• The ability to form biofilms within its host ensures the success of the bacteria's reproduction cycle and eventual secretion of cholera toxin, 1 of 2 virulence factors that contribute to 21,000 to 143,000 cholera deaths worldwide each year. (asm.org)
  • The RTX family is defined by two common features: characteristic repeats in the toxin protein sequences, and extracellular secretion by the type I secretion systems (T1SS). (wikipedia.org)
  • MARTX toxins are much larger than RTX toxins and are exported by modified type 1 secretion systems containing an additional ABC-transporter. (wikipedia.org)
  • These isolates encode virulence factors including cholera toxin and the toxin-coregulated pilus, as well as a type 3 secretion system. (cdc.gov)
  • The pharmacological modulation with CORM-2 (a CO donor) or Hemin (a HO-1 inducer) decreased the intestinal fluid secretion and Cl- efflux, altered by cholera toxin. (bvsalud.org)
  • In contrast, ZnPP (a HO-1 inhibitor) reversed the antisecretory effect of Hemin and potentiated cholera toxin-induced intestinal secretion. (bvsalud.org)
  • Genome content analysis revealed that general classes of putative host-microbe interaction functions, such as secretion systems and toxin classes, were identified in all bacterial strains. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Bacterial toxins are often characterized based upon the secretion mechanism that delivers the toxin out of the bacterium, termed types I-VII. (springer.com)
  • Virulence factors located on chromosomal pathogenicity islands also exist in some strains of V. coralliilyticus . (nature.com)
  • A cluster of virulence genes encoded on a pathogenicity island is responsible for the pathogenicity of L. monocytogenes . (pressbooks.pub)
  • Additionally, A.kadavra appears to have similar pathogenicity to anthrax toxin. (bartleby.com)
  • The epidemiology and pathogenicity of these strains have not yet been clearly defined, but the presence of a large 60 kD plasmid encoding several virulence factors and toxins is important for their virulence. (zoologix.com)
  • Pathogenicity islands (PAIs) are large genomic regions that contain virulence genes, which aid pathogens in establishing infections. (springeropen.com)
  • This model is useful for studying the pathogenicity of other P. multocida type A isolates in the specific pig host. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Virulence Virulence The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. (lecturio.com)
  • Toxins produced by microorganisms are important virulence determinants responsible for microbial pathogenicity and/or evasion of the host immune response . (wikipedia.org)
  • Medical diagnostic of pathogenic Bacteria and Fungi, epidemiology of infectious agents, detection of bacterial toxins and virulence factors of bacteria & Fungi and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance, 70 publications, mostly in international indexed journals. (tripod.com)
  • Bacterial toxins damage the host at the site of bacterial infection or distant from the site. (springer.com)
  • Bacterial toxins can be single proteins or oligomeric protein complexes that are organized with distinct AB structure-function properties. (springer.com)
  • Bacterial toxins also catalyze the non-covalent modification of host protein function or can modify host cell properties through direct protein-protein interactions. (springer.com)
  • This review summarizes the major families of bacterial toxins and also describes the specific structure-function properties of the botulinum neurotoxins. (springer.com)
  • We demonstrate that bacteriophage genomes encoding toxin genes with homology to those found in pathogenic V. cholerae are integrated in V. coralliilyticus genomes. (nature.com)
  • In V. cholerae , CTXφ prophage transmits toxin genes among the bacteria that express the TCP prophage receptor. (nature.com)
  • A pathogen's virulence factors are encoded by genes that can be identified using molecular Koch's postulates. (pressbooks.pub)
  • When genes encoding virulence factors are inactivated, virulence in the pathogen is diminished. (pressbooks.pub)
  • These genes are regulated by a transcriptional factor known as peptide chain release factor 1 (PrfA). (pressbooks.pub)
  • One of the genes regulated by PrfA is hyl , which encodes a toxin known as listeriolysin O (LLO), which allows the bacterium to escape vacuoles upon entry into a host cell. (pressbooks.pub)
  • Clostridium difficile is a gram positive, spore forming anaerobic bacillus, which may or may not carry the genes for toxin A-B production (Nipa, 2010). (bartleby.com)
  • Large scale studies, carried out to identify virulence genes in S. pneumoniae , report different results concerning surface zinc metalloproteinases. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In contrast, we observed diversity of individual genes within families (e.g. non-ribosomal peptide synthetase clusters and insecticidal toxin components), indicating the specific molecules secreted by each strain can vary. (biomedcentral.com)
