• The pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) may be related to the abnormal expression of microRNAs (miRNAs), which could influence the differentiation capacity of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) towards adipogenic and osteogenic lineages. (techscience.com)
  • The bone marrow microenvironment (BMME) is a complex network system primarily comprising stromal cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), osteoprogenitor cells, vascular endothelial cells, monocytes, macrophages, and cytokines. (techscience.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells ( MSCs) are known to be multipotent stromal cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types which include osteoblasts (bone cells), chondrocytes (cartilage cells), myocytes (muscle cells) and adipocytes (fat cells which give rise to marrow adipose tissue). (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Thus, these properties of MSCs make these cells potentially ideal candidates for tissue technology. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Arnold Caplan (1991), coined the term "mesenchymal stem cell and stated that the cells as multipotent mesenchymal cell populations which can differentiate into several tissue types, and demonstrated roles for MSCs in the regeneration of bone, cartilage or ligaments in animal and clinical studies. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • However, the first clinical trials of MSCs were completed in 1995 when a group of 15 patients were injected with cultured MSCs to test the safety of the treatment. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) can be isolated from neonatal tissues, most of which are discarded after birth, including placental tissues, fetal membranes, umbilical cord, and amniotic fluid. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Thus, neonatal tissues are easily available and they have biological advantages in comparison to adult sources that make them a useful source for stem cells including MSCs. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • There are many studies involving autologous therapies and some allogenic therapies, based on the recovery of mobilized bone marrow cells, including mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and adipose derived stem cells that also include the stromal or adherent cell type that has an MSC phenotype. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This includes bone and cartilage repair, cell types into which MSCs readily differentiate, and immune conditions such as graft versus host disease and autoimmune conditions that utilize the MSC's immune suppressive properties. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The use of patient's own bone marrow aspirates, hematopoietic stem cells and MSCs, for heart muscle tissue repair can be puzzling because these cells do not normally contribute to the cardiac lineage types that are desired. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are under investigation to treat autoimmune and degenerative disorders due to their immunomodulatory and regenerative properties. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Autologous bone marrow MSCs (BMMSCs), isolated, cultured, and expanded, were administered by intrathecal (IT) injection in the cisterna magna intravenously (IV) and by intra-arterial (IA) injection in the right carotid artery. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from bone marrow play a critical role in osteochondral repair. (hindawi.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play a key role in articular cartilage repair. (hindawi.com)
  • MSCs have multilineage differentiation potential, allowing them to differentiate, for example, into chondrocytes and osteoblasts, the key cells from the two tissues that constitute the osteochondral unit. (hindawi.com)
  • In the orthopaedic field, additional application of a bone marrow aspirate (BMA) to the procedure of marrow stimulation has been recently studied, since the bone marrow itself is both a source of MSCs, providing a cell population capable of chondrogenesis and of various growth factors stimulating cartilage repair [ 7 - 10 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • In contrast to the cost- and labor-intensive cultivation and propagation of cells such as MSCs or articular chondrocytes, the clinical use of "minimally processed" autologous BMA that can be prepared in the operation room as a single-step procedure appears straightforward. (hindawi.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are promising candidates for cell-based therapies. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Different media used in culture processes should maintain the biological characteristics of MSCs during multiple passages. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This study aims to conduct a direct head-to-head comparison of the biological characteristics of the two types of MSCs under human platelet lysate-supplemented culture conditions for their ability to be used in regenerative medicine applications. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The bone marrow- and adipose tissue-derived MSCs were cultured under human platelet lysate conditions and their biological characteristics evaluated for cell therapy (morphology, immunophenotype, colony-forming unit-fibroblast efficiency, proliferation capacity, potential for mesodermal differentiation, secreted proteins, and immunomodulatory effects). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Under human platelet lysate-supplemented culture conditions, bone marrow- and adipose tissue-derived MSCs exhibited similar fibroblast-like morphology and expression patterns of surface markers. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Adipose tissue-derived MSCs had greater proliferative potential than bone marrow-derived MSCs, while no significantly difference in colony efficiency were observed between the two types of cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • However, bone marrow-derived MSCs possessed higher capacity toward osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation compared with adipose tissue-derived MSCs, while similar adipogenic differentiation potential wase observed between the two types of cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • There were some differences between bone marrow- and adipose tissue-derived MSCs for several secreted proteins, such as cytokine (interferon-γ), growth factors (basic fibroblast growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, and insulin-like growth factor-1), and chemokine (stem cell-derived factor-1). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Over the past decade, MSCs which are isolated from the umbilical cord, umbilical cord blood, bone marrow (BM), adipose tissue (AT) and many other adult tissues have been explored as potential therapeutic strategies for a number of diseases [ 2 ], but AT and BM are the most widely used sources of MSC, especially in autologous cell-based therapies due to ease of harvest and potential autologous application [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Due to their immunomodulatory properties, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have come into focus as a potential therapeutic concept. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of MSCs on the phenotype, cytokine profile, and functionality of naive and non-naive CD4 + T-cells from healthy donors (HD) and patients with autoimmune arthritis under Th17-cytokine polarizing conditions in an explorative way using a transwell system prohibiting any cell-cell-contact. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Magnetically isolated naive and non-naive CD4 + T-cells were stimulated under Th17-polarizing proinflammatory cytokine conditions in presence and absence of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs). (biomedcentral.com)
