• Fundus bloodsucking parasites that inhabit the upper respiratory examination through a constricted pupil showed no tract of terrestrial, carnivorous vertebrates, mostly reptiles abnormalities. (cdc.gov)
  • Croup is a common, primarily pediatric viral respiratory tract illness. (medscape.com)
  • The lower respiratory tract may also be affected, as in acute laryngotracheobronchitis. (medscape.com)
  • 2005). In both rats (Hubbs combination, was measured in the upper respiratory tract of et al. (cdc.gov)
  • Upper respiratory tract infection (URI) represents the most common acute illness evaluated in the outpatient setting. (medscape.com)
  • Details of the patient's history aid in differentiating a common cold from conditions that require targeted therapy, such as group A streptococcal pharyngitis , bacterial sinusitis, and lower respiratory tract infections. (medscape.com)
  • First off, the upper respiratory tract includes the nose/nostrils and nasal cavity, mouth, throat, voice box and the mucosal membrane that lines the whole system. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • Feline upper respiratory infection (URI) is the common term for a respiratory infection caused by one or more viral or bacterial agents within the upper respiratory tract. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • 1. The respiratory system can be divided into the upper respiratory system, which can also be referred to as the upper airway and the upper respiratory tract, and the lower respiratory system, which can also be referred to as the lower airway and the lower respiratory tract, as shown in the picture below. (tiesen.nl)
  • The terminal portion of respiratory tract is where the exchange of gases occurs only. (tiesen.nl)
  • The respiratory tract is divided into two sections, namely, upper and lower. (tiesen.nl)
  • The conducting portion of the respiratory tract begins at the nose and nasal cavity and extends through the pharynx of the upper respiratory tract and the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles (airways of the lower respiratory tract). (tiesen.nl)
  • The Recovery Room: News beyond the pandemic - January 22, Lower respiratory tract infections: What to know, What to know about respiratory depression. (tiesen.nl)
  • d. lower respiratory tract: Term. (tiesen.nl)
  • A)the upper respiratory tract includes components of both functional portions B)the trachea is part of the lower respiratory tract but not of the bronchial tree C)stratified epithelia occur only in parts of the tract shared by another system The respiratory portion includes the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli. (tiesen.nl)
  • There was diffuse infiltration of the nasal mucosa and respiratory tract with lipogranulomatous material. (findzebra.com)
  • Below, we talk about the structure and function of various parts of your airway anatomy - AKA, your respiratory tract. (rejuv-health.com)
  • The airway is your respiratory tract, the part of your body that controls breathing. (rejuv-health.com)
  • The upper respiratory tract can also be said to include the part of the larynx above the vocal cords, but some experts simply group the larynx in with lower airway anatomy. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Therefore, under normal circumstances, M. pulmonis prefers to inhabit the upper respiratory tract and produces lung diseases as a secondary effect. (ratbehavior.org)
  • Therefore, chronic exposure to ammonia, perhaps through injury to the nasal mucosa, enhances the growth of M. pulmonis in the upper respiratory tract, producing more bacteria which subsequently invade the lung. (ratbehavior.org)
  • And the human nasal mucosa is the same as the mucous membranes of other parts of the respiratory tract, which requires exercise. (surgicalmaskmanufacturers.com)
  • Wearing a mask can reduce the stimulation of dry and cold air and hot and cold air alternately on the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. (surgicalmaskmanufacturers.com)
  • The epithelium lining the respiratory tract from the nasal fossa through the bronchi is called the respiratory mucosa and is characterized by a pseudostratified ciliated epithelium with abundant non-ciliated cells known as goblet cells. (medcell.org)
  • Local effects in the upper respiratory tract were induced after repeated inhalation exposure in experimental animals. (europa.eu)
  • The combined tissues and organs of the upper part of the digestive tract and the respiratory tract are defined as the aerodigestive tract. (nyogmd.com)
  • Included in the aerodigestive tract are the oral cavity (mouth), pyriform sinus, larynx, pharynx, esophagus, as well as the nose and sinus tract. (nyogmd.com)
