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RhodopsinArrestinTransducinCattleModels, MolecularSensory RhodopsinsRhodopsins, MicrobialRetinal PigmentsG-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 1Rod Cell Outer SegmentRetinaldehydeRod OpsinsLightPhotoreceptor CellsHalorhodopsinsRetinal Rod Photoreceptor CellsEye ProteinsSchiff BasesRetinitis PigmentosaDark AdaptationRecoverinPhotoreceptor Cells, InvertebrateRetinaRetinal DegenerationVision, OcularOctopodiformesElectroretinographyNatronobacteriumHippocalcinPhotochemistryPhotoreceptor Cells, VertebrateBacteriorhodopsinsDarknessHydroxylamineEncyclopedias as TopicSecretinReceptors, G-Protein-CoupledReceptors, Metabotropic GlutamateReceptors, PheromoneReceptors, Glutamate
GPCRGPCRsHuman rhodopsinBovine rhodopsinSignaling pathwayRetinalOpsinProteinsGeneVertebratePhotoreceptorsResiduesMembranesMolecularActivatesSuperfamilyPhosphorylationEndoplasmic reticulumSeven transmembraneProtein-spregnuti receptorKinaseSubtypesChemokine ReceptorsMutationsHelicesLigandsCharacterizationDopamineLight receptor cellsAdenosine2002DefectsIntracellularFamilyMicrobialBasal activityGenesActivationLigandSequencesMetabolismSubfamilyRodsPlasma membrane1994PhosphodiesteraseCellsStructuralVertebratesDrosophila
GPCR14
  • In many aspects, rhodopsin might provide a structural and functional template for other members of the GPCR family. (nih.gov)
  • One cryoEM and over 50 high-resolution X-ray crystallographic structures are available for antagonist- or agonist-bound A 2A AR and for its ternary complex with an agonist and an engineered G protein, making this receptor an excellent model system for investigating GPCR structural dynamics. (nature.com)
  • Using site-directed mutagenesis, the conserved tryptophan residue was mutagenized in eight receptors which are members of disparate class A GPCR subfamilies from different taxa. (sdbonline.org)
  • Taken together, these results suggest a novel role for the WxFG motif in GPCR trafficking and receptor function. (sdbonline.org)
  • Beta-2 Adrenergic Receptor s (B2ARs) are a type of G Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR) . (proteopedia.org)
  • The structure of B2AR is very similar to the GPCR Rhodopsin , which is a photoreceptor in the retina which allows the perception of light. (proteopedia.org)
  • Rhodopsin is a biological pigment found in the rods of the retina and is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). (moviecultists.com)
  • Phylogenetic analyses reveal that Ciona GPCRs have homologous representatives from the five major GRAFS ( Glutamate, Rhodopsin, Adhesion, Frizzled and Secretin ) families concomitant with other vertebrate GPCR repertoires. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The Rhodopsin family accounts for ~68% of the Ciona GPCR repertoire wherein the LGR-like subfamily exhibits a lineage specific gene expansion of a group of receptors that possess a novel domain organisation hitherto unobserved in metazoan genomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • CXCR1 is a class A, rhodopsin-like G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), the largest class of integral membrane proteins responsible for cellular signal transduction and targeted as drug receptors. (rcsb.org)
  • This pathway starts with the absorption of a photon by the GPCR rhodopsin, resulting in its activation of the heterotrimeric G protein transducin by catalyzing GDP-GTP exchange on the transducin-alpha subunit (GαT). (cornell.edu)
  • One such receptor involved in relaying molecular signals is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). (sciencedaily.com)
  • Researchers now reveal a new way of activating GPCR by triggering shape changes in the intracellular region of the receptor. (sciencedaily.com)
  • A team of researchers headed by Osamu Nureki, a professor at the University of Tokyo, and his lab, discovered a new receptor activation mode of a bone metabolism-related GPCR called human parathyroid hormone type 1 receptor (PTH1R) without signal transduction from the extracellular side. (sciencedaily.com)
GPCRs15
  • G-protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs, constitute a vast protein family that encompasses a wide range of functions (including various autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine processes). (wikipedia.org)
  • The currently known superfamily members include the rhodopsin-like GPCRs (this family), the secretin-like GPCRs, the cAMP receptors, the fungal mating pheromone receptors, and the metabotropic glutamate receptor family. (wikipedia.org)