  • In isolated naive CD4 + T-cells from HD and patients, MSCs suppressed the differentiation of naive towards an effector phenotype while memory and naive cells showed higher percentages in culture with MSCs. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In patients, MSCs significantly decreased the proportion of IL-9 and IL-17 producing effector T-cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The results of the study indicate significant immunomodulatory properties of MSCs, as under Th17-polarizing conditions MSCs are still able to control T-cell differentiation and proinflammatory cytokine production in both HD and patients with autoimmune arthritis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent adult stem (or stromal) cells with the capacity of self-renewal and differentiation potential towards several mesodermal linages such as osteogenic, chondrogenic and adipogenic differentiation (more citations) [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • A shift from Th1 to Th2 cells demonstrated by an increase in the levels of IL-4 has been observed upon treatment with MSCs [ 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In addition to their stem/progenitor properties, mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) possess broad immunoregulatory properties that are being investigated for potential clinical application in treating immune-based disorders. (pdffox.com)
  • Introduction Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are adult, fibroblast-like multipotent cells characterized by the ability to differentiate into tissues of mesodermal origin, such as adipocytes, chondroblasts, and osteoblasts (Friedenstein et al. (pdffox.com)
  • MSCs can be isolated based on their ability to adhere to plastic culture dishes, and they are capable of significant expansion by consecutive in vitro passaging (Pittenger et al. (pdffox.com)
  • In response to this challenge, the International Society for Cellular Therapy formulated minimal criteria for defining MSCs in order to create a broader consensus for more uniform characterization of these cells (Dominici et al. (pdffox.com)
  • 2007). In addition to their stem/progenitor properties, MSCs have also been shown to possess broad immunoregulatory abilities and are capable of influencing both adaptive and innate immune responses. (pdffox.com)
  • This ability of MSCs to adopt a different phenotype in response to sensing an inflammatory environment is not captured in assays that are commonly used to characterize these cells, but it is crucial for understanding their therapeutic potential in immune-mediated disorders. (pdffox.com)
  • Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are increasingly used as an intravenously applied cellular therapeutic. (issca.us)
  • Pivotal studies by the group of Horwitz in children with osteogenesis imperfecta, an inherited enzyme deficiency of collagen synthesis by mesenchymal cells in bone, opened the field for intravenous use of MSCs. (issca.us)
  • These studies used various ways to label culture-expanded MSCs, and to track them in different tissues over time. (issca.us)
  • The tissue source of the MSCs was in most cases not decisive, and cells from various tissue sources were explored. (issca.us)
  • and signals from the injected cells were found early after administration of the MSCs at the highest frequencies in the lungs, followed by liver and spleen. (issca.us)
  • It maintains normal hematopoietic function by interacting with hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) to control their proliferation and differentiation ( Morrison and Scadden, 2014 ). (techscience.com)
  • These cells evolve from the differentiation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs). (differencebetween.com)
  • They play a role in cell development and differentiation. (differencebetween.com)
  • Ghasemi-Mobarakeh L, Prabhakaran MP, Tian L, Shamirzaei-Jeshvaghani E, Dehghani L, Ramakrishna S. Structural properties of scaffolds: Crucial parameters towards stem cells differentiation. (wjgnet.com)
  • Scaffolds play an important role in tissue engineering as a substrate that can mimic the native extracellular matrix and the properties of scaffolds have been shown to affect the cell behavior such as the cell attachment, proliferation and differentiation. (wjgnet.com)
  • a) The cells should exhibits plastic adherence (b) The cell should possess specific set of cell surface markers, i.e. cluster of differentiation (CD) 73, D90, CD105 and lack expression of CD14, CD34, CD45 and human leucocyte antigen-DR (HLA-DR). (c) The cells should have the ability to differentiate in vitro into adipocyte, chondrocyte and osteoblast. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • In vivo differentiation to cells from all three germlines was tested using a teratoma assay. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In vitro differentiation of GS-2 iPSCs into hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells was done using Op9 feeder layers and specified media. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Differentiation capacity into cells from all three germ layers was confirmed using the teratoma assay. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Depending on the tissue of origin, they may have a higher preference for differentiation into one particular cell type and a lower preference for another one, but they all still retain the differentiation potential for the mesenchymal lineage. (promocell.com)
  • Which plates does PromoCell recommend as 96-well U bottom suspension plates for chondrogenic differentiation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells? (promocell.com)
  • For chrondrogenic differentiation it is important that the cells do not adhere to the wells. (promocell.com)
  • During differentiation, the cells form spheroids which float in the medium. (promocell.com)
  • mice could be achieved by reconstituting CD8+ T cells in deficient hosts suggesting that practical plasticity was still possible after thymic development differentiation and emigration. (siamtech.net)
  • Likewise, they have the ability to activate the angiogenesis, proliferation, migration, and differentiation of the main cell types involved in skin regeneration. (frontiersin.org)
  • Malignant GEP-NET cells expressed genes and regulons associated with normal, gastrointestinal endocrine cell differentiation, and fate determination stages. (bu.edu)
  • We show here that these novel intrathymic DCs are truly myeloid, as they arise from CD34 + early thymic progenitors through CD34 lo intermediates which have lost the capacity to generate T cells, but display myelomonocytic differentiation potential. (ashpublications.org)
