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PotentToxinPufferContain tetrodotoxinNeurotoxin tetrodotoxinNervePresumptive diagnosisSodium channel blockerScopolamineAirway smooth musclePufferfishStimulationMoleculeInhibitionSaxitoxinVenomContractionsParalysis of the musclesContractionBivalveSpeciesIngestionPharmacologicalAcetylcholineNervous systemHeat-stableOvariesNervesPoisonousCardiac muscleOccursWeaknessNeuronalQuantitiesSkeletal muscleRespiratory muscle paralysisChefsGeneTissueChemicalFuguSmooth muscleDiaphragmSpinal motoneuronsDeadlyCases

Potent7

• Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin. (wikipedia.org)
• Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin found mainly in puffer fish and other marine and terrestrial animals. (mdpi.com)
• Tetrodotoxin is an extremely potent poison (toxin) found mainly in the liver and sex organs (gonads) of some fish, such as puffer fish, globefish, and toadfish (order Tetraodontiformes) and in some amphibian, octopus, and shellfish species. (cdc.gov)
• Puffer fish contain the potent neurotoxin tetrodotoxin. (medscape.com)
• Tetrodotoxin is extremely potent and can cause death by paralysis. (discovermagazine.com)
• While the muscle tissue is safe to eat, the fish's liver - considered by some to be the tastiest part of the fish - contains the potent neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) that leads to dizziness, tingling sensations, and muscle weakness. (iflscience.com)
• It contains tetrodotoxin, a potent neurotoxin that affects the nervous system. (govegan.recipes)

Toxin6

• To the contrary, there has been a failure in a single case, that of newts (Taricha granulosa), to detect TTX-producing bacteria in the tissues with highest toxin levels (skin, ovaries, muscle), using PCR methods, although technical concerns about the approach have been raised. (wikipedia.org)
• Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is an extraordinarily powerful toxin that binds to sodium channels in the nerves of animals. (zooatlanta.org)
• Tetrodotoxin, abbreviated to TTX, was a nerve toxin extracted from a pufferfish or blue-ringed octopus. (sunnygovan.com)
• Tetrodotoxin poisoning is most common in Japan, due to eating the puffer fish (fugu), which naturally contains this toxin in certain organs. (msdmanuals.com)
• If a large amount of the toxin is eaten, muscles can become paralyzed and death may result from paralysis of the muscles that regulate breathing. (msdmanuals.com)
• Depending on the species of snail, the poison can be saxitoxin (microalgal toxin accumulating in bivalve animals, some species of crabs…) or tetrodotoxin (toxin in pufferfish, squid or horseshoe crab). (vietexplorer.com)

Puffer5

• Poisoning with the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) occurs after ingestion of various species of puffer fish (see the image below). (medscape.com)
• The toxic dose is not clear because puffer fish have different concentrations of tetrodotoxin. (medscape.com)
• On April 29, 1996, three cases of tetrodotoxin poisoning occurred among chefs in California who shared contaminated fugu (puffer fish) brought from Japan by a co-worker as a prepackaged, ready-to-eat product. (cdc.gov)
• A presumptive diagnosis of Puffer fish (tetrodotoxin) poisoning was made on the basis of history of recent consumption of Puffer fishes (Fugu) and classical clinical presentations. (pakmedinet.com)
• Bokos may also use poisonous powders in which frog or toad venom and tetrodotoxin, a powerful neurotoxin secreted by puffer fish that can trigger paralysis or death-like symptoms, could be primary ingredients. (cdc.gov)

Contain tetrodotoxin2

• The liver, gonads, intestines, and skin of these fish contain tetrodotoxin, a powerful neurotoxin that can cause death in approximately 60% of persons who ingest it (2). (cdc.gov)
• However, more than 100 other freshwater and saltwater species also contain tetrodotoxin. (msdmanuals.com)

Neurotoxin tetrodotoxin1

• the release is proportional to the degree of relaxation, and blocked by the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin. (ersjournals.com)

