primarily located in the plasma membrane of various cell types, including epithelial and endothelial cells. P-gp plays a crucial role in limiting the absorption and facilitating the excretion of many drugs by actively pumping them out of cells, thereby contributing to multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells.

P-gp has a broad substrate specificity and can transport various structurally diverse compounds, including chemotherapeutic agents, antibiotics, antiviral drugs, and natural toxins. Its expression is often upregulated in cancer cells, leading to reduced intracellular drug accumulation and decreased therapeutic efficacy. In addition to its role in drug resistance, P-gp also functions in the absorption, distribution, and excretion of drugs in normal tissues, particularly in the intestine, liver, and kidney.

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of membrane proteins that utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to transport various substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes. These transporters play crucial roles in several biological processes, including detoxification, drug resistance, nutrient uptake, and regulation of cellular cholesterol homeostasis.

The structure of ABC transporters consists of two nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) that bind and hydrolyze ATP, and two transmembrane domains (TMDs) that form the substrate-translocation pathway. The NBDs are typically located adjacent to each other in the cytoplasm, while the TMDs can be either integral membrane domains or separate structures associated with the membrane.

The human genome encodes 48 distinct ABC transporters, which are classified into seven subfamilies (ABCA-ABCG) based on their sequence similarity and domain organization. Some well-known examples of ABC transporters include P-glycoprotein (ABCB1), multidrug resistance protein 1 (ABCC1), and breast cancer resistance protein (ABCG2).

Dysregulation or mutations in ABC transporters have been implicated in various diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, neurological disorders, and cancer. In cancer, overexpression of certain ABC transporters can contribute to drug resistance by actively effluxing chemotherapeutic agents from cancer cells, making them less susceptible to treatment.

Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) is a major protein component of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) in human plasma. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism and transport of lipids, particularly cholesterol, within the body. ApoA-I facilitates the formation of HDL particles, which are involved in the reverse transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver for excretion. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport and helps maintain appropriate cholesterol levels in the body. Low levels of ApoA-I or dysfunctional ApoA-I have been associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.

Multidrug Resistance-Associated Proteins (MRPs) are a subfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter proteins that play a crucial role in the efflux of various substrates, including drugs and organic anions, out of cells. They are located in the plasma membrane of many cell types, including epithelial cells in the liver, intestine, kidney, and blood-brain barrier.

MRPs are known to transport a wide range of molecules, such as glutathione conjugates, bilirubin, bile acids, and various clinical drugs. One of the most well-known MRPs is MRP1 (ABCC1), which was initially identified in drug-resistant tumor cells. MRP1 can confer resistance to chemotherapeutic agents by actively pumping them out of cancer cells, thereby reducing their intracellular concentration and effectiveness.

The activity of MRPs can have significant implications for the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs, as they can affect drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Understanding the function and regulation of MRPs is essential for developing strategies to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer therapy and optimizing drug dosing regimens in various clinical settings.

Tangier Disease is a rare inherited genetic disorder characterized by the deficiency of a protein called ApoA-I and a dysfunctional form of ApoA-II, which are important components of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), also known as "good cholesterol." This results in significantly reduced levels of HDL in the blood and an accumulation of cholesteryl esters in various tissues, including the tonsils, lymph nodes, liver, spleen, and sometimes the peripheral nerves.

The condition is caused by mutations in the ABCA1 gene, which plays a crucial role in the reverse transport of cholesterol from tissues to the liver for excretion. The disease manifests with symptoms such as enlarged orange-colored tonsils, swollen lymph nodes, cloudy corneas, and an increased risk of peripheral neuropathy due to nerve damage.

Tangier Disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, meaning that an individual must inherit two defective copies of the gene (one from each parent) to develop the disease.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

Orphan nuclear receptors are a subfamily of nuclear receptor proteins that are classified as "orphans" because their specific endogenous ligands (natural activating molecules) have not yet been identified. These receptors are still functional transcription factors, which means they can bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the expression of target genes when activated by a ligand. However, in the case of orphan nuclear receptors, the identity of these ligands remains unknown or unconfirmed.

These receptors play crucial roles in various biological processes, including development, metabolism, and homeostasis. Some orphan nuclear receptors have been found to bind to synthetic ligands (man-made molecules), which has led to the development of potential therapeutic agents for various diseases. Over time, as research progresses, some orphan nuclear receptors may eventually have their endogenous ligands identified and be reclassified as non-orphan nuclear receptors.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a type of membrane transport protein that plays a crucial role in the efflux (extrusion) of various substrates, including drugs and toxins, out of cells. It is also known as multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1).

P-gp is encoded by the ABCB1 gene and is primarily located on the apical membrane of epithelial cells in several tissues, such as the intestine, liver, kidney, and blood-brain barrier. Its main function is to protect these organs from harmful substances by actively pumping them out of the cells and back into the lumen or bloodstream.

In the context of pharmacology, P-gp can contribute to multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells. When overexpressed, P-gp can reduce the intracellular concentration of various anticancer drugs, making them less effective. This has led to extensive research on inhibitors of P-gp as potential adjuvants for cancer therapy.

In summary, P-glycoprotein is a vital efflux transporter that helps maintain homeostasis by removing potentially harmful substances from cells and can impact drug disposition and response in various tissues, including the intestine, liver, kidney, and blood-brain barrier.

Fluorinated hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain fluorine and carbon atoms. These compounds can be classified into two main groups: fluorocarbons (which consist only of fluorine and carbon) and fluorinated aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons (which contain hydrogen in addition to fluorine and carbon).

Fluorocarbons are further divided into three categories: fully fluorinated compounds (perfluorocarbons, PFCs), partially fluorinated compounds (hydrochlorofluorocarbons, HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, HFCs), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These compounds have been widely used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, fire extinguishing agents, and cleaning solvents due to their chemical stability, low toxicity, and non-flammability.

Fluorinated aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain fluorine, carbon, and hydrogen atoms. Examples include fluorinated alcohols, ethers, amines, and halogenated compounds. These compounds have a wide range of applications in industry, medicine, and research due to their unique chemical properties.

It is important to note that some fluorinated hydrocarbons can contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming, making it essential to regulate their use and production.

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) are a type of lipoprotein that play a crucial role in the transportation and metabolism of cholesterol in the body. They are often referred to as "good" cholesterol because they help remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport.

HDLs are composed of a lipid core containing cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, surrounded by a shell of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, primarily apoA-I. The size and composition of HDL particles can vary, leading to the classification of different subclasses of HDL with varying functions and metabolic fates.

Elevated levels of HDL have been associated with a lower risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, while low HDL levels increase the risk. However, it is essential to consider that HDL function and quality may be more important than just the quantity in determining cardiovascular risk.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins and lipids (fats) that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules in the body. They consist of an outer shell of phospholipids, free cholesterols, and apolipoproteins, enclosing a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters.

There are several types of lipoproteins, including:

1. Chylomicrons: These are the largest lipoproteins and are responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the intestines to other parts of the body.
2. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): Produced by the liver, VLDL particles carry triglycerides to peripheral tissues for energy storage or use.
3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Often referred to as "bad cholesterol," LDL particles transport cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in artery walls and increase the risk of heart disease.
4. High-density lipoproteins (HDL): Known as "good cholesterol," HDL particles help remove excess cholesterol from cells and transport it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Higher levels of HDL are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Understanding lipoproteins and their roles in the body is essential for assessing cardiovascular health and managing risks related to heart disease and stroke.

Hydrolysis is a chemical process, not a medical one. However, it is relevant to medicine and biology.

Hydrolysis is the breakdown of a chemical compound due to its reaction with water, often resulting in the formation of two or more simpler compounds. In the context of physiology and medicine, hydrolysis is a crucial process in various biological reactions, such as the digestion of food molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Enzymes called hydrolases catalyze these hydrolysis reactions to speed up the breakdown process in the body.

Adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This reaction releases energy, which is used to drive various cellular processes such as muscle contraction, transport of ions across membranes, and synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids.

ATPases are classified into several types based on their structure, function, and mechanism of action. Some examples include:

1. P-type ATPases: These ATPases form a phosphorylated intermediate during the reaction cycle and are involved in the transport of ions across membranes, such as the sodium-potassium pump and calcium pumps.
2. F-type ATPases: These ATPases are found in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and bacteria, and are responsible for generating a proton gradient across the membrane, which is used to synthesize ATP.
3. V-type ATPases: These ATPases are found in vacuolar membranes and endomembranes, and are involved in acidification of intracellular compartments.
4. A-type ATPases: These ATPases are found in the plasma membrane and are involved in various functions such as cell signaling and ion transport.

Overall, ATPases play a crucial role in maintaining the energy balance of cells and regulating various physiological processes.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Lipid metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down and utilizes lipids (fats) for various functions, such as energy production, cell membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. This complex process involves several enzymes and pathways that regulate the digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and consumption of fats in the body.

The main types of lipids involved in metabolism include triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The breakdown of these lipids begins in the digestive system, where enzymes called lipases break down dietary fats into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, which is the main site of lipid metabolism.

In the liver, fatty acids may be further broken down for energy production or used to synthesize new lipids. Excess fatty acids may be stored as triglycerides in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) for later use. Cholesterol is also metabolized in the liver, where it may be used to synthesize bile acids, steroid hormones, and other important molecules.

Disorders of lipid metabolism can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits, or a combination of both. Proper diagnosis and management of lipid metabolism disorders typically involves a combination of dietary changes, exercise, and medication.

Cytoplasmic receptors and nuclear receptors are two types of intracellular receptors that play crucial roles in signal transduction pathways and regulation of gene expression. They are classified based on their location within the cell. Here are the medical definitions for each:

1. Cytoplasmic Receptors: These are a group of intracellular receptors primarily found in the cytoplasm of cells, which bind to specific hormones, growth factors, or other signaling molecules. Upon binding, these receptors undergo conformational changes that allow them to interact with various partners, such as adapter proteins and enzymes, leading to activation of downstream signaling cascades. These pathways ultimately result in modulation of cellular processes like proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Examples of cytoplasmic receptors include receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), serine/threonine kinase receptors, and cytokine receptors.
2. Nuclear Receptors: These are a distinct class of intracellular receptors that reside primarily in the nucleus of cells. They bind to specific ligands, such as steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, vitamin D, retinoic acid, and various other lipophilic molecules. Upon binding, nuclear receptors undergo conformational changes that facilitate their interaction with co-regulatory proteins and the DNA. This interaction results in the modulation of gene transcription, ultimately leading to alterations in protein expression and cellular responses. Examples of nuclear receptors include estrogen receptor (ER), androgen receptor (AR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), thyroid hormone receptor (TR), vitamin D receptor (VDR), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs).

Both cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors are essential components of cellular communication networks, allowing cells to respond appropriately to extracellular signals and maintain homeostasis. Dysregulation of these receptors has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and autoimmune disorders.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Membrane transport proteins are specialized biological molecules, specifically integral membrane proteins, that facilitate the movement of various substances across the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and regulated transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, and other molecules into and out of cells, as well as within different cellular compartments. These proteins can be categorized into two main types: channels and carriers (or pumps). Channels provide a passive transport mechanism, allowing ions or small molecules to move down their electrochemical gradient, while carriers actively transport substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy usually in the form of ATP. Membrane transport proteins play a crucial role in maintaining cell homeostasis, signaling processes, and many other physiological functions.

Fungal proteins are a type of protein that is specifically produced and present in fungi, which are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds. These proteins play various roles in the growth, development, and survival of fungi. They can be involved in the structure and function of fungal cells, metabolism, pathogenesis, and other cellular processes. Some fungal proteins can also have important implications for human health, both in terms of their potential use as therapeutic targets and as allergens or toxins that can cause disease.

Fungal proteins can be classified into different categories based on their functions, such as enzymes, structural proteins, signaling proteins, and toxins. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in fungal cells, while structural proteins provide support and protection for the cell. Signaling proteins are involved in communication between cells and regulation of various cellular processes, and toxins are proteins that can cause harm to other organisms, including humans.