  • Moreover, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and CD31 showed co-localization with α-SMA, suggesting the differentiation of hBMSCs into epithelial cells and myofibroblasts/fibroblasts. (ijbs.com)
  • In order to eliminate the interference from the transplanted cells themselves, fetal stem cells were used for transplantation because the proliferation and differentiation potentials of fetal stem cells are superior to the adult ones ( 8 ). (ijbs.com)
  • In the presence of TGF-β, IL-9 may induce differentiation of naive CD4 + T-cells towards Th17 cells, while IL-9 also affects thymus-derived natural Tregs (nTregs) and enhances their suppressive function in vitro [ 26 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • However, the limited amount of stem cells and their tendency to undergo spontaneous differentiation upon extended propagation in vitro restrict their practical application. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Furthermore, MDLS could promote teratoma formation and enhanced differentiation potential of P19 cells in vivo. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Endothelial progenitor cell (or EPC) is a term that has been applied to multiple different cell types that play roles in the regeneration of the endothelial lining of blood vessels. (wikipedia.org)
  • Progenitor cells are capable of differentiating into cells that belong to the same tissue or organ of each progenitor cell. (differencebetween.com)
  • To validate this putative candidate gene and to explore its function, we used CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing to discover that cultured TPM1 -deficient induced pluripotent stem cells enhanced hematopoietic progenitor cell formation. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Endothelial colony forming cells represent a distinct population that has been found to have the potential to differentiate and promote vessel repair. (wikipedia.org)
  • The key difference between hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells is that hematopoietic stem cells have the ability to differentiate into different types of cells while progenitor cells are more specific and they differentiate into target cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • Progenitor cells are descendants of stem cells that further differentiate into specialized cell types. (differencebetween.com)
  • Progenitor cells are the cells that originate from stem cells and further differentiate to create specialized cell types. (differencebetween.com)
  • Some cells differentiate into targeted cells, while other cells have the ability to differentiate into more than one type of cell. (differencebetween.com)
  • Hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into multipotent progenitor cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • These multipotent progenitor cells differentiate into either common myeloid progenitor (CMP) or common lymphoid progenitor cells (CLP). (differencebetween.com)
  • On the other hand, progenitor cells are more specific than hematopoietic stem cells and can differentiate into target cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • Similarly, they are characterized by an extensive capacity for self-renewal, proliferation, potential to differentiate into multiple lineages and their immune-modulatory role on various cells. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) express genes associated with pluripotency, have the capacity for infinite expansion, and can differentiate into cells from all three germ layers. (biomedcentral.com)
  • GS-2 iPSCs showed the capacity to differentiate into cells of the hematopoietic lineage. (biomedcentral.com)
  • As part of the more general topic of stem cell biology, a number of studies have suggested that the blood contains marrow derived cells that can differentiate into fibroblasts. (ipfs.io)
  • cells either divide asymmetrically to preserve stem cell progenitors, partition into sister cells, differentiate along fate pathways, or undergo oncogenesis following the formation of normal tissues. (bioseek.eu)
  • However, one of the bottlenecks in the stem cell therapy is that stem cells tend to differentiate into other types of cells during culture in vitro. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Both cells have common applications in various cell-based therapies such as tissue regeneration and transplantation. (differencebetween.com)
  • The stromal cell requirement for androgen-mediated effects was confirmed in vivo by experiments using chimeric animals created by bone marrow transplantation in which androgen receptor expression was restricted to either the stromal or lymphoid cells of the bone marrow. (jci.org)
  • The essence of MDS is damage of In the current work we examined All our patients were of the high-risk colony-forming units [4], but the defect haematopoietic stem cells of high-risk group and none of them was eligible of the haematopoietic stem cells is not MDS cases for apoptotic and anti-apop- for stem cell transplantation. (who.int)
  • Hu G, Liu P, Feng J, Jin Y. Transplantation with Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Promotes Wound Healing Under Chemotherapy through Altering Phenotypes. (ijbs.com)
  • Stem cell transplantation is a promising strategy for delayed wound healing caused by chemotherapy. (ijbs.com)
  • Nevertheless, myelosuppression can be reversed by autologous stem cell transplantation (SCT), even without additional toxicity ( 4 , 5 ). (ijbs.com)
  • In these studies, however, transplanted cells were followed, if at all, at the site of transplantation, and biodistribution was not an issue. (issca.us)
  • This concept started from the observation that bone marrow transplantation can provide stromal cells able to synthesize intact collagen type I, replacing deficient patient cell function and ameliorating disease symptoms [5]. (issca.us)
  • The bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) population, which makes up a large part of the hematopoietic microenvironment, encompasses a variety of adherent cell types. (techscience.com)
  • Through them, the cells modify their microenvironment and the behavior of neighboring cells. (frontiersin.org)
  • Cost-effective blood cell generation will require novel strategies based on better knowledge of underlying mechanisms driving in vitro development. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The stromal cell products responsible for these effects of estrogens have not been identified. (jci.org)
  • In this assay hematopoietic cells are cultured in MyeloCult™ medium with supportive human or mouse stromal cell layers and tested for their ability to generate myeloid clonogenic progenitors for several weeks as assayed by replating the cells in a colony-forming unit (CFU) assay using MethoCult™ medium. (stemcell.com)
  • Establish stromal cell layers and culture hematopoietic progenitors in "Dexter-type" long-term bone marrow cultures. (stemcell.com)
  • Stromal cell feeder layers (e.g. (stemcell.com)
  • While some other authors have contested these, and maintained that they are true EPCs, many investigators have begun to term these cells colony forming unit-Hill cells (CFU-Hill) or circulating angiogenic cells (CAC) instead (depending on the method of isolation), highlighting their role as hematopoietic myeloid cells involved in promoting new vessel growth. (wikipedia.org)