  • The rhodopsin-like GPCRs themselves represent a widespread protein family that includes hormone, neuropeptide, neurotransmitter, and light receptors, all of which transduce extracellular signals through interaction with guanine nucleotide-binding (G) proteins. (wikipedia.org)
  • Rhodopsin-like GPCRs have been classified into the following 19 subgroups (A1-A19) based on a phylogenetic analysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are involved in a vast variety of cellular signal transduction processes from visual, taste and odor perceptions to sensing the levels of many hormones and neurotransmitters. (nih.gov)
  • Rhodopsins are prototypical GPCRs that detect photons in retinal photoreceptor cells and trigger a phototransduction cascade that culminates in neuronal signaling. (nih.gov)
  • The complex pharmacology of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is defined by their multi-state conformational dynamics. (nature.com)
  • LPA acts as an autocrine/paracrine messenger through at least six G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), known as LPA 1-6 , to induce various cellular processes including wound healing, differentiation, proliferation, migration, and survival. (hindawi.com)
  • G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute a large family of integral transmembrane receptor proteins that play a central role in signal transduction in eukaryotes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Recent structural determination of GPCRs has advanced by modifying the receptors with stabilizing mutations, insertion of the protein T4 lysozyme and truncations of their amino acid sequences, as well as addition of stabilizing antibodies and small molecules that facilitate crystallization in cubic phase monoolein mixtures. (rcsb.org)
  • This entry spans the seven transmembrane regions of rhodopsin-like GPCRs. (embl.de)
  • It also identifies some non rhodopsin-like GPCRs, including a number of taste receptors and vomeronasal receptors. (embl.de)
  • Our laboratory has used the phototransduction pathway in retinal rods, a beautifully designed sensory response system, to study how G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) propagate highly amplified signals. (cornell.edu)
  • We determined structures for the rhodopsin-transducin complex by cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM), which together with efforts from other laboratories, led to a detailed picture of how GPCRs activate their G protein partners. (cornell.edu)
  • This specificity of its binding and receptor activation mode makes it a suitable candidate for potential small-molecule-based drugs for class B1 GPCRs, like PTH1R, which currently lack oral administrative drug ligands. (sciencedaily.com)
Human rhodopsin3
Bovine rhodopsin2
  • Biophysical and biochemical studies of rhodopsin activation, and the recent crystal structure determination of bovine rhodopsin, have provided new information that enables a more complete mechanism of vertebrate rhodopsin activation to be proposed. (nih.gov)
  • Interestingly, expression of similar bovine rhodopsin mutants did not cause rod cell death, possibly attributable to greater stability of bovine rhodopsin. (jneurosci.org)
Signaling pathway2
  • Here, by examining P23H rhodopsin knock-in mice, we found that the UPR inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) signaling pathway is strongly activated in misfolded rhodopsin-expressing photoreceptors. (nih.gov)
  • Predicted to act upstream of or within G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway. (zfin.org)
Retinal12
  • We propose that early disruption of rhodopsin protein homeostasis in photoreceptors could contribute to retinal degeneration. (nih.gov)
  • Carazolol occupies a similar position as the rhodopsin inverse agonist, retinal. (proteopedia.org)
  • a) Rhodopsin, the photoreceptor in vertebrates, has two parts: the trans-membrane protein opsin, and retinal. (moviecultists.com)
  • When the eye is exposed to light, the 11-cis-retinal component of rhodopsin is converted to all-trans-retinal , resulting in a fundamental change in the configuration of the rhodopsin molecule. (moviecultists.com)
  • Opsin does not absorb visible light , but when it is bonded with 11-cis-retinal to form rhodopsin, which has a very broad absorption band in the visible region of the spectrum. (moviecultists.com)