Nerve14

• Tetrodotoxin blocks diffusion of sodium through the sodium channel, thus preventing depolarization and propagation of action potentials in nerve cells. (medscape.com)
• They further strongly suggest the presence of nerve cell bodies in this muscle. (aspetjournals.org)
• In control bladder strips, since tetrodotoxin did not inhibit epibatidine contractions, nicotinic receptors are likely located on nerve terminals. (jefferson.edu)
• The tetrodotoxin inhibition of epibatidine-induced contractions in Decentralized and ObNT-Reinn suggests a relocation of nicotinic receptors from nerve terminals to more distant axonal sites, perhaps as a compensatory mechanism to recover bladder function. (jefferson.edu)
• To examine possible mechanisms of action of halothane at clinically relevant concentrations the authors studied the effect of halothane on increases in pulmonary resistance (R(L)) produced by either vagus nerve stimulation (VNS, which caused neurally mediated constriction) or the inhalation of nebulized acetylcholine (ACh, which directly stimulated the smooth muscle cell) in nine mongrel dogs. (elsevierpure.com)
• The pan sodium ion channel, SCN5A, is a cardiac sodium channel distinct from those in nerve and muscle. (abcam.cn)
• First, the venom blocks nerve signals throughout the body, causing muscle numbness," scientists at the Ocean Conservancy told The Inertia . (explorersweb.com)
• Tetrodotoxin blocks sodium channels, leading to paralysis and interfering with nerve signals. (govegan.recipes)
• A schematic of tetrodotoxin delivery to nerve sodium channels via bioinspired nanofibers. (childrenshospital.org)
• These adapted peptides bind to tetrodotoxin (shown as gold hexagons) and release it when the nanofibers are injected near the nerve, providing prolonged local anesthesia. (childrenshospital.org)
• when tetrodotoxin is delivered to the nerve, it binds simultaneously to both peptides. (childrenshospital.org)
• When this nanostructure is injected near the target nerve, the tetrodotoxin slowly releases by diffusion and other processes, and binds to P1 and P2 on the nerve itself. (childrenshospital.org)
• The packaged anesthetics stayed in place longer than free tetrodotoxin, with no toxic tissue reaction, and neurobehavioral tests in the animals showed that the nerve block lasted for as long as 16 hours. (childrenshospital.org)
• Synaptic efficacy at the rat Ia-motoneuron synapse has been reported to increase in vivo , within 3 d of sectioning a single muscle nerve ( Miyata and Yasuda, 1988 ). (jneurosci.org)

Presumptive diagnosis1

• A presumptive diagnosis of tetrodotoxin poisoning in all three men was based on clinical presentation in the ED and the history of recent consumption of fugu. (cdc.gov)

Sodium channel blocker2

• Tetrodotoxin is a sodium channel blocker. (wikipedia.org)
• Differentially, epibatidine responses in Decentralized and ObNT-Reinn bladder strips were lower than controls after tetrodotoxin (TTX, a sodium channel blocker that inhibits axonal action potentials). (jefferson.edu)

Scopolamine2

• They were reduced 50-90% by 0.16 microM tetrodotoxin, but they were unaffected by 17 microM scopolamine. (aspetjournals.org)
• Korea's National Security Agency used a mixture of scopolamine and diluted tetrodotoxin. (sunnygovan.com)

Airway smooth muscle6

• The study appropriately focused on the role of nitric oxide (NO) as a transmitter of the inhibitory ( i.e. relaxant) nonadrenergic, noncholinergic (NANC) system, the principal defence against excessive airway smooth muscle contraction. (ersjournals.com)
• In summary, it appears likely that NANC relaxation of airway smooth muscle is mediated by at least two and probably all three transmitters, pharmacologically coupled, or otherwise working in concert. (ersjournals.com)
• It has been suggested that halothane inhibits contraction of airway smooth muscle in vivo mainly by reducing reflex activity in nerves innervating the muscle with only minimal direct effects on the muscle itself. (elsevierpure.com)
• The authors conclude that in addition to neurally mediated effects, halothane at clinically used concentrations has significant direct effects on airway smooth muscle stimulated by ACh. (elsevierpure.com)
• The relative importance of each factor in vivo should depend on the stimulus that caused contraction of airway smooth muscle. (elsevierpure.com)
• We combined this information with a pharmacological analysis of selective NaV blockers on parasympathetic contractions of isolated airway smooth muscle. (johnshopkins.edu)

