Cell polyploidy. Medical search. Frequent questions

Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than one pair of (homologous) chromosomes. (wikipedia.org)
A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. (wikipedia.org)
Polyploidy may occur due to abnormal cell division, either during mitosis, or more commonly from the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or from the fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm. (wikipedia.org)
In plants, polytene chromosomes have been observed in only a few species, and seemed to be restricted to ovary and immature seed tissues, e.g., in Phaseolus coccineus and P. vulgaris (Nagl, 1981), until relatively recently, when they were observed in the cells of the anther tapetum of Vigna unguiculata (Guerra and Carvalheira, 1994) and of some Phaseolus species (Carvalheira and Guerra, 1994). (scielo.br)
To start with every organism has fixed number of chromosomes in each cell of the body, which in deploid organisms we call 2n (two sets of ) chromosomes. (google.com)
thus cells produced are abnormal because they miss one or more chromosomes. (google.com)
Sometimes the chromosomes in deviding state fail to detach from one another and the whole lot go to one cell while the other cell gets nothing. (google.com)
like in plants when the cells are dividing during growth the chromosomes duplicate in each cell and seperate into half. (google.com)
But sometimes if the duplicated chromosomes are not seperated, -abnormal- then the resulting cell gets 4n because chromosomes are already duplicated. (google.com)
such cell when form further cells they all will have 4n chromosomes. (google.com)
Megakaryocytes, from which platelets are made, may pass through as many as seven S phases producing a giant cell with a single nucleus containing 128n chromosomes. (biology-pages.info)
The most thoroughly-studied examples of polyteny are the giant chromosomes found in certain cells of larval flies. (biology-pages.info)
The photomicrograph (courtesy of B. P. Kaufmann) shows the polytene chromosomes in a salivary gland cell of a Drosophila melanogaster larva . (biology-pages.info)
Such chromosomes are found in other large, active cells as well. (biology-pages.info)
The mutagenic potential of long-term exposure of 120 male Sprague- Dawley rats to nitrous - oxide (10024972) is measured by observing aberrations in bone marrow cell chromosomes. (cdc.gov)
Chromosomes got their name by early cell biologists when they observed certain dark-staining objects in dividing cells. (carnivorousplants.org)
In human dividing cells 46 chromosomes can be observed. (carnivorousplants.org)
For example, in these corn plants, random chromosomal errors during cell division can result in individuals with too many chromosomes known as polyploids. (jove.com)
Through the process of polyploidy, the total number of chromosomes can double, or a single chromosome can duplicate itself. (howstuffworks.com)
Brain cells in older Drosophila tend to have more than two complete sets of chromosomes, and that polyploidy most likely has a protective function, a study shows. (the-scientist.com)
The amount of DNA in somatic cells (body cells) of any given species is constant (like the number of chromosomes) 3. (slideshare.net)
Each human cell contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (corresponding in structure and genetic information, i.e., 23 chromosomes are inherited from each parent). (amboss.com)
Germ cells only carry one-half of a somatic cell's chromosomes . (amboss.com)

Genetic enhancement and diversity can be improved with biotechnological approaches using mutagens, and colchicine is the most widely used in inducing polyploidy levels in many garlic varieties [ 8 , 9 ]. (scholarsresearchlibrary.com)

In addition, it can be induced in plants and cell cultures by some chemicals: the best known is colchicine, which can result in chromosome doubling, though its use may have other less obvious consequences as well. (wikipedia.org)
The endomitotic cycle (endomitosis) starts with a normal prophase (endoprophase), after which the chromosome contracts further (endometaphase), their sister chromatids separate from each other (endoanaphase) and decondense to assume the interphase nuclear structure, resulting in polyploid cells, with double the chromosome number (endopolyploidy) at the end of each cycle. (scielo.br)
During the cell division every chromosome is attached to a spindle by a fibre called spindle fibre. (google.com)
If the chromosome fails to attach to the fibre it fails to get incarporated in new cells formed, either gamete or normal body cell. (google.com)
that is, their chromosome number is some multiple of n greater than the 2n content of diploid cells. (biology-pages.info)
Several rounds of genome reduplication before chromosome segregation upsets this cycle and leads to polyploidy. (ias.ac.in)
The test chemical did not induce chromosome aberrations in the mammalian cell line in the presence and absence of S9 metabolic activation system and hence it is not mutagenic in the chromosome aberration study performed. (europa.eu)
RR CC was named for its morphologic resemblance to pediatric malignant rhabdoid tumor (MRT) of the kidney, which is a highly aggressive tumor characterized by cells that resemble rhabdomyoblasts and by genetic alterations involving chromosome 22, particularly the hSNF5/INI1 gene on 22q11.2. (medscape.com)
Polyploid cells contain more than two copies of each chromosome. (bvsalud.org)

