• Antennal lobe projection neurons are the source of the cholinergic input, and the GABAergic input is from protocerebral neurons. (wikipedia.org)
  • Considering olfactory coding I demonstrate that the neural dynamics in the antennal lobe describe odor-specific trajectories during stimulation that converge to odor-specific attractors. (hu-berlin.de)
  • The time interval to reach these attractors is, regardless of odor identity and concentration, approximately 800 ms. I show that support-vector machines and, in particular perceptrons provide a realistic and biological model of the interaction between the antennal lobe (coding network) and the mushroom body (decoding network). (hu-berlin.de)
  • This dissertation focuses on the decoding of olfactory information by the mushroom body (MB), the second relay of the insect olfactory system, which receives oscillating input from the antennal lobe (the first relay, analogous to the vertebrate olfactory bulb). (caltech.edu)
  • In the insect, olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) synapse onto a smaller group of excitatory projection neurons (PNs) and inhibitory local neurons (LNs) in the antennal lobe (AL). (biomedcentral.com)
  • In the locust, olfactory information is sent from peripheral olfactory organs to the antennal lobe (AL) and is then carried as the oscillatory output of a synchronized population of projection neurons (PNs) ( Wehr and Laurent, 1996 ) to two higher olfactory centers. (jneurosci.org)
  • However, the memory of a conditioned odor decayed at a significantly greater rate for subjects experiencing antennal-only stimulation after either multiple- or single-trial conditioning. (silverchair.com)
  • Finally, to test whether the act of feeding on a reward containing sucrose during conditioning affected olfactory memory formation, we conditioned honey bees to associate an odor with antennal stimulation with sucrose followed by feeding on a water droplet. (silverchair.com)
  • We observed that a honey bee's ability to recall the conditioned odor was not significantly different from that of subjects conditioned with an antennal-only sucrose stimulus. (silverchair.com)
  • Here, we focused our attention on the mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) of the γ-lobes that act as downstream synaptic partners of the MB γ-Kenyon cells (KCs) to ask how the output of the MB γ-lobe is shaped by olfactory associative conditioning, distinguishing this from non-associative stimulus exposure effects, and without the influence of downstream modulation. (nih.gov)
  • Kenyon cells are the intrinsic neurons of the mushroom body, a neuropil found in the brains of most arthropods and some annelids. (wikipedia.org)
  • Kenyon cells have dendritic branches that arborize in the calyx or calyces, cup-shaped regions of the mushroom body. (wikipedia.org)
  • At the end of the pedunculus, Kenyon cell axons bifurcate and extend branches into the vertical and medial lobes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Kenyon cells are presynaptic to mushroom body output neurons in the lobes. (wikipedia.org)
  • for example, those that have their cell bodies outside of the calyx cup are called clawed Kenyon cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Where a Kenyon cell sends its dendrites in the calyces and which lobes it projects its axons to varies based on its birth-order. (wikipedia.org)
  • Odor information is represented by sparse combinations of Kenyon cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Learning is facilitated by dopamine-driven plasticity of the odor response of Kenyon cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Kenyon cells (KCs), the intrinsic neurons of the MB, are found to respond very specifically to odors. (caltech.edu)
  • During olfactory learning in fruit flies, dopaminergic neurons assign value to odor representations in the mushroom body Kenyon cells. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • This anatomy and their odor tuning suggests that M4/6 neurons pool odor-driven Kenyon cell synaptic outputs. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • The mushroom body intrinsic Kenyon cells are believed to store the memory in the synaptic connection to mushroom body output neurons. (uni-goettingen.de)
  • Furthermore, analysis of Kenyon cell innervations within functionally specialized compartments of the γ lobe revealed no compartment-specific Kenyon cell subtypes. (uni-goettingen.de)
  • It seems likely that in the case of food intake mushroom body extrinsic neurons undergo adaptive changes, while Kenyon cells do not change morphologically. (uni-goettingen.de)
  • Mathematical description of ionic currents of the Kenyon cell in the mushroom body of honeybee. (auth.gr)
  • Training the flies to associate an odor with an electric shock changed how these cells responded to odors by developing a modification in gamma lobe neuron activity, known as a memory trace," he said. (uh.edu)
  • Gregg Roman, an associate professor of biology and biochemistry at UH, and Shixing Zhang, his postdoctoral associate, describe their findings in a paper titled "Presynaptic Inhibition of Gamma Lobe Neurons Is Required for Olfactory Learning in Drosophila," appearing Nov. 27 in Current Biology, a scientific bimonthly journal published by Cell Press. (uh.edu)
  • Feedforward inhibition contributes to odor specificity and sparseness: blocking inhibitory input to the KCs broadened their odor tuning and abolished their phase-locking, supporting the idea that feedforward inhibition limits the temporal window over which KCs integrate their inputs. (caltech.edu)
