• Volatile anesthetics (VAs) have been demonstrated to enhance the uptake of glutamate in in vitro systems. (silverchair.com)
  • EAAT2 accounts for 80-90% of this activity of extracellular excitatory amino acid uptake ( 7 ). (spandidos-publications.com)
  • 2009). CEAT1 couples glutamate uptake to the symport of 3 Na+ and 1 H+ followed by the antiport of 1 K+. (lbl.gov)
  • If too little stimulation occurs for the action potential to take place low levels of glutamate uptake by the neighboring neuron occurs. (takeawayessays.com)
  • It is well-established that the secondary active transporters Glt Tk and Glt Ph catalyze coupled uptake of aspartate and three sodium ions, but insight in the kinetic mechanism of transport is fragmentary. (nature.com)
  • Zeevalk GD, Bernard LP, Guilford FT. Lipopolysaccharide increases glutathione uptake and glutathione levels in cultured astrocytes. (cellg8.com)
  • Here, S1P receptor knock-out mice, primary astrocyte cultures, and receptor-selective chemical tools were used to examine the effects of S1P on glutamate uptake. (eneuro.org)
  • S1P inhibited astrocytic glutamate uptake in a dose-dependent manner and increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption, primarily through S1P 2 . (eneuro.org)
  • Primary cultures of wild-type mouse astrocytes expressed S1P 1,2,3 transcripts, and selective deletion of S1P 1 and/or S1P 3 in cerebral cortical astrocytes, did not alter S1P-mediated, dose-dependent inhibition of glutamate uptake. (eneuro.org)
  • Pharmacological antagonists, S1P 2 -null astrocytes, and Gα 12 hemizygous-null astrocytes indicated that S1P 2 -Gα 12 -Rho/ROCK signaling was primarily responsible for the S1P-dependent inhibition of glutamate uptake. (eneuro.org)
  • In addition, S1P exposure increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates (OCRs) in wild-type astrocytes and reduced OCRs in S1P 2 -null astrocytes, implicating receptor selective metabolic consequences of S1P-mediated glutamate uptake inhibition. (eneuro.org)
  • Extracellular glutamate is excitotoxic and its levels are controlled by astrocyte uptake. (eneuro.org)
  • Here, we show that astrocytic S1P 2 activation by S1P results in glutamate uptake inhibition to promote excitotoxic damage. (eneuro.org)
  • S1P receptor modulators, including approved drugs for treating MS, e.g., fingolimod (FTY720) and siponimod (BAF312), do not engage S1P 2 , thus avoiding glutamate uptake inhibition. (eneuro.org)
  • The involvement of glutamate dysregulation in these neurologic diseases makes pharmacological modulation of glutamate uptake an attractive therapeutic target ( Anderson and Swanson, 2000 ). (eneuro.org)
  • Glutamate uptake is reduced in prefrontal cortex in Huntington's disease. (neurotree.org)
  • This study shows that EAAC1 functions as the high-affinity L-aspartate transporter that is responsible for the uptake and accumulation of aspartate in prostate cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 3 , 4 Astrocytopathy is a central element of neurological disorders and, depending on the disease context, astrocytes undergo complex changes, which vary from astroglial atrophy with loss of function, to pathological remodelling or reactivity and may develop alone or in combination. (nature.com)
  • Extracellular excitatory amino acids are mainly transported into cells by excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) expressed on astrocytes to avoid excessive excitation of neurons. (spandidos-publications.com)
  • Finally, the cross-talk between glutamate and microglia/astrocytes could involve a positive feedback loop that accelerates excitotoxicity. (springer.com)
  • constriction was attributed to PLA2-mediated arachidonic acid production by astrocytes, followed by diffusion of the arachidonic acid to smooth muscle and subsequent metabolism by cytochrome P450 4A (ω-hydroxylase) to 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Astrocytes are major producers of GSH, and they transport GSH to neurons via specific transporters, such as the excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) and the system xc- cystine/glutamate antiporter. (cellg8.com)
  • Following neurotransmission, astrocytes remove excess extracellular glutamate to prevent neurotoxicity. (eneuro.org)
  • Hence, it is of great significance to reveal the mechanism behind drug addiction, and thanks to the advancing technology in the neuroscience, accumulating studies help people understand how versatile astrocytes work in drug addiction indeed [ 4 ]. (degruyter.com)
  • Excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) also known as solute carrier family 1 member 2 (SLC1A2) and glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC1A2 gene. (wikipedia.org)