Among mammals, a high frequency of polyploid cells is found in organs such as the brain, liver, heart, and bone marrow. (wikipedia.org)
From 12% to 18% of the somatic cells were tetraploid (4C) and 2-5% were octoploid (8C), and for the Oregon strain we observed an increase in the fraction of polyploid cells with decreasing temperature. (edu.au)
Studies on the protozoan parasite, Entamoeba histolytica suggest that in its proliferative phase, this organism may accumulate polyploid cells. (ias.ac.in)
On the contrary, the frequency of the cells with DNA content higher than 6C value (polyploid cells) did not coincide. (nii.ac.jp)
The frequency of false negative cases which had polyploid cells in smears but hadn't in sections was 8.6, 0, 5.7 in 4, 7, 10 respective. (nii.ac.jp)
A good correlation was found between the incidence of polyploid cells and the grade of dyspasia. (nii.ac.jp)

It is not clear, however, whether increased cell size is related to (or even caused by) increased nuclear volume and genome size (or configuration). (edu.au)
The nucleus size, genome size, and DNA condensation of adult flies, embryos, and Schneider 2 cells (S2 cells, of larval origin) were estimated by flow cytometry. (edu.au)
The observed increase in body size (and wing size) at low temperatures could partly be linked with the cell size and DNA condensation, while corresponding changes in the haploid genome size were not observed. (edu.au)
Most heritable information in eukaryotic cells is encoded in the nuclear genome, with inheritance patterns following classic Mendelian segregation. (nature.com)
Taken together, our study establishes crucial roles for the AtASF1A and AtASF1B genes in chromatin replication, maintenance of genome integrity and cell proliferation during plant development. (nih.gov)

1995 K2 CSR) that measures the potential in vitro genotoxicity of LAS Na to cause mutations in mammalian cells shows that LAS Na was not mutagenic to Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells both in the presence and absence of S9. (europa.eu)
Since the flower in https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/indiantreepix/7-kRSVOxAMQ/sDatK69AGYAJ had not been resulted out of sacrificing stamens (as have been explained in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-flowered#Genetics_of_double-flower_mutations ), i think the abnormality lies in tissue differentiation due to certain changes in gene expressions, rather than a polyploidy condition. (google.com)
A byproduct of alcohol consumption causes mutations in the DNA of mouse blood stem cells, and some of the breaks are not repaired. (the-scientist.com)

The vast majority of genes in eukaryotes are located within chromosomal structures in the nucleus of the cell. (nature.com)
Comparing HESC controls with HESCs deficient in SRC-3, gene enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed gene set revealed an overrepresentation of genes involved in chromatin remodeling, cell proliferation/motility, and programmed cell death. (frontiersin.org)
It has also been shown that although this organism contains sequence homologs of genes which are known to control the cell cycle of most eukaryotes, these genes may be structurally altered and their equivalent function yet to be demonstrated in amoeba. (ias.ac.in)
Of the 31 genes, the 21 upregulated genes were primarily associated with cell paracrine and intracellular signaling, transcription regulation and cell adhesion and migration, and their transcriptional products included transforming growth factor-β2 (TGF-β2), insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 2 and transcriptional factor AP-2α/γ ( 11 ). (spandidos-publications.com)

2020) Polyploidy-associated paramutation in Arabidopsis is determined by small RNAs, temperature, and allele structure. (oeaw.ac.at)

Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells, but produce haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) by meiosis. (wikipedia.org)
It also occurs in the somatic cells of other animals, such as goldfish, salmon, and salamanders. (wikipedia.org)
But if the changes occur in somatic cells then they are not passed to future generation. (google.com)

Or, was it mutation in normal diploid cells? (google.com)