  • To test this hypothesis, 300 V. cholerae isolates of non-O1 and non-O139 serogroups were screened for the presence of virulence genes and an epidemic genetic background by DNA dot blotting, IS1004 fingerprinting, and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. (omicsdi.org)
  • Both PAIs contained virulence genes. (springeropen.com)
  • Toxin-antitoxin (TA) genes were found in all three species: on the V. diabolicus fitness island, and on the V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus PAIs. (springeropen.com)
  • Pathogenesis of both species is complex, and while some virulence factor genes have been implicated, the mechanisms underlying V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus virulence are not well understood (Broberg et al. (springeropen.com)
  • Although non‒O1/O139 strains can encode Ctx and Tcp, they may be underreported as a cause of diarrheal illness because routine laboratory testing in cholera-endemic settings only includes testing for O1 and O139 serogroups ( 13 ). (cdc.gov)
  • To analyse the importance in virulence of three of these metalloproteinases, intranasal challenge of MF1 outbred mice was carried out using a range of infecting doses of wild type and knock-out pneumococcal mutant strains, in order to compare mice survival. (biomedcentral.com)
  • ii) ZmpC, only present in about 25% of pneumococcal strains, has a lower influence on virulence in mice. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Xenorhabdus strains (members of a single species) can display wide variation in host-interaction phenotypes and genetic potential indicating that strains may differ in their encoded symbiosis factors, including secreted metabolites. (biomedcentral.com)
  • To discern strain-level variation among symbiosis factors, and facilitate the identification of novel compounds, we performed a comparative analysis of the genomes of 10 Xenorhabdus bovienii bacterial strains. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The analyses presented here demonstrate that while general mechanisms by which X. bovienii bacterial strains interact with their invertebrate hosts are similar, the specific molecules mediating these interactions differ. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our data support that adaptation of individual bacterial strains to distinct hosts or niches has occurred. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The hypothesis that some PmA strains are primary pathogens and cause disease in pigs without any co-factor was confirmed. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Diarrheagenic strains of E. coli can be classified into 5 key "pathotypes," each of which has unique virulence factors Virulence factors Those components of an organism that determine its capacity to cause disease but are not required for its viability per se. (lecturio.com)
  • They include shiga toxin which is produced by Shigella dysenteriae and a variety of shiga-like toxins that are produced by pathologic strains of Escherichia coli such as Escherichia coli o157. (lecturio.com)
  • V. cholerae is able to alternate between living in the environment and within a host. (kenyon.edu)
  • As it is caused by this aquatic pathogen, cholera is most commonly spread by water supplies contaminated with stools infected with V. cholerae . (kenyon.edu)
  • However, those that survive travel to the small intestine where they begin to produce cholera toxin (CT), which is the main virulence factor of V. cholerae . (kenyon.edu)
  • However, the underlying mechanisms are not understood and a possible role for prophages in driving virulence of coral pathogens, as is the case for V. cholerae , has not yet been considered. (nature.com)
  • The 2 biotypes of V. cholerae serogroup O1 have been the causes of the previous 6 (classical) and ongoing seventh cholera pandemic (El Tor) ( 4 , 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Decades of study of V. cholerae O1 have showed that cholera pathogenesis is largely driven by the activity of the secreted cholera toxin (Ctx), a potent AB 5 toxin that targets intestinal epithelial cells and causes secretory diarrhea in infected hosts. (cdc.gov)
  • V. cholerae intestinal colonization depends on the toxin-coregulated pilus (Tcp), which is coordinately expressed with Ctx ( 6 ). (cdc.gov)
  • These two types of protein exotoxins produced by the Clostridium difficile bacillus, toxin A and toxin B, can have an infectious form and a non-active, non-infectious form (Grossman, 2010). (bartleby.com)
