CDNAGeneticsSingle-strandedStrandDeoxyribonucleic AcidNucleotideGenomicBasesAdenineMicroarrayNucleotidesProteinsStrandsSelf-complementaryHybridizationCytosineMitochondrialMRNAMoleculeHumansGenomePolymeraseAmplificationOligonucleotideIsolationStructureGenesFrancis CrickReplicationChromosomePracticeBiochemistryHumanMeasurementsAbstractTranscriptionEnzymeIntronsSpecificityHybridsOrganizationDoubleNuclearNucleus

CDNA9

• In genetics, complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA synthesized from a single-stranded RNA (e.g., messenger RNA (mRNA) or microRNA (miRNA)) template in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme reverse transcriptase. (wikipedia.org)
• cDNA is often used to express a specific protein in a cell that does not normally express that protein (i.e., heterologous expression), or to sequence or quantify mRNA molecules using DNA based methods (qPCR, RNA-seq). (wikipedia.org)
• The term cDNA is also used, typically in a bioinformatics context, to refer to an mRNA transcript's sequence, expressed as DNA bases (deoxy-GCAT) rather than RNA bases (GCAU). (wikipedia.org)
• Patentability of cDNA was a subject of a 2013 US Supreme Court decision in Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc. As a compromise, the Court declared, that exons-only cDNA is patent-eligible, whereas isolated sequences of naturally occurring DNA comprising introns are not. (wikipedia.org)
• In cellular life, cDNA is generated by viruses and retrotransposons for integration of RNA into target genomic DNA. (wikipedia.org)
• An optimization of this procedure relies on low RNase H activity of M-MLV to nick mRNA with remaining RNA later removed by adding RNase H after DNA Polymerase translation of the second-strand cDNA. (wikipedia.org)
• Complementary DNA is often used in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. (wikipedia.org)
• When scientists transfer a gene from one cell into another cell in order to express the new genetic material as a protein in the recipient cell, the cDNA will be added to the recipient (rather than the entire gene), because the DNA for an entire gene may include DNA that does not code for the protein or that interrupts the coding sequence of the protein (e.g., introns). (wikipedia.org)
• The Court specifically mentioned the ability to patent a type of DNA known as complementary DNA (cDNA). (medlineplus.gov)

Genetics2

• On June 13, 2013, in the case of the Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that human genes cannot be patented in the U.S. because DNA is a "product of nature. (medlineplus.gov)
• To study genetics of our ancient predecessors, researchers have an easier time studying mitochondrial DNA because there are hundreds of times more copies of it in each cell. (cnn.com)

Single-stranded5

• They feature an accessible Watson-Crick Ade face that is available for further hydrogen bonding and can load single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) with 13 and 41% efficiency for KBM-1 and KBM-2, respectively. (edu.sa)
• [3] A mixture of three enzymes ( DNA polymerase , ATP sulfurylase and firefly luciferase ) and a nucleotide ( dNTP ) are added to single stranded DNA to be sequenced and the incorporation of nucleotide is followed by measuring the light emitted. (wikipedia.org)
• This process is repeated with each of the four nucleotides until the DNA sequence of the single stranded template is determined. (wikipedia.org)
• In contrast, ALS, MtDis and AGS have R-loops in which RNA/DNA duplexes are formed during RNA synthesis with one of the duplex strand is looped out (single stranded DNA). (nih.gov)
• Unlike DNA, RNA is single stranded and does not form a helix. (encyclopedia.com)

Strand14

• The result of first-strand syntheses, RNA-DNA hybrids, can be processed through multiple second-strand synthesis methods or processed directly in downstream assays. (wikipedia.org)
• Answer and Explanation: The complementary DNA strand of the sequence ATGC will be TACG. (github.io)
• Because of complementary base pairing, each DNA strand contains within it the information needed for building its partner. (utah.edu)
• During DNA replication, the two DNA strands are pulled apart, and each original serves as a template for building a new partner strand. (utah.edu)
• They are the building blocks required to make copies of a DNA strand [3] and are used in PCR, DNA labeling, and DNA sequencing [2]. (ubc.ca)
• The intensity of the light determines if 0, 1 or more nucleotides have been incorporated, thus showing how many complementary nucleotides are present on the template strand. (wikipedia.org)
• Sequencing by synthesis" involves taking a single strand of the DNA to be sequenced and then synthesizing its complementary strand enzymatically. (wikipedia.org)
• Essentially, the method allows sequencing a single strand of DNA by synthesizing the complementary strand along it, one base pair at a time, and detecting which base was actually added at each step. (wikipedia.org)
• For the solution-based version of pyrosequencing, the single-strand DNA ( ssDNA ) template is hybridized to a sequencing primer and incubated with the enzymes DNA polymerase , ATP sulfurylase , luciferase and apyrase , and with the substrates adenosine 5´ phosphosulfate (APS) and luciferin . (wikipedia.org)
• HIV-AIDS, MtDis and AGS are all affected by ribonucleases H (RNases H), enzymes that degrade the RNA strand of RNA/DNA hybrids including R-loops. (nih.gov)
• Within DNA, each strand of nucleic acid is partnered with the other strand by bonds that form between these nucleotides. (encyclopedia.com)
• Thus, by knowing the sequence of bases in one strand of the DNA helix, the sequence on the other strand is determined. (encyclopedia.com)
• For instance, if the sequence in one strand of DNA were ATTCG, the other strand ' s sequence would be TAAGC. (encyclopedia.com)
• If part of one strand is damaged, its analogue on the other strand - which is made of complementary genetic partners - may be intact. (cnn.com)