Advantage has been taken of the natural ability of Agrobacterium to transfer plasmid DNA into the nuclei of susceptible plant cells. (jrank.org)
With the discovery of the polytenics in tapetum tissue, it was observed that in many other species of various angiosperm families the tapetal cells also display polytene, polyploid or both types of nuclei. (scielo.br)
Using histone-fluorescent parental isolates, we tracked male and female nuclei during fertilisation in the model ascomycetes Neurospora crassa using live-cell-imaging. (exeter.ac.uk)
Karyomegaly is characterized by acinar cells with enlarged, often pleomorphic nuclei (arrow) and frequent intranuclear pseudoinclusions (arrowhead). (nih.gov)
Karyomegaly is characterized by acinar cells with enlarged nuclei (arrow), which are often pleomorphic. (nih.gov)

Increased adult body size in Drosophila raised at lower temperatures could be attributed both to an increase in the cell volume and cell number. (edu.au)

I joined the MRC CMM in 2021 as Senior Experimental Officer to support the CMM teams with experimental, technological and analytical know-how to visualise and measure how fungal pathogens respond, regulate and impinge on host model organisms at the single-cell level. (exeter.ac.uk)
It evolved into single-cell organisms. (howstuffworks.com)
These evolved into multi-cell organisms, which evolved into vertebrates like fish, and so on. (howstuffworks.com)
Why is polyploidy lethal for some organisms while for others is not? (stackexchange.com)

In dysplastic 23 (77%) of 30 samples showed aneuploidy or polyploidy, whereas in non-dysplastic tissues 50 (94%) of 53 samples were diploid, the difference being statistically significant. (nii.ac.jp)
We investigated the reproductive defect further, determining that tetraploid worms have a shorter overall germline length, a higher rate of germ cell apoptosis, more aneuploidy in oocytes and offspring, and larger oocytes and embryos. (bvsalud.org)

Finally he studies the nature of polyploidy in plant species and its evolutionary significance. (loyno.edu)
In a new paper in Cell , researchers at The University of Texas at Austin offer the largest survey to date of proteins in plants, examining 13 different species across 1.1 billion years of plant evolution. (utexas.edu)

meiosis → produces genetically different daughter cells. (mindmeister.com)

We previously demonstrated the critical involvement of SRC-2 in murine embryo implantation as well as in human endometrial stromal cell (HESC) decidualization, a cellular transformation process required for trophoblast invasion and ultimately placentation. (frontiersin.org)

Hs 578T are epithelial cells isolated from breast tissue derived from a 74-year-old, White, female breast cancer patient. (atcc.org)
Replicate plant cells or protoplasts that are placed under identical conditions of tissue culture do not always grow and differentiate to produce identical progeny (clones). (jrank.org)
Agrobacterium cells with a genetically-modified plasmid, containing a gene for the desired trait and a marker gene, usually conferring antibiotic resistance, are incubated with protoplasts or small pieces of plant tissue. (jrank.org)
Therefore, many laboratories try with great effort to develop resorbable tissue scaffolds that could support the patient´s cells. (nature.com)
ECM provides mechanical support for cells and also determines the shape of tissue 9 . (nature.com)
As a PhD student with Alex Brand in the Aberdeen Fungal Group and a post-doc with Rob Arkowitz in Nice, I generated novel techniques via cross-faculty approaches to define previously-impossible-to-measure live-cell applied-forces and fluorescent protein dynamics within invasive pathogenic fungi against tissue-soft substrates. (exeter.ac.uk)
This may be due to late diagnosis of these tumors in our patients as most cases diagnosed at advanced stage and the sections were taken from deep tumor tissue to increase the number of tumor cells in our samples. (researchgate.net)
The cellular DNA values of these sections were compared with smears from cells detached from the same paraffin embedded tissue. (nii.ac.jp)
As I know in mammals polyploidy is lethal (I don't mean tissue - limited polyploidy). (stackexchange.com)
Polyploidy has important roles in development, evolution, and tissue regeneration/repair, and can arise as a programmed polyploidization event or be triggered by stress. (bvsalud.org)

