• The maintenance of a single centromere per chromosome is critical for establishing bipolar microtubule attachments to the mitotic spindle and achieving high-fidelity genome segregation 17 . (nature.com)
  • We have explored alternative methods for systematically analyzing palindromes in the genome and here we report our analysis of de novo DNA palindromes from the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Genome-wide mapping of human loci for essential hypertension. (brightstudy.ac.uk)
  • Consortium, E. P. An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome. (nature.com)
  • Xq28 appears to be an unstable region of the human genome and genomic rearrangements are recognised as major causes of two single gene defects, haemophilia A and incontinentia pigmenti, which map within Xq28. (bmj.com)
  • Structural variation (SV) influences genome organization and contributes to human disease. (biomedcentral.com)
  • These data provide a foundational map of large SV in the morbid human genome and demonstrate a previously underappreciated abundance and diversity of cxSV that should be considered in genomic studies of human disease. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Comprising only 1%-2% of the human genome, the exome nonetheless contains the majority of currently recognized disease-causing variants. (nih.gov)
  • Applying a combination of genetic methods including karyotype analysis, chromosomal microarray analysis, fluorescence in situ hybridization and optical genome mapping confirmed that the pregnant woman was a carrier of a CCR involving three chromosomes and four breakpoints, and the CCR was paternal-origin. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Copy Number Variation (CNV) is envisaged to be a major source of large structural variations in the human genome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Each component in the Gaussian mixture distribution captures a different type of aberration that is observed in the mate pairs, after being mapped to the reference genome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • These aberrations may include any increase (decrease) in the insertion size or change in the direction of mate pairs that are mapped to the reference genome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Copy Number Variation (CNV) is a major source of the genetic variations and aberrations in the human genome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Duplications, deletions and insertions are common types of CNVs that affect roughly 13 % of the human genome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Since mate pair reads have theoretically different potentials in detecting genome-wide CNVs compared to the methods which rely on the read depth, this paper extends the application of HMMs to model variations in the mate pair reads. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Human genetics is the study of the human genome and the transmission of genes from one generation to the next. (amboss.com)
  • The human genome consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes ( 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes ). (amboss.com)
  • The L. chalumnae genome has been reported previously to have a karyotype of 48 chromosomes. (audemic.app)
  • Analyses of chromosomal breakpoints in the coelacanth genome and tetrapod genomes reveal extensive conservation of synteny and indicate that large-scale rearrangements have occurred at a generally low rate in the coelacanth lineage. (audemic.app)
  • When we compared the liver and testis transcriptomes of L. menadoensis to the L. chalumnae genome, we found an identity of 99.73% (Supplementary Note 8 and Supplementary Fig. 7), whereas alignments between 20 sequenced L. menadoensis bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) and the L. chalumnae genome showed an identity of 98.7% (Supplementary Table 11 and Supplementary Fig. 8). (audemic.app)
  • We performed CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing of the NPM-ALK chromosomal translocation in primary human activated T lymphocytes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mapping all miRNAs to the tammar genome and comparing target genes among tammar, mouse and human, we identified 163 conserved target genes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Small RNAs play important roles in many aspects of pre- and post-transcriptional gene regulation, epigenetic modifications, chromosome segregation and genome structure. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Sorry for yet another basic question, but what exactly is a pairwise genome alignment between 2 organisms e.g. human/chicken. (biostars.org)
  • Consider one thing: the human genome has been generated with BAC clones sequencing, while the chicken genome is probably done by shotgun sequencing. (biostars.org)
  • The Drosophila genome is about one twentieth the size of the human genome. (nih.gov)
