Two papers in this issue discuss flowering - one addresses its timing, and the other the specification of flower organ identity. On p. 3213, Hoecker and colleagues have investigated how the SPA protein family helps plants to adjust their development to the environment. The researchers have previously shown that SPA proteins are required for skotomorphogenesis (the growth that occurs when seedlings are kept in the dark); now they investigate the role of SPA proteins in photoperiodic flowering (the timing of flowering in response to day length). They show that all four SPA proteins interact with CONSTANS (CO), which is essential for the early flowering that occurs in response to long days. CO transcription is regulated by the circadian clock and its protein is stabilised by light, which together allow CO protein to accumulate only when days are long. The presence of high levels of CO protein in spa triple mutants lead the authors to speculate that SPA proteins control the stability of CO in ...

SPA proteins, which are represented in Arabidopsis by SPA1-4, have important functions in regulating photomorphogenesis (Hoecker et al., 1999; Laubinger et al., 2004). SPA1 and SPA2 have been shown to be the primary SPAs involved in repression of photomorphogenesis at the seedling stage, while SPA3 and SPA4 have roles during adult plant development (Laubinger and Hoecker, 2003; Laubinger et al., 2004). Here, we have shown that phyA preferentially binds to SPA1 and SPA2 and these interactions correlate well with the primary function of phyA during seedling development and lesser effects on adult plant growth (Laubinger et al., 2004). Though SPA1 is dispensable for most of adult plant development, it is required for proper control of flowering (Laubinger et al., 2006). Therefore, interaction of SPA1 and phyA is also consistent with the role of phyA in regulation of flowering in short-day conditions with FR extension (Laubinger et al., 2006). In addition, we also observed Pfr-dependent binding of ...

When DArcy Wentworth Thompsons On Growth and Form was published 100 years ago, it raised the question of how biological forms arise during development and across evolution. In light of the advances in molecular and cellular biology since then, a succinct modern view of the question states: how do genes encode geometry? Our new special issue is packed with articles that use mathematical and physical approaches to gain insights into cell and tissue patterning, morphogenesis and dynamics, and that provide a physical framework to capture these processes operating across scales.. Read the Editorial by guest editors Thomas Lecuit and L. Mahadevan, as they provide a perspective on the influence of DArcy Thompsons work and an overview of the articles in this issue.. ...

Phytochrome is a family of photoreceptors that regulates plant photomorphogenesis; the best-characterized member of this family is phytochrome A. Here, we report the identification of novel mutations at three Arabidopsis loci (fhy1, fhy2, and fhy3) that confer an elongated hypocotyl in far-red but not in white light. fhy2 mutants are phytochrome A deficient, have reduced or undetectable levels of PHYA transcripts, and contain structural alterations within the PHYA gene. When grown in white light, fhy2 mutants are morphologically indistinguishable from wild-type plants. Thus, phytochrome A appears to be dispensable in white light-grown Arabidopsis plants. fhy2 alleles confer partially dominant phenotypes in far-red light, suggesting that the relative abundance of phytochrome A can affect the extent of the far-red-mediated hypocotyl growth inhibition response. Plants homozygous for the recessive fhy1 and fhy3 mutations have normal levels of functional phytochrome A. The FHY1 and FHY3 gene products ...

The function of the cyanobacterial phytochromes Cph1 and Cph2 was investigated. At first, the growth of mutants with an inactivated cph1 or cph2 gene was analysed under different light conditions. The growth of all phytochrome mutants was affected under high-light conditions. However, the cph1 mutant grew slower than the wild type in far-red light, whilst the cph2 mutant revealed a reduced growth under red light conditions. A decreased growth of the cph1/cph2 double mutant was observed under all light conditions with a growth rate similar to the corresponding single mutant. The exact reason for the growth impairment of the phytochrome mutants could not be ascertained. Different aspects of photosynthesis (pigment composition, maximal net-oxygen evolution and 77K fluorescence emission) were not changed significantly in the phytochrome mutants. Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 shows a movement towards a light source. Based on action spectra of motility phytochromes and phytochrome-like proteins are ...