Understanding the structure and function of fungal proteins is important for developing new treatments for fungal infections, as well as for understanding the basic biology of fungi. Research on fungal proteins has led to the development of several antifungal drugs that target specific fungal enzymes or other proteins, providing effective treatment options for a range of fungal diseases. Additionally, further study of fungal proteins may reveal new targets for drug development and help improve our ability to diagnose and treat fungal infections.

P-glycoproteins (P-gp), also known as multidrug resistance proteins (MDR), are a type of transmembrane protein that functions as an efflux pump, actively transporting various substrates out of cells. They play a crucial role in the protection of cells against xenobiotics, including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens. P-gp is expressed in many tissues, such as the intestine, liver, kidney, and blood-brain barrier, where it helps limit the absorption and distribution of drugs and other toxic substances.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, P-glycoproteins are particularly relevant due to their ability to confer multidrug resistance in cancer cells. Overexpression of P-gp in tumor cells can lead to reduced intracellular drug concentrations, making these cells less sensitive to chemotherapeutic agents and contributing to treatment failure. Understanding the function and regulation of P-glycoproteins is essential for developing strategies to overcome multidrug resistance in cancer therapy.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

"Multiple drug resistance" (MDR) is a term used in medicine to describe the condition where a patient's infection becomes resistant to multiple antimicrobial drugs. This means that the bacteria, virus, fungus or parasite that is causing the infection has developed the ability to survive and multiply despite being exposed to medications that were originally designed to kill or inhibit its growth.

In particular, MDR occurs when an organism becomes resistant to at least one drug in three or more antimicrobial categories. This can happen due to genetic changes in the microorganism that allow it to survive in the presence of these drugs. The development of MDR is a significant concern for public health because it limits treatment options and can make infections harder, if not impossible, to treat.

MDR can develop through several mechanisms, including mutations in the genes that encode drug targets or enzymes involved in drug metabolism, as well as the acquisition of genetic elements such as plasmids and transposons that carry resistance genes. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial drugs are major drivers of MDR, as they create selective pressure for the emergence and spread of resistant strains.

MDR infections can occur in various settings, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and communities. They can affect people of all ages and backgrounds, although certain populations may be at higher risk, such as those with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. Preventing the spread of MDR requires a multifaceted approach that includes surveillance, infection control, antimicrobial stewardship, and research into new therapies and diagnostics.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

Periplasmic binding proteins (PBPs) are a type of water-soluble protein found in the periplasmic space of gram-negative bacteria. They play a crucial role in the bacterial uptake of specific nutrients, such as amino acids, sugars, and ions, through a process known as active transport.

PBPs function by specifically binding to their target substrates in the extracellular environment and then shuttling them across the inner membrane into the cytoplasm. This is achieved through a complex series of interactions with other proteins, including transmembrane permeases and ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters.

The binding of PBPs to their substrates typically results in a conformational change that allows for the transport of the substrate across the inner membrane. Once inside the cytoplasm, the substrate can be used for various metabolic processes, such as energy production or biosynthesis.

PBPs are often used as targets for the development of new antibiotics, as they play a critical role in bacterial survival and virulence. Inhibiting their function can disrupt essential physiological processes and lead to bacterial death.

Tertiary protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of all the elements (polypeptide chains) of a single protein molecule. It is the highest level of structural organization and results from interactions between various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids that make up the protein. These interactions, which include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces, and disulfide bridges, give the protein its unique shape and stability, which in turn determines its function. The tertiary structure of a protein can be stabilized by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain ions. Any changes in these factors can lead to denaturation, where the protein loses its tertiary structure and thus its function.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Multiple drug resistance in fungi refers to the ability of certain fungal strains or species to resist the effects of multiple antifungal agents. This occurs when these organisms develop mechanisms that prevent the drugs from interfering with their growth and survival. As a result, the drugs become less effective or even completely ineffective at treating fungal infections caused by these resistant strains or species.

Multiple drug resistance in fungi can arise due to various factors, including genetic mutations, overuse or misuse of antifungal agents, and the ability of fungi to exchange genetic material with other fungi. This makes treatment of fungal infections more challenging, as doctors may need to use higher doses of drugs or try alternative therapies that may have more side effects or be less effective.

Multiple drug resistance in fungi is a significant concern in healthcare settings, particularly for patients who are immunocompromised or have underlying medical conditions that make them more susceptible to fungal infections. It is essential to take measures to prevent the development and spread of multiple drug-resistant fungi, such as using antifungal agents appropriately, practicing good infection control practices, and conducting surveillance for resistant strains.

Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.

Sitosterols are a type of plant sterol or phytosterol that are structurally similar to cholesterol, a steroid lipid found in animals. They are found in small amounts in human diets, primarily in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and avocados. Sitosterols are not synthesized by the human body but can be absorbed from the diet and have been shown to lower cholesterol levels in the blood when consumed in sufficient quantities. This is because sitosterols compete with cholesterol for absorption in the digestive tract, reducing the amount of cholesterol that enters the bloodstream. Some margarines and other foods are fortified with sitosterols or other phytosterols to help reduce cholesterol levels in people with high cholesterol.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

Scavenger receptors, class B (SR-B) are a type of scavenger receptors that play a crucial role in the cellular uptake and metabolism of lipids, particularly modified low-density lipoproteins (LDL), high-density lipoproteins (HDL), and other lipid-soluble molecules. They are membrane-bound glycoproteins that contain an extracellular domain with a characteristic structure, including cysteine-rich repeats and transmembrane domains.

The best-characterized member of this class is SR-B1 (also known as CD36b, SCARB1), which is widely expressed in various tissues, such as the liver, steroidogenic organs, macrophages, and endothelial cells. SR-B1 selectively binds to HDL and facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL particles into cells while allowing HDL to maintain its structural integrity and continue its function in reverse cholesterol transport.

SR-B1 has also been implicated in the uptake and degradation of oxidized LDL, contributing to the development of atherosclerosis. Additionally, SR-B1 is involved in several other cellular processes, including innate immunity, inflammation, and angiogenesis.

Other members of class B scavenger receptors include SR-BI, SR-B2 (also known as CLA-1 or LIMPII), SR-B3 (also known as CD36c or SCARB2), and SR-B4 (also known as CXorf24). These receptors have distinct expression patterns and functions but share structural similarities with SR-BI.

In summary, scavenger receptors, class B, are a group of membrane-bound glycoproteins that facilitate the cellular uptake and metabolism of lipids, particularly modified LDL and HDL particles. They play essential roles in maintaining lipid homeostasis and have implications in various pathological conditions, such as atherosclerosis and inflammation.

'Escherichia coli (E. coli) proteins' refer to the various types of proteins that are produced and expressed by the bacterium Escherichia coli. These proteins play a critical role in the growth, development, and survival of the organism. They are involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, translation, repair, and regulation.

E. coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobe that is commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. It is widely used as a model organism in scientific research due to its well-studied genetics, rapid growth, and ability to be easily manipulated in the laboratory. As a result, many E. coli proteins have been identified, characterized, and studied in great detail.

Some examples of E. coli proteins include enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism such as lactase, sucrase, and maltose; proteins involved in DNA replication such as the polymerases, single-stranded binding proteins, and helicases; proteins involved in transcription such as RNA polymerase and sigma factors; proteins involved in translation such as ribosomal proteins, tRNAs, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases; and regulatory proteins such as global regulators, two-component systems, and transcription factors.

Understanding the structure, function, and regulation of E. coli proteins is essential for understanding the basic biology of this important organism, as well as for developing new strategies for combating bacterial infections and improving industrial processes involving bacteria.

Antipain is a naturally occurring organic compound that is found in various types of streptomyces bacteria. It is classified as a protease inhibitor, which means that it works by blocking the action of certain enzymes called proteases, which are involved in breaking down proteins in the body. Antipain has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic (pain-relieving) effects, and it is sometimes used in research to study the role of proteases in various biological processes. It is not approved for use as a medication in humans.

Protein conformation refers to the specific three-dimensional shape that a protein molecule assumes due to the spatial arrangement of its constituent amino acid residues and their associated chemical groups. This complex structure is determined by several factors, including covalent bonds (disulfide bridges), hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds, which help stabilize the protein's unique conformation.

Protein conformations can be broadly classified into two categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The primary structure represents the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure arises from local interactions between adjacent amino acid residues, leading to the formation of recurring motifs such as α-helices and β-sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding pattern of a single polypeptide chain, while quaternary structure describes the spatial arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide chains (subunits) that interact to form a functional protein complex.

Understanding protein conformation is crucial for elucidating protein function, as the specific three-dimensional shape of a protein directly influences its ability to interact with other molecules, such as ligands, nucleic acids, or other proteins. Any alterations in protein conformation due to genetic mutations, environmental factors, or chemical modifications can lead to loss of function, misfolding, aggregation, and disease states like neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Organic anion transporters (OATs) are membrane transport proteins that are responsible for the cellular uptake and excretion of various organic anions, such as drugs, toxins, and endogenous metabolites. They are found in various tissues, including the kidney, liver, and brain, where they play important roles in the elimination and detoxification of xenobiotics and endogenous compounds.

In the kidney, OATs are located in the basolateral membrane of renal tubular epithelial cells and mediate the uptake of organic anions from the blood into the cells. From there, the anions can be further transported into the urine by other transporters located in the apical membrane. In the liver, OATs are expressed in the sinusoidal membrane of hepatocytes and facilitate the uptake of organic anions from the blood into the liver cells for metabolism and excretion.

There are several isoforms of OATs that have been identified, each with distinct substrate specificities and tissue distributions. Mutations in OAT genes can lead to various diseases, including renal tubular acidosis, hypercalciuria, and drug toxicity. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of OATs is important for developing strategies to improve drug delivery and reduce adverse drug reactions.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Biological transport, active is the process by which cells use energy to move materials across their membranes from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This type of transport is facilitated by specialized proteins called transporters or pumps that are located in the cell membrane. These proteins undergo conformational changes to physically carry the molecules through the lipid bilayer of the membrane, often against their concentration gradient.

Active transport requires energy because it works against the natural tendency of molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, a process known as diffusion. Cells obtain this energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is produced through cellular respiration.

Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose and amino acids into cells, as well as the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters. The sodium-potassium pump, which helps maintain resting membrane potential in nerve and muscle cells, is a classic example of an active transporter.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins are the proteins that are produced by the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This organism is a single-celled eukaryote that has been widely used as a model organism in scientific research for many years due to its relatively simple genetic makeup and its similarity to higher eukaryotic cells.

The genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been fully sequenced, and it is estimated to contain approximately 6,000 genes that encode proteins. These proteins play a wide variety of roles in the cell, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, regulating gene expression, maintaining the structure of the cell, and responding to environmental stimuli.

Many Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins have human homologs and are involved in similar biological processes, making this organism a valuable tool for studying human disease. For example, many of the proteins involved in DNA replication, repair, and recombination in yeast have human counterparts that are associated with cancer and other diseases. By studying these proteins in yeast, researchers can gain insights into their function and regulation in humans, which may lead to new treatments for disease.

Mitoxantrone is a synthetic antineoplastic anthracenedione drug, which means it is used to treat cancer. Its medical definition can be found in various authoritative sources such as the Merck Manual or Stedman's Medical Dictionary. Here's a brief version of the definition from MedlinePlus, a service of the US National Library of Medicine:

"Mitoxantrone is used to treat certain types of cancer (e.g., breast cancer, leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma). It works by slowing or stopping the growth of cancer cells. Mitoxantrone belongs to a class of drugs known as antitumor antibiotics."

Please note that this is a simplified definition meant for general information purposes and does not include all the details that might be present in a comprehensive medical definition. Always consult a healthcare professional or refer to authoritative resources for accurate, detailed, and up-to-date information.