Our previously-obtained impressive results of highly increased C2C12 mouse myoblast adhesion to amine plasma polymers (PPs) motivated current detailed studies of cell resistance to trypsinization, cell proliferation, motility, and the rate of attachment carried out for fibroblasts (LF), keratinocytes (HaCaT), rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), and endothelial cells (HUVEC, HSVEC, and CPAE) on three different amine PPs. (nature.com)
CAFs provide cancer cells with nutrition and promote the proliferation, invasion and metastasis of cells ( 6 - 9 ). (spandidos-publications.com)

Human cells contain 22 pairs of homologous autosomes. (amboss.com)

However, the sequential fungal cell biology of fertilisation and the associated nuclear dynamics after plasmogamy are poorly understood. (exeter.ac.uk)
Frontiers in cell and developmental biology. (lu.se)

Here, we have extended these studies to the staurosporine analogs K252a, lestaurtinib, PKC412, stauprimide, and UCN-01 and analyzed their influence on process extension, cell cycle distribution, and induction of polyploidy in four SCLC cell lines. (uni-luebeck.de)
Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis indicated the induction of polyploidy in all staurosporine and in two out of four stauprimide-treated SCLC cell lines. (uni-luebeck.de)
Although colchicine induces polyploidy and enhances genetic diversity, the concentration of colchicine is crucial for the success of ploidy induction. (scholarsresearchlibrary.com)
We also found that SRC-3 depletion in cultured HESCs results in a significant attenuation in the induction of a wide-range of established biomarkers of decidualization, despite exposure of these cells to a deciduogenic stimulus and normal progesterone receptor expression. (frontiersin.org)

In both adult flies and S2 cells, both nucleus size and DNA condensation varied with temperature, while DNA content appears to be constant. (edu.au)
The essential difference between endomitosis and the normal cell cycle is the absence of nuclear membrane dissolution in endomitosis, with the whole cycle occurring inside the nucleus. (scielo.br)
Present in all cells and virtually restricted to the nucleus 2. (slideshare.net)

giant trophoblast cells in the placenta . (biology-pages.info)

It is widely recognized that the accumulation of various harmful genetic alterations in normal cells may induce malignant cancer cells ( 1 ). (spandidos-publications.com)
Genetic changes have also been studied in the past few decades, with documentation of aneuploid DNA content in seminomas and intratubular germ cell neoplasia of the unclassified type (IGCNU), the precursor lesion. (medscape.com)

Moreover, a reliable in vitro study (Murie and Innes, 1997 K3 CSR) is available in which the potential of LAS Na to cause chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells was examined. (europa.eu)
The polyploidy thus falls under Chromosomal aberrations . (google.com)

The incidence of polyploidy is comparable among control and treated groups. (cdc.gov)

For example, triploid ( 3n ) and tetraploid cell ( 4n ) cells are polyploid. (biology-pages.info)

Endoreplication is the replication of DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle without the subsequent completion of mitosis and/or cytokinesis . (biology-pages.info)
Endoreplication occurs in certain types of cells in both animals and plants. (biology-pages.info)

These data demonstrate that in SCLC cells, albeit a higher substrate specificity, staurosporine analogs can induce staurosporine-comparable effects. (uni-luebeck.de)
Test chemical did not induce mutation in mammalian cell line in the presence and absence of metabolic activation and hence it is not likely to classify as a gene mutant in vitro. (europa.eu)
In chromosomal aberration assay using CHO cells, DT827B was not clastogenic to induce structural chromosomal aberration but capable of inducing polyploidy. (go.jp)

Due to the high cell/cytoplasm ratio, polyploid plants have a larger clove site and morphology than diploid plants. (scholarsresearchlibrary.com)

Polyploidy and the evolutionary history of cotton. (scielo.br)

Less frequently, a tubular morphology can be seen (see the images below), posing a differential diagnosis with Sertoli cell tumor. (medscape.com)

Other studies in oral cancer [23,24] reported that there is no relationship between the histopathological grade of oral epithelial dysplasia or oral squamous cell carcinoma and the ploidy status. (researchgate.net)
Plants and cancer cells are notriously unregulated in ploidy count. (stackexchange.com)

In the presence of K252a or PKC412, cells became bipolar and spindle shaped or showed pronounced cell flattening. (uni-luebeck.de)
Sarcomatoid renal cell carcinoma (SRCC) is currently defined in the 2004 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of renal tumors as any histologic type of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) containing foci of high-grade malignant spindle cells. (medscape.com)