  • 8 As these latter DCs derive from an intrathymic lymphoid-restricted progenitor able to generate also T, B, and NK cells, but not myeloid cells, upon transfer in vivo, 5 , 9 , 10 they have hitherto been considered of lymphoid origin. (ashpublications.org)
  • Immature B cells from normal mouse bone marrow were not responsive to the suppressive effect of androgens unless they were cocultured with marrow stromal cells or with supernatants from androgen-treated stromal cells, suggesting that the androgen effects are exerted through marrow stromal elements by production of a diffusible mediator. (jci.org)
  • A review is presented of the experiments that resulted in the identification of a specific morphologic entity representing the pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell (HSC) in mouse bone marrow. (tno.nl)
  • Adherent cells from mouse bone marrow have been shown to promote the in vitro growth of the AVRij-1 tumour cell line. (tno.nl)
  • Mouse bone marrow-derived adherent cell populations promoted proliferation of haemopoietic cells in vitro in a liquid culture system for at least 4 weeks. (tno.nl)
  • HSCs develop into different types of blood cells in lines called myeloid and lymphoid , which are involved in dendritic cells formation. (differencebetween.com)
  • Lymphoid cells include T cells, B cells, innate lymphoid cells, and natural killer cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • We employed in vitro cultures and two in vivo models to investigate whether androgens exert these effects directly on marrow lymphoid precursors or whether actions on marrow stromal elements are required. (jci.org)
  • indicated that ATMs colocalized with T cells in lymphoid clusters within adipose tissue and may act as APCs, which express high levels of MHCII and also costimulatory molecules and process and present antigens to induce CD4+ T-cell proliferation and activation in adipose tissue of obese mice (29, 68, 105). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Tumor and lymphoid compartments sparsely expressed immunosuppressive targets commonly investigated in clinical trials, such as the programmed cell death protein-1/programmed death ligand-1 axis. (bu.edu)
  • In this study, the finding that a significant proportion of all dendritic cells (DCs) resident in vivo in the human postnatal thymus displayed a myeloid-related phenotype prompted us to re-examine the developmental origin of thymic DCs, a cell type hitherto considered to represent a homogeneous lymphoid-derived population. (ashpublications.org)
  • 1-3 These nonoverlapping functions have been proposed to result from the actions of 2 major DC populations which have been characterized as myeloid and lymphoid DCs, respectively, on the basis of their anatomical localization and cell-surface phenotypes and, ultimately, of their distinct developmental origin. (ashpublications.org)
  • Molecular genetic analysis of early outgrowth putative EPC populations suggests they do indeed have monocyte-like expression patterns, and support the existence of a separate population of progenitors, the late outgrowth, or endothelial colony forming cell (ECFC). (wikipedia.org)
  • Unfortunately, there are no unique markers for endothelial progenitors that are not shared with other endothelial or hematopoietic cells, which has contributed to the historical controversy surrounding the field. (wikipedia.org)
  • Certain developmental cells may be similar to or the same as other endothelial progenitors, though not typically referred to as EPCs. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hemogenic endothelial cells (HECs) are specialized cells that undergo endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT) to give rise to the earliest precursors of hematopoietic progenitors that will eventually sustain hematopoiesis throughout the lifetime of an organism. (bu.edu)
  • To identify putative causal genes from these data, we performed computational modeling using available genome-wide association datasets for platelet and red blood cell traits. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Description: The WM59 monoclonal antibody reacts with human CD31, also known as platelet-endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) and gpIIa. (thermofisher.com)
  • CD31 (platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, PECAM-1) is an inhibitory coreceptor involved in regulation of T cell and B cell signaling by a dual immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) that upon associated kinases-mediated phosphorylation provide docking sites for protein-tyrosine phosphatases. (thermofisher.com)
  • Though not defined as a hematopoietic organ, the lung houses many resident hematopoietic cells, aids in platelet biogenesis, and is a reservoir for hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). (bu.edu)
  • Current pathophysiology studies are focused on the origin of the antibody response, the nature of the antigenic complex and pathologic epitopes, the mechanisms of interindividual differences in platelet activation, and the functions of monocytes and endothelial cells. (immune-source.com)
  • Particularly, NME is an idiopathic inflammatory disease of the CNS that is characterized by prominent necrosis and infiltration of inflammatory cells, including lymphocytes, plasma cells, and monocytes or histiocytes into the cerebral cortex and/or white matter, hippocampus, thalamus, and leptomeninges. (biomedcentral.com)
  • MM cells co-cultured with BM stromal cells displayed resistance to reovirus-induced oncolysis and bystander cytokine-killing but remained susceptible to killing by reovirus-activated NK cells and MM-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes. (bmj.com)
  • Another statement showed the preadipocyte- and endothelial cell-derived stromal-derived element-1 (CXCL12), mediated early infiltration of CD4+ T lymphocytes in obesity, which preceded the increase of macrophages in adipose cells of mice on HFD (101). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • In obese humans, adipocyte-secreted CCL20 may contribute to the deposition of Compact disc4+ helper and Compact disc8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes within adipose tissues, possibly via connections with CCR6 which was upregulated on T cells in obese adipose tissues (100). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • This was associated with increased infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, and mast cells. (oaji.net)
  • Інфекція вірусом імунодефіциту людини (ВІЛ) Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection results from 1 of 2 similar retroviruses (HIV-1 and HIV-2) that destroy CD4+ lymphocytes and impair cell-mediated immunity, increasing risk of certain. (msdmanuals.com)
  • More recently, mesoangioblasts have been theorized as a cell giving rise to multiple mesodermal tissues. (wikipedia.org)
  • hEPCs have been used for cell-based therapies due to their capacity to contribute in the re-endothelialization of injured blood vessels and neovascularization in ischemic tissues. (intechopen.com)