The phytochrome (phy) family of photoreceptors is of crucial importance throughout the life cycle of higher plants. Light-induced nuclear import is required for most phytochrome responses. Nuclear accumulation of phyA is dependent on two related proteins called FHY1 (Far-red elongated HYpocotyl 1) a …

The interaction of phytochrome signalling with the SA signal transduction pathway has been investigated in |i|Arabidopsis|/i| using single and multiple mutants affected in light perception (phyA and phyB deficient) and light-signal processing (|i|psi2|/i|, phytochrome signalling). The induction of |i|PR1|/i| by SA and functional analogues has been found to strictly correlate with the activity of the signalling pathway controlled by both phyA and phyB photoreceptors. In darkness as well as dim light, and independently of a carbohydrate source, SA-induced |i|PR|/i| gene expression as well as the hypersensitive response to pathogens (HR) are strongly reduced. Moreover, the initiation of HR also exhibits a strict dependence upon both the presence and the amplitude of a phytochrome-elicited signal. The growth of an incompatible strain of bacterial a pathogen (|i|Pseudomonas syringae|/i| pv. |i|tomato|/i|) was enhanced in |i|phyA-phyB|/i| and decreased in |i|psi2|/i| mutants. While functional chloroplasts

The COP1/SPA complex of Arabidopsis is a well-characterized key negative regulator that actively suppresses the light signaling cascade in dark-grown plants by ubiquitinating transcription factors which mediate the various light responses. The E3 ubiquitin ligase activity is conserved in the mammalian ortholog of COP1 which, however, appears to function without a need for SPA proteins since SPA genes appear to be specific to plants. SPA protein sequences are distinct from COP1 in that they carry a kinase-like domain in the N-terminus [13, 26]. This kinase-like domain is conserved in Physcomitrella, rice and Arabidopsis SPA proteins and shows a similar divergence in sequence from bona fide Ser/Thr kinase motifs in all three species. This finding suggests on one hand that this kinase-like domain is of functional importance - though its exact role has so far remained elusive [31, 32, 34, 53] - and on the other hand that early in land plant evolution this domain was already divergent in sequence ...

Phytochromes are a widespread family of red/far-red responsive photoreceptors first discovered in plants, where they constitute one of the three main classes of photomorphogenesis regulators. All phytochromes utilize covalently attached bilin chromophores that enable photoconversion between red-abso …

Effects of reduced height (Rht) and photoperiod insensitivity (Ppd) alleles on yield of wheat in contrasting production systems ...

How a plant perceives night length and translates this into the appropriate response in terms of flowering is not fully understood. A pigment known as phytochrome, however, plays a critical role. Phytochrome exists in two forms (Pr and Pfr) that are interconvertible. Pr absorbs red light and is converted to Pfr, which absorbs far-red light and is subsequently converted back to the Pr form of the pigment ...

Good growers know that you can only clone a plant so many times. Many scientific publications have shown as few as 5 times are possible to get a plant to clone without changes in growth, yield etc. I have a friend that has cloned her plants over 20 times, and has no noticeable difference. Here is the trick... Plants measure days in light and dark cycle, with a substance called phytochrome, (click here to read a post about phytochrome and plant flowering) so it would make sense that a plant that was kept on 24 hours of light might think it was one day old. This would make a HUGE difference in cloning longevity compared to growers that use an 18/6 light cycle. A plant on 18/6 will be a month or more old when you clone it, (it will have had 30 days and 30 nights) and if its offspring are cloned using 18/6 they will add another month to the age. After a few generations of cloning, the plants will think it is a year old, which for annuals means they will start to show growth abnormalities and have ...

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In view of the extensive literature on phytochrome mutants in the Ler accession of Arabidopsis, we sought to secure a phytochrome-null line in the same genetic background for comparative studies. Here we report the isolation and phenotypic characterization of phyABCDE quintuple and phyABDE quadruple mutants in the Ler background. Unlike earlier studies, these lines possess a functional allele of FT permitting measurements of photoperiod-dependent flowering behavior. Comparative studies of both classes of mutants establish that phytochromes are dispensable for completion of the Arabidopsis life cycle under red light, despite the lack of a transcriptomic response, and also indicate that phyC is nonfunctional in the absence of other phytochromes. Phytochrome-less plants can produce chlorophyll for photosynthesis under continuous red light, yet require elevated fluence rates for survival. Unexpectedly, our analyses reveal both light-dependent and -independent roles for phytochromes to regulate the ...