These molecular findings are supported at the cellular level by the inability of HESCs to morphologically transform from a stromal fibroblastoid cell to an epithelioid decidual cell when endogenous SRC-3 levels are markedly reduced. (frontiersin.org)
Chen ZJ: Molecular mechanisms of polyploidy and hybrid vigor. (utexas.edu)

Polyploidy plants induced by colchicine in vitro result in an increase in DNA content and affect epidermal surface cells [ 11 ]. (scholarsresearchlibrary.com)
Soaking in 5 g L-1 Colchicine or 0.03 g L-1 Oryzalin solution for 12, 24 or 48 hr, the seeds of E. geroldii didn`t develop polyploidy plants. (ncl.edu.tw)
The shoot tips of E. geroldii dipped or pasted with 5 g L-1 Colchicine at cotyledon stage for 2 days had the highest mutation rate(28.1%) and 36 polyploidy plants were propagated in this experiment. (ncl.edu.tw)

The available information suggests that surveillance mechanisms or 'checkpoints' which are known to regulate the eukaryotic cell cycle may be absent or altered in E. histolytica . (ias.ac.in)

Cytogenicity in mammalian cells: negative with and without activation in Chinese hamster V79 cells (OECD TG 473) (Hoffman, 2008). (europa.eu)
Mutagenicity in mammalian cells: negative with and without activation in mouse lymphoma L5178Y cells (OECD TG 476) (Trenz, 2012). (europa.eu)

Abnormal DNA content has been related to aggressive behavior in Mucoepidermoid Carcinomas (MEC), Adenoid Cystic Carcinomas (AdCC), Acinic Cell Carcinomas (ACC) and oncocytomas (Onc) [8]. (researchgate.net)

This is because in vitro micropropagation proliferates old cells and forces them to divide into the next generation, which causes a decrease in telomerase activity [ 6 ]. (scholarsresearchlibrary.com)
CAFs maintain their phenotype for numerous passages during culture in vitro without exposure to cancer cells, while NFs cannot be infinitely proliferous like cancer cells ( 10 ). (spandidos-publications.com)

Cytogenetic evaluation of bone marrow cells in the rat following long-term inhalation exposure to nitrous oxide plus halothane. (cdc.gov)
It is concluded that exposure to 500ppm nitrous - oxide plus 10ppm halothane can cause chromosomal damage to bone marrow cells in the rat. (cdc.gov)
The mutagenicity of 4-phenyl-1, 3-dithia-2-thioxo-cycLopent-4-ene (DT827B) was examined in reverse mutation tests using Salmonella tryphimurium and Escherichia coli, in the chromosomal aberration test with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, and in the micronucleus test using mice bone-marrow. (go.jp)

Seminoma is the most common pure germ cell tumor (GCT) of the testis, accounting for up to 50% of cases. (medscape.com)
Overall, 60% of germ cell neoplasms have seminoma in their composition, but pure seminomas are genetically different from those that present as a component of a mixed tumor. (medscape.com)

Polyploidy is especially common in plants. (wikipedia.org)
Plant cells that have been transformed by the plasmid can be selected on media containing the antibiotic, and then cultured to generate new, transgenic plants. (jrank.org)
Polyploidy is an important mechanism in the evolution of plants. (tripod.com)
The Atasf1ab mutant plants exhibit cell number reduction, S-phase delay/arrest, and reduced polyploidy levels. (nih.gov)
In 1925 HJ Muller addressed this question in a famous paper, "Why polyploidy is rarer in animals than in plants" (Muller, 1925). (stackexchange.com)
Muller briefly described the phenomenon that polyploidy was frequently observed in plants, but rarely in animals. (stackexchange.com)

The group of benign tumours included 164 pleomorphic adenomas, 51 Warthin's tumours, 7 basal cell adenomas, 2 lipomas as well as 5 other different tumours. (researchgate.net)
The malignant tumours consisted of 18 adenoid cystic adenomas, 10 mucoepidermoid carcinomas, 5 acinic cell carcinomas, 5 carcinoma in pleomorphic adenoma as well as of 12 other malignancies belonging to 7 different tumour entities. (researchgate.net)
In three cases which initially were taken for pleomorphic adenomas by routine histological examination, aneuploid cell populations exposed by DNA flow cytometric analysis gave rise to a closer inspection of the suspect lesions. (researchgate.net)
Examination of consecutive slides actually revealed small assemblies of carcinoma cells that required a final diagnosis as non-invasive carcinoma in pleomorphic adenoma. (researchgate.net)