  • EAAT2 is responsible for over 90% of glutamate reuptake within the brain. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ceftriaxone, an antibiotic, has been shown to induce/enhance the expression of EAAT2, resulting in reduced glutamate activity. (wikipedia.org)
  • EAAT2/GLT-1, being the most abundant subtype of glutamate transporter in the CNS, plays a key role in regulation of glutamate neurotransmission. (wikipedia.org)
  • The glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1)/ excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) is responsible for the reuptake of more than 90% glutamate in the CNS [12-14]. (wikipedia.org)
  • Immunofluorescence was used to detect HSP90β expression localization and the expression levels of HSP90β and EAAT2 were determined using western blotting and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR. (spandidos-publications.com)
  • These results suggested that HSP90β is involved in the process of cerebral ischemia‑reperfusion injury in rats and that inhibition of HSP90β expression increases EAAT2 levels, conferring a neuroprotective effect in MCAO model rats. (spandidos-publications.com)
  • Other compounds that enhance the activity of EAAT2 (the main astrocytic transporter in the CNS) in pathological conditions, such as ß-lactam antibiotics, attenuate damage in both acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders. (drexel.edu)
  • Previous studies in my lab have identified a unique natural compound from the spider Parawixia bistriata that increases the activity of glutamate transporter EAAT2 and has neuroprotective effects on retinal tissue under ischemia. (drexel.edu)
  • Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) on the plasma membrane regulate and modulate glutamate neurotransmission by transporting synaptically released glutamate back into cells. (drexel.edu)
  • The main goals of my research are twofold: to investigate the regulation of EAATs in physiological states and neurological disorders, and to progress the development of compounds that target these transporters for therapeutic purposes. (drexel.edu)
  • Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) of the solute carrier family 1A (SLC1A) take up the neurotransmitter L-glutamate from the synaptic environment, which is necessary to keep the extracellular concentration low and prevent neurotoxicity 1 , 2 . (nature.com)
  • Subsequent to our kinetic identification of the transport process, significant advances have been achieved in the genetic and protein identification and characterization of the X AG - transporter class as EAATs (excitatory amino acid transporters). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Glutamate clearance is necessary for proper synaptic activation and to prevent neuronal damage from excessive activation of glutamate receptors. (wikipedia.org)
  • Among these diverse features, it should be acknowledged that auto-antibodies toward glutamate receptors, GABA receptors, and K + channel-related proteins are preferentially found in autoimmune limbic encephalitis but not in IMCAs [ 10 ] (Table 1 ). (springer.com)
  • There are also theories that exist that suggest that when glutamate receptors malfunction, the potential impact of this could be linked to symptoms of schizophrenia in patients (The Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia, 2018). (takeawayessays.com)
  • Secondary effects of brain trauma can be reduced by molecules that limit glutamate release, antagonists of ionotropic glutamate receptors, and compounds that target calcium influx. (drexel.edu)
  • It was hypothesized that the activation of xc- prevents drug seeking by increasing glutamatergic tone on presynaptic group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2/3) and thereby inhibiting excitatory transmission. (jneurosci.org)
  • Glutamate and glutamate receptors in the vertebrate retina. (org.es)
  • Neuroactive glutamate is classified as an excitatory amino acid (EAA) because glutamate binding onto postsynaptic receptors typically stimulates, or depolarizes, the postsynaptic cells. (org.es)
  • Many structures and processes are involved in the development of a seizure, including neurons, ion channels, receptors, glia, and inhibitory and excitatory synapses. (medscape.com)
  • EAAT1-2 are glial, EAAT3-4 are neuronal, and the mRNA of EAAT5 is distributed in the neurons and glia of retina. (silverchair.com)
  • A study has shown that neurons in the ischemic penumbra may undergo apoptosis hours or days after ischemia and alleviating ischemia reperfusion injury is an achievable therapeutic goal in the early intervention of ischemic stroke aimed at limiting the amount of infarction ( 4 ). (spandidos-publications.com)