Pufferfish2

• The name Tetraodontidae comes from a chemical that many pufferfish have in their body called tetrodotoxin. (blogspot.com)
• Biomedical and pharmacological potential of tetrodotoxin-producing bacteria isolated from marine pufferfish Arothron hispidus. (blogspot.com)

Stimulation4

• This prevents the nervous system from carrying messages and thus muscles from contracting in response to nervous stimulation. (wikipedia.org)
• Functionally, this is accompanied by decreased nitrergic relaxatory responses of jejunal longitudinal muscle to tetrodotoxin-sensitive electrical field stimulation. (portlandpress.com)
• This was associated with a restoration of N G -nitro-L-arginine methyl ester-sensitive relaxatory responses of jejunal longitudinal muscle to electrical field stimulation. (portlandpress.com)
• Transmural stimulation elicited repeateable inhibitions unaffectd by pentolinium (93 mcM) but abolished by tetrodotoxin (0.63 mcM). (erowid.org)

Molecule3

• With this in mind, and zeroing in on one particular molecule, called tetrodotoxin, we can weave together a fascinating narrative of cultures, fads, ceremonies, word-choice, and basic natural history. (zooatlanta.org)
• Site 1 sodium channel blockers such as tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin are small-molecule drugs with powerful local anesthetic properties. (childrenshospital.org)
• Each set of peptides binds one tetrodotoxin molecule. (childrenshospital.org)

Inhibition1

• Spermine inhibition was tetrodotoxin (TTX)-insensitive, while isoamylamine was TTX-sensitive, suggesting neural control. (foodandnutritionresearch.net)

Saxitoxin2

• Multiple saxitoxin-binding sites in bullfrog muscle: tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium channels and tetrodotoxin-insensitive sites of unknown function. (aspetjournals.org)
• Although tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin were the test anesthetics, the approach could potentially be applied to other drug delivery systems. (childrenshospital.org)

Venom3

• Initially, a bite from a blue-ringed octopus is relatively painless, but the venom they inject contains tetrodotoxin, a neurotoxin that can cause respiratory arrest, heart failure, paralysis, and death. (explorersweb.com)
• The venom paralyzes muscles, including those involved in breathing. (explorersweb.com)
• Their venom contains tetrodotoxin, which can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, and respiratory failure in humans. (govegan.recipes)

Contractions3

• ML-1035 contractions were completely blocked by atropine and tetrodotoxin, while ganglionic blockade with hexamethonium was ineffective. (nih.gov)
• Isoamylamine and spermine in colon relaxed KCl (100 mM)-elicited tonic contractions, suggesting an effect on smooth muscle, but did not justify the suppression of motility caused by spermine and isoamylamine. (foodandnutritionresearch.net)
• Muscle strips were collected, mucosa-denuded, and mounted in muscle baths before incubation with neurotransmitter antagonists, and contractions to the nicotinic receptor agonist epibatidine were determined. (jefferson.edu)

Paralysis of the muscles1

• Tetrodotoxin interferes with the transmission of signals from nerves to muscles and causes an increasing paralysis of the muscles of the body. (cdc.gov)

Contraction3

• It works by blocking sodium channels, which are necessary for the contraction of muscles like the diaphragm that control breathing. (discovermagazine.com)
• These sodium channels cyclically pump sodium ions into and out of the muscle cell, causing contraction and relaxation of the cell. (zooatlanta.org)
• When tetrodotoxin was given to block neural activity, the ACh response was unchanged, confirming that neural activation did not contribute significantly to smooth muscle contraction in response to ACh. (elsevierpure.com)