  • The main causative agent of whooping cough is Bordetella pertussis ( 2 ), a gram negative coccobacillus which is able to colonize the human upper respiratory tract by attaching to the ciliated cells. (frontiersin.org)
  • To inhibit a hemorrhage of the respiratory tract (hemoptysis) and to determine its origin. (cun.es)
  • The respiratory tract is an anatomical structure primarily devoted to breathing and made up of several organs with the function of channeling air from the external environment, rich in oxygen, towards the inner part of the body, eliminating at the same time air "already breathed", which is therefore rich in carbon dioxide. (prodecopharma.com)
  • The passage of air in the upper airway (how this set of organs is called) allows it to be warmed up and take on water vapor: this way it is ready to move on to the second part of the respiratory tract, i.e. at mid-level. (prodecopharma.com)
  • Larynx and trachea channel inhaled air towards the bronchi, bronchioles and the lung alveoli, i.e. the lower airway, or final part of the respiratory tract. (prodecopharma.com)
  • The respiratory tract is anatomically closely connected to the set of thoracic muscles and to the diaphragm, which enable the rib cage to expand during inhalation. (prodecopharma.com)
  • Apart from the main, essential respiratory function, the respiratory tract also has another function: maintaining the right balance of acidity in the blood by regulating the quantity of carbon dioxide circulating. (prodecopharma.com)
  • All organs part of the respiratory tract are particularly exposed to attacks by bacteria, viruses or other harmful elements: in fact, these can be present in air inhaled and therefore come into direct contact with the mucosa of the nose, oral cavity, pharynx, etc. (prodecopharma.com)
  • Fibroscopy allows precise analysis of the respiratory tract. (tibhealth.com)
  • Fibroscopy consists of the introduction of a camera equipped with a light source into various cavities to be explored, especially in the respiratory tract (nose and mucous membranes, and throat). (tibhealth.com)
  • This carbon dioxide, along with other gases, takes the same path back through the respiratory tract and is exhaled into the atmosphere. (scienceabc.com)
  • Amidst this respiration process, dust can enter and become lodged in the respiratory tract. (scienceabc.com)
  • How Does The Respiratory Tract Deal With Inhaled Dust? (scienceabc.com)
  • Inhalation damages the respiratory tract epithelium and may cause death. (cdc.gov)
  • This inflammation is caused by a viral infection that occurs in the upper respiratory tract. (rainofmind.com)
  • As its alternative names, acute laryngotracheitis and acute laryngotracheobronchitis, indicate, croup generally affects the larynx and trachea, although this illness may also extend to the bronchi. (medscape.com)
  • The goal of the nasal passages, trachea, and bronchi (Hubbs et al. (cdc.gov)
  • The trachea carries air from the nose and mouth to the bronchi, which branch to each lung. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • The trachea extends further down into the breastbone and splits into two bronchi, one for each lung. (tiesen.nl)
  • Bronchial tree - At the bottom of the trachea, branches of bronchi (e.g., right bronchus or mainstem bronchi) and smaller bronchioles extend right and left to distribute air and oxygen to the lungs. (rejuv-health.com)
  • The primary bronchi are two tubes that branch from the trachea to the left and right lungs. (cliffsnotes.com)
  • Inside the lungs, each primary bronchus divides repeatedly into branches of smaller diameters, forming secondary (lobar) bronchi, tertiary (segmental) bronchi, and numerous orders of bronchioles (1 mm or less in diameter), including terminal bronchioles (0.5 mm in diameter) and microscopic respiratory bronchioles. (cliffsnotes.com)
  • The wall of the primary bronchi is constructed like the trachea, but as the branches of the tree get smaller, the cartilaginous rings and the mucosa are replaced by smooth muscle. (cliffsnotes.com)
  • The trachea is continuous with the larynx above and the two primary bronchi below. (medcell.org)
  • When the bronchi enter the lung, the C-shaped cartilages that characterize the trachea and primary bronchi are replaced by irregular plates or cartilage that completely surround the cylindrical muscular airway tube. (medcell.org)
  • The bronchoscopy is a diagnostic test that allows to visualize the airway (larynx, trachea and larger bronchi) and to collect samples of respiratory secretions, bronchial or lung tissue or nodes of the mediastinum. (cun.es)