  • Progenitor cells are an intermediary step in the development of mature cells in tissues, organs, blood, and the central nervous system. (differencebetween.com)
  • Therefore, progenitor cells are necessary for repairs and to maintain tissues after an injury. (differencebetween.com)
  • They can create new tissues and even whole organs from a few stem cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • The first source of Mesenchymal stem cells was in the bone marrow and considered to be the gold standard for clinical research, although various other sources have being discovered which include: Adipose tissue, Dental pulp, Mobilised Peripheral blood, Amniotic fluid, Joint synovium, synovial fluid, Endosteum, Periosteum, Menstrual blood and birth-derived tissues. (stemcellsgroup.com)
  • Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with the more specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gottlieb Haberlandt first pointed out the possibilities of the culture of isolated tissues, plant tissue culture . (wikipedia.org)
  • [12] He suggested that the potentialities of individual cells via tissue culture as well as that the reciprocal influences of tissues on one another could be determined by this method. (wikipedia.org)
  • Adherent cell layers derived from other haemopoietic organs (foetal liver, adult spleen) and fibroblasts from embryonic tissues did not maintain haemopoietic cells in this system. (tno.nl)
  • Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a central mechanism for diversifying the cells found in complex tissues. (bioseek.eu)
  • How do mesenchymal stem cells from different tissues differ in terms of their biological function? (promocell.com)
  • However, the main element substances that mediate T cell infiltration into adipose tissues in maturing remain to become discovered. (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Activation of Typical T Cells in Adipose Tissues Compact disc4+ Purpureaside C T Cell Activation TCRs recognize the current presence of a particular antigen by binding to brief peptide sequences in the antigen that's shown on APCs. (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • further defined that mostly huge adipocytes from obese adipose tissues exhibited an increased expression degree of MHCII substances and acted as APCs to activate Compact disc4+ T cells to secrete IFN- (103). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • ECFCs are now known to be tissue-resident progenitor cells in adults that maintain some vasculogenic ability. (wikipedia.org)
  • Thus, it has been shown that early EPCs release cytokines that promote tissue regeneration and neovasculogenesis, whereas late EPC and endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) contribute to the formation of blood vessels and stimulate tube formation. (intechopen.com)
  • Stem cells have attracted much interest in tissue engineering as a cell source due to their ability to proliferate in an undifferentiated state for prolonged time and capability of differentiating to different cell types after induction. (wjgnet.com)
  • These early trials are showing roles for stem cells both in replacing damaged tissue as well as in providing extracellular factors that can promote endogenous cellular salvage and replenishment. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. (wikipedia.org)
  • The term "tissue culture" was coined by American pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows . (wikipedia.org)
  • After the cells of interest have been isolated from living tissue , they can subsequently be maintained under carefully controlled conditions. (wikipedia.org)
  • In practice, the term "cell culture" now refers to the culturing of cells derived from multicellular eukaryotes , especially animal cells, in contrast with other types of culture that also grow cells, such as plant tissue culture , fungal culture, and microbiological culture (of microbes ). (wikipedia.org)
  • The historical development and methods of cell culture are closely interrelated to those of tissue culture and organ culture . (wikipedia.org)
  • The laboratory technique of maintaining live cell lines (a population of cells descended from a single cell and containing the same genetic makeup) separated from their original tissue source became more robust in the middle 20th century. (wikipedia.org)
  • [6] In 1885 Wilhelm Roux removed a section of the medullary plate of an embryonic chicken and maintained it in a warm saline solution for several days, establishing the basic principle of tissue culture. (wikipedia.org)
  • Since Haberlandt's original assertions, methods for tissue and cell culture have been realized, leading to significant discoveries in biology and medicine. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fibroblasts are activated connective tissue cells characterized by synthesis of proteins of the fibrous matrix, particularly the collagens . (ipfs.io)
  • When tissue is injured, the predominant mesenchymal cells, the fibroblast, have been believed to be derived from the fibrocyte or possibly from smooth muscle cells lining vessels and glands. (ipfs.io)
  • Recently, the term "fibrocyte" has also been applied to a bloodborne cell able to leave the blood, enter tissue and become a fibroblast. (ipfs.io)
  • A focus is on the steps of mobilization of cells from the subchondral bone and repair tissue formation, including adherence of the bone marrow clot to the subchondral bone. (hindawi.com)
  • An organoid is a 3D organization of cells that can recapitulate some of the structure and function of native tissue. (mdpi.com)
  • Pathogenic transformation of Tregs in addition has been defined in various other experimental versions (25 26 Furthermore both maintenance of suppressive actions in peripheral tissue and the legislation of endogenous creation of IL-6 by nTregs had been been shown to be dependent on the current presence of Compact disc8+ T cells (21). (siamtech.net)
  • However, its role in aging-related adipose tissue CD4+ T cell activation remains to be investigated. (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • CD8+ T Cell Activation Compared to CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells show a greater increase in adipose tissue in obesity and in aging (31, 43, 106). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Similar to CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells exhibit effector memory or effector phenotypes expressing elevated levels of IFN- in obese adipose tissue (31, 44). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • The mechanism for CD8+ T cell activation in adipose tissue is not fully understood. (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • showed that adipose tissue from obese mice induced proliferation of splenic CD8+ T cells, indicating a CD8+ T cell-activating environment in obese adipose tissue (31). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Indeed, CD8+ T cells from mouse adipose tissue respond to cytokines and become activated and proliferate under stimulation of IL-12 and IL-18, which are mainly produced by APCs and are elevated in obese adipose tissue (44). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Proteomics is a powerful approach to study the whole set of proteins expressed in an organism, organ, tissue or cell resulting in valuable information on physiological or pathological state of a biological system. (oaji.net)