  • Then, two copies of homologous chromosome behave in a coordinated fashion. (soken.ac.jp)
  • Homologous chromosomes must find their proper partners and physically pair with them along their structure known as the synaptonemal complex (SC). (soken.ac.jp)
  • H. influenzae , like many other pathogens, is naturally competent, able to actively transport environmental DNA through its cell membranes and incorporate homologous molecules into its chromosomes. (drexel.edu)
  • All homologous chromosome pairs contain two variant forms of the same gene , called " alleles ," which are passed down from parent to offspring. (amboss.com)
  • Each human cell contains 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (corresponding in structure and genetic information, i.e., 23 chromosomes are inherited from each parent). (amboss.com)
  • Human cells contain 22 pairs of homologous autosomes. (amboss.com)
  • The two homologous chromosomes contain identical alleles at a given locus . (amboss.com)
  • The two homologous chromosomes contain different alleles at a given locus . (amboss.com)
  • The enhancer is not only able to activate transcription of the Scr promoter that is 35 kb distant but can also activate transcription of the Scr promoter on the homologous chromosome. (nih.gov)
  • When not physically linked, the elements interact with elements on the homologous chromosome and cause derepression of its wild-type Scr gene. (nih.gov)
  • These studies implicate a potential mechanism suppressing the loss of genetic material after chromosome pulverization, although how distinct patterns of rearrangements arise in cancer and germline disorders remains unclear. (nature.com)
  • Genetic correlations between loci on different chromosomes can be high and can generate false positive linkage. (nervenet.org)
  • Identifying genes on each chromosome is an active area of genetic research. (medlineplus.gov)
  • We are now using advanced optical mapping technology to reproduce these maps in the absence of genetic variation, in order to disentangle the role of chromosome structure from the potential for genetic incompatibilities ("speciation genes") skewing our results. (drexel.edu)
  • Turner syndrome (45, X, TS, monosomy X) is the genetic disorder resulting from the absence of all or part of one X chromosome in females. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The genetic abnormality in TS is determined by the absence of one copy of genes on the X chromosome. (biomedcentral.com)
  • But the other prominent source of this variation is somatic and occurs due to the aberrations in the genetic activities such as recombination among homolog chromosomes, during different cycles of the cell division. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The genetic basis of this condition remains largely unknown, as no developmental genes other than paired box gene 6 ( PAX6 ) are known to be implicated in sporadic bilateral ONA. (molvis.org)
  • Changes in the structure or quantity of chromosomes , which are strands of condensed genetic material, are known as chromosomal aberrations or abnormalities. (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • Early clonal genetic events in benign hyperplastic lesions show losses at chromosomes 9p21 and 3p. (medscape.com)
  • Sequencing of daughter cell pairs derived from micronucleated mother cells demonstrated that complex rearrangements are indeed a common outcome of micronucleus formation. (nature.com)
  • Characterisation of breakpoints in patients with apparently balanced constitutional chromosome rearrangements and phenotypic abnormalities has proved an invaluable strategy for identifying disease causing genes, especially those on the X chromosome. (bmj.com)
  • 3- 6 Phenotypic abnormalities seen in cases with apparently balanced chromosome rearrangements have usually been explained by the disruption of a gene at the breakpoint causing the loss of gene function. (bmj.com)
  • We also identify multiple cases of catastrophic chromosomal rearrangements known as chromoanagenesis, including somatic chromoanasynthesis, and extreme balanced germline chromothripsis events involving up to 65 breakpoints and 60.6 Mb across four chromosomes, further defining rare categories of extreme cxSV. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Despite these discoveries, the patterns, rates, and properties of cxSVs have primarily been the focus of cancer genomics and such rearrangements remain largely underappreciated in the human germline. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Suspected rearrangements were observed in the distal ends of chromosome 6 and 12 (Fig. 1 B), but the materials of origin were unknown. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Suspected rearrangements were found in the distal ends of chromosome 6, 12 and 15 (Fig. 1 C). (biomedcentral.com)