  • However, later intracellular marking techniques, in which dyes were injected from the electrode tips into the cytoplasm of the recorded neuron, revealed that horizontal cells, second order neurons postsynaptic to cones, were the source of the S-potentials (3, 4). (org.es)
  • When it functions as a neurotransmitter, glutamate is classified as being excitatory instead of inhibitory because it typically will create an action potential, which involves a signal reaching a certain threshold or strength to carry the signal to other neurons (What are Excitatory Neurotransmitters, 2019). (takeawayessays.com)
  • By doing this glutamate encourages synaptic plasticity, this is the process of building or weakening the "cell talk" between neurons over time to process learning and memory. (takeawayessays.com)
  • We are specifically focusing on two groups of transporters vesicular neurotransmitter transporters that package neurotransmitters into vesicles for release, and glutamine transporters that shuttle glutamine, a precursor for two major neurotransmitters glutamate and GABA, to neurons from glia, the supporting cells that surround them. (stanford.edu)
  • Though glutamate is present in all neurons, only a few are glutamatergic, releasing glutamate as their neurotransmitter. (org.es)
  • Using immunocytochemical techniques, neurons containing glutamate are identified and labeled with a glutamate antibody. (org.es)
  • These neurons are believed to release GABA, not glutamate, as their neurotransmitter (Yazulla, 1986), suggesting the weak glutamate labeling reflects the pool of metabolic glutamate used in the synthesis of GABA. (org.es)
  • Glutamate incorporated into Muller cells is rapidly broken down into glutamine, which is then exported from glial cells and incorporated into surrounding neurons (Pow and Crook, 1996). (org.es)
  • they control ion homeostasis in the CNS interstitium and are indispensable for turnover of major neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, GABA and adenosine. (nature.com)
  • Such imbalances have been linked to possible causes of depression, specifically when glutamate levels are low and GABA levels are high (Glutamate's Role in Depression and Anxiety, 2017). (takeawayessays.com)
  • On the flip side when glutamate levels are high and GABA levels are low there are possible links to anxiety (Glutamate's Role in Depression and Anxiety, 2017). (takeawayessays.com)
  • Other involvement that glutamate may have w ith GABA as well as dopamine also need consideration as being related to this receptor dysfunction (The Glutamate Hypothesis of Schizophrenia, 2018). (takeawayessays.com)
  • This has been supported by the results from double-labeling studies using antibodies to both GABA and glutamate: glutamate-positive amacrine cells also label with the GABA antibodies (Jojich and Pourcho, 1996, Yang, 1996). (org.es)
  • The main groups include sodium channel blockers, calcium current inhibitors, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) enhancers, glutamate blockers, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, hormones, and drugs with unknown mechanisms of action (see the image below). (medscape.com)
  • SLC1A1 encodes a member of the high-affinity glutamate transporters that play an essential role in transporting glutamate across plasma membranes. (abbkine.com)
  • Glutamate is incorporated into these cell types through a high affinity glutamate transporter located in the plasma membrane. (org.es)
  • Exposure of prostate cells to physiological levels of prolactin or testosterone results in an up-regulation of EAAC1 expression and a corresponding increase in the high-affinity transport of L-aspartate into the cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The identification of EAAC1 as the high-affinity L-aspartate transporter now permits studies to elucidate the mechanism of hormonal regulation of EAAC1 gene expression, and to investigate the mechanism by which the cellular environment effects the functioning of EAAC1 as an aspartate transporter or as a glutamate transporter. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The kinetic properties are representative of the Na+- dependent high-affinity glutamate-aspartate transporters referred to as the X AG - class of amino acid transporters. (biomedcentral.com)
  • An important unresolved issue was the identification of the putative prostate high-affinity L-aspartate transporter. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The membrane-bound protein is the principal transporter that clears the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate from the extracellular space at synapses in the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glutamate transporters play an important role in removing glutamate from extracellular space into cells. (silverchair.com)
  • Glutamate must maintain a healthy balance within the synaptic cleft. (takeawayessays.com)