  • It does not require general anesthesia, can be introduced through the nose or mouth and allows progress to smaller caliber bronchi. (cun.es)
  • After advancing through the pharynx and larynx, the vocal cords are reached and passing through them to the trachea and bronchi. (cun.es)
  • Other less common applications are the exploration of the glottis and trachea area, as well as the main bronchi in patients wearing a tracheostomy tube. (tibhealth.com)
  • At the 5th thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi. (scienceabc.com)
  • Respiratory diseases affect all parts of the system, including the nose and sinuses, the throat and larynx, the trachea, the bronchi and the lungs. (rainofmind.com)
  • Lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system which help in the exchange of gases. (tiesen.nl)
  • It consists of the nose and lungs, obviously. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Your airway starts with your nose (or mouth), continues through your windpipe (trachea), and ends in your lungs, where alveoli give your blood oxygen and extract carbon dioxide. (rejuv-health.com)
  • The anatomy of the airway begins with the nose and nasal cavity (or oral cavity), then proceeds through the pharynx, past the epiglottis, into the larynx where your vocal cords are, down the trachea, through the bronchial tree, and into the lungs. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Lastly, the lesions in the nose, ears, throats and lungs of the ammonia groups were more severe than those of the no-ammonia groups. (ratbehavior.org)
  • In addition, the nasal cavity is a curved channel, and there are 3 turbinates, which greatly Increasing the surface area of ​​the nasal mucosa, plus the warming and humidification of the mucous membranes of the throat, trachea, and bronchial tubes, the air is close to body temperature when it is inhaled into the lungs. (surgicalmaskmanufacturers.com)
  • Extrapulmonary air conduits are located outside of the lungs and begin with the nose, pharynx and larynx. (medcell.org)
  • This partial airway obstruction can be present at the level of the supraglottis, glottis, subglottis, and/or trachea. (medscape.com)
  • Although croup is usually a mild, self-limited disease, upper airway obstruction may cause respiratory distress and pose risk of death. (medscape.com)
  • Rare cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-rich pulmonary ionocytes exist throughout the cartilaginous airways of humans1,2, but limited presence and divergent biology in the proximal trachea of mice has prevented the use of traditional transgenic models to elucidate ionocyte functions in the airway. (bvsalud.org)
  • However, without the filtering, heating, and humidifying of your nasal cavity, cold, dry, and stale air directly enters the airway, damaging its mucosa, and leading to capillary bursts or even inflammation in worse cases. (varoninc.com)
  • Crusting and mucus stagnation with erythematous granular mucosa in the left nasal airway. (bmj.com)
  • Stridor is a harsh, vibratory sound of variable pitch caused by partial obstruction of the respiratory passages that results in turbulent airflow through the airway. (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • A foreign object in the airway can cause stridor by narrowing the passage of air through the trachea and creating air turbulence. (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • Stridor from infections is due to the turbulent flow of air past inflammatory swelling of the mucosa lining the airway. (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • Trachea - Also known as the windpipe, this provides a passage for oxygen to travel down (and carbon dioxide to travel up), while warming and moistening the air as it passes through. (rejuv-health.com)
  • The areas affected are the branches of the windpipe (trachea): the bronchial tubes and their smaller branches, the bronchioles. (uniklinik-freiburg.de)
  • The trachea (windpipe) is a flexible tube, 10 to 12 cm (4 inches) long and 2.5 cm (1 inch) in diameter (Figure 2). (cliffsnotes.com)
  • When we breathe inwards through our nose or mouth the air is taken into our windpipe (trachea). (specialityhomeopathy.com)
  • The trachea, more commonly known as the windpipe, is a straight tube extending up to the mid-thoracic cavity. (scienceabc.com)
  • Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) occurs when these fluids flow high enough into the back of the throat (pharynx) that they can be aspirated into the voice box (larynx) and trachea (windpipe). (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • Idiopathic subglottic stenosis (iSGS) is a narrowing of the trachea (windpipe) below the vocal cords (glottis) known as the subglottic area. (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • The respiratory portion comprises respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli. (tiesen.nl)