Glyburide is a medication that falls under the class of drugs known as sulfonylureas. It is primarily used to manage type 2 diabetes by lowering blood sugar levels. Glyburide works by stimulating the release of insulin from the pancreas, thereby increasing the amount of insulin available in the body to help glucose enter cells and decrease the level of glucose in the bloodstream.

The medical definition of Glyburide is:
A second-generation sulfonylurea antidiabetic drug (oral hypoglycemic) used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It acts by stimulating pancreatic beta cells to release insulin and increases peripheral glucose uptake and utilization, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. Glyburide may also decrease glucose production in the liver.

It is important to note that Glyburide should be used as part of a comprehensive diabetes management plan that includes proper diet, exercise, regular monitoring of blood sugar levels, and other necessary lifestyle modifications. As with any medication, it can have side effects and potential interactions with other drugs, so it should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider.

Phytosterols are a type of plant-derived sterol that have a similar structure to cholesterol, a compound found in animal products. They are found in small quantities in many fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, legumes, and vegetable oils. Phytosterols are known to help lower cholesterol levels by reducing the absorption of dietary cholesterol in the digestive system.

In medical terms, phytosterols are often referred to as "plant sterols" or "phytostanols." They have been shown to have a modest but significant impact on lowering LDL (or "bad") cholesterol levels when consumed in sufficient quantities, typically in the range of 2-3 grams per day. As a result, foods fortified with phytosterols are sometimes recommended as part of a heart-healthy diet for individuals with high cholesterol or a family history of cardiovascular disease.

It's worth noting that while phytosterols have been shown to be safe and effective in reducing cholesterol levels, they should not be used as a substitute for other lifestyle changes such as regular exercise, smoking cessation, and weight management. Additionally, individuals with sitosterolemia, a rare genetic disorder characterized by an abnormal accumulation of plant sterols in the body, should avoid consuming foods fortified with phytosterols.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Xenobiotics are substances that are foreign to a living organism and usually originate outside of the body. This term is often used in the context of pharmacology and toxicology to refer to drugs, chemicals, or other agents that are not naturally produced by or expected to be found within the body.

When xenobiotics enter the body, they undergo a series of biotransformation processes, which involve metabolic reactions that convert them into forms that can be more easily excreted from the body. These processes are primarily carried out by enzymes in the liver and other organs.

It's worth noting that some xenobiotics can have beneficial effects on the body when used as medications or therapeutic agents, while others can be harmful or toxic. Therefore, understanding how the body metabolizes and eliminates xenobiotics is important for developing safe and effective drugs, as well as for assessing the potential health risks associated with exposure to environmental chemicals and pollutants.

Nucleotides are the basic structural units of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil), a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and one to three phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another, forming long chains known as polynucleotides. The sequence of these nucleotides determines the genetic information carried in DNA and RNA, which is essential for the functioning, reproduction and survival of all living organisms.

Protein transport, in the context of cellular biology, refers to the process by which proteins are actively moved from one location to another within or between cells. This is a crucial mechanism for maintaining proper cell function and regulation.

Intracellular protein transport involves the movement of proteins within a single cell. Proteins can be transported across membranes (such as the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or plasma membrane) via specialized transport systems like vesicles and transport channels.

Intercellular protein transport refers to the movement of proteins from one cell to another, often facilitated by exocytosis (release of proteins in vesicles) and endocytosis (uptake of extracellular substances via membrane-bound vesicles). This is essential for communication between cells, immune response, and other physiological processes.

It's important to note that any disruption in protein transport can lead to various diseases, including neurological disorders, cancer, and metabolic conditions.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a scientific name used in the field of microbiology. It refers to a species of yeast that is commonly used in various industrial processes, such as baking and brewing. It's also widely used in scientific research due to its genetic tractability and eukaryotic cellular organization.

However, it does have some relevance to medical fields like medicine and nutrition. For example, certain strains of S. cerevisiae are used as probiotics, which can provide health benefits when consumed. They may help support gut health, enhance the immune system, and even assist in the digestion of certain nutrients.

In summary, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is a species of yeast with various industrial and potential medical applications.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to introduce specific and targeted changes to a specific DNA sequence. This process involves creating a new variant of a gene or a specific region of interest within a DNA molecule by introducing a planned, deliberate change, or mutation, at a predetermined site within the DNA sequence.

The methodology typically involves the use of molecular tools such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, and/or ligases to introduce the desired mutation(s) into a plasmid or other vector containing the target DNA sequence. The resulting modified DNA molecule can then be used to transform host cells, allowing for the production of large quantities of the mutated gene or protein for further study.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a valuable tool in basic research, drug discovery, and biotechnology applications where specific changes to a DNA sequence are required to understand gene function, investigate protein structure/function relationships, or engineer novel biological properties into existing genes or proteins.

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a chemical compound that plays a crucial role in energy transfer within cells. It is a nucleotide, which consists of a adenosine molecule (a sugar molecule called ribose attached to a nitrogenous base called adenine) and two phosphate groups.

In the cell, ADP functions as an intermediate in the conversion of energy from one form to another. When a high-energy phosphate bond in ADP is broken, energy is released and ADP is converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which serves as the main energy currency of the cell. Conversely, when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it is converted back to ADP, releasing energy for the cell to use.

ADP also plays a role in blood clotting and other physiological processes. In the coagulation cascade, ADP released from damaged red blood cells can help activate platelets and initiate the formation of a blood clot.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Drug resistance in neoplasms (also known as cancer drug resistance) refers to the ability of cancer cells to withstand the effects of chemotherapeutic agents or medications designed to kill or inhibit the growth of cancer cells. This can occur due to various mechanisms, including changes in the cancer cell's genetic makeup, alterations in drug targets, increased activity of drug efflux pumps, and activation of survival pathways.

Drug resistance can be intrinsic (present at the beginning of treatment) or acquired (developed during the course of treatment). It is a significant challenge in cancer therapy as it often leads to reduced treatment effectiveness, disease progression, and poor patient outcomes. Strategies to overcome drug resistance include the use of combination therapies, development of new drugs that target different mechanisms, and personalized medicine approaches that consider individual patient and tumor characteristics.

Dimerization is a process in which two molecules, usually proteins or similar structures, bind together to form a larger complex. This can occur through various mechanisms, such as the formation of disulfide bonds, hydrogen bonding, or other non-covalent interactions. Dimerization can play important roles in cell signaling, enzyme function, and the regulation of gene expression.

In the context of medical research and therapy, dimerization is often studied in relation to specific proteins that are involved in diseases such as cancer. For example, some drugs have been developed to target and inhibit the dimerization of certain proteins, with the goal of disrupting their function and slowing or stopping the progression of the disease.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

CD36 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, including platelets, white blood cells (monocytes and macrophages), and fat (adipose) cells. It is a type of scavenger receptor that plays a role in various biological processes, such as:

1. Fatty acid uptake and metabolism: CD36 helps facilitate the transport of long-chain fatty acids into cells for energy production and storage.
2. Inflammation and immune response: CD36 is involved in the recognition and clearance of foreign substances (pathogens) and damaged or dying cells, which can trigger an immune response.
3. Angiogenesis: CD36 has been implicated in the regulation of blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), particularly during wound healing and tumor growth.
4. Atherosclerosis: CD36 has been associated with the development and progression of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls. This is due to its role in the uptake of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) by macrophages, leading to the formation of foam cells and the development of fatty streaks in the arterial wall.
5. Infectious diseases: CD36 has been identified as a receptor for various pathogens, including malaria parasites, HIV, and some bacteria, which can use this protein to gain entry into host cells.

As an antigen, CD36 is a molecule that can be targeted by the immune system to produce an immune response. Antibodies against CD36 have been found in various diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and certain infections. Modulation of CD36 activity has been suggested as a potential therapeutic strategy for several conditions, including atherosclerosis, diabetes, and infectious diseases.

Monosaccharide transport proteins are a type of membrane transport protein that facilitate the passive or active transport of monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in the absorption, distribution, and metabolism of carbohydrates in the body.

There are two main types of monosaccharide transport proteins: facilitated diffusion transporters and active transporters. Facilitated diffusion transporters, also known as glucose transporters (GLUTs), passively transport monosaccharides down their concentration gradient without the need for energy. In contrast, active transporters, such as the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT), use energy in the form of ATP to actively transport monosaccharides against their concentration gradient.

Monosaccharide transport proteins are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the intestines, kidneys, liver, and brain. They play a critical role in maintaining glucose homeostasis by regulating the uptake and release of glucose into and out of cells. Dysfunction of these transporters has been implicated in several diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Secondary protein structure refers to the local spatial arrangement of amino acid chains in a protein, typically described as regular repeating patterns held together by hydrogen bonds. The two most common types of secondary structures are the alpha-helix (α-helix) and the beta-pleated sheet (β-sheet). In an α-helix, the polypeptide chain twists around itself in a helical shape, with each backbone atom forming a hydrogen bond with the fourth amino acid residue along the chain. This forms a rigid rod-like structure that is resistant to bending or twisting forces. In β-sheets, adjacent segments of the polypeptide chain run parallel or antiparallel to each other and are connected by hydrogen bonds, forming a pleated sheet-like arrangement. These secondary structures provide the foundation for the formation of tertiary and quaternary protein structures, which determine the overall three-dimensional shape and function of the protein.

Adrenoleukodystrophy (ADL) is a rare genetic disorder that affects the nervous system and adrenal glands. It is characterized by the accumulation of very long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) in the brain, leading to progressive neurological symptoms such as behavioral changes, visual loss, hearing loss, seizures, and difficulties with coordination and movement.

ADL is caused by mutations in the ABCD1 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein involved in the breakdown of VLCFA. Without this protein, VLCFAs accumulate in the brain and adrenal glands, leading to damage and dysfunction.

There are several forms of ADL, including:

* Childhood cerebral ADL: This is the most severe form of the disorder, typically affecting boys between the ages of 4 and 8. It progresses rapidly and can lead to significant neurological impairment within a few years.
* Adrenomyeloneuropathy (AMN): This form of ADL affects both men and women and is characterized by progressive stiffness, weakness, and spasticity in the legs. It typically develops in adulthood and progresses slowly over many years.
* Addison's disease: This is a condition that affects the adrenal glands, leading to hormonal imbalances and symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and low blood pressure.

There is no cure for ADL, but treatments can help manage the symptoms and slow down the progression of the disorder. These may include dietary changes, medications to control seizures or hormone levels, and physical therapy. In some cases, stem cell transplantation may be recommended as a treatment option.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

A neoplasm is a tumor or growth that is formed by an abnormal and excessive proliferation of cells, which can be benign or malignant. Neoplasm proteins are therefore any proteins that are expressed or produced in these neoplastic cells. These proteins can play various roles in the development, progression, and maintenance of neoplasms.

Some neoplasm proteins may contribute to the uncontrolled cell growth and division seen in cancer, such as oncogenic proteins that promote cell cycle progression or inhibit apoptosis (programmed cell death). Others may help the neoplastic cells evade the immune system, allowing them to proliferate undetected. Still others may be involved in angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels that supply the tumor with nutrients and oxygen.

Neoplasm proteins can also serve as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response. For example, the presence or level of certain neoplasm proteins in biological samples such as blood or tissue may indicate the presence of a specific type of cancer, help predict the likelihood of cancer recurrence, or suggest whether a particular therapy will be effective.

Overall, understanding the roles and behaviors of neoplasm proteins can provide valuable insights into the biology of cancer and inform the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Sterols are a type of organic compound that is derived from steroids and found in the cell membranes of organisms. In animals, including humans, cholesterol is the most well-known sterol. Sterols help to maintain the structural integrity and fluidity of cell membranes, and they also play important roles as precursors for the synthesis of various hormones and other signaling molecules. Phytosterols are plant sterols that have been shown to have cholesterol-lowering effects in humans when consumed in sufficient amounts.

Maltose is a disaccharide made up of two glucose molecules joined by an alpha-1,4 glycosidic bond. It is commonly found in malted barley and is created during the germination process when amylase breaks down starches into simpler sugars. Maltose is less sweet than sucrose (table sugar) and is broken down into glucose by the enzyme maltase during digestion.