  • Glutamate transporters maintain the concentration of glutamate within the synaptic cleft at low levels, preventing glutamate-induced cell death (Kanai et al. (org.es)
  • Sodium and aspartate symporter Glt Ph is an archaeal homolog of human glutamate transporters, which clear the neurotransmitter glutamate from the synaptic cleft following rounds of neurotransmission ( Danbolt, 2001 ). (elifesciences.org)
  • When considering medications that people may take, it is known that certain medications target particular neurotransmitters while others like glutamate are not targeted by any know medications (Stahl, 2013). (takeawayessays.com)
  • Excitatory neurotransmitters "increase permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to positive ions. (takeawayessays.com)
  • In our studies on neurotransmitter metabolism we have focused our efforts on transporters, a functional class of proteins that move neurotransmitters and other small molecules across membranes in cells. (stanford.edu)
  • In brain, these transporters are crucial in terminating the postsynaptic action of the neurotransmitter glutamate, and in maintaining extracellular glutamate concentrations below neurotoxic levels. (abbkine.com)
  • Dynamic target of seizure control in management of epilepsy is achieving balance between factors that influence excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and those that influence inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). (medscape.com)
  • In particular, the long-term dysregulation of glutamate neurotransmission in the NAcc of addicts is associated with an increase in vulnerability to relapse after re-exposure to the addictive drug or its associated drug cues. (wikipedia.org)
  • Glutamate transporters are essential players in glutamatergic neurotransmission in the brain, where they maintain extracellular glutamate below cytotoxic levels and allow for rounds of transmission. (elifesciences.org)
  • Research in the A. Mortensen lab focuses on understanding mechanisms that regulate glutamate transporters, crucial proteins in the central nervous system (CNS) that modulate excitatory transmission. (drexel.edu)
  • The present report is concerned with the identification of this putative L-aspartate transporter in rat and human prostate cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In other cells (predominantly excitable tissue cells), EAAC1 has been reported to function as a glutamate transporter rather than as an aspartate transporter. (biomedcentral.com)
  • They can be considered a novel class of nerve agent toxins, inducing toxic levels of glutamate through transport inhibition in a manner analogous to the effect of sarin on cholinesterase. (wikipedia.org)
  • The autoantigens include glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65), voltage-gated Ca 2+ channel (VGCC), metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1), and glutamate receptor delta (GluRdelta). (springer.com)
  • Linkage and association of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene with autism. (neurotransmitter.net)
  • Two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that showed evidence for divergent distribution between autistic and nonautistic subjects were identified, both within SLC25A12, a gene encoding the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier (AGC1). (neurotransmitter.net)
  • In the framework of this thesis, the effects of exogenous administration of several non-essential amino acids and the participation of their specific transporters in brain metabolism were investigated in Guinea pig cortical brain slices and mouse brain tissues using a targeted neuropharmacological and metabolomic strategy. (edu.au)
  • Glutamate is incorporated into the vesicles by a glutamate transporter located in the vesicular membrane. (org.es)
  • A metabolomic study of brain tissues from aged mice with low expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) gene. (neurotree.org)
  • Differential gene expression in the striatum of mice with very low expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter type 2 gene. (neurotree.org)
  • Dysfunction of glutamate transporters causes glutamate accumulation that results in glutamate-mediated neuronal injury, which has been implicated in the pathophysiology of ischemic brain damage and other neurodegenerative disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. (silverchair.com)
  • It is important not to impact a balance or function that will impact the patient and at the same time if certain medications are not targeting glutamate but there are links to certain mental illnesses based on levels or dysfunction of the transport of glutamate, then alternatives have to be considered for interventions. (takeawayessays.com)