  • Ботулізм Botulism is poisoning that is due to Clostridium botulinum toxin and that affects the peripheral nerves. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Protein synthesized by CLOSTRIDIUM TETANI as a single chain of ~150 kDa with 35% sequence identity to BOTULINUM TOXIN that is cleaved to a light and a heavy chain that are linked by a single disulfide bond. (wakehealth.edu)
  • This is due to the unique virulence factor s produced by individual pathogens, which determine the extent and severity of disease they may cause. (pressbooks.pub)
  • Similarly, factors involved in parasitism (e.g. immune suppression and microbial competition factors), likely differ based on evolution in response to naturally encountered organisms, such as insect hosts, competitors, predators or pathogens. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Many pathogens can selectively attach to particular host surfaces. (biologyease.com)
  • Some pathogens may be capable of growth within cells of the host disrupting the normal physiological process. (biologyease.com)
  • The interactions between pathogens and their hosts involve complex and diverse processes at the genetic, biochemical, phenotypic, population, and community levels, while the distribution and abundance of microorganisms in nature and their microbial processes are affected by both biotic and abiotic factors that act at different scales. (nationalacademies.org)
  • What biotic and abiotic factors influence the viability and survivability of waterborne pathogens? (nationalacademies.org)
  • 1). However, other medical conditions such as co-infection with parasites and Vitamin A deficiency increase susceptibility to cholera infection. (kenyon.edu)
  • Although the mechanism of cholera infection has been well-studied, it remains a problem, especially in developing countries. (kenyon.edu)
  • This process of inducing virulence in an otherwise harmless bacterium through prophage infection and integration of the prophage genome into the bacterial host genome is called lysogenic conversion 8 . (nature.com)
  • Microorganisms may produce toxins that facilitate infection. (medscape.com)
  • Galleria mellonella as a model host to study infection by the Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Botulism may occur without infection if toxin is ingested, injected, or inhaled. (msdmanuals.com)
  • staphylococcal or Bacillus cereus food poisoning), toxins are produced by organisms during the course of infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Infection is a process in which a parasite enters the host (by invasion), establishes itself in the host bypasses the defensive barriers of the host, and produces a harmful effect. (biologyease.com)
  • Host-microbe interactions thus result in the following types of infection. (biologyease.com)
  • If the host is to recover from an infection it must eradicate the pathogenic microorganisms. (biologyease.com)
  • Thus an infection represents a battle between the defense mounted by the host and virulence produced by the pathogen, often the infection proves lethal to the hosts. (biologyease.com)
  • 2. Re-infection - It is a subsequent infection by the same parasite in the host. (biologyease.com)
  • When host resistance is lowered by pre-existing infectious disease a new parasite sets up and infection is called a Secondary infection. (biologyease.com)
  • 4. Mixed infection- When more than one organism simultaneously infects the host it is called a mixed infection. (biologyease.com)
  • 8. Endogenous /autogenous infection - Infection is caused by commensals due to the lowering of host resistance. (biologyease.com)
  • 10. Latent infection - Some parasites following infection may remain in tissues in a latent or hidden form and produce a disease when host resistance is lowered. (biologyease.com)
  • During the infection process, bacteriophages can transfer foreign DNA to their host (including virulence factors), integrate into the host genome, and/or kill their host through cell lysis ( Chen and Novick, 2009 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Diarrheal illness occurs when microbial virulence overwhelms normal host defenses. (medscape.com)
  • [16] They can also be classified by their source, such as fungal biotoxins , microbial toxins , plant biotoxins , or animal biotoxins. (wikipedia.org)
  • The RTX toxin superfamily is a group of cytolysins and cytotoxins produced by bacteria. (wikipedia.org)
  • Xenorhabdus bacteria engage in a beneficial symbiosis with Steinernema nematodes, in part by providing activities that help kill and degrade insect hosts for nutrition. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The integrated life cycle of Xenorhabdus bacteria and Steinernema nematodes comprises alternating environments of the soil and insect hosts infected by the pair (Fig. 1 ) [ 6 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The infective juvenile (IJ) is the soil dwelling, environmental stage of the nematode that carries bacteria and infects insect hosts. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Once in the insect blood cavity, the nematodes and bacteria produce virulence factors and kill the insect host. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The development of anti-infectives against a large range of AB-like toxin-producing bacteria include. (listlabs.com)