Phospholipids are a major class of lipids that consist of a hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails. The head is composed of a phosphate group, which is often bound to an organic molecule such as choline, ethanolamine, serine or inositol. The tails are made up of two fatty acid chains.

Phospholipids are a key component of cell membranes and play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and function of the cell. They form a lipid bilayer, with the hydrophilic heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards, creating a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.

Phospholipids are also involved in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, intracellular trafficking, and protein function regulation. Additionally, they serve as emulsifiers in the digestive system, helping to break down fats in the diet.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

Taurocholic acid is a bile salt, which is a type of organic compound that plays a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. It is formed in the liver by conjugation of cholic acid with taurine, an amino sulfonic acid.

Taurocholic acid has a detergent-like effect on the lipids in our food, helping to break them down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed through the intestinal wall and transported to other parts of the body for energy production or storage. It also helps to maintain the flow of bile from the liver to the gallbladder and small intestine, where it is stored until needed for digestion.

Abnormal levels of taurocholic acid in the body have been linked to various health conditions, including gallstones, liver disease, and gastrointestinal disorders. Therefore, it is important to maintain a healthy balance of bile salts, including taurocholic acid, for optimal digestive function.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. It is a type of lipoprotein that helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated with a lower risk of heart disease and stroke.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Atherosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of plaques, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood, on the inner walls of the arteries. This process gradually narrows and hardens the arteries, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to various parts of the body. Atherosclerosis can affect any artery in the body, including those that supply blood to the heart (coronary arteries), brain, limbs, and other organs. The progressive narrowing and hardening of the arteries can lead to serious complications such as coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and aneurysms, which can result in heart attacks, strokes, or even death if left untreated.

The exact cause of atherosclerosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be associated with several risk factors, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, smoking, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and a family history of the condition. Atherosclerosis can often progress without any symptoms for many years, but as the disease advances, it can lead to various signs and symptoms depending on which arteries are affected. Treatment typically involves lifestyle changes, medications, and, in some cases, surgical procedures to restore blood flow.

Glucose Transporter Type 1 (GLUT1) is a specific type of protein called a glucose transporter, which is responsible for facilitating the transport of glucose across the blood-brain barrier and into the brain cells. It is encoded by the SLC2A1 gene and is primarily found in the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier, as well as in other tissues such as the erythrocytes (red blood cells), placenta, and kidney.

GLUT1 plays a critical role in maintaining normal glucose levels in the brain, as it is the main mechanism for glucose uptake into the brain. Disorders of GLUT1 can lead to impaired glucose transport, which can result in neurological symptoms such as seizures, developmental delay, and movement disorders. These disorders are known as GLUT1 deficiency syndromes.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Drug resistance, also known as antimicrobial resistance, is the ability of a microorganism (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand the effects of a drug that was originally designed to inhibit or kill it. This occurs when the microorganism undergoes genetic changes that allow it to survive in the presence of the drug. As a result, the drug becomes less effective or even completely ineffective at treating infections caused by these resistant organisms.

Drug resistance can develop through various mechanisms, including mutations in the genes responsible for producing the target protein of the drug, alteration of the drug's target site, modification or destruction of the drug by enzymes produced by the microorganism, and active efflux of the drug from the cell.

The emergence and spread of drug-resistant microorganisms pose significant challenges in medical treatment, as they can lead to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents, as well as poor infection control practices, contribute to the development and dissemination of drug-resistant strains. To address this issue, it is crucial to promote prudent use of antimicrobials, enhance surveillance and monitoring of resistance patterns, invest in research and development of new antimicrobial agents, and strengthen infection prevention and control measures.

A symporter is a type of transmembrane protein that functions to transport two or more molecules or ions across a biological membrane in the same direction, simultaneously. This process is called co-transport and it is driven by the concentration gradient of one of the substrates, which is usually an ion such as sodium (Na+) or proton (H+).

Symporters are classified based on the type of energy that drives the transport process. Primary active transporters, such as symporters, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis or from the electrochemical gradient of ions to move substrates against their concentration gradient. In contrast, secondary active transporters use the energy stored in an existing electrochemical gradient of one substrate to drive the transport of another substrate against its own concentration gradient.

Symporters play important roles in various physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, neurotransmitter reuptake, and ion homeostasis. For example, the sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) is a symporter that co-transports glucose and sodium ions across the intestinal epithelium and the renal proximal tubule, contributing to glucose absorption and regulation of blood glucose levels. Similarly, the dopamine transporter (DAT) is a symporter that co-transports dopamine and sodium ions back into presynaptic neurons, terminating the action of dopamine in the synapse.

Serotonin plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as serotonin transporters (SERTs), are membrane-spanning proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of serotonergic neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transmission and allowing for its recycling or degradation.

Structurally, SERTs belong to the family of sodium- and chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporters and contain 12 transmembrane domains with intracellular N- and C-termini. The binding site for serotonin is located within the transmembrane domain, while the substrate-binding site is formed by residues from both the transmembrane and extracellular loops.

Serotonin transporters are important targets for various psychotropic medications, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). These drugs act by blocking the SERT, increasing synaptic concentrations of serotonin, and enhancing serotonergic neurotransmission. Dysregulation of serotonin transporters has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and substance abuse.

Monocarboxylic acid transporters (MCTs) are a type of membrane transport protein responsible for the transportation of monocarboxylates, such as lactic acid, pyruvic acid, and ketone bodies, across biological membranes. These transporters play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including cellular energy metabolism, pH regulation, and detoxification. In humans, there are 14 different isoforms of MCTs (MCT1-MCT14) that exhibit distinct substrate specificities, tissue distributions, and transport mechanisms. Among them, MCT1, MCT2, MCT3, and MCT4 have been extensively studied in the context of their roles in lactate and pyruvate transport across cell membranes.

MCTs typically function as proton-coupled symporters, meaning they co-transport monocarboxylates and protons in the same direction. This proton coupling allows MCTs to facilitate the uphill transport of monocarboxylates against their concentration gradients, which is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and energy production. The activity of MCTs can be modulated by various factors, including pH, membrane potential, and pharmacological agents, making them important targets for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, such as cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic syndromes.

An amino acid substitution is a type of mutation in which one amino acid in a protein is replaced by another. This occurs when there is a change in the DNA sequence that codes for a particular amino acid in a protein. The genetic code is redundant, meaning that most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon (a sequence of three nucleotides). As a result, a single base pair change in the DNA sequence may not necessarily lead to an amino acid substitution. However, if a change does occur, it can have a variety of effects on the protein's structure and function, depending on the nature of the substituted amino acids. Some substitutions may be harmless, while others may alter the protein's activity or stability, leading to disease.

Dopamine plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as dopamine transporters (DAT), are a type of protein found in the cell membrane that play a crucial role in the regulation of dopamine neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transduction of dopamine and regulating the amount of dopamine available for further release.

Dopamine transporters belong to the family of sodium-dependent neurotransmitter transporters and are encoded by the SLC6A3 gene in humans. Abnormalities in dopamine transporter function have been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and substance use disorders.

In summary, dopamine plasma membrane transport proteins are essential for the regulation of dopamine neurotransmission by mediating the reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron.

Amino acid motifs are recurring patterns or sequences of amino acids in a protein molecule. These motifs can be identified through various sequence analysis techniques and often have functional or structural significance. They can be as short as two amino acids in length, but typically contain at least three to five residues.

Some common examples of amino acid motifs include:

1. Active site motifs: These are specific sequences of amino acids that form the active site of an enzyme and participate in catalyzing chemical reactions. For example, the catalytic triad in serine proteases consists of three residues (serine, histidine, and aspartate) that work together to hydrolyze peptide bonds.
2. Signal peptide motifs: These are sequences of amino acids that target proteins for secretion or localization to specific organelles within the cell. For example, a typical signal peptide consists of a positively charged n-region, a hydrophobic h-region, and a polar c-region that directs the protein to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane for translocation.
3. Zinc finger motifs: These are structural domains that contain conserved sequences of amino acids that bind zinc ions and play important roles in DNA recognition and regulation of gene expression.
4. Transmembrane motifs: These are sequences of hydrophobic amino acids that span the lipid bilayer of cell membranes and anchor transmembrane proteins in place.
5. Phosphorylation sites: These are specific serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues that can be phosphorylated by protein kinases to regulate protein function.

Understanding amino acid motifs is important for predicting protein structure and function, as well as for identifying potential drug targets in disease-associated proteins.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Up-regulation is a term used in molecular biology and medicine to describe an increase in the expression or activity of a gene, protein, or receptor in response to a stimulus. This can occur through various mechanisms such as increased transcription, translation, or reduced degradation of the molecule. Up-regulation can have important functional consequences, for example, enhancing the sensitivity or response of a cell to a hormone, neurotransmitter, or drug. It is a normal physiological process that can also be induced by disease or pharmacological interventions.

Benzethonium is an antimicrobial agent used as a preservative in some pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. It has broad-spectrum activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The chemical name for benzethonium chloride is N'-(1-benzyl-4-phenoxypyridinio) decane methosulfate.

Benzethonium chloride is commonly used as a topical antiseptic in products such as skin cleansers, hand sanitizers, and first aid treatments. It works by disrupting the bacterial cell membrane, leading to the death of the microorganism. However, it may not be effective against some spores and highly resistant bacteria.

It is important to note that benzethonium chloride should be used according to the instructions on the product label and should not be ingested or used in the eyes or mucous membranes unless specifically directed by a healthcare professional.

Foam cells are a type of cell that form when certain white blood cells, called macrophages, accumulate an excessive amount of lipids (fats) within their cytoplasm. This occurs due to the ingestion and breakdown of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which then get trapped inside the macrophages, leading to the formation of large lipid-rich vacuoles that give the cells a foamy appearance under the microscope.

Foam cells are commonly found in the early stages of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the walls of arteries. Over time, the accumulation of foam cells and other components of plaque can narrow or block the affected artery, leading to serious health problems such as heart attack or stroke.

Anion transport proteins are specialized membrane transport proteins that facilitate the movement of negatively charged ions, known as anions, across biological membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in maintaining ionic balance and regulating various physiological processes within the body.

There are several types of anion transport proteins, including:

1. Cl-/HCO3- exchangers (also known as anion exchangers or band 3 proteins): These transporters facilitate the exchange of chloride (Cl-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions across the membrane. They are widely expressed in various tissues, including the red blood cells, gastrointestinal tract, and kidneys, where they help regulate pH, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis.
2. Sulfate permeases: These transporters facilitate the movement of sulfate ions (SO42-) across membranes. They are primarily found in the epithelial cells of the kidneys, intestines, and choroid plexus, where they play a role in sulfur metabolism and absorption.
3. Cl- channels: These proteins form ion channels that allow chloride ions to pass through the membrane. They are involved in various physiological processes, such as neuronal excitability, transepithelial fluid transport, and cell volume regulation.
4. Cation-chloride cotransporters: These transporters move both cations (positively charged ions) and chloride anions together across the membrane. They are involved in regulating neuronal excitability, cell volume, and ionic balance in various tissues.

Dysfunction of anion transport proteins has been implicated in several diseases, such as cystic fibrosis (due to mutations in the CFTR Cl- channel), distal renal tubular acidosis (due to defects in Cl-/HCO3- exchangers), and some forms of epilepsy (due to abnormalities in cation-chloride cotransporters).

A ligand, in the context of biochemistry and medicine, is a molecule that binds to a specific site on a protein or a larger biomolecule, such as an enzyme or a receptor. This binding interaction can modify the function or activity of the target protein, either activating it or inhibiting it. Ligands can be small molecules, like hormones or neurotransmitters, or larger structures, like antibodies. The study of ligand-protein interactions is crucial for understanding cellular processes and developing drugs, as many therapeutic compounds function by binding to specific targets within the body.

Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 2 (EAAT2) is a type of glutamate transporter protein found in the membranes of glial cells in the central nervous system. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and its levels must be carefully regulated to maintain normal neuronal function and survival. EAAT2 plays a critical role in this regulation by removing excess glutamate from the synaptic cleft and returning it to glial cells for storage or breakdown.

EAAT2 is responsible for the majority of glutamate reuptake in the brain, and its expression and function are crucial for maintaining proper neuronal excitability and preventing excitotoxicity, a form of neurodegeneration that can occur when glutamate levels become too high. Mutations or dysfunction in EAAT2 have been implicated in several neurological disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease, and epilepsy.

Vanadates are salts or esters of vanadic acid (HVO3), which contains the vanadium(V) ion. They contain the vanadate ion (VO3-), which consists of one vanadium atom and three oxygen atoms. Vanadates have been studied for their potential insulin-mimetic and antidiabetic effects, as well as their possible cardiovascular benefits. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic uses in medicine.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 3 (EAAT3) is a type of glutamate transporter protein, which is responsible for removing the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate from the synaptic cleft in the central nervous system. EAAT3 is primarily located on the plasma membrane of neurons and to some extent on astrocytes. It plays a crucial role in maintaining proper glutamate concentration levels in the extracellular space, preventing excitotoxicity and ensuring normal neurotransmission. Mutations in the gene that encodes EAAT3 (SLC1A1) have been associated with neurological disorders such as episodic ataxia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and mood disorders.

Cation transport proteins are a type of membrane protein that facilitate the movement of cations (positively charged ions) across biological membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in maintaining ion balance and electrical excitability within cells, as well as in various physiological processes such as nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and signal transduction.

There are several types of cation transport proteins, including:

1. Ion channels: These are specialized protein structures that form a pore or channel through the membrane, allowing ions to pass through rapidly and selectively. They can be either voltage-gated or ligand-gated, meaning they open in response to changes in electrical potential or binding of specific molecules, respectively.

2. Ion pumps: These are active transport proteins that use energy from ATP hydrolysis to move ions against their electrochemical gradient, effectively pumping them from one side of the membrane to the other. Examples include the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) and calcium pumps (Ca2+ ATPase).

3. Ion exchangers: These are antiporter proteins that facilitate the exchange of one ion for another across the membrane, maintaining electroneutrality. For example, the sodium-proton exchanger (NHE) moves a proton into the cell in exchange for a sodium ion being moved out.

4. Symporters: These are cotransporter proteins that move two or more ions together in the same direction, often coupled with the transport of a solute molecule. An example is the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT), which facilitates glucose uptake into cells by coupling its movement with that of sodium ions.

Collectively, cation transport proteins help maintain ion homeostasis and contribute to various cellular functions, including electrical signaling, enzyme regulation, and metabolic processes. Dysfunction in these proteins can lead to a range of diseases, such as neurological disorders, cardiovascular disease, and kidney dysfunction.

Adenylyl Imidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP) is a non-hydrolysable analog of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a high-energy molecule that provides energy for many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, protein synthesis, and transport of molecules across cell membranes.

AMP-PNP is used in biochemical research as an ATP substitute to study various enzymatic reactions that require ATP as a substrate. Unlike ATP, AMP-PNP cannot be hydrolyzed by most enzymes, and it remains stable during the reaction, allowing researchers to observe and analyze the reaction kinetics more accurately.

AMP-PNP is also used in structural biology studies to determine the three-dimensional structures of proteins that bind to ATP. The non-hydrolyzable property of AMP-PNP makes it an ideal molecule for co-crystallization with proteins, providing valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms of ATP-dependent enzymes.

I am not aware of a medical definition for an "amino acid transport system X-AG" as it is not a widely recognized or established term in the field of medicine or biology. It is possible that you may have misspelled or mistyped the name, as there are several known amino acid transporters labeled with different letters and numbers (e.g., Systems A, ASC, L, y+L).

If you meant to inquire about a specific amino acid transport system or a particular research study related to it, please provide more context or clarify the term so I can give you an accurate and helpful response.

An azide is a chemical compound that contains the functional group -N=N+=N-, which consists of three nitrogen atoms joined by covalent bonds. In organic chemistry, azides are often used as reagents in various chemical reactions, such as the azide-alkyne cycloaddition (also known as the "click reaction").

In medical terminology, azides may refer to a class of drugs that contain an azido group and are used for their pharmacological effects. For example, sodium nitroprusside is a vasodilator drug that contains an azido group and is used to treat hypertensive emergencies.

However, it's worth noting that azides can also be toxic and potentially explosive under certain conditions, so they must be handled with care in laboratory settings.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) is a protein that functions as a chloride channel in the membranes of various cells, including those in the lungs and pancreas. Mutations in the gene encoding CFTR can lead to Cystic Fibrosis, a genetic disorder characterized by thick, sticky mucus in the lungs and other organs, leading to severe respiratory and digestive problems.

CFTR is normally activated by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) and regulates the movement of chloride ions across cell membranes. In Cystic Fibrosis, mutations in CFTR can result in impaired channel function or reduced amounts of functional CFTR at the cell surface, leading to an imbalance in ion transport and fluid homeostasis. This can cause the production of thick, sticky mucus that clogs the airways and leads to chronic lung infections, as well as other symptoms associated with Cystic Fibrosis.

Organic Cation Transporter 1 (OCT1) is a protein that belongs to the solute carrier family 22 (SLC22A). It is primarily expressed in the liver and plays an essential role in the uptake and elimination of various organic cations, including many drugs, from the systemic circulation into hepatocytes. OCT1 also transports some endogenous substances such as neurotransmitters and hormones. Mutations or variants in the OCT1 gene can affect drug response and disposition, making it an important factor to consider in personalized medicine.

Antineoplastic agents are a class of drugs used to treat malignant neoplasms or cancer. These agents work by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, either by killing them or preventing their division and replication. Antineoplastic agents can be classified based on their mechanism of action, such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and targeted therapy agents.

Alkylating agents work by adding alkyl groups to DNA, which can cause cross-linking of DNA strands and ultimately lead to cell death. Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic processes necessary for DNA synthesis and replication, while topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the relaxation of supercoiled DNA during replication. Mitotic inhibitors disrupt the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for cell division. Targeted therapy agents are designed to target specific molecular abnormalities in cancer cells, such as mutated oncogenes or dysregulated signaling pathways.

It's important to note that antineoplastic agents can also affect normal cells and tissues, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). Therefore, the use of these drugs requires careful monitoring and management of their potential adverse effects.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 1 (EAAT1) is a type of glutamate transporter protein found in the membranes of glial cells in the central nervous system. Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and its levels must be carefully regulated to maintain normal neuronal function and survival. EAAT1 plays a crucial role in this regulation by transporting glutamate from the synaptic cleft back into the glial cells, where it can be converted to glutamine or stored for later use. In this way, EAAT1 helps to terminate the excitatory signal and prevent excessive accumulation of glutamate in the extracellular space, which can lead to excitotoxicity and neurodegeneration. Mutations in the gene that encodes EAAT1 have been associated with certain neurological disorders, including episodic ataxia type 6 and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Norepinephrine plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as norepinephrine transporters (NET), are membrane-bound proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transmission and preventing excessive stimulation of postsynaptic receptors.

The norepinephrine transporter is a member of the sodium-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family and functions as an antiporter, exchanging one intracellular sodium ion for two extracellular sodium ions along with the transport of norepinephrine. This sodium gradient provides the energy required for the active transport process.

Dysregulation of norepinephrine plasma membrane transport proteins has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of these transporters is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Cholates" is not a recognized medical term or abbreviation in physiology, pathology, or pharmacology. It seems like there might be a spelling mistake or a misunderstanding. If you meant to ask about "cholesterol," I would be happy to help provide information on that.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) that is essential for the normal functioning of our bodies. It plays crucial roles in maintaining cell membrane structure, producing certain hormones, and serving as a precursor for vitamin D and bile acids. However, high levels of cholesterol in the blood can increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.

If you have any questions or need more information about cholesterol or any other medical topic, please feel free to ask!