  • Glutamate transporters play an important role in maintaining extracellular glutamate homeostasis. (silverchair.com)
  • however, a clear link between glutamate homeostasis and S1P signaling has not been established. (eneuro.org)
  • This has a profound impact on the level of receptor activation and excitatory transmission. (drexel.edu)
  • Glutamate/aspartate:Na+ symporter, GLAST or EAAT1, Structural rearrangements have been probed by Leighton et al. (lbl.gov)
  • Two experiments were conducted to examine the hypothesis that glutamate derived from xc- stimulates inhibitory presynaptic mGluR2/3, thereby reducing synaptic glutamate release and preventing cocaine-primed drug seeking. (jneurosci.org)
  • Glutamate is very abundant in the nervous system but imbalances can cause issues. (takeawayessays.com)
  • The transport domains are mobile and move through the lipid bilayer (alike an elevator) when translocating the amino acid substrate and co-transported ions across the membrane 13 . (nature.com)
  • Prostate epithelial cells accumulate a high level of aspartate that is utilized as a substrate for their unique function of production and secretion of enormously high levels of citrate. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Glucose is the major substrate for ATP synthesis through glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS), whereas intermediary metabolism through the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle utilizes non-glucose-derived monocarboxylates, amino acids, and alpha ketoacids to support mitochondrial ATP and GTP synthesis. (molvis.org)
  • 1,2 Five glutamate transporters have been characterized to date: excitatory amino acid transporters 1-5 (EAAT1-5). (silverchair.com)
  • If glutamate is not used by the neighboring neuron it is either taken back up by the glutamate transporters in reverse in the presynaptic vesicle or stored in the astrocyte, the helper cell of the neuron. (takeawayessays.com)
  • Therefore, a mechanism that may account for the ameliorative effect of cysteine prodrugs on cocaine seeking is that the increase in extracellular glutamate produced by activating xc- restores tone on presynaptic mGluR2/3 and thereby reduces synaptic glutamate release. (jneurosci.org)
  • Neurotransmitter molecules can also bind onto presynaptic autoreceptors and transporters, regulating subsequent release and clearing excess neurotransmitter from the cleft. (org.es)
  • Some neuroactive compounds are amino acids, which also have metabolic functions in the presynaptic cell. (org.es)
  • Neuroactive glutamate is stored in synaptic vesicles in presynaptic axon terminals (Fykse and Fonnum, 1996). (org.es)
  • Confocal studies showed differential cellular and compartmental distribution of isozymes involved in glucose, glutamate, glutamine, lactate, and creatine metabolism. (molvis.org)
  • An increased PC activity upon ammonia exposure and the importance of PC activity for glutamine synthesis has previously been demonstrated while the importance of GDH for generation of glutamate as precursor for glutamine synthesis has received little attention. (123dok.net)
  • This requires a continuous de novo synthesis of glutamate, likely involving the action of both pyruvate carboxylase (PC) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). (123dok.net)
  • Our projects include basic research programs to further our knowledge of glutamate transporters regulation in physiological and disease states, and translational projects involving the development of small molecule allosteric modulators of these transporters. (drexel.edu)
  • The homeostatic regulation of amino acid concentrations is crucial for optimal brain function and development. (edu.au)
  • Some horizontal and/or amacrine cells can also display weak labeling with glutamate antibodies (Ehinger et al. (org.es)
  • 1994). Though Muller cells take up glutamate, they do not label with glutamate antibodies (Jojich and Pourcho, 1996). (org.es)
  • The immunoreactivity levels of well-characterized antibodies, for all major retinal cells and their compartments, were obtained using our established semiquantitative confocal and imaging techniques. (molvis.org)
  • The authors studied the effects of volatile anesthetics on one type of glutamate transporters, excitatory amino acid transporter type 3 (EAAT3), and the role of protein kinase C in mediating these effects. (silverchair.com)
  • Excitatory amino acid transporter type 3 was expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injection of EAAT3 mRNA. (silverchair.com)
  • 0.05) of EAAT3 for glutamate compared with control. (silverchair.com)
  • Negative association findings and research involving the serotonin transporter gene, FMR1, RELN, WNT2, HOXA1, and HOXB1 genes may be found elsewhere on this site . (neurotransmitter.net)