Bivalve1

• Detection of tetrodotoxins in European bivalve shellfish have been reported in the Netherlands, United Kingdom, France, Greece, and Italy, although concentrations were low in comparison to published minimum lethal doses for humans. (medscape.com)

Species3

• Although tetrodotoxin was discovered in these fish and found in several other animals (e.g., in blue-ringed octopuses, rough-skinned newts, and moon snails), it is actually produced by certain infecting or symbiotic bacteria like Pseudoalteromonas, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio as well as other species found in animals. (wikipedia.org)
• As would be expected from previous studies, tetrodotoxin potently blocked the parasympathetic responses in the airways of each species. (johnshopkins.edu)
• In particular, this agency determined a large amount of tetrodotoxin present in all specimens of the two snail species mentioned above. (vietexplorer.com)

Ingestion1

• Exposure occurs due to ingestion of fish or other food containing tetrodotoxin. (cdc.gov)

Pharmacological1

• Pharmacological analysis of nicotinic relaxation of bovine retractor penis muscle. (aspetjournals.org)

Acetylcholine1

• Relaxations of the isolated bovine retractor penis muscle elicited by nicotine and the three other nicotinic agonists acetylcholine, carbachol, and dimethylphenylpiperazinium were studied. (aspetjournals.org)

Nervous system2

• It affects a person's peripheral and central nervous system, paralyzing the respiratory and motor muscles. (sunnygovan.com)
• Sodium channels in the adult central nervous system and heart contain beta 1 through beta 4 subunits, whereas sodium channels in adult skeletal muscle have only the beta 1 subunit. (thermofisher.com)

Heat-stable2

• Tetrodotoxin is a heat-stable (except in alkaline environments) and water-soluble nonprotein. (medscape.com)
• Tetrodotoxin is heat-stable and blocks sodium conductance and neuronal transmission in skeletal muscles. (cdc.gov)

Ovaries1

• For example, the rough-skinned newt, Taricha granulosa has tetrodotoxin in their skin, ovaries, and in their muscles as well. (blogspot.com)

Nerves6

• Tetrodotoxin interferes with the transmission of signals from nerves to muscles by blocking sodium channels. (medscape.com)
• Tetrodotoxin acts on the central and the peripheral nervous systems (ie, autonomic, motor, sensory nerves). (medscape.com)
• The results suggest that nicotine concentrations ranging from about 10-45 microM relax the bovine retractor penis muscle by a rather selective activation of inhibitory nerves, whereas higher concentrations may additionally activate some other less specific inhibitory mechanism. (aspetjournals.org)
• Moreover, nicotinic activation of these nerves of the bovine retractor penis muscle can be used as a model for further characterization of mammalian erectile nerves. (aspetjournals.org)
• They provide pain relief without toxic effects on local nerves and muscles, and are an attractive alternative to opioids. (childrenshospital.org)
• The team then put the tetrodotoxin-bearing nanostructures to the test, injecting them near the sciatic nerves of live rats. (childrenshospital.org)

Poisonous1

• Currently, cases of tetrodotoxin poisoning in general and poisonous sea snails in particular do not have a specific antidote. (vietexplorer.com)

Cardiac muscle3

• The mechanisms of cellular excitability and propagation of electrical signals in the cardiac muscle are very important functionally and pathologically. (bvsalud.org)
• There are areas in the cardiac muscle with anatomical and functional differentiation that present automatism, thus subjecting the rest of the fibers to their own rhythm. (bvsalud.org)
• This protein is found primarily in cardiac muscle and is responsible for the initial upstroke of the action potential in an electrocardiogram. (utsouthwestern.edu)

Occurs1

• Food: Exposure to tetrodotoxin usually occurs through eating improperly prepared fish or possibly through contamination of other food products. (cdc.gov)