ATP-dependent association of the nucleotide binding cassettes during the catalytic cycle of ATP-binding cassette transporters ... The ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) are a transport system superfamily that is one of the largest and ... Each member of the ABCF subgroup consist of a pair of ATP binding domains. Six half transporters with ATP binding sites on the ... Dimer formation of the two ABC domains of transporters requires ATP binding. It is generally observed that the ATP bound state ...
Rea is known for his work on vacuolar proton (H+) pumps, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, and the enzyme phytochelatin ... Rea, P.A. (2007). "Plant ATP-binding cassette transporters". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 58: 347-375. doi:10.1146/annurev. ... an Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette transporter able to transport glutathione S-conjugates and chlorophyll catabolites: ... an Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette transporter able to transport glutathione S-conjugates and chlorophyll catabolites: ...
This review... Zeng, Yuan; Charkowski, Amy (2021). "The Role of ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters in Bacterial ...
"Characterization and functional analysis of the nucleotide binding fold in human peroxisomal ATP binding cassette transporters ... "ATP binding/hydrolysis by and phosphorylation of peroxisomal ATP-binding cassette proteins PMP70 (ABCD3) and ... The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... Gärtner J, Valle D (1993). "The 70 kDa peroxisomal membrane protein: an ATP-binding cassette transporter protein involved in ...
ATP-binding cassette sub-family D member 2 is a membrane pump/transporter protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCD2 gene. ... ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCD2 has been shown to interact with PEX19. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000173208 - ... The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... and heterodimerization of peroxisomal ATP-binding cassette half-transporters". J. Biol. Chem. 274 (46): 32738-43. doi:10.1074/ ...
Vasiliou V, Vasiliou K, Nebert DW (April 2009). "Human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family". Human Genomics. 3 (3): ... ATP-binding cassette sub-family A member 13 also known as ABCA13 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCA13 gene on ... Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Genes on human chromosome 7, ATP-binding cassette ... "The human ATP binding cassette gene ABCA13, located on chromosome 7p12.3, encodes a 5058 amino acid protein with an ...
ABC transporter transmembrane domain is the main transmembrane structural unit of ATP-binding cassette transporter proteins, ... "Structure and association of ATP-binding cassette transporter nucleotide-binding domains". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1561 (1): 47 ... ATP-binding cassette transporters, Protein domains, Protein families, All stub articles, Membrane protein stubs). ... structures of the MJ1267 ATP binding cassette reveal an induced-fit effect at the ATPase active site of an ABC transporter". ...
Löscher, Wolfgang; Potschka, Heidrun (2005-01-01). "Blood-brain barrier active efflux transporters: ATP-binding cassette gene ... Löscher, Wolfgang; Potschka, Heidrun (2005-05-01). "Role of drug efflux transporters in the brain for drug disposition and ... "Drug resistance in brain diseases and the role of drug efflux transporters". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 6 (8): 591-602. doi: ...
ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCA1 (member 1 of human transporter sub-family ABCA), also known as the cholesterol efflux ... The membrane-associated protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters ... ATP-binding cassette transporter GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000165029 - Ensembl, May 2017 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ... August 1999). "The gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 is mutated in Tangier disease". Nature Genetics. 22 (4): ...
This gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and the encoded protein contains two ... ABCA9 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family A (ABC1), member 9". Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (2001). "The human ATP-binding ... ATP-binding cassette sub-family A member 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCA9 gene. ... cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Res. 11 (7): 1156-66. doi:10.1101/gr.184901. PMID 11435397. S2CID 9528197. ...
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... ABCF2 acts as a suppressor of the volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying Cl channel (CLCN3). ATP-binding cassette transporter ... Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (July 2001). "The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Research. ... ATP-binding cassette transporters, All stub articles, Membrane protein stubs). ...
The protein belongs to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins transport various molecules ... Dean, Michael (2002-11-01). "The Human ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) Transporter Superfamily". National Library of Medicine (US), ... ATP binds at the cytoplasmic side of the protein. Following binding of each, ATP hydrolysis shifts the substrate into a ... ADP is released, and a new molecule of ATP binds to the secondary ATP-binding site. Hydrolysis and release of ADP and a ...
ATP-binding cassette transporter sub-family C member 11, also MRP8 (Multidrug Resistance-Related Protein 8) is a membrane ... The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... ATP-binding cassette transporter Body odor GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000121270 - Ensembl, May 2017 "Human PubMed ... Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (Jul 2001). "The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Research. 11 ...
ATP-binding cassette sub-family A member 12 also known as ATP-binding cassette transporter 12 is a protein that in humans is ... Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (2001). "The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Res. 11 (7): ... "Entrez Gene: ATP-binding cassette". Y. Ishibashi; A. Kohyama-Koganeya; Y. Hirabayashi (2013). "New insights on glucosylated ... ABCA12 belongs to a group of genes called the ATP-binding cassette family, which makes proteins that transport molecules across ...
This gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and the encoded protein contains two ATP- ... Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (Jul 2001). "The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Res. 11 (7 ... "Two new genes from the human ATP-binding cassette transporter superfamily, ABCC11 and ABCC12, tandemly duplicated on chromosome ... "Multiple splicing variants of two new human ATP-binding cassette transporters, ABCC11 and ABCC12". Biochem. Biophys. Res. ...
ATP-binding cassette transporter GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000172350 - Ensembl, May 2017 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ... The protein encoded by this gene is included in the ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC protein) superfamily. ABC proteins ... Dean M, Rzhetsky A, Allikmets R (Jul 2001). "The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily". Genome Res. 11 (7 ... 2002). "Molecular and cytogenetic characterization of the mouse ATP-binding cassette transporter Abcg4". Gene. 293 (1-2): 67-75 ...
ATP Binding Cassette or efflux transporters mediate the transport of substrates across cell membranes against a concentration ... Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, ATP-binding cassette transporters). ... The activity of the multidrug transporter in drug-resistant cells is associated with rapid cellular ATP depletion when ATP ... ATP cleavage is tightly linked to substrate translocation, as the energy for the substrate translocation is derived from ATP ...
"Membrane topology distinguishes a subfamily of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters". FEBS Lett. 402 (1): 1-3. doi: ... In enzymology, a channel-conductance-controlling ATPase (EC 3.6.3.49) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ATP + ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP phosphohydrolase (channel-conductance-controlling). As of late 2007, two ... H2O ⇌ {\displaystyle \rightleftharpoons } ADP + phosphate Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are ATP and H2O, whereas its ...
One example is ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter families. P-glycoproteins (PGPs) are part of this family and substrates ... In general, drug resistance can develop in four different ways: 1) the drug does not bind to the target due to target changes, ... MLs bind irreversible to Glutmate gated chloride ion (GluCl) channels, leading to hyperpolarisation. Pharyngeal and somatic ... This includes transporters which are part of the xenobiotic metabolism by absorbing, distributing and eliminating external ...
MRP2 is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins transport various molecules across ... ATP-binding cassette transporter GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000023839 - Ensembl, May 2017 GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ... "Entrez Gene: ABCC2 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family C (CFTR/MRP), member 2". Sekine T, Miyazaki H, Endou H (February 2006). " ... or ATP-binding cassette sub-family C member 2 (ABCC2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ABCC2 gene. ...
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... Kajinami K, Brousseau ME, Nartsupha C, Ordovas JM, Schaefer EJ (Apr 2004). "ATP binding cassette transporter G5 and G8 ... "Mutations in the human ATP-binding cassette transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8 in sitosterolemia". Human Mutation. 20 (2): 151. doi: ... "Entrez Gene: ABCG5 ATP-binding cassette, sub-family G (WHITE), member 5 (sterolin 1)". Schmitz G, Langmann T, Heimerl S (Oct ...
Lr34 encodes an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette (ABC) transporter. The dominant allele that provides disease ... The xa13 gene has a mutated effector-binding element in its promoter that eliminates PthXo1 binding and renders these lines ... Examples: Auxin: binds to receptors that then recruit and degrade repressors of transcriptional activators that stimulate auxin ... Many R genes encode NB-LRR proteins (proteins with nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat domains, also known as NLR ...
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... membrane-spanning domain that sets it apart from other transporters within the ATP-binding cassette family of transporters. The ... ATP-binding cassette transporter P-glycoprotein (Multidrug resistance protein- MDR1). Not to be confused with Multidrug ... ATP-binding Cassette (ABC) Transporter". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 289 (45): 30880-30888. doi:10.1074/jbc.R114.609248. ...
ABC transporters belong to the ATP-Binding Cassette superfamily, which uses the hydrolysis of ATP to translocate a variety of ... ABC transporters are minimally constituted of two conserved regions: a highly conserved ATP binding cassette (ABC) and a less ... Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Protein domains, ATP-binding cassette transporters). ... In molecular biology, ATP-binding domain of ABC transporters is a water-soluble domain of transmembrane ABC transporters. ...
Petry, Frauke (2004). Charakterisierung eines neuen ATP-binding-cassette Transporters aus der ABCA-Subfamilie (PDF) (in German ...
2004). "ATP binding cassette transporter G5 and G8 genotypes and plasma lipoprotein levels before and after treatment with ... The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins ... 2002). "Mutations in the human ATP-binding cassette transporters ABCG5 and ABCG8 in sitosterolemia". Hum. Mutat. 20 (2): 151. ... 2002). "Catalog of 605 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among 13 genes encoding human ATP-binding cassette transporters: ...
ATP binding cassette (ABC) type transporters are common to the three domains of life. Some secreted proteins are translocated ... The process begins as a leader sequence on the protein to be secreted is recognized by HlyA and binds HlyB on the membrane. ... Thanassi DG, Stathopoulos C, Karkal A, Li H (2005). "Protein secretion in the absence of ATP: the autotransporter, two-partner ... This signal sequence is extremely specific for the ABC transporter. The HlyAB complex stimulates HlyD which begins to uncoil ...
The major transporters include the solute carrier, ATP-binding cassette, and organic anion transporters. The vitamin K epoxide ... Many medications rely on transporters to cross cellular membranes in order to move between body fluid compartments such as the ... These processes are often facilitated by enzymes such as drug transporters or drug metabolizing enzymes (discussed more in- ... An increase, decrease, or loss of function for transporters or metabolizing enzymes can ultimately alter the amount of ...
Putative ATP-binding cassette transporter sub-family C member 13 is a protein that is not present in humans. In humans, ABCC13 ... ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCC13+protein,+human at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH ... This gene is a member of the superfamily of genes encoding ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. ABC proteins transport ... Dean M, Annilo T (2005). "Evolution of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily in vertebrates". Annual Review of ...
ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters and their roles in immune systems and disease. Her work on ABC transporters includes ... 651-661 ATP-binding cassette transporters in bacteria. AL Davidson, J Chen. Annual review of biochemistry 73 (1), 241-268 ATP ... Her research focuses on elucidating the structure and function of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Chen was born in ... where she started studying the ATP binding cassette transporters In 2002, Chen became an assistant professor at Purdue ...
ATP-dependent association of the nucleotide binding cassettes during the catalytic cycle of ATP-binding cassette transporters ... The ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) are a transport system superfamily that is one of the largest and ... Each member of the ABCF subgroup consist of a pair of ATP binding domains. Six half transporters with ATP binding sites on the ... Dimer formation of the two ABC domains of transporters requires ATP binding. It is generally observed that the ATP bound state ...
Recently, two ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporters, ABCG5 and ABCG8, have been described as playing an important role in the ... ATP-binding cassette transporter G8 M429V polymorphism as a novel genetic marker of higher cholesterol absorption in ... ATP-binding cassette transporter G8 M429V polymorphism as a novel genetic marker of higher cholesterol absorption in ...
Background and Purpose The ATP-binding cassette transporter A-1 (ABCA1) gene is. Genomics Proteomics and Bioinformatics , ... Background and Purpose The ATP-binding cassette transporter A-1 (ABCA1) gene is a key target of the transcription factors liver ... Angiotensin Receptors , Background and Purpose The ATP-binding cassette transporter A-1 (ABCA1) gene is ...
Mutation occurring in ATP binding cassette transporter 1 (ABC1) which enables exit of cholesterol from the cell with resultant ... ATP-Binding Cassette Cholesterol Transporter-1 (ABC1) G1051A, and G2706A Gene Polymorphism in patients with primary ... The gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 is mutated in Tangier disease. Nat Genet 22:347-351 ... Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter1. Nat Genet 22:352-355 ...