  • Drawing on results obtained with biophysical network models, I will discuss the role played by feedback and feedforward inhibition in shaping odor-driven responses of olfactory neurons. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Using model of the locust olfactory system we described the role of the fast feedback GABAa-type inhibition in generating odor triggered AL oscillations. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We further found that feedback inhibition provided by the giant GABAergic neuron (GGN) is sufficient to maintain sparse but varied excitation in the KCs across range of odor concentrations. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The lateral horn (LH) of the insect brain is thought to play several important roles in olfaction, including maintaining the sparseness of responses to odors by means of feedforward inhibition, and encoding preferences for innately meaningful odors. (jneurosci.org)
  • KCs would thus receive alternating waves of excitation from PNs and inhibition from LHIs, which together define temporal integration windows that help maintain the minimal and specific odor-elicited spiking observed in KCs. (jneurosci.org)
  • Other insects, such as honey bees and hawk moths, have olfactory systems with a similar architecture and might also employ a similar spatial approach to encode information regarding the intensity and identity of odors. (elifesciences.org)
  • Mushroom body output neurons encode valence and guide memory-based action selection in Drosophila. (espci.fr)
  • Mild along with electron microscopical examination of the actual brains of those diverse age ranges find more reveal significant changes in neuron morphology and synaptology inside the mushroom body lobes, centers proven to underlie location recollection with this taxon.Goal. (ponatinibinhibitor.com)
  • In addition, a principal-component analysis of the spontaneous activity reveals that the dominant pattern of the network during the spontaneous activity after, but not before stimulation, reproduces the odor-induced activity pattern in 2/3 of the bees studied. (hu-berlin.de)
  • We showed that our description allows the explicit identification of the groups of inhibitory interneurons in the insect AL that switch, during odor stimulation, between activity and quiescence to provide transiently synchronized response of the PNs. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, we investigate the extent to which a honey bee's ability to assess food quality affected the formation of association with an odor stimulus and the retention of olfactory memories associated with reward. (silverchair.com)
  • Brunning characterizes the signature odor as a mixture of scents, including almond, fruit, honey, and mushroom, with hints of sulfur and feces. (voemushroom.com)
  • Visual learning in a virtual reality environment upregulates immediate early gene expression in the mushroom bodies of honey bees. (cbi-toulouse.fr)
  • The significance of using fruit flies is that while their brain structure is much simpler with far fewer neurons, the mushroom body is analogous to the perirhinal cortex in humans, which serves the same function of sensory integration and learning. (uh.edu)
  • The odor information is then transferred to the mushroom body (MB), a structure analogous to the olfactory cortex and where olfactory memories are formed. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our results are inconsistent with widely accepted views on the composition of the LH, on the mechanisms underlying the sparseness of odor representations and the decoding of the PN input in KCs, and on the role of different LHNs in encoding innate preferences. (jneurosci.org)
  • Here we identify a class of downstream glutamatergic mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) called M4/6, or MBON-β2β'2a, MBON-β'2mp, and MBON-γ5β'2a, whose dendritic fields overlap with dopaminergic neuron projections in the tips of the β, β', and γ lobes. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Abolishing the input oscillations disrupts KC odor responses, decreasing their specificity and the sparseness in the MB. (caltech.edu)
  • Further, all LHNs we observed responded to all odors we tested, making it unlikely these LHNs serve as labeled lines mediating specific behavioral responses to specific odors. (jneurosci.org)
  • Deletion of the kinase from olfactory neurons in the naive state (the absence of prolonged odor exposure) reduces ORCOS289 phosphorylation and reduces peak odorant responses without altering receptor localization or expression levels. (bvsalud.org)
  • Inhibitory circuits of the AL and the MB shape the odor representation as it progresses through the olfactory system. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our study suggested that the transient nature of PN synchronization could be explained by variations in inhibitory drive from inhibitory LNs to specific groups of PNs over the duration of the odor-elicited response and we established a relationship between an important structural property of an inhibitory AL network, its colorings, and the dynamics it constrains. (biomedcentral.com)
  • found that a subset of neurons called inhibitory projection neurons processes information about whether the odor is attractive or repulsive, and that a second subset of these neurons process information about the intensity of the odor. (elifesciences.org)
  • While this MBON did not undergo non-associative modulation, the reverse was true across the remainder of the γ-lobe, where general odor-evoked adaptation was observed, but no conditioned odor-specific modulation. (nih.gov)
  • All means of delivery of the unconditioned stimulus produced robust associative conditioning with an odor. (silverchair.com)