  • On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either exotoxins , excreted by an organism, or endotoxins , which are released mainly when bacteria are lysed . (wikipedia.org)
  • The QS pathway also leads to induction of virulence factors such as toxin coregulated pilus (TCP) and cholera toxin (CTX), essential for colonization of the host and enterotoxicity, respectively. (kegg.jp)
  • There are an estimated 3-4 million cases of cholera globally each year, driving marked interest in understanding the genomic diversity and evolution of the causative pathogen ( 1 , 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Recall that an adhesin is a protein or glycoprotein found on the surface of a pathogen that attaches to receptors on the host cell. (pressbooks.pub)
  • To establish that Imperio (toxin) promotes the survival of A.kadavra (pathogen) and kills the host, there will need to be an in vivo model established. (bartleby.com)
  • A wild type mouse with a working Crucio receptor and no pathogen exposure will be compared against a wild type mouse with a working Crucio receptor that has been exposed to the toxin and a mouse with a Crucio knockout and toxin exposure. (bartleby.com)
  • The general rtx gene cluster encodes three protein types: the RTX toxin, an RTX activating acyltransferase, and T1SS proteins. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infectious diseases occur as a result of interaction between pathogenic microorganisms and the host. (biologyease.com)
  • Here damage to the body cells usually occurs as a result of the elaboration of poisonous substances (toxins) by the microorganisms. (biologyease.com)
  • However pathogenic microorganisms have weapons called virulence factors that fight (combat) with various defense mechanisms of the host. (biologyease.com)
  • The name RTX (repeats in toxin) refers to the glycine and aspartate-rich repeats located at the C-terminus of the toxin proteins, which facilitate export by a dedicated T1SS encoded within the rtx operon. (wikipedia.org)
  • Clinically, ETEC induce a watery diarrhea in infected hosts by action of the two toxins, LT and ST. The LT enterotoxin is very similar to cholera toxin in both structure and mode of action. (zoologix.com)
  • They can also secrete toxins, such as heat-stable enterotoxin 1 (EAST1), Pet and Pic, which are associated with damage to the mucosa. (zoologix.com)
  • Yamasaki S, Sato T, Hidaka Y, Ozaki H, Ito H, Hirayama T, Takeda Y, Sugimura T, Tai A, Shimonishi Y (1990) Structure-activity relationship of Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin: Role of Ala residue at position 14 in toxin-receptor interaction. (springer.com)
  • In this section, we examine various types and specific examples of virulence factors and how they contribute to each step of pathogenesis. (pressbooks.pub)
  • A genomic island must contain at least one virulence gene, or gene that contributes to pathogenesis, to be considered a PAI. (springeropen.com)
  • Pathogenesis varies based on the strain, but it can include toxin production, invasion of the mucosal surface, and adhesion with alteration of enterocyte structure. (lecturio.com)
  • The oral vaccine is available for individuals travelling to countries where cholera is endemic, and has recently started to be used during outbreaks of the disease. (kenyon.edu)
  • Cholera, a persistent global public health concern, continues to cause outbreaks in approximately 30 countries and territories this year. (bvsalud.org)
  • Testing not Supportive necessary, care selflimiting (consider testing food and stool for toxin in outbreaks). (docshare.tips)
  • Epizootics with sometimes extensive die-offs of animal hosts may herald outbreaks of tularemia in humans. (cdc.gov)
  • They vary greatly in their toxicity , ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting ) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as botulinum toxin ). (wikipedia.org)
  • Here we analyse five whole genome sequences of V. coralliilyticus to examine whether virulence is similarly driven by horizontally acquired elements. (nature.com)
  • The DNA may remain separate as a plasmid or be incorporated into the host genome. (pressbooks.pub)
  • Tetanus Toxin" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (wakehealth.edu)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Tetanus Toxin" by people in this website by year, and whether "Tetanus Toxin" was a major or minor topic of these publications. (wakehealth.edu)