ATP binding cassette (ABC) transport proteins are particularly involved in drug deposition, as they are located at membranes of ... The effect of the anti-malarials on the ATP-dependent uptake of radio-labelled substrates was measured in membrane vesicles ... From: Atovaquone and quinine anti-malarials inhibit ATP binding cassette transporter activity ... DHA and PG on ABC transporter activity was assessed. Transport was measured in pmol/mg protein/min and expressed as percentage ...
ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Structure Changes Detected by Intramolecular Fluorescence Energy Transfer for High-Throughput ... Iram, Surtaj H.; Gruber, Simon J.; Raguimova, Olga N.; Thomas, David D.; and Robia, Seth L., "ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter ... The results demonstrate the utility of the two-color MRP1 construct for investigating ATP-binding cassette transporter ... The data suggest that substrate binding is required to achieve a fully closed and compact structure. ATP analogs bind MRP1 with ...
A modification of the expression of BBB ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters, actively transporting endogenous and exogenous ... ATP-binding cassette transporters expression in rats with cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy. ... A modification of the expression of BBB ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporters, actively transporting endogenous and exogenous ... ATP-binding cassette transporters expression in rats with cirrhosis and hepatic encephalopathy. Clinics and Research in ...
ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters / genetics * ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters / metabolism* * Animals * Bile Canaliculi / ... Recently, two new members of the ABC transporter family (ABCG5 and ABCG8 heterodimers) have been discovered in the apical pole ... Experiments in genetically engineered mice have demonstrated that ABCG5/G8 represent the physiological canalicular transporter ...
The ATP-Binding Cassette transporters (ABC transporters) function in various physiological activity, allowing vertebrate to ... Phylogenetic and Expression of Atp-Binding Cassette Transporter Genes in Rasbora sarawakensis ... Phylogenetic and Expression of Atp-Binding Cassette Transporter Genes in Rasbora sarawakensis. Pertanika Journal of Tropical ... ABC transporters, expression profiles, isolation, phylogeny, Rasbora sarawakensis, unimas, university, universiti, Borneo, ...
Human ABCG2(ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G2) ELISA Kit. Human ABCG2(ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G2) ELISA Kit ... ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G2 (ABCG2) Polyclonal Antibody (Human), APC-Cy7. 4-PAA960Hu01-APC-Cy7 Cloud-Clone * 632.40 EUR ... Human ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G2 (ABCG2) ELISA Kit. SEA960Hu-10x96wellstestplate Cloud-Clone 10x96-wells test plate. ... Human ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G2 (ABCG2) ELISA Kit. SEA960Hu-1x48wellstestplate Cloud-Clone 1x48-wells test plate. ...
Genome-wide analysis of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. In: BMC Genomics. ... Genome-wide analysis of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. BMC Genomics. 2017 ... Dive into the research topics of Genome-wide analysis of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in the sweetpotato whitefly, ... Genome-wide analysis of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in the sweetpotato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci. / Tian, Lixia; ...
To measure the blood expression levels of related drug-resistant ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in colorectal cancer ( ... Increased expressions of cellular ATP-binding cassette transporters may be a promising diagnostic marker for colorectal cancer ... Increased expressions of cellular ATP-binding cassette transporters may be a promising dia ... Subfamília B de Transportador de Cassetes de Ligação de ATP/sangue; Subfamília B de Transportador de Cassetes de Ligação de ATP ...
Protein stabilization upon ligand binding has frequently been used to identify ligands for soluble proteins. Methods such as ... ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters / metabolism * Bacterial Proteins / metabolism * Biological Assay / methods* * Detergents / ... Here the authors used MsbA (an adenosine triphosphate binding cassette transporter), CorA (a Mg(++) channel), and CpxA (a ... Assessing the stability of membrane proteins to detect ligand binding using differential static light scattering J Biomol ...
ABC transporters: see ATP-binding cassette transporters. *Abd al-Latif, Shah, approximately 1689-approximately 1752 (subtopics ... ABC proteins: see ATP-binding cassette transporters. * ...
The ABCA1 gene belongs to a group of genes called the ATP-binding cassette family, which provides instructions for making ... Dean M, Moitra K, Allikmets R. The human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily. Hum Mutat. 2022 Sep;43(9):1162- ... The gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1 is mutated in Tangier disease. Nat Genet. 1999 Aug;22(4):347-51. doi: ... Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1. Nat Genet. 1999 Aug;22(4):352-5 ...
CCAAT/Enhancer-binding protein delta mediates glioma stem-like cell enrichment and ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCA1 ... 深入研究「CCAAT/Enhancer-binding protein delta mediates glioma stem-like cell enrichment and ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCA1 ...
An ATP-binding cassette subfamily G full transporter is essential for the retention of leaf water in both wild barley and rice. ... An ATP-binding cassette subfamily G full transporter is essential for the retention of leaf water in both wild barley and rice ... An ATP-binding cassette subfamily G full transporter is essential for the retention of leaf water in both wild barley and rice ... An ATP-binding cassette subfamily G full transporter is essential for the retention of leaf water in both wild barley and rice ...
ATP-binding cassette, subfamily G transporter 5 (ABCG5) and ATP-binding cassette, subfamily G transporter 8 (ABCG8)] were ... N/D: no data; ABCGs: ATP-binding cassette, subfamily G transporters; LDL-R: low-density lipoprotein receptor. L-ORACFL: ... is mediated by the enhanced expression of the ATP-binding cassette, subfamily G transporters 5 and 8 and low-density ... ATP-biding cassette, subfamily G transporter 5/8. IFN-γ: interferon-gamma; NK: natural killer cells; BUN: blood urea nitrogen; ...
ABCA1: ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; ABCG1: ATP-binding cassette transporter G1; ADIPOR2: adiponectin receptor; ACC1: ... sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c; SREBP2: sterol regulatory element binding protein 2; SS: simple steatosis; TNFα: ... We also showed a positive association between PNPLA3 and both the transcription factor sterol regulatory element binding ... acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase 1; CROT: carnitine O-octanoyltransferase ; FA: fatty acid; FABP4: fatty acid binding protein 4; ...
Y. Higashikuni, J. Sainz, K. Nakamura et al., "The ATP-binding cassette transporter BCRP1/ABCG2 plays a pivotal role in cardiac ... suggested the co-expression of podoplanin and ATP-binding cassette transporter G2 (ABCG2) as a higher prognostic marker with a ... cytotoxic T-cells can upregulate the Fas ligand and induce keratinocyte apoptosis in the suprabasal cell layer by binding to ...
The Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette protein ATMRP5/ATABCC5 is a high-affinity inositol hexakisphosphate transporter involved ... Arabidopsis possesses a superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Among these, the multidrug resistance- ... The Arabidopsis ATP-binding cassette protein ATMRP5/ATABCC5 is a high-affinity inositol hexakisphosphate transporter involved ... and high affinity ATP-dependent inositol hexakisphosphate transporter that is sensitive to inhibitors of ABC transporters. ...
ATP-binding cassette transporter subfamily G member 2 (lineage provides rise to. ATP-binding cassette transporter subfamily G ...
We recently showed that the ATP-binding-cassette (ABC) transporter gene CgCDR1 was upregulated in C. glabrata clinical isolates ...
ATP-binding cassette transporter 4 7q21.1 Flops phosphatidylcholine into bile ABCB11 ATP-binding cassette transporter 11 2q24 ... these ATP-binding-cassette (ABC) proteins, namely ABCB4, ABCB11 and ABCG5/8, transport phosphatidylcholine, bile salts and ... Genetic variability, haplotype structures, and ethnic diversity of hepatic transporters MDR3 (ABCB4) and bile salt export pump ... In conclusion, our case suggests that polymorphisms within the hepatocanalicular transporters may contribute to a more ...
ATP binding cassette transporter G1 deletion induces IL-17-dependent dysregulation of pulmonary adaptive immunity. Journal of ... ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G1 Deficiency Dysregulates Host Defense in the Lung. American Journal of Respiratory and ... ATP Binding Cassette Transporter G1 Deficiency Dysregulates Host Defense in the Lung. American Journal of Respiratory and ... ATP binding cassette transporter G1 deletion induces IL-17-dependent dysregulation of pulmonary adaptive immunity. Journal of ...
... into a binding pocket on the 40S subunit. This repositioning explains a newly observed anti-association activity of ABCE1. ... The essential ATP-binding cassette protein ABCE1 splits 80S ribosomes into 60S and 40S subunits after canonical termination or ... Dean, M. & Annilo, T. Evolution of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily in vertebrates. Annu. Rev. Genomics ... The essential Drosophila ATP-binding cassette domain protein, pixie, binds the 40 S ribosome in an ATP-dependent manner and is ...
Hong Lu,Yong-Yu Xu,Cui F. Phylogenetic Analysis of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family in Three Mosquito Species[J]. ... Hong Lu,Yong-Yu Xu,&崔峰.(2016).Phylogenetic Analysis of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family in Three Mosquito Species. ... Hong Lu,et al."Phylogenetic Analysis of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family in Three Mosquito Species".Pesticide ... Phylogenetic Analysis of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family in Three Mosquito Species. ...
  • ABC transporters often consist of multiple subunits, one or two of which are transmembrane proteins and one or two of which are membrane-associated AAA ATPases. (wikipedia.org)
  • ABC transporters are considered to be an ABC superfamily based on the similarities of the sequence and organization of their ATP-binding cassette (ABC) domains, even though the integral membrane proteins appear to have evolved independently several times, and thus comprise different protein families. (wikipedia.org)
  • The third subgroup of ABC proteins do not function as transporters, but are rather involved in translation and DNA repair processes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pathogens use siderophores, such as Enterobactin, to scavenge iron that is in complex with high-affinity iron-binding proteins or erythrocytes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Background: ABC transporter superfamily is one of the largest and ubiquitous groups of proteins. (uky.edu)
  • Protein stabilization upon ligand binding has frequently been used to identify ligands for soluble proteins. (nih.gov)
  • Here the authors used MsbA (an adenosine triphosphate binding cassette transporter), CorA (a Mg(++) channel), and CpxA (a histidine kinase) as model proteins and show that DSLS is not sensitive to the presence of detergents or protein hydrophobicity and can be used to monitor thermodenaturation of membrane proteins, assess their stability, and detect ligand binding in a 384-well format. (nih.gov)
  • Hopfner, K.P. Invited review: architectures and mechanisms of ATP binding cassette proteins. (nature.com)
  • Starting from native material or recombinant systems, we succeed with all types of membrane proteins: GPCRs, Ion Channels, Transporters, Receptors and Viral Proteins. (calixar.com)
  • Periplasmic binding proteins (PBPs) constitute a protein superfamily that binds a wide variety of ligands. (rcsb.org)
  • By contrast, oligopeptide-binding proteins bind their ligands through interactions with the peptide backbone but do not distinguish between different side chains. (rcsb.org)
  • Here, we present the crystal structure of a T. maritima cellobiose-binding protein (tm0031) that is homologous to oligopeptide-binding proteins. (rcsb.org)
  • [2] ABCG2 belongs to the family of 48 transporter proteins called ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters). (proteopedia.org)
  • A structural genomics approach is used to determine to the structures of proteins belonging to other classes of ABC transporters. (rug.nl)
  • The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) of active transporters comprises a group of proteins that which facilitate efflux of anticancer drugs from cancer cells. (lu.se)
  • The ATPase subunits utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) binding and hydrolysis to provide the energy needed for the translocation of substrates across membranes, either for uptake or for export of the substrate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Mutations in ABCA12 , a gene that encodes adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding cassette transporter (ABC), subfamily A, member 12, in chromosome region 2q35, underlie this disorder. (medscape.com)
  • Most of the uptake systems also have an extracytoplasmic receptor, a solute binding protein. (wikipedia.org)
  • Transporters are extremely vital in cell survival such that they function as protein systems that counteract any undesirable change occurring in the cell. (wikipedia.org)
  • To quantify MRP1 structural dynamics, we engineered a "two-color MRP1" construct by fusing green fluorescent protein (GFP) and TagRFP to MRP1 nucleotide-binding domains NBD1 and NBD2, respectively. (sdstate.edu)
  • The essential ATP-binding cassette protein ABCE1 splits 80S ribosomes into 60S and 40S subunits after canonical termination or quality-control-based mRNA surveillance processes. (nature.com)
  • Structural organization of essential iron-sulfur clusters in the evolutionarily highly conserved ATP-binding cassette protein ABCE1. (nature.com)
  • The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. (nih.gov)
  • ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family C Protein 10 Participates in the Synthesis and Efflux of Hexosylceramides in Liver Cells. (nih.gov)
  • Recent studies have demonstrated that ATP-binding cassette protein A1 (ABCA1) is highly regulated in macrophages and mediates the efflux of cholesterol and phospholipids to apolipoproteins, a process necessary for HDL formation. (jci.org)
  • The membrane-associated protein encoded by this gene is a member of the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. (nih.gov)
  • T. maritima cellobiose-binding protein binds a variety of lengths of beta(1-->4)-linked glucose oligomers, ranging from two rings (cellobiose) to five (cellopentaose). (rcsb.org)
  • Based on the structure, we performed integrative analysis of the cellular trafficking, protein thermostability, ATP hydrolysis, and the transport activity of representative mutations. (elifesciences.org)
  • The adrenoleukodystrophy protein (ALDP) or ABCD1 is an ABC transporter that participates in the transport of free very long-chain fatty acids and their CoA esters across the peroxisomal membrane. (elifesciences.org)