  • Rhodopsin is the visual pigment of the rod photoreceptor cell in the vertebrate retina that has an integral membrane protein, opsin, and a chromosphore, 11-cis-retinal. (moviecultists.com)
  • Microbial rhodopsins (Rhs) are transmembrane proteins that utilize light-induced isomerization of their retinal cofactor to function as light-sensitive ion channels, pumps and sensors. (elifesciences.org)
  • The study shows that, compared to the inactive 11-cis-retinal case, trans-retinal rhodopsin is able to undergo protonated Schiff base (PSB) deprotonation due to a change in the conformation of the retinal and a consequent alteration in the hydrogen-bond (HB) network in which PSB and the counterion Glu113 are embedded. (cusabio.com)
  • Rhodopsin is a seven-transmembrane protein covalently linked with retinal chromophore that absorbs photons for energy conversion and intracellular signaling in eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The well-studied Haloarchaeal rhodopsin is a proton-pumping bacteriorhodopsin that shows promising applications in optogenetics, biosensitized solar cells, security ink, data storage, artificial retinal implant and biohydrogen generation. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Type-I microbial rhodopsins consist of seven transmembrane domain that is covalently associated with retinal chromophore functions like proton pumping, chloride pumping, and phototaxis behaviour. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In light adaptation, rhodopsin is activated (ie, 11- cis -retinal is photoisomerized), and the attached G-protein (transducin) is also activated. (medscape.com)
Opsin2
Proteins5
  • Rhodopsin-like receptors are a family of proteins that comprise the largest group of G protein-coupled receptors. (wikipedia.org)
  • LPA activates at least six G-coupled protein receptors (LPA 1-6 ) stimulating different signaling pathways through heterotrimeric G proteins such as G i/0 , G 12/13 , G q/11 , and G s . (hindawi.com)
  • When a message molecule binds to the extracellular side of the receptor, it triggers a shape change activating G proteins and the ß-arrestin protein attached to the intracellular side of the receptor. (sciencedaily.com)
  • This study uses a support vector machine (SVM) technique to identify these ion-pumping Haloarchaeal rhodopsin proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The developed web server ( https://bioinfo.imtech.res.in/servers/rhodopred ) can identify the Ion Pumping Haloarchaeal rhodopsin proteins and their subtypes. (biomedcentral.com)
Gene11
  • The protein encoded by this gene is an orphan G protein-coupled receptor whose ligand is unknown. (nih.gov)
  • The product of this gene belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors. (nih.gov)
  • Melanocortin receptor 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MC3R gene . (wikidoc.org)
  • This gene encodes MC 3 , a G-protein coupled receptor for melanocyte-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone that is expressed in tissues other than the adrenal cortex and melanocytes. (wikidoc.org)
  • Genomic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) demonstrated that the ayu rhodopsin gene is intron-less. (bioone.org)
  • Southern and Northern blots and reverse-transcription PCR analyses indicate that the same rhodopsin gene is expressed in the retina and the brain but not in the pineal organ of ayu. (bioone.org)
  • We describe the role of allelic polymorphism in the gene coding for the CCR5 chemokine receptor with regard to susceptibility to and disease course of HIV infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Earlier HIV infec- receptor gene polymorphism in HIV infection, tion diagnosis, inhibition of ongoing HIV replica- only genes of the HLA system were thought to tion with antiretroviral therapy (in industrialized protect against HIV infection. (cdc.gov)
  • The discovery of the gene sequences and predicted protein structures, role of CCR5 alleles has prompted studies of but their ligands have not been identified the possible role of many other host genes in (orphan receptors). (cdc.gov)
  • Animal steroid hormones initiate signaling by passive diffusion into cells and binding to their nuclear receptors to regulate gene expression. (biologists.com)
  • Characterization of two dominant alleles of the major rhodopsin-encoding gene ninaE in Drosophila. (academictree.org)
Vertebrate2
  • A unified nomenclature for vertebrate olfactory receptors. (jax.org)