Analysis of photomorphogenic mutants and transgenic plants provides further insights into the roles of individual phytochrome species. The presence of a significant early-flowering response to low R/FR ratio has been reveled in Arabidopsis phyB mutants, that are also homozygous for a late-flowering mutation. This firstly, implicates at least one other novel phytochrome species, in addition to phytochrome B, in the low R/FR ratio-mediated early- flowering response. Secondly, identifies features that are likely to represent a loss-of-function mutant in this novel phytochrome species. Examination of the Arabidopsis elg mutant, a putative novel phytochrome loss-of- function mutant, defines ELG as a novel gene that influences elongation growth. What is more, ELG appears to act independently of phytochrome and GA. However, H4S seedlings overexpress the Arabidopsis HAT4 transgene, which is proposed to be down-regulated by a novel phytochrome. Thus, physiological analysis of Arabidopsis H4S seedlings ...

The early flowering phenotype of BMDR-1 is similar to that in mutants of other systems that lack a functional phyB. It was our hypothesis that BMDR-1 flowered early, regardless of photoperiod, because it also lacked a functional phyB. However, we found that the mutant contained a higher level of phyB than the wild type in the dark (Fig. 2). Levels of different phytochromes in etiolated tissue may reflect the levels present in seeds, which is important for germination (Johnson et al., 1994; Reed et al., 1994;Shinomura et al., 1994). However, it is the level of phytochrome in green tissue that regulates further growth and development. Figure 3shows that phyA in barley is a typical light-labile species in both BMDR-1 and BMDR-8. PhyB is also expressed normally in the wild type and is a typical light-stable form of phytochrome (Fig. 4, bottom). However, phyB is significantly reduced in BMDR-1 in the light (Fig. 4, top). This may be the consequence of a destabilization of the Pfr form of the phyB ...

Just over 40 years ago, workers at the U.S. Department of Agriculture laboratories (Beltsville, MD) discovered the first signaling photoreceptor in plants, a photoreversible pigment (9) that they called phytochrome (8). In the following years, photomorphogenesis (a study of the influence of light on plant development) developed as a strong subdiscipline of the field of plant physiology. Within this subdiscipline was a sharp division between those pursuing the phytochromes and those pursuing distinct blue-light receptors. Those studying phytochrome(s) had an enormous advantage in having at their disposal all of the classic phytochrome-mediated responses that were activated by brief pulses of red light interrupting darkness: These include activation of seed germination, inhibition of stem elongation in dark-grown seedlings, induction of leaf expansion, and regulation of flowering. In every case, the effect of red light was negated by subsequent immediate exposure to far-red light. This kind of ...

Light regulates the expression and function of aquaporins, which are involved in water and solute transport. In Arabidopsis thaliana, mRNA levels of one of the aquaporin genes, TIP2;2, increase during dark adaptation and decrease under far-red light illumination, but the effects of light at the protein level and on the mechanism of light regulation remain unknown. Numerous studies have described the light regulation of aquaporin genes, but none have identified the regulatory mechanisms behind this regulation via specific photoreceptor signaling. In this paper, we focus on the role of phytochrome A (phyA) signaling in the regulation of the TIP2;2 protein. We generated Arabidopsis transgenic plants expressing a TIP2;2-GFP fusion protein driven by its own promoter, and showed several differences in TIP2;2 behavior between wild type and the phyA mutant. Fluorescence of TIP2;2-GFP protein in the endodermis of roots in the wild-type seedlings increased during dark adaptation, but not in the phyA mutant. The

Many flowering plants (angiosperms) use a photoreceptor protein, such as phytochrome or cryptochrome,[1] to sense seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, which they take as signals to flower. In a further subdivision, obligate photoperiodic plants absolutely require a long or short enough night before flowering, whereas facultative photoperiodic plants are more likely to flower under one condition. Phytochrome comes in two forms: Pr and Pfr. Red light (which is present during the day) converts phytochrome to its active form (pfr). This then triggers the plant to grow. In turn, far-red light is present in the shade or in the dark and this converts phytochrome from pfr to pr. Pr is the inactive form of phytochrome and will not allow for plant growth. This system of Pfr to Pr conversion allows the plant to sense when it is night and when it is day.[2] Pfr can also be converted back to Pr by a process known as dark reversion, where long periods of darkness trigger the conversion of Pfr.[3] ...