Deoxyribonucleic Acid1

• A chromosome is a threadlike structure found in the nucleus of most cells that carries the genetic material in the form of a linear sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). (encyclopedia.com)

Nucleotide1

• Pyrosequencing is a method of DNA sequencing (determining the order of nucleotides in DNA) based on the "sequencing by synthesis" principle, in which the sequencing is performed by detecting the nucleotide incorporated by a DNA polymerase . (wikipedia.org)

Genomic6

• In molecular biology, RNA is purified from source material after genomic DNA, proteins and other cellular components are removed. (wikipedia.org)
• RNA is transcribed from genomic DNA in host cells and is extracted by first lysing cells then purifying RNA utilizing widely-used methods such as phenol-chloroform, silica column, and bead-based RNA extraction methods. (wikipedia.org)
• When a B-isoenzyme specific sequence is hybridized to Eco RI cut genomic DNA, two independent restriction fragment polymorphisms are detected. (elsevierpure.com)
• (c) What can you say about the structure of the genomic DNA sequence from which this (mature) mRNA was transcribed? (ubc.ca)
• 12. N-myc genomic content and DNA ploidy in stage IVS neuroblastoma. (nih.gov)
• Aberrations in the intimate role of RNA associated with DNA create genomic damage and, therefore formation and resolution of RNA-DNA interaction is critical. (nih.gov)

Bases7

• Complementary sequence: Nucleic acid sequence of bases that can form a double-stranded structure by matching base pairs. (github.io)
• For example, the complementary sequence to C-A-T-G (where each letter stands for one of the bases in DNA) is G-T-A-C. (github.io)
• The grey and white circles on the models represent partial positive and partial negative charges that form hydrogen bonds between complementary bases. (utah.edu)
• Forces between neighboring nucleotides stack the bases on top of one another and twist the DNA strands into a double helix. (utah.edu)
• The complementary DNA sequence can be obtained by pairing the nucleotides in the given DNA sequence with their complementary bases. (savemydegree.com)
• The nucleotides in DNA have four kinds of nitrogen-containing bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thy-mine. (encyclopedia.com)
• In addition, the RNA bases are the same as in DNA, except that uracil replaces thymine. (encyclopedia.com)

Adenine2

• The DNA in the two BRCA genes, like that in other human genes, is a double helical molecule, each side of which is joined, like the rungs of a ladder, by two complementary chemicals called base pairs-adenine, which always links to thymine, and cytosine, which always links to guanine. (nybooks.com)
• Complementary base pairing dictates that adenine pairs only with thymine, and guanine pairs only with cytosine (and vice versa). (encyclopedia.com)

Microarray3

• Changes in expression were measured for 588 annotated mouse genes by using a commercially available complementary DNA microarray kit. (wustl.edu)
• This alternative approach for pyrosequencing was based on the original principle of attaching the DNA to be sequenced to a solid support and they showed that sequencing could be performed in a highly parallel manner using a microfabricated microarray . (wikipedia.org)
• Complementary DNA microarray analysis was performed for gene expression profiling. (thejns.org)

Nucleotides5

• There are four types of nucleotides in DNA, represented by the letters A, T, C, and G. The nucleotides in opposite strands are joined together through complementary base pairing: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. (utah.edu)
• also called nucleotides, dNTPs are the basic components of DNA strands. (ubc.ca)
• In this alternative method, an additional enzyme apyrase is introduced to remove nucleotides that are not incorporated by the DNA polymerase. (wikipedia.org)
• The template DNA is immobile, and solutions of A, C, G, and T nucleotides are sequentially added and removed from the reaction. (wikipedia.org)
• Like DNA, RNA is also composed of nucleotides. (encyclopedia.com)