  • With different collaborators we solved crystal structures of all four vertebrate arrestins, the arrestin-rhodopsin complex, and pre-activated arrestin-3 in the absence of receptor. (hstalks.com)
Photoreceptors8
  • Mutations affecting glycosylation of the heptahelical G-protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin are associated with retinitis pigmentosa (RP), a disease characterized by progressive degeneration of photoreceptors. (jneurosci.org)
  • Rhodopsin is expressed in rod photoreceptors in the retina and resides in a specialized organelle called the rod outer segment (ROS) in which it is responsible for light capture. (jneurosci.org)
  • Rhodopsin protein loss occurred as soon as photoreceptors developed, preceding photoreceptor cell death. (nih.gov)
  • Our findings reveal that an early and significant pathophysiologic effect of ER stress in photoreceptors is the highly efficient elimination of misfolded rhodopsin protein. (nih.gov)
  • The photoreceptors in the retina that contain rhodopsin are rods. (moviecultists.com)
  • In these photoreceptors, the C-terminus of the rhodopsin is directly linked to either a histidine kinase (histidine kinase rhodopsin), a phosphodiesterase (rhodopsin phosphodiesterase, RPDE), or a guanylyl cyclase (rhodopsin guanylyl cyclase, RGC). (elifesciences.org)
  • Halorhodopsin and sensory rhodopsin functions like non-proton-pumping type-I Microbial rhodopsin, such as chloride pumps and photoreceptors. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Furthermore, the photoreceptors respond to light with a hyperpolarizing receptor potential that is accompanied by an increase in membrane resistance to Na + influx. (medscape.com)
Residues2
  • The N terminus of mature rhodopsin is dually glycosylated at residues N2 and N15 ( Hargrave, 1977 ). (jneurosci.org)
  • We identified key residues responsible for receptor preference of arrestins. (hstalks.com)
Membranes4
  • Further studies suggest that rhodopsin requires glycosylation for incorporation into ROS membranes. (jneurosci.org)
  • Therefore, smFRET has been limited to studies of inter-receptor interactions in cellular membranes and receptors in detergent environments. (nature.com)
  • This group also found that while both receptor subtypes were seen in the membranes and cytoplasm of cell bodies, the β 2 receptor subtype, but not the β 1 , was localized to the nucleus. (frontiersin.org)
  • Rhodopsin is synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and passes to the Golgi membranes where it becomes glycosylated. (moviecultists.com)
Molecular4
  • 2005). „Molecular cloning and characterization of a novel Gq-coupled orphan receptor GPRg1 exclusively expressed in the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • The regulatory influence of the rhodopsin domain on the enzyme activity is only partially understood and holds the key for a deeper understanding of intra-molecular signaling pathways. (elifesciences.org)
  • Data indicate molecular dynamics simulations and site-directed fluorescence experiments on arrestin-1 interactions with rhodopsin, showing that loops within the C-edge of arrestin function as a membrane anchor. (cusabio.com)
  • We expect that this study would be useful for optogenetics, molecular biologists and rhodopsin researchers. (biomedcentral.com)
Activates5
  • The P2Y(11) receptor of human M2 macrophages activates canonical and IL-1 receptor signaling to translate the extracellular danger signal ATP into anti-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic responses. (nih.gov)
  • When light enters the eye, a rod cell protein called rhodopsin is turned on (activated), which then activates α-transducin. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In other words, PCO371 activates the receptor after entering the cell. (sciencedaily.com)
  • In "off" bipolar cells, L-glutamate activates the KA/AMPA receptor to produce hyperpolarization. (medscape.com)
  • In "on" bipolar cells, L-glutamate activates L-AP4 receptors to produce depolarization. (medscape.com)
Superfamily1
  • G protein-coupled receptors are the largest superfamily of cell surface receptors in the Metazoa and play critical roles in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses. (sdbonline.org)
Phosphorylation2
  • We showed that enhanced mutants of visual arrestin-1 compensate for defects in rhodopsin phosphorylation in vivo. (hstalks.com)
  • Subsequent receptor phosphorylation mediates displacement of the bound G-protein alpha subunit by the arrestin SAG and terminates signaling. (cusabio.com)