Weakness1

• Despite their small size, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus contains neurotoxins that can cause muscle weakness, paralysis, and respiratory failure. (govegan.recipes)

Neuronal1

• In the experimental Goto Kakizaki rat, a model of Type II diabetes, hyperglycaemia and reduced glucose clearance is associated with elevated plasma endothelin (ET)-1 levels and selective decreases in nitric oxide synthase in circular muscle, longitudinal muscle and neuronal elements of the gastrointestinal tract. (portlandpress.com)

Quantities2

• Indoor Air: Because the natural source of tetrodotoxin is from living organisms, and manufacturing tetrodotoxin artificially in appreciable quantities is extremely difficult, dissemination through indoor air is unlikely. (cdc.gov)
• California newt and the eastern salamander) also possess tetrodotoxin in lethal quantities (3) ( Table_1 ). (cdc.gov)

Skeletal muscle3

• Recently, two independent models, one from rodents and the other from insects, have demonstrated that nuclei are not lost from skeletal muscle fibers when they undergo either atrophy or programmed cell death. (frontiersin.org)
• Skeletal muscle is the largest tissue in the body. (frontiersin.org)
• Skeletal muscle is fairly unique in that the mature cells are syncytial and can contain hundreds of nuclei. (frontiersin.org)

Respiratory muscle paralysis2

• An ascending paralysis develops, and death can occur within 6-24 hours, secondary to respiratory muscle paralysis. (cdc.gov)
• Twenty-two patients developed ascending paralysis and 17 of them developed respiratory muscle paralysis. (pakmedinet.com)

Chefs1

• This tradition led to the modern-day culture of eating fugu in Japan, in which carefully trained chefs create raw dishes of the low-TTX muscle tissues mixed with tiny amounts of the high-TTX liver. (zooatlanta.org)

Gene2

• Gene expression analysis showed that that NaV 1.7 was virtually the only tetrodotoxin-sensitive NaV1 gene expressed in guinea pig and human airway parasympathetic ganglia, where mouse ganglia expressed NaV1.1, 1.3, and 1.7. (johnshopkins.edu)
• The protein encoded by this gene is an integral membrane protein and tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channel subunit. (utsouthwestern.edu)

Tissue1

• However, since there are many different non-muscle cell populations that reside within the tissue, these experiments cannot easily distinguish true myonuclei from those of neighboring mononuclear cells. (frontiersin.org)

Chemical1

• Chemical structure of tetrodotoxin. (medscape.com)

Fugu1

• Despite these precautions, many cases of tetrodotoxin poisoning are reported each year in patients ingesting fugu. (medscape.com)

Smooth muscle4

• The first additional NANC transmitter is the smooth muscle relaxant neuropeptide vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). (ersjournals.com)
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is the latest entry into the field of NANC transmitters of smooth muscle relaxation. (ersjournals.com)
• and 2) the presence of three transmitters of smooth muscle relaxation offers the distinct advantage of redundancy. (ersjournals.com)
• A plane of separation is found between the pink-brown external sphincter (skeletal) and the white smooth muscle band of the internal sphincter. (erowid.org)

Diaphragm1

• Paralysis of key muscles, such as your diaphragm or heart, means death. (zooatlanta.org)

Spinal motoneurons2

• The pudendal motor system is constituted by striated muscles of the pelvic floor and the spinal motoneurons that innervate them. (unige.ch)
• Short and long-term changes in synaptic efficacy occur in vivo at the central synapse between muscle spindle afferents (Ia) and spinal motoneurons ( Mendell, 1984 ). (jneurosci.org)

Deadly1

• A human has to ingest only a few milligrams of tetrodotoxin for it to be deadly (Bragadeeswaran et al, 2010). (blogspot.com)

Cases1

• In severe cases, the victim seizures, foam in the mouth, loses consciousness and possibly dies from paralysis of the respiratory muscles. (vietexplorer.com)