  • Tissue from the upper or lower respiratory tract, sputum samples, and samples obtained by nasopharyngeal washing, bronchoalveolar lavage, and biopsy may be submitted for viral culture. (medscape.com)
  • IL-9 and Th9 cells are overexpressed in synovial tissue while proportion of Th9 cells are increased in peripheral blood from RA patients [ 28 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • the CFU-Hill population is an early outgrowth, formed by plating peripheral blood mononuclear cells on fibronectin-coated dishes, allowing adhesion and depleting non-adherent cells, and isolating discrete colonies. (wikipedia.org)
  • A similar method is to culture the peripheral blood mononuclear fraction in supplemented endothelial growth medium, removing the non-adherent cells, and isolating the remaining. (wikipedia.org)
  • ECFCs are isolated by plating peripheral blood mononuclear fraction on collagen-coated plates, removing non-adherent cells, and culturing for weeks until the emergence of colonies with a distinctive cobblestone morphology. (wikipedia.org)
  • Human endothelial progenitor cells (hEPCs) are adult stem cells, located in the bone marrow and peripheral blood. (intechopen.com)
  • 1 set of positive blood cultures for Nocardia bacteria were for 15 min to disrupt any biofi lm. (cdc.gov)
  • 1 blood cultures (not including and incubated for 48 h at 37°C. The experiment was organisms considered common skin contaminants) and repeated 2 times. (cdc.gov)
  • Hematopoietic stem cells are immature cells that develop into all types of blood cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are immature cells found in the peripheral blood and bone marrow. (differencebetween.com)
  • They have the ability to give rise to all types of blood cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. (differencebetween.com)
  • Hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) are also intermediates in the development of blood cells. (differencebetween.com)
  • These cells become mature blood cells along cell lines. (differencebetween.com)
  • Identifying causal variants and genes from human genetic studies of hematopoietic traits is important to enumerate basic regulatory mechanisms underlying these traits, and could ultimately augment translational efforts to generate platelets and/or red blood cells in vitro. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, we show that although this receptor is present on most vascular and blood cells, the key regulatory function in tumor and wound angiogenesis is performed by β 3 integrin on bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) recruited to sites of neovascularization. (rupress.org)
  • While numerous teams continue to refine and expand the role of bone marrow and cord blood stem cells for their vanguard uses in blood and immune disorders, many others are looking to expand the uses of the various types of stem cells found in bone marrow and cord blood, in particular mesenchymal stem cells, to uses beyond those that could be corrected by replacing cells in their own lineage. (biomedcentral.com)
  • A significant proportion of clinical studies that are underway involve bone marrow and cord blood stem cells for blood and immune disorders [ 3 ] and cancers. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Peripheral blood fibrocytes from burn patients: identification and quantification of fibrocytes in adherent cells cultured from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. (ipfs.io)
  • Neutrophilia may result from a shift of cells from the marginal to the circulating pool (shift neutrophilia) without an increase in the total blood granulocyte pool (TBGP) or from a true increase in TBGP size (true neutrophilia). (medscape.com)
  • During early infection, the neutrophil count may actually decrease briefly because of margination of cells from the blood. (medscape.com)
  • This is followed rapidly by egress of cells from the marrow, resulting in an increase in the TBGP and blood neutrophilia. (medscape.com)
  • Methods This study used human peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors and in vitro co-culture of MM cells and BM stromal cells to recapitulate the resistant BM niche. (bmj.com)
  • In contrast, our blood cells are cryopreserved directly after cell isolation. (promocell.com)
  • A common reference range for the absolute neutrophil count (ANC), which is calculated on the basis of the percentage of neutrophils in the white blood cell count (see the Absolute Neutrophil Count calculator) is 2500-8000/µL. (medscape.com)
  • Vulnerability to infection is extremely high in patients with agranulocytosis, which is the virtual absence of neutrophils in peripheral blood, with ANC typically lower than 100/μL. (medscape.com)
  • Concurrent anemia, thrombocytopenia, and/or an abnormal result on a peripheral blood smear from a patient with neutropenia suggest an underlying hematologic disorder. (medscape.com)
  • The objective of this study is to explore the long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and messenger RNAs (mRNAs) expression profiles of monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs) obtained from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). (frontiersin.org)
  • PBMCs were separately isolated from the human peripheral blood of patients with AR and normal person (NP). (frontiersin.org)
  • The peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) have a round nucleus ( Delves, 2016 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Applications Tested: The WM-59 (WM59) antibody has been tested by flow cytometric analysis of normal human peripheral blood cells. (thermofisher.com)
  • however, the cells were trackable in blood only. (issca.us)
  • In 1907 the zoologist Ross Granville Harrison demonstrated the growth of frog embryonic cells that would give rise to nerve cells in a medium of clotted lymph . (wikipedia.org)
  • Although HECs are thought to be primarily limited to the aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) during early development, EHT has been described in various other hematopoietic organs and embryonic vessels. (bu.edu)
  • In addition, we found that in the presence of LIF, MDLS could replace feeder cells to maintain the undifferentiated state of OG2-mES cells (Oct4-GFP reporter gene mouse embryonic stem cell line), and the MDLS-expanded OG2-mES cells showed an elevated expression levels of pluripotency markers in vitro. (biomedcentral.com)
  • It is expressed in ESCs, embryonic germ (EG) cells and embryonic carcinoma (EC) cells and essential for early embryonic development [ 14 , 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, a combination of different cell surface markers is used to separate the rare HSCs. (differencebetween.com)
  • These cells have been reported to express the hematopoietic cell surface markers CD34+, CD45+, as well as collagen . (ipfs.io)
  • Treatment for this condition remains difficult and largely ineffective, because the growth of cells in the wound is inhibited ( 2 ) and chemotherapy usually leads to myelosuppression, the latter of which further compromises the migration of multipotent cells from the bone marrow ( 3 ). (ijbs.com)