Proteins6

• To remove DNA and proteins, enzymes such as DNase and Proteinase K are used for degradation. (wikipedia.org)
• DNA replication is a tightly coordinated process that relies on multiple proteins working together. (utah.edu)
• Their test studied 2 types of markers in the blood associated with cancer: certain proteins and pieces of DNA, called circulating tumor DNA. (cancer.org)
• This synthetic DNA is produced from the molecule that serves as the instructions for making proteins (called messenger RNA). (medlineplus.gov)
• DNA is the genetic material of all cells and contains information necessary for the synthesis of proteins. (encyclopedia.com)
• Genes are expressed when the chromosome uncoils with the help of enzymes called helicases and specific DNA binding proteins. (encyclopedia.com)

Strands8

• Molecular machines pull the two DNA strands apart and copy them in both directions at once. (utah.edu)
• It would take nearly 5,000 strands of DNA laid side by side to equal the width of a human hair. (utah.edu)
• The two strands of a DNA molecule are held together through complementary base pairing: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G. (utah.edu)
• A DNA molecule consists of two strands. (utah.edu)
• These bonds work kind of like tiny magnets to hold the two DNA strands together. (utah.edu)
• This N-terminal domain (HBD) interacts with RNA/DNA through contacts with both the DNA and RNA strands and may provide the initial contact between the enzyme and hybrid. (nih.gov)
• DNA is composed of two strands of nucleic acids arranged in a double helix. (encyclopedia.com)
• The method that researchers used involves separating the two strands of the DNA double helix. (cnn.com)

Self-complementary3

• in solution this sequence forms a stable self-complementary duplex containing sheared G.A base-pairs. (rcsb.org)
• A 500 MHz 1H-n.m.r. study on two self-complementary alternating pyrimidine-purine oligodeoxyribonucleotides, 5'-d(C-G-T-A-C-G) and 5'-d(A-C-G-C-G-C-G-T), is presented. (nih.gov)
• The sequence of the nucleosides is such that they will form a self‐complementary double‐helical fragment which may serve as a probe to get more insight into the process of discontinuous DNA replication. (tmu.edu.tw)

Hybridization1

• The method is straight forward and results in high quality RNA that can be used to quantify specific mRNAs in microscopically selected lung subcompartments by complementary DNA or RNA hybridization techniques. (nih.gov)

Cytosine1

• C Cytosine residue in either DNA or RNA. (fao.org)

Mitochondrial6

• Somatic mutations, copy-number variations, and genome instability of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have been reported in different types of cancers and are suggested to play important roles in cancer development and metastasis. (nih.gov)
• Among the several human disorders resulting from persistent RNA-DNA associations are Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV-AIDS), mitochondrial disease (MtDis), and Aicardi-Goutières Syndrome (AGS). (nih.gov)
• Our studies have shown that mice deleted for the Rnaseh1 gene arrest embryonic development at day 10 due to a failure to amplify mitochondrial DNA. (nih.gov)
• In addition, the hybrids are believed to be necessary for mitochondrial DNA replication and important for switching immunoglobulin isotypes (e.g., from IgM to IgA). (nih.gov)
• After sequencing the mitochondrial DNA, researchers then compared the result with genetic information about Neanderthals and Denisovans. (cnn.com)
• Just to get the mitochondrial DNA sequence, it took about two grams of bone - less than 0.1 ounce - even though hundreds of copies of this DNA are in every cell. (cnn.com)

MRNA1

• The Gubler and Hoffman Procedure uses E. Coli RNase H to nick mRNA that is replaced with E. Coli DNA Polymerase I and sealed with E. Coli DNA Ligase. (wikipedia.org)

Molecule3

• Our Build A DNA Molecule interactive was built using Adobe Flash which is no longer supported in modern web browsers. (utah.edu)
• We hope to have Build A DNA Molecule back online in the near future. (utah.edu)
• 2016, March 1) Build a DNA Molecule. (utah.edu)

Humans1

• The Supreme Court's ruling did allow that DNA manipulated in a lab is eligible to be patented because DNA sequences altered by humans are not found in nature. (medlineplus.gov)