  • Physiological levels of cystine (100-300 n m ) were restored to acute tissue slices from the nucleus accumbens or prefrontal cortex. (jneurosci.org)
  • Obtuve el título de doctor en junio de 1994, obteniendo el premio extraordinario de doctorado. (unav.edu)
  • Desde que defendí mi tesis doctoral en el año 1994, mi labor investigadora que he desarrollado ha sido en el campo de la enfermedad de Alzheimer. (unav.edu)
  • This transporter also transports aspartate, and mutations in this gene are thought to cause dicarboxylicamino aciduria, also known as glutamate-aspartate transport defect. (abbkine.com)
  • These diseases are the result of a defect in transport of sialic acid across lysosomal membranes and are associated with mutations in the gene encoding the sialic acid transporter sialin. (stanford.edu)
  • All the amino acid transporters mentioned in this study were addressed by the existing solute carrier (SLC) gene nomenclature system for amino acid transporters. (edu.au)
  • L-Glutamate-induced responses were increased gradually with the increased concentrations of isoflurane, a volatile anesthetic. (silverchair.com)
  • In cortical tissue slices L-aspartate increased brain metabolism concentration-dependently, L-ornithine significantly slowed it at higher concentrations (100 μmol/L), and the effects of LOLA was largely dependent on the balance of its two constituent amino acids. (edu.au)
  • Using two-electrode voltage clamp, membrane currents were recorded before, during, and after application of L-glutamate. (silverchair.com)
  • The neurotransmitter is then carried across a membrane to the next neuron by way of a transporter. (takeawayessays.com)
  • This transporter is a protein that binds to the neurotransmitter and allows it to be permeable through the membrane of the neuron. (takeawayessays.com)
  • To overcome the complication that purified transporters may adopt right-side-out or inside-out membrane orientations upon reconstitution, thereby confounding the kinetic analysis, we employed a rapid method using synthetic nanobodies to inactivate one population. (nature.com)
  • Thus, glutamate gradients of a million-fold across the membrane under resting conditions can be sustained. (nature.com)
  • Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide molecule composed of cysteine, glutamate, and glycine that plays a critical role in regulating redox balance in the brain. (cellg8.com)
  • Neurotransmitter compounds can be small molecules, such as glutamate and glycine, or large peptides, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). (org.es)
  • Restoring extracellular glutamate with systemic administration of cysteine prodrugs prevented the reinstatement of cocaine seeking. (jneurosci.org)
  • In isolated retinas, vasodilations dependent on astrocyte metabolism of arachidonic acid by cytochrome (CYP) P450 2C11 (epoxygenase) to epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) became less likely as NO levels increased and directly inhibited epoxygenase activity [ 5 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • GSH synthesis and recycling are regulated by a variety of factors, including oxidative stress, cytokines, and growth factors, which can modulate the expression and activity of key enzymes involved in GSH metabolism, such as gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4). (cellg8.com)
  • During the biogas production process, microorganisms hydrolyze waste materials into sugars, peptides and amino acids, fatty acids, and to some part into acetate and hydrogen. (completelyemail.com)
  • In the first experiment, the capacity of glutamate derived from xc- to regulate excitatory transmission via mGluR2/3 was determined. (jneurosci.org)
  • Glutamate overload also known as excitotoxicity results in neuronal damage and death. (takeawayessays.com)
  • Despite countless in vitro and in vivo research on these amino acids' activities, many fundamental concerns about their metabolic function in different brain areas and pathophysiological conditions remain unanswered. (edu.au)
  • proton/sodium-glutamate symport protein GltT. (lbl.gov)
  • Development and use of S1P 2 -selective antagonists may provide a new approach to reduce glutamate neurotoxicity in neurologic diseases. (eneuro.org)
  • S1P 2 antagonists may provide a means to reduce S1P-induced glutamate neurotoxicity and ameliorate neurologic diseases. (eneuro.org)
  • Astrocytic S1P-S1P 2 signaling increased extracellular glutamate, which could contribute to neurotoxicity. (eneuro.org)
  • Decreased GSH levels and impaired GSH synthesis and recycling have been observed in various neurological conditions. (cellg8.com)
  • Different amino acid transporters at cell membranes work together to facilitate the movement of amino acids into and out of the brain. (edu.au)