Regulatory photoreceptor which exists in two forms that are reversibly interconvertible by light: the Pr form that absorbs maximally in the red region of the spectrum and the Pfr form that absorbs maximally in the far-red region. Photoconversion of Pr to Pfr induces an array of morphogenic responses, whereas reconversion of Pfr to Pr cancels the induction of those responses. Pfr controls the expression of a number of nuclear genes including those encoding the small subunit of ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase, chlorophyll A/B binding protein, protochlorophyllide reductase, rRNA, etc. It also controls the expression of its own gene(s) in a negative feedback fashion.

I currently have a number of positions open in my group (in particular for a PhD student) to work on the Cph1 phytochrome from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis (see Hughes et al. 1997, Nature, 386: 663; Hughes & Lamparter, 1999, Plant Physiol., 121, 1059-1068). We use molecular-genetic (expression cloning, in vitro mutagenesis, protein chromatography, crystallography) and other methods to study the structure and function of this photoreceptor. In the process, we collaborate with other groups in a newly-established special research program studying protein structure/function (SFB 498) as well as with numerous colleagues throughout the world. In my lab I stress the importance of a friendly atmosphere, not only excellent science. (See also www.userpage.fu-berlin.de/~hughes/) - PhD (Doktorandenstelle, BAT2a/2) - Masters and short-term projects (Diplomarbeiten; freie Mitarbeit) Please contact me as soon as possible, providing a short outline of a potential project you might carry out in my lab. PD ...

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The P1 domain is not essential for the function of PHYB. Deletion of amino acids 1-57 of Arabidopsis PHYB yields a protein with full activity [30]. In contrast, the P2/PAS and P3/GAF domains form the essential photo sensory core domain. These domains contain a bilin lyase activity, which is responsible for the binding of the chromophore to a cysteine residue in the P3/GAF domain. The P2/PAS and P3/GAF domains play critical roles in photo sensing, whereas the P4/PHY domain is necessary for fine tuning phytochrome activity. Deletion of the P4/PHY domain increases the dark reversion rate (i.e., the instability of the Pfr conformation) and causes a blue shift in absorption by both Pr and Pfr. A serine/threonine kinase domain that governs phytochrome autophosphorylation and phytochrome-directed phosphorylation of other proteins, such as the phytochrome interacting factor (PIF3) has also been located in the N-terminal domain [1]. The PAS-A and PAS-B domains of PHYB are necessary for dimerization and ...

The P1 domain is not essential for the function of PHYB. Deletion of amino acids 1-57 of Arabidopsis PHYB yields a protein with full activity [30]. In contrast, the P2/PAS and P3/GAF domains form the essential photo sensory core domain. These domains contain a bilin lyase activity, which is responsible for the binding of the chromophore to a cysteine residue in the P3/GAF domain. The P2/PAS and P3/GAF domains play critical roles in photo sensing, whereas the P4/PHY domain is necessary for fine tuning phytochrome activity. Deletion of the P4/PHY domain increases the dark reversion rate (i.e., the instability of the Pfr conformation) and causes a blue shift in absorption by both Pr and Pfr. A serine/threonine kinase domain that governs phytochrome autophosphorylation and phytochrome-directed phosphorylation of other proteins, such as the phytochrome interacting factor (PIF3) has also been located in the N-terminal domain [1]. The PAS-A and PAS-B domains of PHYB are necessary for dimerization and ...

Reduced height (Rht) and photoperiod insensitivity (Ppd) allele associations with establishment and early growth of wheat in contrasting production systems ...