  • [ 7 ] first delineated the syndrome in two siblings with microcephaly, short stature, skin pigmentation abnormalities, mental retardation, immunologic defects, and a high prevalence of chromosome 7 and/or chromosome 14 rearrangements in cultured lymphocytes. (medscape.com)
  • These are some of the most common cytogenetically visible rearrangements in humans - for example , the pericentric inversion of chromosome 9 is found in over. (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • Using a combination of miRNA hairpin predictions and co-mapping with miRBase entries, we identified a highly conserved cluster of miRNA genes on the X chromosome in the tammar and a total of 94 other predicted miRNA producing genes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • As each chromosome contains a single centromere, it remains unclear how acentric fragments derived from shattered chromosomes are inherited between daughter cells during mitosis 6 . (nature.com)
  • The characterization of new miRNA target genes and a unique profile for crasiRNAs has allowed for insight into multiple RNA mediated processes in the tammar, including gene regulation, species incompatibilities, centromere and chromosome function. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Chromosome 2p shows significant linkage to anti-hypertensive response in the British Genetics of Hypertension (BRIGHT) study. (brightstudy.ac.uk)
  • Human Molecular Genetics. (brightstudy.ac.uk)
  • It is here suggested that the word "cytogenomics" should rather be used with the goal to paraphrase a new field of research in genomics and diagnostics in human genetics, with an integrative and comprehensive view. (frontiersin.org)
  • Most large genomes contain thousands of large structural variants (SVs), repetitive regions composed of identical or similar stretches of sequences, mobile elements such as transposons, large insertions, deletions, translocations, and inversions up to millions of bases, with even partial or entire chromosomes altered. (mdanderson.org)
  • HMGA2 is located in an area on chromosome 12q13 frequently involved in translocations and amplifications in benign, mesenchymal tumors. (annexpublishers.co)
  • Chromosome analyses showed numeral abnormalities such as 5n ploidies and various kinds of structural abnormalities, such as deletions, translocations, derivatives and isodicentric chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The transcription units are shown above the genomic DNA, while chromosomal aberrations are shown below (solid triangles indicate insertions of transposable elements and upward arrows indicate breakpoints of translocations and inversions). (nih.gov)
  • Two of these driving loci are linked by a chromosomal translocation and thus constitute a novel type of paired meiotic drive complex. (elifesciences.org)
  • Lateral gene transfers resulted in different linkages between the ospC gene and loci of the chromosome or other plasmids. (cdc.gov)
  • In an organism, any visible abnormality in chromosome number or structure from the diploid set is known as chromosomal aberration . (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • Genomes of individuals strains typically incorporate 45-55 recombinations between parental chromosomes. (nervenet.org)
  • The occurrence of breakpoints conforms to a Poisson distribution with a mean of 1.9 to 3.5 recombinations per chromosome. (nervenet.org)
  • Despite studies over almost 15 years since the discovery of the hotspots and findings mentioned above, the mechanism by which the recombinations in this region are restricted to the hotspot is not still clear. (soken.ac.jp)
  • The result of this study indicated that the breakpoints of the recombinations are confined to a very short segment of DNA as seen in other three hotspots. (soken.ac.jp)
  • Replication studies in the mother and daughter showed a skewed X inactivation pattern in lymphocytes, with the normal X chromosome preferentially inactivated. (bmj.com)
  • Two other cardinal TS features, ovarian failure and short stature, as well as X chromosome inactivation pattern and subject's age, were unrelated to the TSCS score. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Although one X chromosome undergoes inactivation in normal females during early embryogenesis, about 15% of all X chromosome genes, mostly situated on the short arm (Xp), remain active to some degree on both X chromosomes [ 17 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • NBPF1 (Neuroblastoma Breakpoint Family, member 1) was originally identified in a neuroblastoma patient on the basis of its disruption by a chromosomal translocation t(1;17)(p36.2;q11.2). (biomedcentral.com)
  • To investigate the possibility that a novel candidate gene for XLMR was disrupted at the X chromosome translocation breakpoint, we mapped the breakpoint using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). (bmj.com)
  • Intriguingly, we found that the X chromosome breakpoint in the daughter could not be defined by a single breakpoint spanning genomic clone and further analysis showed a 650 kb submicroscopic duplication between DXS7067 and DXS7060 on either side of the X chromosome translocation breakpoint. (bmj.com)