  • Although bone marrow-derived cells do appear to localize to injured vessels and promote an angiogenic switch, other studies have suggested these cells do not contribute directly to the functional endothelium, instead acting via paracrine methods to provide support for the resident endothelial cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ablation of the endothelial progenitor cells in the bone marrow lead to a significant decrease in tumour growth and vasculature development. (wikipedia.org)
  • This phenomenon occurs in otherwise unmanipulated murine marrow in vivo, resulting in circulating platelets that bear membrane from non-megakaryocytic hematopoietic donors. (elifesciences.org)
  • Castration of normal male mice induces expansion of the bone marrow B cell population, an effect that can be reversed by androgen replacement. (jci.org)
  • Further experiments revealed that bone marrow stromal cells produced TGF-β in response to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and neutralization of TGF-β in the DHT-treated stromal cells reversed the suppressive effects. (jci.org)
  • These experiments suggest that effects of androgens on developing B cells are mediated through androgen receptors in bone marrow stromal cells. (jci.org)
  • Several lines of evidence support the hypothesis that gonadal steroids exert effects on the development of B cells in bone marrow. (jci.org)
  • Androgens also exert effects on B cell development in bone marrow. (jci.org)
  • 15]. The percentage of bone common of which are trisomy 8, mono- marrow blast cells for estimation of the Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is somy 7 and 5q- [11]. (who.int)
  • The culture system, in which a marrow-derived adherent cell population, established in vitro, exerts a long-term promoting influence on proliferation of haemopoietic cells, is reproduced. (tno.nl)
  • The experiments presented here suggest that the adherent cells involved in this phenomenon are the progeny of bone marrow derived fibroblastoid colony forming units. (tno.nl)
  • During the recovery phase, the flow of cells from the marrow decreases, with a resultant decrease in the number of neutrophils. (medscape.com)
  • The additional application of a bone marrow aspirate (BMA) to the procedure of marrow stimulation is thought to enhance cartilage repair as it may provide both an additional cell population capable of chondrogenesis and a source of growth factors stimulating cartilage repair. (hindawi.com)
  • Multiple myeloma (MM) is a tumor of terminally differentiated plasma cells which expand in the bone marrow (BM). (bmj.com)
  • most of the neutrophils in the body are contained in the bone marrow, either as mitotically active (one third) or postmitotic mature cells (two thirds). (medscape.com)
  • Herein we characterized human fetal bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) during wound healing in mice treated with cyclophosphamide (CTX). (ijbs.com)
  • In the 1970s, Friedenstein and colleagues [1] first reported that locally applied culture-expanded populations of bone marrow stroma-derived fibroblastic cells remained at their injection sites under the kidney capsule, where an ectopic hematopoiesis was initiated. (issca.us)
  • These original, early outgrowth, CFU-Hill or CACs are also shown to express CD14, a lipopolysaccharide receptor expressed by monocytes but not endothelial cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Explant cultures of murine and human fetal lungs display adherent endothelial cells transitioning into floating hematopoietic cells, accompanied by the gradual loss of an endothelial signature. (bu.edu)
  • Therefore, fetal stem cells are suitable cells for clarifying the influences of CTX on cell functions. (ijbs.com)
  • By method of isolation and cell function, three main populations of putative adult EPCs have been described. (wikipedia.org)
  • These findings identify emperipolesis as a new cell-in-cell interaction that enables neutrophils and potentially other cells passing through the megakaryocyte cytoplasm to modulate the production and membrane content of platelets. (elifesciences.org)
  • Almost 50 years ago, it was observed that MKs can engulf other hematopoietic cells, most commonly neutrophils ( Larsen, 1970 ). (elifesciences.org)
  • Moreover, although interleukin 7 (IL-7) supports the generation of such myeloid intermediates, we show that their developmental branching from the main intrathymic T-cell pathway is linked to the up-regulation of the myelomonocytic granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) receptor, to the down-regulation of the IL-7 receptor and to the lack of pre-T-cell receptor α (pTα) gene transcriptional activation. (ashpublications.org)
  • studies indicated that RANTES is Purpureaside C an adipokine that can be produced by adipocytes and takes on an important part in T cell migration, suggesting a potential part of the RANTES/CCR5 axis in adipose T cell build up in obesity (24). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Indeed, the principal adipocytes isolated from obese mice could induce antigen-specific Compact disc4+ T cell activation (58). (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • Taken together, one important mechanism for obese adipose CD4+ T cell activation may be mediated through MHCII expressed on ATMs and adipocytes. (exposed-skin-care.net)
  • A fibrocyte is an inactive mesenchymal cell, that is, a cell showing minimal cytoplasm, limited amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum and lacks biochemical evidence of protein synthesis . (ipfs.io)
  • Androgens only affected B cell development in chimeric mice with androgen-sensitive stromal cells. (jci.org)
  • In the lack of or disturbance with MHC I-CD8 connections the regulatory actions of nTregs had been altered not merely leading to the increased loss of suppression however in their transformation to pathogenic IL-13-making Compact disc4+ T effector cells improving lung allergic replies in receiver mice (5). (siamtech.net)
  • These cells can be differentiated into mature endothelial cells, which are involved in processes of angiogenesis and vessel regeneration. (intechopen.com)
  • The properties of HUCMSCs were validated by untargeted label-free quantitation of the cell and CM proteome, suggesting increased activity of regeneration, autophagy and anti-inflammation pathways and mitochondrial function. (nature.com)
  • The Center for Regenerative Medicine (CReM) is a joint effort between Boston University and Boston Medical Center that brings together nine principal investigators addressing various aspects of developmental biology, stem cells, regeneration and injury, cell lineage specification and disease modeling with a major focus on induced Pluripotent Stem Cells or iPSCs. (bu.edu)
  • Outgrowth endothelial cells are an EPC subtype committed to endothelial cell formation. (wikipedia.org)
  • A comparative analysis of single-cell RNA sequencing data collected from three HUCMSCs and two human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) controls identified eight common cell clusters, all of which indicated regenerative potential specific for HUCMSCs. (nature.com)