  • These are located entirely within the lung and are represented by respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. (medcell.org)
  • The respiratory airways extend from the respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli. (medcell.org)
  • The respiratory bronchioles have a diameter of 0.5 millimeters and feature a few alveoli scattered along their walls. (medcell.org)
  • Most of the ammonia-rats' lesions were at the front of their nasal passages, and the skin of their nasal and respiratory passages (olfactory and respiratory epithelium) was three or four times thicker than normal. (ratbehavior.org)
  • The most sensitive site in rodents and monkeys following inhalation exposure is the respiratory epithelium in the anterior part of the nasal cavity. (europa.eu)
  • At higher exposure levels also the olfactory epithelium, larynx or trachea were affected. (europa.eu)
  • With rare exceptions B. pertussis infections are restricted to the airways and do not usually disseminate beyond the respiratory epithelium. (frontiersin.org)
  • To open the way in obstructions of the major bronchial tubes or trachea due to tumors, inflammatory tissue, etc. by means of different more complex techniques (laser, photodynamic therapy, brachytherapy, cauterization or cryotherapy). (cun.es)
  • Placing prostheses in the trachea or major bronchial tubes in narrowings of these pathways. (cun.es)
  • It is in this anatomical area that gaseous exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place, which are at the basis of the respiratory process. (prodecopharma.com)
  • From the alveoli, the formation of respiratory surfaces occurs in humans. (tiesen.nl)
  • However, morbidity is secondary to narrowing of the larynx and trachea below the level of the glottis (subglottic region), causing the characteristic audible inspiratory stridor (see the image below). (medscape.com)
  • The infection spreads and eventually involves the larynx and trachea. (medscape.com)
  • Inflammation and edema of the subglottic larynx and trachea, especially near the cricoid cartilage, are most clinically significant. (medscape.com)
  • With radiotherapy to the larynx and trachea, together with systemic administration of cyclophosphamide and prednisolone, marked improvement occurred. (findzebra.com)
  • They are lined with a ciliated mucosa which has mucus glands. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • The sinuses are interconnected via a series of openings, allowing mucus to drain into the nose and pharynx. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • All rats infected with M. pulmonis (ammonia and no-ammonia groups) had inflammed nasal mucus membranes (rhinitis), inflammation of the middle ear (otitis media), and inflammation of the trachea. (ratbehavior.org)
  • or use the thumb and index finger to grip the root of the nose and massage it from top to bottom for many times to promote The blood circulation of the nasal mucosa makes the secretion of nasal mucus normal. (surgicalmaskmanufacturers.com)
  • The lining of the tubes (sub mucosa) becomes inflamed excess of mucus is produced which leads to coughing and production of sputum. (specialityhomeopathy.com)
  • The mucosa in WG has a granular quality and stagnant mucus superinfected with nasal commensals from the nasal vestibule can coat the septum and lateral nasal wall (see fig 1 ). (bmj.com)
  • Both mucus and vibrissae impede passing through of foreign substances such as dust or small insects, that would otherwise access the respiratory tracts together with air inhaled. (prodecopharma.com)
  • The intermediate hosts Her nose and throat were examined carefully for additional of these parasites are usually sheep, cattle, or rodents. (cdc.gov)
  • Cats will experience inflammation and drainage in the mucous membranes of their nose and throat. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • General cold symptoms such as dullness, head and body aches, runny nose or sore throat and possibly also fever may exist. (uniklinik-freiburg.de)
  • After SARS-CoV-2 challenge, vaccinated animals showed a significant strong reduction of virus loads in bronchoalveolar lavages (BAL) and decreased levels in throat and nasal mucosa. (frontiersin.org)
  • In particular, it is used in patients with throat, nose or ear problems. (tibhealth.com)
  • However, as it is a very precise test, it allows to visualize in a very concrete way any throat, nose, larynx or pharynx problem. (tibhealth.com)