  • However, other mechanisms of disease causation have also been described where (1) a breakpoint disrupts or alters gene expression via a position effect 7 or (2) a cryptic deletion or duplication is identified at the translocation breakpoint. (bmj.com)
  • Moreover, these models lack other potentially important oncogenic features resulting from chromosomal translocation formation, including the reciprocal fusion gene, potential haplo-insufficiency of NPM1 or chromatin states resulting from the repositioning of translocated chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • At least three distinct meiotic drive alleles, one on each S. kambucha chromosome, independently contribute to hybrid infertility by causing nonrandom spore death. (elifesciences.org)
  • examples include aneuploidy (atypical chromosome number), deletion (loss of part of a chromosome), duplications (extra copies of a region of a chromosome), inversion (when part of a chromosome breaks off and reattaches in reverse. (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • Fluorescence in situ hybridization and BAL31 nuclease digestion demonstrate that the (TTAGGG)n sequence occurs at the extreme termini of the chromosomes and also at an interstitial site. (westminster.ac.uk)
  • The first class of small RNAs identified were the micro RNAs (miRNAs), which are small (~22 nt) non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by base pairing to mRNAs where they direct either mRNA cleavage or repress translation [ 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Distal 18q deletion syndrome occurs when a piece of the long (q) arm of chromosome 18 is missing. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The term "distal" means that the missing piece (deletion) occurs near one end of the chromosome arm. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The deletion that causes distal 18q deletion syndrome can occur anywhere between a region called 18q21 and the end of the chromosome. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The signs and symptoms of distal 18q deletion syndrome are thought to be related to the loss of multiple genes from this part of the long arm of chromosome 18. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Detailed mapping suggests that haploinsufficiency of one or more genes in Xp22.3, the distal 8.3 megabases (Mb) of the X chromosome, is responsible for a TS neurocognitive phenotype. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mediates attachment of the chromosome to the meiotic or mitotic spindle . (amboss.com)
  • The term "proximal" means that in this disorder the deletion occurs near the center of the chromosome, in an area between regions called 18q11.2 and 18q21.2. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If a normal diploid cell is 2n, the chromosome content of a double tetrasomic cell is designated. (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • An isochromosome is a chromosome with two identical arms. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Megabase size molecules of genomic DNA are isolated and labelled at a specific 6 or 7 base pair sequence motifs. (mdanderson.org)
  • The repeated sequence TTAGGG is present at all tested vertebrate telomeres including those of humans and at the telomeres of evolutionarily very distant organisms such as trypanosomes and slime moulds. (westminster.ac.uk)
  • Two copies of chromosome 18, one copy inherited from each parent, form one of the pairs. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The following chromosomal conditions are associated with changes in the structure or number of copies of chromosome 18. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cells normally have two copies of each chromosome, one inherited from each parent. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In people with tetrasomy 18p, cells have the usual two copies of chromosome 18 plus an isochromosome 18p. (medlineplus.gov)
  • As a result, each cell has four copies of the short arm of chromosome 18. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Trisomy 18 occurs when each cell in the body has three copies of chromosome 18 instead of the usual two copies, causing severe intellectual disability and multiple birth defects that are usually fatal by early childhood. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Affected individuals have two copies of chromosome 18, plus the extra material from chromosome 18 attached to another chromosome. (medlineplus.gov)
  • We previously identified a compound tandem repeat located within the breakpoints of a microdeletion in intron 2 of DCDC2 as a risk variant (Marino et al. (springer.com)