Diverse organisms use phytochrome photoreceptors to measure the ratio of red to far-red light in their respective environments. In addition to red/far-red phytochromes, many cyanobacteria contain distantly related cyanobacteriochrome (CBCR) photosensors that also use photoisomerization of a covalently bound

Simulated 2D electronic spectrum at 9 ps calculated using the DEWI model.A combined effort between the Larsen and Lagarias labs resolved the

Looking for online definition of Phytochrome b in the Medical Dictionary? Phytochrome b explanation free. What is Phytochrome b? Meaning of Phytochrome b medical term. What does Phytochrome b mean?

Hypocotyls of dark-grown seedlings of Arabidosis thaliana exhibit a strong negative gravitropism, which is reduced by red and also by long-wavelength, far-red light treatments. Light treatments using phytochrome A (phyA)- and phytochrome B (phyB)-deficient mutants showed that this response is controlled by phyB in a red/far-red reversible way, and by phyA in a non-reversible, very-low-fluence response. Crosses of the previously analyzed phyB-1 allele (in the ecotype Landsberg erecta background) to the ecotype Nossen wild-type (WT) background resulted in a WT-like negative gravitropism in darkness, indicating that the previously described gravitropic randomization observed with phyB-1 in the dark is likely due to a second mutation independent of that in the PHYB gene ...

Light is a crucial environmental signal that controls many photomorphogenic and circadian responses in plants1. Perception and transduction of light is achieved by at least two principal groups of photoreceptors, phytochromes and cryptochromes2,3. Phytochromes are red/far-red light-absorbing receptors encoded by a gene family of five members (phyA to phyE)2,4 in Arabidopsis. Cryptochrome 1 (cry1), cryptochrome 2 (cry2) and phototropin are the blue/ultraviolet-A light receptors that have been characterized in Arabidopsis5. Previous studies showed that modulation of many physiological responses in plants is achieved by genetic interactions between different photoreceptors6; however, little is known about the nature of these interactions and their roles in the signal transduction pathway. Here we show the genetic interaction that occurs between the Arabidopsis photoreceptors phyB and cry2 in the control of flowering time, hypocotyl elongation and circadian period by the clock. PhyB interacts directly

How do organisms adapt to different environments? We are interested in understanding the genetic and molecular changes that take place as organisms adapt to different environments. Which genes change, what types of genetic changes occur, and how do these changes affect the organism at the biochemical, physiological, and ecological levels? Since plants are rooted in their environment, they are particularly adept at coping with their environment. Furthermore different species, and populations within species, have adapted to different environments. Therefore plants are well suited for studying adaptation mechanisms. Because light is fundamental to plant growth, we have focused on how plants sense and respond to environmental light cues. We are focused on light perception by the phytochrome photoreceptors. Phytochromes sense red and far-red light and provide information about the density of neighboring foliage (among other things). We work on domesticated and wild tomato, Brassica rapa, Arabidopsis ...

The ability to accurately sense light governs everything from seed germination, photosynthesis and pigmentation to patterns of growth and flowering. Now, University of Wisconsin-Madison scientists have obtained a detailed map of one of biologys most important light detectors, a protein found in many species across lifes plant, fungal and bacterial kingdoms. Scientists can now find out the secrets of how plants, in particular, react to light, allowing for a host of manipulations that could have a big impact on agriculture.. According to the university, a team of scientists from UW-Madison report in the Nov. 17 issue of the journal Nature that they have obtained the crystal structure of a phytochrome from a bacterium, the first such light-gathering structure depicted for all of biology. The structure of the bacterial phytochrome, according to the report, suggests its architecture first arose a billion or so years ago in a common ancestor and is shared among not only bacteria but also plants and ...

PubMed comprises more than 30 million citations for biomedical literature from MEDLINE, life science journals, and online books. Citations may include links to full-text content from PubMed Central and publisher web sites.

Isoform 2 dephosphorylates phosphorylated phytochromes, with a preference toward Pfr forms, and enhances phytochrome-mediated photoresponses (By similarity). Can use para-nitrophenylphosphate (pNPP) and phosphorylated casein as substrate at pH 7.5 and 5.0.