  • Nrf2 consists of six functional Neh domains (Neh1-Neh6), from which, the amino-terminal Neh2 domain controls binding Keap1-the inhibitor protein Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1, that is responsible for the cytosolic sequestration of Nrf2 under physiological conditions (Fig. 2 a). (springer.com)
  • The ABCG2 multidrug transporter or abc subfamily G member 2 is a membrane protein from the A TP- B inding C assette (ABC) transporter family, specifically the G-subfamily. (proteopedia.org)
  • One of the ABC transporters that is studied in detail is the osmoregulatory ABC transporter OpuA (class D). Osmotic control of OpuA involves gating by intracellular ionic strength and is mediated by lipid-protein interactions. (rug.nl)
  • 3 The tandem CBS domain 4 , which is linked to the nucleotide binding protein, plays a pivotal role in the regulation. (rug.nl)
  • Inhibited by the covalent attachment of herpes simplex virus ICP47 protein, which blocks the peptide-binding site of TAP. (lu.se)
  • Rare cases are hereditary, caused by mutations in surfactant protein (SP-B and SP-C) and ATP-binding cassette transporter A3 ( ABCA3 ) genes. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) are a transport system superfamily that is one of the largest and possibly one of the oldest gene families. (wikipedia.org)
  • Arabidopsis possesses a superfamily of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. (uea.ac.uk)
  • Dean, M. & Annilo, T. Evolution of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter superfamily in vertebrates. (nature.com)
  • Background and Purpose The ATP-binding cassette transporter A-1 (ABCA1) gene is a key target of the transcription factors liver-X-receptors (LXRs). (bioinf.org)
  • The ABCA1 gene belongs to a group of genes called the ATP-binding cassette family. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In particular, with some exceptions such as olfactory receptors and genes involved in keratin production, transporter genes are significantly more heterogeneously expressed than are most non-transporter genes. (biorxiv.org)
  • The discovery of the antioxidant response element (ARE) have led to the conclusion that the battery of genes, including glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL), thioredoxin reductase 1 (Txnrd1), NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) is regulated through Nrf2 binding to this consensus binding sequence [ 3 ]. (springer.com)
  • Recently, two ABC (ATP-binding cassette) transporters, ABCG5 and ABCG8, have been described as playing an important role in the absorption and excretion of sterols. (portlandpress.com)
  • Recently, two new members of the ABC transporter family (ABCG5 and ABCG8 heterodimers) have been discovered in the apical pole of the enterocyte and in the canalicular membrane of hepatocytes. (nih.gov)
  • ATP analogs bind MRP1 with reduced apparent affinity, inducing a partially closed conformation. (sdstate.edu)
  • ATP-binding cassette transporter subfamily G member 2 (lineage provides rise to multiple aerobic cell types, including cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and vascular clean muscle cells. (researchhunt.com)
  • This is the most common of the hereditary sideroblastic anemias, followed by mitochondrial transporter defects such as SLC25A38 gene mutation discussed below. (medscape.com)
  • The underlying genetic abnormality in harlequin ichthyosis is a mutation in the lipid-transporter gene ABCA12 on chromosome 2. (medscape.com)
  • ABC transporters utilize the energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis to transport various substrates across cellular membranes. (wikipedia.org)
  • [1] ABCG2 protects cells by exporting xenobiotic molecules out of the cell using ATP hydrolysis. (proteopedia.org)
  • As an ABC Transporter , ABCG2 exhibits ATPase activity and uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to facilitate transport. (proteopedia.org)
  • The membrane-spanning region of the ABC transporter protects hydrophilic substrates from the lipids of the membrane bilayer thus providing a pathway across the cell membrane. (wikipedia.org)
  • The results demonstrate the utility of the two-color MRP1 construct for investigating ATP-binding cassette transporter structural dynamics, and it holds great promise for high-throughput screening of chemical libraries for unknown activators, inhibitors, or transportable substrates of MRP1. (sdstate.edu)
  • In many cases, transporters exhibit extremely high Gini coefficients, even when their supposed substrates might be expected to be available to all tissues, indicating a much higher degree of specialisation than is usually assumed. (biorxiv.org)
  • Perland and Fredriksson, 2017 ) or the pharmaceutical drug substrates of these transporters, and one clue to this may be to understand their differential tissue distribution. (biorxiv.org)
  • The TMD is responsible for binding and transporting substrates, is embedded in the cell membrane, extends into the extracellular region (Figure 1). (proteopedia.org)
  • One molecule of ATP is hydrolyzed to transport substrates across the cell membrane while the second molecule of ATP is hydrolyzed to reset the transporter to its inward-facing conformation. (proteopedia.org)
  • The overall shift from inward-facing to outward-facing promotes the transport of substrates through the transporter. (proteopedia.org)
  • After substrates bind in Cavity 1, ATP binds each NBD leading to the transporter shifting from inward-facing to outward-facing. (proteopedia.org)
  • 2014) ATP-evoked sustained vasoconstrictions mediated by heteromeric P2X1/4 receptors in cerebral arteries. (jenabioscience.com)
  • 2014) Toll-like receptors 2, -3 and -4 prime microglia but not astrocytes across central nervous system regions for ATP-dependent interleukin-1β release. (jenabioscience.com)
  • 2009) Membrane components and purinergic signalling: the purinome, a complex interplay among ligands, degrading enzymes, receptors and transporters. (jenabioscience.com)
  • 1986) Effects of purine nucleotides on the binding of [3H]cyclopentyladenosine to adenosine A1-receptors in rat brain membranes. (jenabioscience.com)
  • In prokaryotes, PBPs function as receptors for ATP-binding cassette or tripartite ATP-independent transporters and chemotaxis systems. (rcsb.org)
  • The transmembrane domains (TMDs) and nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs) are indicated. (elifesciences.org)
  • nucleotide binding domains in red. (rug.nl)
  • For instance, a potential lethal increase in osmotic strength is counterbalanced by activation of osmosensing ABC transporters that mediate uptake of solutes. (wikipedia.org)
  • mainly involved in uptake, and ABC transporters (ABCs), mainly involved in efflux (e.g. (biorxiv.org)
  • In contrast, ATP dramatically stimulated rosuvastatin uptake into membranes expressing BCRP, but not control membranes. (aspetjournals.org)
  • D. & E. Uptake systems with two or four covalently linked substrate-binding domains (SBDs). (rug.nl)
  • Among the main mechanisms of this multidrug resistance is the overexpression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters that mediate drug efflux, and, specifically, ABCB1, ABCG2 and ABCC1 are known to cause cancer chemoresistance. (nature.com)
  • In this Review, we highlight the progress achieved in the past 5 years on the three transporters, ABCB1, ABCG2 and ABCC1, that are known to be of clinical importance. (nature.com)
  • The results showed that the 3 ABC transporters , particularly ABCC1 (p less than 0.0001), were highly expressed in the blood of CRC patients compared with controls. (bvsalud.org)
  • The NBDs in ABCG2 remain in contact with one another even without a bound substrate, providing greater substrate specificity as the entrance to the transporter is not as globular as other ABC transporters like ABCB1 or ABCC1. (proteopedia.org)
  • Our results show that ATP binding induces a large-amplitude conformational change that brings the NBDs into closer proximity. (sdstate.edu)
  • Conformational dynamics of ABC transporters is an important feature to explain how they operate, but experimental structures are determined in a static environment. (rcsb.org)
  • Inhibited by human cytomegalovirus US6 glycoprotein, which binds to the lumenal side of the TAP complex and inhibits peptide translocation by specifically blocking ATP-binding to TAP1 and prevents the conformational rearrangement of TAP induced by peptide binding. (lu.se)
  • Heide van der T., and Poolman, B. (2002) ABC transporters: one, two or four extracytoplasmic substrate-binding sites? (rug.nl)
  • Map-based cloning revealed that Eibi1 encodes an HvABCG31 full transporter. (haifa.ac.il)
  • By heterologous expression in yeast, we demonstrate that AtMRP5 encodes a specific and high affinity ATP-dependent inositol hexakisphosphate transporter that is sensitive to inhibitors of ABC transporters. (uea.ac.uk)
  • Furthermore, genetic modification of ABC transporters by CRISPR-Cas9 and approaches to re-engineer amino acid sequences to change the direction of transport from efflux to import are briefly discussed. (nature.com)
  • We address the molecular basis of their broad substrate specificity gleaned from structural information and discuss novel approaches to block the function of ABC transporters. (nature.com)
  • ABC transporters are also involved in multiple drug resistance, and this is how some of them were first identified. (wikipedia.org)
  • This ABC full-transporter is a member of the MRP subfamily which is involved in multi-drug resistance. (nih.gov)
  • Nucleoside-triphosphates can be converted by different membrane-bound phosphatases into nucleosides acting as nucleoside receptor ligands. (jenabioscience.com)
  • Here we report that an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) subfamily G (ABCG) full transporter is required for leaf water conservation in both wild barley and rice. (haifa.ac.il)
  • Homologs of HvABCG31 were found in green algae, moss, and lycopods, indicating that this full transporter is highly conserved in the evolution of land plants. (haifa.ac.il)
  • Increased expressions of cellular ATP-binding cassette transporters may be a promising diagnostic marker for colorectal cancer. (bvsalud.org)
  • These structures also illustrated the transporter cycle of ABCG2, the binding locations for inhibitors, and the link between cancer and the ABC transporter family. (proteopedia.org)
  • The structure and functional studies of disease-causing mutations are solid and will appeal to the transporter and medical genetics communities. (elifesciences.org)
  • Hong Lu,Yong-Yu Xu,Cui F. Phylogenetic Analysis of the ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter Family in Three Mosquito Species[J]. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology,2016,132:118-124. (ioz.ac.cn)
  • Discovery of the hepatic canalicular and intestinal cholesterol transporters. (nih.gov)
  • Experiments in genetically engineered mice have demonstrated that ABCG5/G8 represent the physiological canalicular transporter of biliary cholesterol and the intestinal secretory mechanism of absorbed dietary plant sterols. (nih.gov)
  • Also acts as a molecular scaffold for the final stage of MHC class I folding, namely the binding of peptide. (lu.se)
  • High-resolution structures, biophysical and in silico studies have led to tremendous progress in understanding the mechanism of drug transport by these ABC transporters, and several promising therapies, including irradiation-based immune and thermal therapies, and nanomedicine have been used to overcome ABC transporter-mediated cancer chemoresistance. (nature.com)
  • Fig. 2: Structures of three ATP-binding cassette transporters. (nature.com)
  • This study allows a comprehensive understanding of the trehalose recycling mechanism in Mycobacteria and also demonstrates the potential of single-particle cryo-EM to explore the dynamic structures of other ABC transporters and molecular machines. (rcsb.org)
  • Belongs to the abc transporter family. (lu.se)
  • Genetic variation in the ATP binding cassette transporter ABCC10 is associated with neutropenia for docetaxel in Japanese lung cancer patients cohort. (nih.gov)
  • Bacterial ABC transporters are essential in cell viability, virulence, and pathogenicity. (wikipedia.org)
  • Compared to other lipid ATP-binding cassette transporters, ALDP has two substrate binding cavities formed by the transmembrane domains. (elifesciences.org)
  • Hundreds of ABC transporters have been characterized from both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The temporal expression profiles of these 55 ABC transporters throughout B. tabaci developmental stages and their responses to imidacloprid, a neonicotinoid insecticide, were investigated using RNA-seq analysis. (uky.edu)
  • Furthermore, the mRNA expression of 24 ABC transporters (44% of the total) representing all eight subfamilies was confirmed by the quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). (uky.edu)
  • The identification of these ABC transporters, their temporal expression profiles during B. tabaci development, and their response to a neonicotinoid insecticide lay the foundation for functional genomic understanding of their contribution to the invasiveness of B. tabaci. (uky.edu)
  • To measure the blood expression levels of related drug -resistant ATP -binding cassette (ABC) transporters in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and to assess these examined transporters for whether they present signi cant expression in connection with the tumor appearance of CRC. (bvsalud.org)
  • We analyse two comprehensive transcriptome datasets from human tissues and human-derived cell lines in terms of the expression profiles of the SLC and ABC families of membrane transporters. (biorxiv.org)
  • Similar trends hold true for the expression profiles of transporters in different cell lines, suggesting that cell lines exhibit largely similar transport behaviour to that of tissues. (biorxiv.org)
  • A high percentage of the ABC family transporters (19 of the 48) transport chemotherapeutic agents out of cells, making expression levels of ABC transporters a major indicator of cancer treatment prognosis. (proteopedia.org)
  • [1] The NBD binds and processes ATP and is located inside of the cell where it is exposed to the cytosol. (proteopedia.org)
  • Whereas osmoregulatory ABC transporters protect cells against hyperosmotic stress, mechanosensitive channels like MscL offer protection against osmotic downshifts. (rug.nl)
  • In this study, we annotated ABC transporters from a newly sequenced sweetpotato whitefly genome. (uky.edu)
  • We suggest that current information regarding the structure, mechanism and regulation of ABC transporters should be used in clinical trials to improve the efficiency of chemotherapeutics for patients with cancer. (nature.com)
  • Schmitt, L. & Tampé, R. Structure and mechanism of ABC transporters. (nature.com)
  • By contrast, the Gini coefficients for ABC transporters tend to be larger in cell lines than in tissues, implying that some kind of a selection process has taken place. (biorxiv.org)
  • 2014) The P2Y2 nucleotide receptor mediates the proliferation and migration of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells induced by ATP. (jenabioscience.com)
  • Inhibited by human adenovirus e3-19k glycoprotein, which binds the TAP complex and acts as a tapasin inhibitor, preventing MHC class I/TAP association. (lu.se)
  • Fig. 3: Substrate-binding pockets of ATP-binding cassette transporters and the drug transport cycle. (nature.com)
  • The expressions of ABC transporters were found to be significantly higher in CRC patients , and they may act as diagnostic markers and should potentially be tested for their contribution to drug sensitivity in CRC patients . (bvsalud.org)
  • means that to understand drug distributions we must understand transporter distributions. (biorxiv.org)