Genome8

• Objective: DNA microarrays allow genome-wide assessment of changes in relative messenger RNA abundance and thus can be used to monitor changes in gene expression. (wustl.edu)
• This became the first next generation sequencing instrument starting a new era in genomics research, with rapidly falling prices for DNA sequencing allowing whole genome sequencing at affordable prices. (wikipedia.org)
• In HIV-AIDS, the RNA genome of the virus is copied as DNA forming a simple RNA/DNA hybrid. (nih.gov)
• RNA/DNA hybrids are essential intermediates in the replication of HIV's RNA genome. (nih.gov)
• In prokaryotes, or cells without a nucleus, the chromosome represents circular DNA containing the entire genome. (encyclopedia.com)
• Out of the 3 billion base pairs that exist in human DNA, the sequence obtained from the Human Genome Project has revealed that there are only about 30, 000 genes. (encyclopedia.com)
• The human genome (which represents the total amount of DNA in a typical human cell) has approximately 3 × 10 9 base pairs. (encyclopedia.com)
• Since nuclear DNA encompasses more information about a person's inheritance, a nuclear genome sequence from Homo heidelbergensis may reveal even more clearly how it is connected to other ancient humanlike species, he said. (cnn.com)

Polymerase4

• The principle of pyrosequencing was first described in 1993 [1] by, Bertil Pettersson, Mathias Uhlen and Pål Nyren by combining the solid phase sequencing method [2] using streptavidin coated magnetic beads with recombinant DNA polymerase lacking 3´to 5´exonuclease activity (proof-reading) and luminescence detection using the firefly luciferase enzyme. (wikipedia.org)
• This enabled the enzyme mixture including the DNA polymerase , the luciferase and the apyrase to be added at the start and kept throughout the procedure, thus providing a simple set-up suitable for automation. (wikipedia.org)
• The pyrosequencing method is based on detecting the activity of DNA polymerase (a DNA synthesizing enzyme) with another chemoluminescent enzyme . (wikipedia.org)
• DNA polymerase incorporates the correct, complementary dNTPs onto the template. (wikipedia.org)

Amplification2

• 13. Combined determination of N-myc oncogene amplification and DNA ploidy in neuroblastoma. (nih.gov)
• 15. Analysis of DNA ploidy and proliferative activity in relation to histology and N-myc amplification in neuroblastoma. (nih.gov)

Oligonucleotide2

• The high affinity of an LNA-enhanced oligonucleotide to its complementary sequence results in dramatically improved specificity and sensitivity, when compared with traditional DNA or RNA oligos. (qiagen.com)
• As a proof of concept, printed patterns were biofunctionalized with DNA oligonucleotide probes for Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B streptococcus) using glutaraldehyde as a linker. (beilstein-journals.org)

Isolation1

• Human membrane type-4 matrix metalloproteinase (MT4-MMP) is encoded by a novel major transcript: isolation of complementary DNA clones for human and mouse mt4-mmp transcripts. (ox.ac.uk)

Structure3

• The interproton-distance data are consistent with an overall right-handed B-DNA-type structure for both oligonucleotides, in agreement with their B-type c.d. spectra. (nih.gov)
• The protein structure of E. coli RNase HI unbound to a substrate is similar to that of the structure of human RNase H1 in complex with an RNA/DNA hybrid. (nih.gov)
• What is the true structure of DNA? (visionlearning.com)

Genes4

• 1 Over three years ago, in May 2009, the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) and the Public Patent Foundation ( PPF ) filed a lawsuit in the Federal District Court for the Southern District of New York seeking to overturn the patents on DNA isolated from two human genes. (nybooks.com)
• Genes are part of the DNA sequence called coding DNA. (encyclopedia.com)
• Noncoding DNA represents sequences that do not have genes and only recently have been found to have many new important functions. (encyclopedia.com)
• DNA stored in the mitochondria is passed to children through the maternal line only (i.e., only moms can pass it on), so it's only a small snapshot of inherited genes. (cnn.com)

Francis Crick1

• It is fitting that almost 50 years after James Watson and Francis Crick first described the double helix of DNA in 1953, in Cambridge, their legacy is being laid before the world by Cambridge scientists. (sanger.ac.uk)

Replication3

• The process cells use to copy DNA is called DNA replication. (utah.edu)
• Two, DNA replication begins at multiple places along each chromosome. (utah.edu)
• DNA replication in one direction is straight-forward. (utah.edu)

Chromosome1

• Supported by venture capital and both funds and collaborators from the National Institutes of Health, Skolnick and his colleagues won the race in 1994, finding BRCA 1 and isolating it from the rest of the DNA and the tangle of protein that form chromosome 17. (nybooks.com)

Practice1

• The exploration of the "scientific, policy, and practice questions that arise from the significant and increasing use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapies by the American public" and "the translation of validated therapies into conventional practice" require that the ethics of medicine be probed in two domains. (nih.gov)