Red-light wellness sessions are just one of the many new and exciting technologies that have been found to be easy, cost-effective, and beneficial for improved wellness and healthy lifestyle benefits. Red-light sessions have become the new treatment of the future. Although this wellness treatment has only become popular recently, light…. Read More ...

This paper was significantly easier than last year though. The only genuinely challenging question was the equation proof. The others could all be done provided your read the questions properly and thought a bit. And the 6 mark question had come up in an isa before. I think an A* will be around 60 unfortunately ...

Phytochromes are modular photoreceptors of plants, bacteria and fungi that use light as a source of information to regulate fundamental physiological processes. Interconversion between the active and inactive states is accomplished by a photoinduced reaction sequence which couples the sensor with the output module. However, the underlying molecular mechanism is yet not fully understood due to the lack of structural data of functionally relevant intermediate states. Here we report the crystal structure of a Meta-F intermediate state of an Agp2 variant from Agrobacterium fabrum. This intermediate, the identity of which was verified by resonance Raman spectroscopy, was formed by irradiation of the parent Pfr state and displays significant reorientations of almost all amino acids surrounding the chromophore. Structural comparisons allow identifying structural motifs that might serve as conformational switch for initiating the functional secondary structure change that is linked to the (de-)activation of

Soybean (Glycine max) cultivars adapted to high latitudes have a weakened or absent sensitivity to photoperiod. The purposes of this study were to determine the molecular basis for photoperiod insensitivity in various soybean accessions, focusing on the sequence diversity of the E4 (GmphyA2) gene, which encodes a phytochrome A (phyA) protein, and its homoeolog (GmphyA1), and to disclose the evolutionary consequences of two phyA homoeologs after gene duplication. We detected four new single-base deletions in the exons of E4, all of which result in prematurely truncated proteins. A survey of 191 cultivated accessions sourced from various regions of East Asia with allele-specific molecular markers reliably determined that the accessions with dysfunctional alleles were limited to small geographical regions, suggesting the alleles recent and independent origins from functional E4 alleles. Comparison of nucleotide diversity values revealed lower nucleotide diversity at non-synonymous sites in GmphyA1 than in

The filamentous fungus Alternaria alternata is a common postharvest contaminant of food and feed, and some strains are plant pathogens. Many processes in A. alternata are triggered by light. Interestingly, blue light inhibits sporulation, and red light reverses the effect, suggesting interactions between light-sensing systems. The genome encodes a phytochrome (FphA), a white collar 1 (WC-1) orthologue (LreA), an opsin (NopA), and a cryptochrome (CryA) as putative photoreceptors. Here, we investigated the role of FphA and LreA and the interplay with the high-osmolarity glycerol (HOG) mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway. We created loss-of function mutations for fphA, lreA, and hogA using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Sporulation was reduced in all three mutant strains already in the dark, suggesting functions of the photoreceptors FphA and LreA independent of light perception. Germination of conidia was delayed in red, blue, green, and far-red light. We found that light induction of ccgA ...

To take away the financial incentive for towns to install red-light cameras, a New Jersey state senator proposes sending the revenue to a state safety fund.

Photolabile small interfering RNA (siRNA) oligonucleotide duplexes are becoming a powerful tool for photoregulation of gene expression through an RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism

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Think the only one I messed up on what the system software, got mixed up with application software, how many marks was that question. Also with for that one where you had to talk about a software you have used to create something, what did you put? Not sure dont think it said robust, it said how outputs created would see if your solution was effective and suitable ...

Whats most frustrating about Red Lights is that its one of those movies that seems like its going to get better at any given second. The performances are great; you can tell the entire cast believes in this thing. But ultimately, the movie serves as the perfect example of an excellent idea, poorly executed.

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Dehaini, Hassan; Awada, Hussein; El-Yazbi, Ahmed; Zouein, Fouad A; Issa, Khodr; Eid, Assaad A; Ibrahim, Maryam; Badran, Adnan; Baydoun, Elias; Pintus, Gianfranco; Eid, Ali H ...

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Have you ever realized you just missed a red light turning green , or woke up due to your head suddenly jerking? You may have experienced a