  • MicroRNA-126 (miR-126) is endothelial cell (EC) specific and plays a key role in regulating EC function, controlling angiogenesis, and maintaining vascular integrity. (justia.com)
  • When glucose was supplemented in the culture in vitro , there was a negative effect on the proliferation and viability of EPCs, in a dose-dependent manner, whereas the enhancement of apoptosis was observed. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In vitro hyperglycemic effect using various glucose concentrations on the viability, proliferation and apoptosis of cultured EPCs from both diabetic patients and healthy controls were also performed. (biomedcentral.com)
  • CD31 is a multifunctional molecule with diverse roles in modulation of integrin-mediated cell adhesion, transendothelial migration, angiogenesis, apoptosis, negative regulation of immunoreceptor signaling, autoimmunity, macrophage phagocytosis, IgE-mediated anaphylaxis and thrombosis. (thermofisher.com)
  • Bleomycin causes an increase in oxidative stress which has been shown to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. (bcl2signaling.com)
  • ABSTRACT This study examined haematopoietic stem cells of 19 high-risk cases of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) for apoptotic and anti-apoptotic signals and cellular proliferation and correlated these with clinical and cytogenetic subtypes, particularly trisomy 8. (who.int)
  • Endothelial progenitor cells are likely important in tumour growth and are thought to be critical for metastasis and the angiogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • This chapter provides an overview of the key role of hEPC in promoting angiogenesis and their potential use for cell therapy. (intechopen.com)
  • Angiogenesis is dependent on the coordinated action of numerous cell types. (rupress.org)
  • CRISPR/Cas9-mediated TPM1 knockout in human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) enhanced hematopoietic progenitor development, increasing total megakaryocyte and erythroid cell yields. (biomedcentral.com)
  • At the same time, the first three trials using cells derived from pluripotent cells have begun. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Antisera directed against histocompatibility-2 antigens of the mouse suppress the formation of spleen colonies by pluripotent hemopoietic stem cells. (tno.nl)
  • Dendritic cells (DCs), which are the most important antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that send signals to the T cells, mainly participate in the pathogenesis of many diseases with immunoregulatory mechanisms, such as AR. (frontiersin.org)
  • Dendritic cells (DCs) are hematopoietic-derived highly specialized antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that display potent ability to induce both specific immune responses and deletion of potentially autoreactive T cells. (ashpublications.org)
  • Stem cells have the ability to change into many different types of cells and grow definitely in the human body. (differencebetween.com)
  • In vitro hematopoietic systems might be improved by identifying novel factors from human genetic studies. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here we report application of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (HUCMSC)-derived therapy for pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). (nature.com)
  • Next, we explored the potential for reovirus-induced immunotherapy using human co-culture models to mimic the myeloma-supportive BM niche. (bmj.com)
  • His work covers various topics, including B cell responses to viral infection and vaccination, human primary immunodeficiency, and biology of lymphocyte development and function and to elucidate etiology of immunological disorders. (stanford.edu)
  • Long-term engraftment of allogeneic cells necessitates eluding immune-mediated rejection, which is currently achieved by matching for human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression, immunosuppression, and/or delivery of donor-derived cells to sanctuary sites. (ashpublications.org)
  • Flow cytometry was used to measure the uptake of adriamycin (AM) and daunomycin (DM) by various cell types of the haemopoietic organs and by acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells. (tno.nl)
  • If the demand for cells is high, a shift to the left in the differential count may occur. (medscape.com)
  • Neutrophilia in severe burns is accompanied by a shift to the left in the differential and the presence of degenerative forms on the peripheral smear, including toxic granulation and Dohle bodies. (medscape.com)
  • We also demonstrate that phenotypically and functionally equivalent myeloid precursors devoid of T-cell potential do exist in vivo in the postnatal thymus. (ashpublications.org)
  • Different phenotypes and subtypes of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), such as early and late EPCs, have been described according to their functionality. (intechopen.com)
  • Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) play an important role in vascular repair and a decrease in the number of EPCs is observed in type 2 diabetes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The EPCs were cultured and characterized by the expression of UEA-I, CD34, VEGFR2, vWF and Dil-Ac-LDL engulfment, as well as the ability to form capillary-like structures. (biomedcentral.com)
  • An in vitro study on the effect of hyperglycemia on the proliferation and viability of the cultured EPCs was also performed. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Colony formation assay, sphere-forming ability assay, alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity assay and teratoma-formation assay were used to assess the role of modaline sulfate (MDLS) in promoting self-renewal and reinforcing pluripotency of P19 cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In vitro proliferation of haemopoietic cells in the presence of adherent cell layers. (tno.nl)
  • These cells are phenotypically similar to endothelial cells and have been shown to create vessel-like structures in vitro and in vivo. (wikipedia.org)
  • Patients with coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, chronic inflammation and malignant disease were excluded. (biomedcentral.com)
  • CD31 is expressed ubiquitously within the vascular compartment and is located mainly at junctions between adjacent cells. (thermofisher.com)
  • Viral pneumonia can be diagnosed by isolation and identification of the pathogen through viral culture. (medscape.com)
  • A key adhesion molecule expressed by these cells is the α v β 3 integrin. (rupress.org)
  • The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis found 16 significant regulated pathways in imDCs and 10 significant regulated pathways in mDCs, including the phagosome, cell adhesion signaling pathway, and inflammatory mediator regulation of TRP channels pathway. (frontiersin.org)
  • Homotypic interaction of CD31 is important in adhesion, cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction, and signal transduction. (thermofisher.com)
  • Commonly, fibroblasts express smooth muscle actin , a form of actin first found in smooth muscle cells and not found in resting fibrocytes. (ipfs.io)
  • They include endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and keratinocytes. (frontiersin.org)