Polyploidy is often witnessed in cells prior to differentiation, in embryonic cells or in diseases such as cancer. (ias.ac.in)
Focal spindling due to noncohesion of tumor cells is not considered to represent sarcomatoid differentiation. (medscape.com)

Another area of research involves polyploidy . (howstuffworks.com)

As demonstrated on LF fibroblasts, the resistance to trypsin was similar in serum-supplemented and serum-free media, i.e., medium without cell adhesion-mediating proteins. (nature.com)
Based on all the results, the increased resistance to trypsinization of C2C12, LF, HaCaT, and VSMC cells on amine PPs can be explained most probably by a non-specific cell adhesion such as electrostatic interaction between the cells and amine groups on the material surface, rather than by the receptor-mediated adhesion through serum-derived proteins adsorbed on the PPs. (nature.com)

mitosis → produces genetically identical daughter cells. (mindmeister.com)

The endoreduplication cycle differs from endomitosis because it results in polytene cells (cells with many identical paired chromatids). (scielo.br)
2021) Cdc4 phospho-degrons allow differential regulation of Ame1CENP-U protein stability across the cell cycle. (oeaw.ac.at)

This gene, which encodes a member of the serine/threonine kinase family, regulates cell polarity and functions as a tumor suppressor. (cancerindex.org)

Pieces of DNA may enter through these temporary pores, and sometimes protoplasts will be transformed as the new DNA is stably incorporated (i.e., able to be transmitted in mitotic cell divisions). (jrank.org)

Scientists working in basic, translational, and clinical cancer metabolism research are invited to join the Academy in New York on April 17th to discuss the intersection between cell signaling and metabolism. (nyas.org)

When the two gametes fuse (like pollen grain and ovule , or sperm with ovum) we again get a deploid cell (n+n=2n) called zygote. (google.com)

differs with changing conditions in one type of cell. (biology-pages.info)

We have recently shown that staurosporine mediates the conversion of small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) cells into a neuron-like process-bearing phenotype. (uni-luebeck.de)
Go to Renal Cell Carcinoma and Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma for more complete information on these topics. (medscape.com)

Fiber of cotton is an excellent model which is mainly deal with elongation of plant cell, cell wall and biosynthesis of cellulose ( Kim and Triplett, 2001 KIM, H.J. and TRIPLETT, B.A., 2001. (scielo.br)
Models for plant cell elongation and cell wall biogenesis. (scielo.br)
Plant Cell 22: 2105-12 (2010). (utexas.edu)

Two methods have been developed for direct gene transfer into plant cells-electroporation and biolistics. (jrank.org)

Use these cells in breast cancer research. (atcc.org)
Finally, CAFs promote cancer progression and act in cancer cell drug resistance. (spandidos-publications.com)
Polyploidy was often observed in the non-dysplastic mucosa of the patients complicating cancer or dysplasia. (nii.ac.jp)
Cancer cells are often polyploid. (bvsalud.org)

Anatomy1

Organisms1

Diseases3

Phenomena and Processes7

Chromosomes23

Inducing polyploidy levels1

Chromosome9

Polyploid cells6

Genome5

Mutations3

Genes4

20201

Somatic3

Diploid cells1

Nuclei5

Drosophila1

Organisms4

Aneuploidy2

Species2

Meiosis1

Embryo1

Tissue10

Proliferation2

Pairs of homologous1

Biology2

Induction4

Nucleus3

Trophoblast1

Genetic2

Chromosomal aberrations2

Incidence1

Triploid1

Endoreplication2

Induce3

Cytoplasm1

Evolutionary1

Morphology1

Ploidy2

Spindle2

Molecular2

Colchicine3

Eukaryotic cell1

Mammalian cells2

Abnormal1

Vitro2

Bone marrow3

Germ cell2

Plants6

Pleomorphic4

Differentiation2

Involves1

Proteins2

Mitosis1

Cycle2

Tumor1

Mitotic1

Metabolism1

Sperm1

Type1

Carcinoma2

Plant cell3

Gene1

Cancer4