  • Below are the most recent publications written about "Tetanus Toxin" by people in Profiles. (wakehealth.edu)
  • Genotypic analysis of clinical and environmental Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from Brazil reveals the presence of VNB isolates and a correlation with biological factors. (cdc.gov)
  • The bacterium responsible for cholera was isolated in pure culture by Robert Koch in 1850. (kenyon.edu)
  • Once intracellular concentration increases, autoinducers bind to their receptors, triggering signaling cascades that alter transcription factor activity and therefore, gene expression. (asm.org)
  • These toxins recognize protein receptors such as the β2-integrins, form pores at high concentrations, and cause cell rupture by mechanisms not well understood. (wikipedia.org)
  • The effects of Shiga toxin 1 and Shiga toxin 2 have been shown to vary with cell type because Gb3 receptors are present in certain tissues, particularly sensory neurons and renal cells. (listlabs.com)
  • Gb 3 glycosphingolipids are the specific receptors for bacterial Shiga toxin. (springer.com)
  • Most toxins bind to specific target cell receptors. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Toxins can be small molecules , peptides , or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors . (wikipedia.org)
  • Some organisms (eg, V cholera, enterotoxigenic E coli ) produce proteins that aid their adherence to the intestinal wall, thereby displacing the normal flora and colonizing the intestinal lumen. (medscape.com)
  • Cholera is a severe diarrheal disease with ancient origins, with Sanskrit accounts of the disease from the Indian subcontinent dating to the fifth century B.C. (1). (kenyon.edu)
  • Moreover, CORM-2 also prevented the alteration of intestinal epithelial architecture and local vascular permeability promoted by cholera toxin. (bvsalud.org)
  • Engineered bacteriophages exhibit exceptional cholera toxin affinity, through specific antibody fragments or mimotopes, enabling precise quantification. (bvsalud.org)
  • Anti-Shiga Toxin Camelid Antibody, which is a heterotetramer VHH that recognizes both Shiga Toxin 1 and Shiga Toxin 2, is also available. (listlabs.com)
  • Anti-Shiga Toxin 1 or Anti-Shiga Toxin 2 Antibody, when paired with the Anti-Shiga Toxin Camelid Antibody, can be used in a standard sandwich ELISA. (listlabs.com)
  • Product #766 Anti-Shiga Toxin Camelid Antibody, VHH is provided as a liquid in PBS buffer solution. (listlabs.com)
  • The T1SS proteins form a continuous channel spanning both the inner membrane (IM) and outer membrane (OM) of the bacterial cell, preventing RTX toxin exposure to the periplasmic space (between the IM and OM). (wikipedia.org)
  • However, evidence has shown leukotoxic activity in the hemolysins, leading to reclassification of RTX toxin subgroups into two families: pore-forming leukotoxins (RTX-toxin family, 1.C.11.1.1) and the MARTX toxins (CCT family, 1.C.57.3.4) (multifunctional autoprocessing RTX toxins). (wikipedia.org)
  • The RTX-toxin family (TC# 1.C.11) (subfamily of RTX-toxin superfamily) is a large family of multidomain Gram-negative bacterial pore-forming exotoxins. (wikipedia.org)
  • This activity renders the 28S rRNA unable to interact with the elongation factors EF-1 and EF-2, thus inhibiting protein synthesis. (listlabs.com)
  • In addition to inhibiting protein synthesis, Shiga toxins induce cytokines such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8. (listlabs.com)
  • Two classes have been characterized: toxins, biological and surface adhesion molecules that affect the ability of the microorganism to invade and colonize a host. (lecturio.com)
  • ST is known to bind to and activate a guanylate cyclase enzyme located on apical membranes of host cells. (zoologix.com)
  • In those cell types, the receptor concentration and binding is modulated by factors such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukins, and fatty acid content of the membranes. (listlabs.com)
  • Whereas the trisaccharidic head group of Gb 3 defines the specificity of Shiga toxin binding, the lipophilic part composed of sphingosine and different fatty acids is suggested to determine its localization within membranes impacting membrane organisation and protein binding eventually leading to protein internalisation. (springer.com)
  • The results clearly highlight the influence of the different fatty acids of the Gb 3 sphingolipids on the phase behaviour and the binding properties of Shiga toxin B subunits, even though the membranes were only doped with 5 mol% of the receptor lipid. (springer.com)
  • Further study is needed of the roles of idiotypic and anti-idiotypic antibodies, growth factors, cytokines, and various anti-inflammatory factors in the maternal milk in the infant's host defence. (unu.edu)