  • In their study, the flies were trained to associate a weak electric shock with an odor. (uh.edu)
  • After training, the flies avoided that odor. (uh.edu)
  • Direct block of M4/6 neurons in naive flies mimics appetitive conditioning, being sufficient to convert odor-driven avoidance into approach, while optogenetically activating these neurons induces avoidance behavior. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Fruit flies that commonly use olfactory cues to locate food sources or mating partners, are able to assign value to odors after classical conditioning. (uni-goettingen.de)
  • Flies maintain idiosyncratic learning proficiency across odor-discrimination tasks. (cbi-toulouse.fr)
  • expression analysis guided us to C2 optic-lobe interneurons. (nature.com)
  • We therefore propose that drive to the M4/6 neurons reflects odor-directed behavioral choice. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • In insects, this process is localized to the mushroom body (MB), the circuitry of which facilitates the coincident detection of sensory stimuli and punishing or rewarding cues and, downstream, the execution of appropriate learned behaviors. (nih.gov)
  • α/β), which displayed a suppressed postsynaptic response to an aversively paired odor. (nih.gov)
  • Moreover, appetitive and aversive olfactory conditioning bidirectionally alters the relative odor-drive of M4β' neurons (MBON-β'2mp). (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Interestingly, we found that training caused the gamma lobe neurons to be more weakly activated by odors that were not paired with an electric shock, while the odors paired with electric shock maintained a strong activation of these neurons. (uh.edu)
  • Thus, the gamma lobe neurons responded more strongly to the trained odor than to the untrained odor. (uh.edu)
  • The team also showed that a specific protein - the heterotrimeric G(o) protein - is naturally involved in inhibiting gamma lobe neurons. (uh.edu)
  • Roman says removing the activity of this protein only within the gamma lobe neurons resulted in a loss of the memory trace and, thus, poor learning. (uh.edu)
  • Like that of mushroom body neurons, M4/6 output is required for expression of appetitive and aversive memory performance. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Two independent mushroom body output circuits retrieve the six discrete components of Drosophila aversive memory. (espci.fr)
  • Mushroom bodies are essential for olfactory learning and memory. (wikipedia.org)
  • One can therefore consider the odor-induced (changes of) correlation as traces of a short-term memory or as Hebbian reverberations. (hu-berlin.de)
  • Silva B, Mantha OL, Schor J,Pascual A, Plaçais PY, Pavlowsky A* , Preat T* (2022) Glia fuel neurons with locally synthesized ketone bodies to sustain memory under starvation. (espci.fr)
  • Turrel O, Rabah Y, Plaçais PY, Goguel V, Preat T. (2020) Drosophila Middle-Term Memory: Amnesiac is Required for PKA Activation in the Mushroom Bodies, a Function Modulated by Neprilysin 1. (espci.fr)
  • Amnesiac is required in the adult mushroom body for memory formation. (espci.fr)
  • Two pairs of mushroom body efferent neurons are required for appetitive long-term memory retrieval in Drosophila. (espci.fr)
  • It is best to clean specimen in the field by gently brushing away any dirt or detritus with a mushroom brush, leave intact and out of the sun (in a cooler is best). (midwestmycology.org)
  • HALLUCINOGENIC MUSHROOMS I Family: Amanitaceae Genus: Amanita Species: muscaria (Fly Agaric) The famous white warted red capped toadstool. (works.org)
  • A typical example is when organisms are repeatedly attracted to odors that are essential for survival, such as food and pheromones, and are repulsed by odors that threaten survival. (elifesciences.org)
  • Mature, ripe and choice fruiting bodies are characterized by a sweet but slightly musty odor that grows stronger with time. (midwestmycology.org)
  • The pale blue corolla is bilabiate, the lower lobes are elongated and concave, and it grows to a height of 30 cm to 62 cm. (findmeacure.com)
  • shows that certain qualities of odors are contained in a spatial map in a specific brain region of the fly. (elifesciences.org)
  • There is a specific gene in our olfactory lobes that some people have, it makes them sensitive to aldehydes, the organic compounds that give cilantro its well-known odor. (preparedcooks.com)
  • The necessity to function with resource constraints has led evolution to design animal brains (and bodies) to be optimal in their use of computational power while being adaptable to their environmental niche. (jneurosci.org)
  • Other useful books are The Strangest Plants in the World by S., D. & J. Talalaj, 1991, (a easy book for the general public but it is not as technical or as accurate as the other references), and Poisonous and Hallucinogenic Mushrooms, by R. & K. Haard, 1980. (works.org)
  • Or they may be produced in the body as a waste product of normal processes but are not broken down and removed as they normally are. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Hyphae are modified to bear the simple reproductive parts of many microfungi and form the structural tissue of fleshy fungi (eg, mushrooms, puff balls). (medscape.com)
  • The gleba, or fertile inner tissue of T. canaliculatum is also darker in mature fruiting bodies than other Tuber species native to North America. (midwestmycology.org)
  • A species of MITOSPORIC FUNGI commonly found on the body surface. (lookformedical.com)
  • Usage: Fresh mushroom should be sliced vertically in 1 cm segments and heated in an oven at 75 - 80 Celsius (165 - 175F) until dried. (works.org)