Endoplasmic reticulum1
  • Disease-associated rhodopsin mutations, such as P23H rhodopsin, cause rhodopsin protein misfolding and trigger endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, activating the unfolded protein response (UPR). (nih.gov)
Seven transmembrane1
Protein-spregnuti receptor2
  • GPR142 , G protein-spregnuti receptor 142 , je protein koji je kod čoveka kodiran GPR142 genom . (wikipedia.org)
  • On pripada sedam-eksonskog familiji sisarskih opsina koja obuhvata peropsin (RRH) i retinalni G protein spregnuti receptor (RGR). (wikipedia.org)
Kinase1
Subtypes2
  • This family has several receptor subtypes with different pharmacological selectivity, which overlaps in some cases, for various adenosine and uridine nucleotides. (nih.gov)
  • The overall performance of the developed method results show that it accurately identifies the Ionpumping Haloarchaeal rhodopsin and their subtypes using known and unknown microbial rhodopsin sequences. (biomedcentral.com)
Chemokine Receptors2
  • Several human chemokine receptors have been sons than for those homozygous for the wild classified as such on the basis of similarity of type CCR5 (12,17-19,23). (cdc.gov)
  • What Are Chemokine Receptors? (cdc.gov)
Mutations2
  • Several mutations in the N terminus of the G-protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin disrupt NXS/T consensus sequences for N-linked glycosylation (located at N2 and N15) and cause sector retinitis pigmentosa in which the inferior retina preferentially degenerates. (jneurosci.org)
  • Homozygotes for targeted mutations show variably abnormalities that may include growth retardation, death after weaning unless given hydrated food, nonresponsiveness to dopamine D1 receptor agonists and antagonists, and normal to hyperactive locomotor activity. (jax.org)
Helices2
  • Although their activating ligands vary widely in structure and character, the amino acid sequences of the receptors are very similar and are believed to adopt a common structural framework comprising 7 transmembrane (TM) helices. (wikipedia.org)
  • Receptor helices are numbered, and those connected to each other by an intracellular loop are the same color. (aspetjournals.org)
Ligands1
  • These receptors, a subset of the Class A/1 (Rhodopsin-like) family, all bind peptide ligands which include the chemokines, opioids and somatostatins. (reactome.org)
Characterization1
  • After the spectroscopic characterization of the late rhodopsin photoproducts, we analyzed truncated variants and revealed the involvement of the cytosolic N-terminus in the structural rearrangements upon photo-activation of the protein. (elifesciences.org)
Dopamine3
  • To understand better the cellular mechanisms of NE and its adrenergic receptors in the LA, we used antibodies directed against dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH), the synthetic enzyme for NE, or against two different isoforms of the beta-adrenergic receptors (βARs), one that predominately recognizes neurons (βAR 248) and the other astrocytes (βAR 404), to characterize the microenvironments of DβH and βAR. (frontiersin.org)
  • Predicted to enable G protein-coupled receptor activity and dopamine neurotransmitter receptor activity, coupled via Gi/Go. (zfin.org)
  • Orthologous to human DRD3 (dopamine receptor D3). (zfin.org)
Light receptor cells3
Adenosine1
  • Here, we performed smFRET experiments on functionally active human A 2A adenosine receptor (A 2A AR) molecules embedded in freely diffusing lipid nanodiscs to study their intramolecular conformational dynamics. (nature.com)
20021
  • 2002). „Identification of G protein-coupled receptor genes from the human genome sequence. (wikipedia.org)
Defects3
  • G-protein-coupled receptor signaling and neural tube closure defects. (nih.gov)
  • Both studies suggest that defects in rhodopsin glycosylation are associated with impairment of protein folding or stability. (jneurosci.org)
  • Additionally, leucine substitutions at this position caused similar signaling defects in the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR), Galanin receptor (GALR1), AKH receptor (AKHR), corazonin receptor (CRZR), and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mACHR1) . (sdbonline.org)
Intracellular1
  • The team synthesized a non-peptide message molecule called PCO371 which binds to the intracellular region of the receptor and interacts directly with G protein subunits. (sciencedaily.com)
Family3