Biochemistry2

• We consider two complementary operations: Hairpin completion introduced in [D. Cheptea, C. Martin-Vide, V. Mitrana, A new operation on words suggested by DNA biochemistry: Hairpin completion, in: Proc. (elsevierpure.com)
• Transgressive Computing, 2006, pp. 216-228] with motivations coming from DNA biochemistry and hairpin reduction as the inverse operation of the hairpin completion. (elsevierpure.com)

Human6

• Using this activity, copying one human cell's worth of DNA would take more than 95 years. (utah.edu)
• Human creatine kinase-B complementary DNA. (elsevierpure.com)
• Dive into the research topics of 'Human creatine kinase-B complementary DNA. (elsevierpure.com)
• They contended that BRCA DNA -and by implication all human DNA -should not be eligible for patents as a matter of law and that Myriad's enforcement of its patents interfered with the progress of science and the delivery of medical services. (nybooks.com)
• The plaintiffs had the support, expressed in friend-of-the-court briefs, of many parties representing the medical profession, biomedical researchers, and patients, all opponents of allowing anyone monopoly rights on human DNA . (nybooks.com)
• The retrieval of such ancient human DNA is a major technical achievement, and promises further recovery of such material from other fossils in this time range, both in the Sima and elsewhere, where we would not previously have expected it, or looked for it," said Chris Stringer, researcher at the Natural History Museum in London, who was not involved in the study. (cnn.com)

Measurements2

• Sequence-dependent structural variations in two right-handed alternating pyrimidine-purine DNA oligomers in solution determined by nuclear Overhauser enhancement measurements. (nih.gov)
• Interproton distance measurements in solution for a double-stranded DNA undecamer comprising a portion of the specific target site for the cycliC AMP receptor protein in the gal operon. (nih.gov)

Abstract1

• abstract = "A nucleic acid fragment containing a RNA trimer and a DNA heptamer wich are linked by a 3′‐5′‐internucleotide phosphodiester bond has been synthesized by a phosphotriester approach. (tmu.edu.tw)

Transcription3

• The questions provided here are related to DNA sequencing, transcription, and translation. (savemydegree.com)
• EpiCenter can also do peak-finding analysis of transcription factor binding sites when an input DNA control sample is available. (nih.gov)
• After transcription of DNA to RNA, the RNA is processed. (encyclopedia.com)

Enzyme2

• The enzyme recognizes at least four hydroxyl groups of the ribose, with the DNA significantly distorted so that one phosphate is able to bind in a pocket on the enzyme (Nowotny et al. (nih.gov)
• Eukaryotic RNases H have an N-terminal domain (absent from the bacterial enzyme) that binds to RNA/DNA, conferring processivity to the enzyme (Gaidamakov et al. (nih.gov)

Introns1

• The noncoding sections of DNA within a gene are called introns, while the coding sections of DNA are called exons. (encyclopedia.com)

Specificity1

• A novel molecular binding scheme for the detection of NF-κB was investigated for its affinity to Ig-κB DNA composed by dye and quencher fluorophores, and this specificity is confirmed by competing with the DNA sequence that is complementary to the Ig-κB DNA. (mdpi.com)

Hybrids2

• Our laboratory interested in understanding how RNA/DNA hybrids are resolved and what role RNases H play in their elimination. (nih.gov)
• We know a great deal about the recognition of RNA/DNA hybrids and the enzymatic mechanism of hydrolysis of the RNA. (nih.gov)

Organization2

• Overall, this work suggests that both molecular and morphological approaches provide complementary information on diatom metacommunity organization and emphasizes the importance of DNA barcoding to addressing empirical research questions of community ecology in freshwaters. (authorea.com)
• A gene patent is the exclusive rights to a specific sequence of DNA (a gene) given by a government to the individual, organization, or corporation who claims to have first identified the gene. (medlineplus.gov)

Double1

• What unique ability does DNA have because it is double-stranded? (visionlearning.com)

Nuclear1

• But retrieving the nuclear DNA sequence will be challenging, study authors wrote. (cnn.com)

Nucleus4

• Each time a cell divides, it must first copy all its DNA-the genetic information contained within its nucleus. (utah.edu)
• If DNA were not coiled within chromosomes, the total DNA in a typical eukaryotic cell would extend thousands of times the length of the cell nucleus. (encyclopedia.com)
• RNA is transcribed from DNA in the nucleus of the cell. (encyclopedia.com)
• Chromosomes can be visualized using a microscope just prior to cell division, when the DNA within the nucleus uncoils as it replicates. (encyclopedia.com)