  • Stertor is more nasal sounding and occurs from blockage higher up in the nose or throat. (johnmcclaymd.com)
  • The continuous flow of air reduces negative pressure and prevents gastric mucosa from being drawn into the catheter, which causes mucosal damage. (blograng.com)
  • Note the steeple or pencil sign of the proximal trachea evident on this anteroposterior film. (medscape.com)
  • Viruses causing acute infectious croup are spread through either direct inhalation from a cough and/or sneeze, or by contamination of hands from contact with fomites with subsequent touching the mucosa of the eyes, nose, and/or mouth. (medscape.com)
  • During mask inhalation the trachea can be blocked by saliva, or during deep anesthesia, by regurgitation of the crop content. (vin.com)
  • The airways are lined with a ciliated mucosa which carries debris upward to the mouth on a layer of mucous, where it is swallowed. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • An otoscope with a large speculum allows a good view of the nasal mucosa as long as the patient is asked to breathe through their mouth to avoid condensation on the lens. (bmj.com)
  • Endotracheal tube can be visualized going from mouth through vocal folds into trachea. (medscape.com)
  • There was no active bleeding from his nose and mouth and O 2 saturation was sustained at 98% with O 2 mask. (jcohns.org)
  • Infection with a cold occurs through exposure to sneezing and droplets from the patient's nose or mouth. (rainofmind.com)
  • To prevent the spread of the disease, patients should cover their nose and mouth with a tissue when sneezing or coughing. (rainofmind.com)
  • An infected cat will shed the contagious materials in the saliva or secretions from their nose or eyes. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • When bronchitis develops, the bronchial mucosa produces increased secretions that are coughed up as expectorate. (uniklinik-freiburg.de)
  • Signs of respiratory disease include tachycardia and tachypnea with pyrexia, dyspnea, mucoid nasal discharge, hypersalivation and abnormal lung sounds. (wikipedia.org)
  • For patient education information, see the Lung Disease and Respiratory Health Center , as well as Croup . (medscape.com)
  • So whether you are exercising or not, breathe with your nose to protect your trachea and lung. (varoninc.com)
  • Lung lesions occur irregularly, but are always associated with upper respiratory disease. (ratbehavior.org)
  • Each lung is attached by its root and pulmonary ligament to the heart and trachea but is otherwise free in the thoracic cavity. (dartmouth.edu)
  • With the fiberscope connected to a camera, the specialist will be able to illuminate, explore and visualize the inside of the nose, pharynx and larynx, with the aim of making a more precise diagnosis. (tibhealth.com)
  • The primary ports of viral entry are the nose and nasopharynx. (medscape.com)
  • Обстеження пацієнта із симптомами з боку носа та глотки The nose and pharynx (consisting of the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx) may be affected by inflammation, infection, trauma, tumors, and several miscellaneous conditions. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Flexible nasopharyngoscopy demonstrating adenoids and tonsils from perspective of nose and nasopharynx. (medscape.com)
  • Sinusitis can cause inflammation of the air cavities within the nose and lead to facial pain, headache, and a blocked or runny nose. (tiesen.nl)
  • Depending on the type of pathotype we encounter, we can differentiate between lentogenic strains and mesogenic ones, which mainly give rise to respiratory signs such as cough, runny nose and nasal discharge, as well as fever, diarrhoea, weakness, ruffled feathers, presenting a variable mortality rate depending on the health status of birds. (hipra.com)
  • It is an infection that affects the lining of the nasal wall, and causes congestion, a runny nose and sneezing. (rainofmind.com)
  • These mucosal membranes can swell in reaction to allergens, bacteria and viruses, leading to narrow airways and respiratory symptoms. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • The respiratory airways, which facilitate gas exchange. (medcell.org)
  • In the area of the nose in charge of olfactory perception, the mucosa is very thick and dark, due to the presence of a brown pigment. (prodecopharma.com)
  • Her chest and sinus radiographs showed and trachea) of intermediate hosts. (cdc.gov)
  • The trachea is the most anterior (in front) part of the neck, except when the thyroid covers it briefly. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Located midline or perhaps slightly deviated to the right due to the heart's placement, the trachea extends from the neck to the thorax. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Due to compact anatomical structure of neck, including major vascular, upper respiratory, digestive and neurological structure, usually injuries afflict multiple structures. (jcohns.org)