  • One major discovery was that members of the chemokine receptor family serve as cofactors for HIV entry into cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Phosphatidic acid phospholipase A1 mediates ER-Golgi transit of a family of G protein-coupled receptors. (academictree.org)
  • The type-I microbial rhodopsins used in this study, such as actinorhodopsin, bacteriorhodopsin, proteorhodopsin, xanthorhodopsin, belong to the proton pumping type-I microbial rhodopsins family. (biomedcentral.com)
Microbial3
  • Haloarchaeal rhodopsins are Type-I microbial rhodopsin that elicits various light-driven functions like proton pumping, chloride pumping and Phototaxis behaviour. (biomedcentral.com)
  • bacteriorhodopsin, halorhodopsin, xanthorhodopsin, sensoryrhodopsin and marine prokaryotic Ion-pumping rhodopsins like actinorhodopsin, proteorhodopsin have been utilized to develop the methods that accurately identified the ion pumping haloarchaeal and other type I microbial rhodopsins. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Bacteriorhodopsin is the first microbial rhodopsin to be isolated and well-characterized from the Halobacterium salinarium in the 1970s by Oesterhelt and stockineus group [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Basal activity1
Genes1
  • False positive non-synonymous polymorphisms of G-protein coupled receptor genes. (nih.gov)
Activation3
  • By contrast, IRE1 activation did not affect JNK signaling or rhodopsin mRNA levels. (nih.gov)
  • From Grishna G and Berlot CH (2000) A surface-exposed region of G sα in which substitutions decrease receptor-mediated activation and increase receptor affinity. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Induction via nuclear receptor activation can significantly alter those levels, with the coregulation of multiple enzymes and transporters occurring to different extents. (aspetjournals.org)
Ligand2
  • This action is mediated through conformational changes in the receptor following ligand binding. (sdbonline.org)
  • If a drug molecule or a ligand is a message, an inbox is typically a receptor in the cell membrane. (sciencedaily.com)
Sequences2
  • As a result, a low-cost computational approach is required to identify Ion-pumping Haloarchaeal rhodopsin sequences and its subtype. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Apart from this study, we also tested the own, blank, BLAST dataset and annotated whole-genome rhodopsin sequences of PWS haloarchaeal isolates in the developed methods. (biomedcentral.com)
Metabolism1
  • The purinergic receptor P2Y11 choreographs the polarization, mitochondrial metabolism, and migration of T lymphocytes. (nih.gov)
Subfamily1
Rods3
  • In isolated frog retinas treated with tunicamycin, rods synthesized and transported nonglycosylated rhodopsin to the basal ROS at a rate similar to untreated controls. (jneurosci.org)
  • In the retinas of most vertebrates, there are two types of photoreceptor cells, rods and cones (Fig. ... Rods contain a single rod visual pigment (rhodopsin), whereas cones use several types of cone visual pigments with different absorption maxima. (moviecultists.com)
  • The retina contains receptor cells called rods and cones, which process light into vision. (visivite.com)
Plasma membrane2
  • Visualization of modified receptors through the incorporation of a fluorescent tag revealed a severe reduction in plasma membrane expression, indicating aberrant trafficking of these modified receptors. (sdbonline.org)
  • Rhodopsin-containing vesicles move from the Golgi to the outer segment where they fuse with the outer segment plasma membrane. (moviecultists.com)
19941
  • In COS cells, bovine T4K and T17M rhodopsins only partially regenerate with chromophore ( Kaushal and Khorana, 1994 ). (jneurosci.org)
Phosphodiesterase1
  • LPA receptors and autotaxin (ATX), a secreted phosphodiesterase that produces this phospholipid, are overexpressed in many cancers and impact several features of the disease, including cancer-related inflammation, development, and progression. (hindawi.com)
Cells6
Structural1
  • The structural basis of G-protein-coupled receptor function and dysfunction in human diseases. (nih.gov)
Vertebrates1
  • Rhodopsin is present in a wide range of organisms, from vertebrates to bacteria. (biomedcentral.com)
Drosophila1
  • The modification of the Drosophila leucokinin receptor shows that substitution of any non-aromatic amino acid for the tryptophan leads to a loss of receptor function. (sdbonline.org)