  • Such influences are related to the fact that human milk is rich in various immunologically active factors, in particular the stable antibodies. (unu.edu)
  • Rabbit polyclonal antibodies to Shiga Toxin 1 and 2 are provided by List. (listlabs.com)
  • Finally, using fluorometric technique, ELISA assay and molecular docking simulations, we show evidence that CO directly interacts with cholera toxin, forming a complex that affects its binding to GM1 receptor, which help explain the antisecretory effect. (bvsalud.org)
  • Neutrophil lifespan would be measured in a control, with exposure to Imperio toxin, with exposure to Imperio toxin with a blocked Crucio receptor, and with a blocked Crucio receptor but no toxin exposure. (bartleby.com)
  • Expected results would be the neutrophils exposed to the toxin and that had an intact Crucio receptor had the shortest lifespan. (bartleby.com)
  • Shiga toxins, also called verotoxins, consists of two domains: the A polypeptide confers the activity, and the B polypeptide pentamer confers the receptor-specific binding. (listlabs.com)
  • Shiga toxins then enter the cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis. (listlabs.com)
  • The B domain includes two functional domains: a receptor-binding domain, which defines the tropism of a toxin for a cell and a translocation domain that delivers the A domain across a lipid bilayer, either on the plasma membrane or the endosome. (springer.com)
  • 2018 ). Here, we will solely focus on the less recognized globosides and in particular the globoside Gb 3 , which is the membrane receptor for vero toxins. (springer.com)
  • Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents strictly based on their biological origin. (wikipedia.org)
  • All infectious diseases begin at some surfaces at the host, whether it may be external surfaces such as skin and conjunctiva or internal surfaces such as mucus membrane of the respiratory tract or intestine. (biologyease.com)
  • These jumbo bacteriophages were further characterized through genomic and proteomic comparison, mass spectrometry, host range and burst size. (frontiersin.org)
  • EIEC do not produce LT or ST toxin and, unlike Shigella, do not produce shiga toxin. (zoologix.com)
  • The B subunit of CT binds to the outside of the host cells, allowing the A sub-unit to enter the cell. (kenyon.edu)
  • Neutrophils that have been exposed to Imperio will be expected to show no motility comparable when Anthrax toxin binds to neutrophils. (bartleby.com)
  • Pathogenic symptoms induced by these diarrheagenic E. coli can be due to production of toxins or other virulence traits. (zoologix.com)
  • Shiga toxin 1 and 2 provided by List Labs are recombinantly expressed in E. coli and are highly purified. (listlabs.com)
  • Product #161 Shiga Toxin 1, recombinant from E. coli, is provided lyophilized in PBS buffer. (listlabs.com)
  • Product #162 Shiga Toxin 2, recombinant from E. coli, is provided as a liquid in a Tris buffer solution. (listlabs.com)
  • A meta-analysis showed that the combination of clinical risk factors and BMD provides higher specificity and sensitivity than either alone [6]. (cdk-receptor.com)
  • The presence of these genetic signatures indicates virulence in V. coralliilyticus is driven by prophages and other horizontally acquired elements. (nature.com)
  • [14] The human and scientific genetic assembly of a natural-based toxin should be considered a toxin as it is identical to its natural counterpart. (wikipedia.org)
  • Control neutrophils and neutrophils exposed to Imperio toxin will be collected before apoptosis. (bartleby.com)
  • The toxin causes disruption of the inhibitory mechanisms of the CNS, thus permitting uncontrolled nervous activity, leading to fatal CONVULSIONS. (wakehealth.edu)
  • You get them from single-celled organisms multiplying or releasing toxins in your body. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • Parasites are organisms that live on or inside another organism (the host) and benefit from it, often at the expense of the host. (stemcelldaily.com)
  • A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison [1] produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms . (wikipedia.org)
  • They have also been shown to induce expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF), induce F-actin depolymerization, and activate a Src kinase. (listlabs.com)
  • The present study evaluated the role of heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1)/carbon monoxide (CO) pathway in the cholera toxin-induced diarrhea and its possible action mechanism. (bvsalud.org)
  • This review explores cholera toxin detection, highlighting phage display-based nano immunosensors' potential. (bvsalud.org)
  • This innovative approach promises to reshape cholera toxin detection, offering an alternative to animal-derived methods. (bvsalud.org)