  • In this study, we identified over 2,000 human CNVs that overlap with orthologous chimpanzee or orthologous macaque CNVs. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We have constructed a second-generation, high-resolution CNV map for the rhesus macaque and combined it with similar CNV data for the chimpanzee and ultra-high-resolution CNV data from humans to determine comprehensively the location and structure of primate CNV hotspots. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In order to identify primate hotspots for CNV formation, we compiled CNV datasets for human, chimpanzee and rhesus macaque. (biomedcentral.com)
  • A comparison of human and chimpanzee genes in the region of this inversion indicates that two genes-ROCK1 and USP14-that are adjacent on chimpanzee chromosome 17 (which corresponds to human chromosome 18) are more distantly positioned on human chromosome 18. (schleiden-eifel.de)
  • Mechanistically, the CIP2A-TOPBP1 complex prematurely associates with DNA lesions within ruptured micronuclei during interphase, which poises pulverized chromosomes for clustering upon mitotic entry. (nature.com)
  • Mitotic clustering facilitates the reassembly of acentric fragments into rearranged chromosomes lacking the extensive DNA copy-number losses that are characteristic of canonical chromothripsis. (nature.com)
  • In regions where B. burgdorferi is enzootic, sites as small as a few hectares have between 9 and 15 strains ( 4 - 6 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Here we tracked micronucleated chromosomes with live-cell imaging and show that acentric fragments cluster in close spatial proximity throughout mitosis for asymmetric inheritance by a single daughter cell. (nature.com)
  • The stochastic inheritance of chromosome fragments by both newly formed daughter cells could in part contribute to the alternating DNA copy-number states that are characteristic of chromothripsis 2 . (nature.com)
  • However, most fragments derived from pulverized chromosomes are acentric and cannot directly bind to spindle microtubules 14 . (nature.com)
  • NB tumors are derived from the sympathetic nervous system and account for approximately 15% of cancer deaths in children [ 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Approximately 90% of breakpoints have been defined with a precision of better than ±2 cM. (nervenet.org)
  • It has an incidence of 1 to 5 per million children per year and it is responsible for approximately 15% of all childhood cancer mortality. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Chromosome 18 spans about 78 million DNA building blocks (base pairs) and represents approximately 2.5 percent of the total DNA in cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The human exome includes all coding nuclear DNA sequences, approximately 180,000 exons that are transcribed into mature RNA. (nih.gov)
  • Shared synteny (or disruption, called breakpoints) can be used as phylogenetic signals to sort out species relationship. (biostars.org)
  • Most of the tumors are found in the abdomen (65%), often in the adrenal medulla, or elsewhere in the human body where sympathetic nervous system components are present [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Different variants of FISH can be used to retrieve information on genomes from (almost) base pair to whole genomic level, as besides only second and third generation sequencing approaches can do. (frontiersin.org)
  • Tetrasomy 18p results from the presence of an abnormal extra chromosome, called an isochromosome 18p, in each cell. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Because of their role in genomic instability and gene amplification in some human cancers, it is important to develop systematic approaches to detect and characterize DNA palindromes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • It will be useful for studying human cancers and other diseases associated with palindromes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Interestingly, the 1p36 region is frequently deleted not only in NB, but also in other human cancer types, including those of neural, epithelial and hematopoietic origin, indicating that the same tumor suppressor genes might be involved in a broad range of human cancers [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • An extremely complex form of SVs called chromothripsis, in which dozens to hundreds of breakpoints on one or more chromosomes are involved, was originally reported in different types of cancers as well as in germlines genomes causing developmental and neuronal disorders. (mdanderson.org)
  • Cancers at these sites can differ anatomically and histologically and might have different causal factors, such as tobacco use, alcohol use, and infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) (1). (cdc.gov)