  • The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar and capillary walls. (cliffsnotes.com)
  • Typically, the most consistent symptoms include sneezing, coughing, nasal congestion, conjunctivitis (inflammation of the membrane lining the eyelids), and discharge from the nose and/or eyes. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • These symptoms can be treated, but M. pulmonis can never be completely eradicated from a rat's respiratory system by medical treatment. (ratbehavior.org)
  • When there are signs of granular nasal mucosa, a biopsy is both a specific and sensitive way of diagnosing WG but where there are no symptoms or signs then a biopsy is unlikely to help. (bmj.com)
  • If the infection is of the type that affects the respiratory system, symptoms of bronchitis, such as coughing, may appear. (rainofmind.com)
  • It may also be referred to as feline infectious respiratory disease or feline upper respiratory disease complex. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • It is available in almost 80 percent of all cases of injury in the anterior nasal septum cause of epistaxis, because that this area is heavily loaded in everyday life and also has a sensitive near-surface venous plexus, which is sometimes already damaged by a powerful blow your nose. (debunkingdietitian.com)
  • Choanae (posterior openings to nose and posterior septum) can be seen at far side of picture. (medscape.com)
  • Chronic inflammation or infection can result in permanent thickening of the mucosa and reactive bone changes. (samedicalgraphics.com)
  • Some of us cat parents may have heard the phrase feline upper respiratory infection at the vet clinic or from friends and family and it sounds like a mouthful and a little scary. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • Colds and other respiratory infection that lead to increased blood flow to the nasal mucosa. (debunkingdietitian.com)
  • Епіглотит Epiglottitis is a rapidly progressive bacterial infection of the epiglottis and surrounding tissues that may lead to sudden respiratory obstruction and death. (msdmanuals.com)
  • A. blow his or her nose gently to prevent spread of the infection. (lenstapesmed.com)
  • One of the most important causes that lead to infection with respiratory diseases is the spread of viruses and their transmission from a sick person to a healthy person. (rainofmind.com)
  • Respiratory arrest occurs if trachea is irritated by tracheal tube and/or endoscope (Molnar 2003). (vin.com)
  • C. the tracheal mucosa. (lenstapesmed.com)
  • followed by congestion of the nasal mucosa and the secretion of a watery fluid, then turns into a "purulent" fluid. (rainofmind.com)
  • The intersection of these branches with the trachea is called the carina. (rejuv-health.com)
  • Each respiratory bronchiole branches into between 2 and 11 alveolar ducts that still contain smooth muscle fibers in their walls. (medcell.org)
  • Feline upper respiratory infections can be caused by different viruses and/or bacteria. (globalpetfoods.com)
  • Mycoplasma is a respiratory disease caused by Mycoplasma pulmonis , an organism carried by all pet rats and found in wild rats too. (ratbehavior.org)
  • All the rats exposed to ammonia (from the natural or pure sources) had lesions in their noses. (ratbehavior.org)
  • In case of mesogenic and lentogenic strains, lesions are mainly respiratory, and they are more severe in the mesogenic strains. (hipra.com)
  • Pertussis or whooping cough, mainly caused by Bordetella pertussis , is a severe respiratory disease that can affect all age groups but is most severe and can be life-threatening in young children. (frontiersin.org)
  • Whooping cough, also referred to as pertussis, is a severe respiratory disease that can be life threatening in newborns and non-vaccinated young children. (frontiersin.org)
  • Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which emerged in 2019 in Wuhan, China, has rapidly spread across the globe, infecting more than 262 million people, and over 5.2 million people have died due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). (frontiersin.org)
  • Croup manifests as hoarseness, a seal-like barking cough, inspiratory stridor, and a variable degree of respiratory distress. (medscape.com)
  • It is important to make a good differential diagnosis, so as not to confuse the disease with other respiratory viral diseases such as IA, ILT, SHS, IB, etc. (hipra.com)