  • Our pipeline uses discordant read pairs to identify supported fusion events and analyzes soft-clipped read alignments to determine genomic breakpoints. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The Ensembl gene annotation pipeline created gene models using protein alignments from the Universal Protein Resource (Uniprot) database, limited coelacanth complementary DNA data, RNA-seq data generated from L. chalumnae muscle (18 Gb of paired-end reads were assembled using Trinity software, Supplementary Fig. 2) as well as orthology with other vertebrates. (audemic.app)
  • Graphical Fragment Assembly (GFA) files: Primary de novo assembly, one de novo assembly for each chromosome copy. (researchallofus.org)
  • They described two patients with PNH with an acquired rearrangement of chromosome 12 affecting the HMGA2 gene, which encodes a chromatin remodeling protein, in the PIGA mutant cells [ 12 ]. (annexpublishers.co)
  • However, despite its smaller size, most developmental genes and at least half of the disease- and cancer-causing genes in humans are conserved in Drosophila , making Drosophila an excellent model system for the study of human development and disease. (nih.gov)
  • Our framework can automatically resolve complex SVs, reconstruct local Hi-C maps surrounding the breakpoints, normalize copy number variation and allele effects and predict chromatin loops induced by SVs. (nature.com)
  • Newer work is using the same approach to map the genes responsible for natural variation in other pathogenesis traits, including resistance to human complement-mediated killing, as well as investigating the possibility of identifying genes involved in in vivo pathogenesis in an animal model of otitis media. (drexel.edu)
  • Almost every chromosome is affected by numeric or structural aberrations. (neurotransmitter.net)
  • As a result, Bionano mapping yields hundreds of times more contiguous assembly than sequencing technologies alone can provide with unparalleled sensitivity for large structural variations (SVs) from 500 bp to mega base pair lengths. (mdanderson.org)
  • Without doubt, the first human transforming gene, and more broadly, oncogenes and anti-oncogenes, had been previously theorized by Theodor Boveri. (jcancer.org)
  • It can be used to identify high-quality gene fusions for further bioinformatic and experimental studies, including validation of genomic breakpoints and studies of the mechanisms that generate fusions. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We used the Crisper/Cas9 methodology to generate chromosomes lacking one, two, or three of the silencing elements. (nih.gov)
  • Also, m-HMM uses a Poisson mixture distribution to model read counts for each copy number state [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Thus, distinct patterns of chromothripsis can be explained by the spatial clustering of pulverized chromosomes from micronuclei. (nature.com)
  • It is 8,954 base pairs in length. (wikipedia.org)
  • As of 2003, 99% of the chemical base pairs that make up human DNA had been sequenced to within 99.99% accuracy. (medscape.com)
  • 18- 21 Xq28 is a highly gene rich region of the human X chromosome and we focused on the X chromosome breakpoint as the identification of a disrupted gene here would be a rapid way to identify a further candidate gene for X linked mental retardation within Xq28. (bmj.com)
  • Here especially highlighted variations of FISH are molecular combing, chromosome orientation-FISH (CO-FISH), telomere-FISH, parental origin determination FISH (POD-FISH), FISH to resolve the nuclear architecture, multicolor-FISH (mFISH) approaches, among other applied in chromoanagenesis studies, Comet-FISH, and CRISPR-mediated FISH-applications. (frontiersin.org)
  • Our primary model system is the human bacterial pathogen Haemophilus influenzae , an important agent of ear infections (otitis media) in children, as well as lung infections associated with chronic respiratory conditions. (drexel.edu)
  • The long-term goal of this research is to apply statistical genomic approaches developed by human geneticists to the identification of bacterial virulence factors that contribute to disease in natural populations. (drexel.edu)
  • In their review " Natural and Adaptive Immunity to Cancer ", Vesely and colleagues draw from recent mouse models of cancer and human clinical data to describe how cells, effector molecules, and pathways of the immune system act to suppress and control tumor cells. (massgenomics.org)
  • The use of long molecules allows repetitive regions and other regions that are complicated to map, to be spanned more easily than with short molecules, leading to the creation of maps that may cover the hole arm of a chromosome (3). (mdanderson.org)
  • Due to a lack of systematic approaches to identify and characterize palindromes from genomes, little is known about the distribution of DNA palindromes nor their association with human diseases. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This approach provided an approximate 15 kb effective resolution to identify CNVs across the rhesus macaque genomes, as our probes are distributed with an average spacing of less than 3 kb (Figure S3 in Additional file 2 ). (biomedcentral.com)