In the spring of 2006, four human cases of parapoxvirus infections in Missouri residents were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), two of which were initially diagnosed as cutaneous anthrax. This investigation was conducted to determine the level of recognition of zoonotic parapoxvirus infections and prevention measures, the degree to which veterinarians may be consulted on human infections and what forces were behind this perceived increase in reported infections. Interviews were conducted and clinical and environmental sampling was performed. Swab and scab specimens were analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), whereas serum specimens were evaluated for parapoxvirus antibodies. Three case patients were found to have fed ill juvenile animals without using gloves. Forty-six percent of veterinarians reported having been consulted regarding suspected human orf infections. Orf virus DNA was detected from five of 25 asymptomatic sheep. Analysis of extracellular

Comparison of BPSV with ORFV.At the genomic level, BPSV and ORFV genomes share 67 to 75% nucleotide identity (versus 94% between the two ORFV strains) and contain 127 genes with the same relative order and orientation, of which 15 are unique to PPVs. These features support the inclusion of BPSV and ORFV in the same genus. BV-AR02 and OV-SA00 demonstrate average amino acid identities of 71% (versus 94% between OV-SA00 and OV-IA82), consistent with the classification of BPSV and ORFV as two PPV species. BPSV and ORFV share 44, 58, and 27 genes with 81 to 100%, 61 to 80%, and 29 to 60% amino acid identity, respectively. About half of the most similar ORFs (81 to 100% amino acid identity) are associated with transcription, transcription regulation, or RNA processing (Table 1).. BPSV and ORFV contain 15 and 16 ORFs, respectively, which share no significant homology to known proteins and are primarily located at the right end of the genome. Fourteen of these ORFs (ORFs 001, 005, 012, 013, 024, 073, ...

Parapoxvirus, is commonly referred to as farmyard pox and is mostly expressed in hoofed animals. The virus belongs to the Poxviridae family. This infection is identified by scabby lesions that can be seen on the muzzle, lips, face, ears or on the velvet of the Red deer (Cervus elaphus). This virus is zoonotic, meaning infectious diseases of animals that can be transmitted to humans. Humans vulnerable to infection include farmers, butchers, and veterinarians. This virus occurs worldwide. In 1987, deaths[clarification needed] occurred on two Red Deer farms in New Zealand where secondary bacterial infections were seen alongside the lesions. In these particular cases, morbidity rates reached 100%. Parapoxvirus belongs to the family of viruses named Poxviridae, a group one family of double stranded DNA viruses. More specifically Parapoxvirus is classified into the subfamily of Chordopoxvirinae. Other Chordopoxvirinae genuses include; Orthopoxvirus, Avipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, ...

Parapoxvirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Poxviridae, in the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. Like all members of the Poxviridae family, they are oval, relatively large, double-stranded DNA viruses. Parapoxviruses have a unique spiral coat that distinguishes them from other poxviruses. Parapoxviruses infect vertebrates, including a wide selection of mammals, and humans. Not all parapoxviruses are zoonotic. Notable zoonotic hosts of parapoxviruses include sheep, goats, and cattle. The most recent species of parapoxviruses has been found in New Zealand Red Deer. There are also some tentative species in the genus, including Auzduk disease virus, Chamois contagious ecthyma virus, and Sealpox virus. Viruses in Parapoxvirus are enveloped, with ovoid geometries. These viruses are about 140-170 nm wide and 220-300 nm long, and have a regular surface structure; tubules with a diameter of 10-20 nm form a criss-cross pattern. Genomes are linear, around 130-150kb in length. Viral replication is ...

The Poxvirus family is a group of large DNA viruses whose host range encompasses both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Their large genomes allow them to encode genes for replication and assembly as well as numerous accessory genes that aid in virulence and immune evasion. The Parapoxviruses comprise a genus of poxviruses that cause highly contagious, pustular skin lesions in ruminant animals and zoonoses in human. The prototypical parapoxvirus Orf virus (ORFV) encodes immunomodulatory genes that aid viral replication and control inflammation in the skin. The parapoxviruses are one of three genera of poxviruses that encode a chemokine binding protein (CBP) that sequester host chemokines preventing chemokine signalling and the recruitment of leukocytes to the site of viral replication. The key feature of CBPs is that they lack sequence and structural homology to any host chemokine receptor. The ORFV CBP has previously been shown to bind the CC- and XC-chemokine classes, in contrast to the CBPs ...

Parapoxvirus ovis (PPVO) is known for its immunostimulatory capacities and has been successfully used to generate vector vaccines effective especially in non-permissive host species. Murine conventional and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (cDC and pDC) are able to recognize PPVO. The PPVO-sensing receptor on pDC is hitherto unknown. In this study we aimed to define the pattern recognition receptor responsible for the activation of murine pDC by inactivated and replication-competent PPVO. We show that PPVO-induced expression of type I and type III interferons, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and co-stimulatory CD86 by bone marrow-derived pDC but not cDC is blocked by chloroquine, an inhibitor of endosomal maturation. The activation of pDC is independent of viral replication and depends mainly on TLR9. Moreover, the use of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin or C-Jun-N-terminal kinase inhibitor SP600125 results in significant reduction of PPVO-induced pDC activation. Taken together, our data

Parapoxvirus (PPV) infections are of worldwide importance, particularly in sheep and goat herds. Owing to the zoonotic potential of all PPV species, they are a permanent threat to human health as well. The virus is also known to affect wildlife, as reported for pinnipeds, red deer and several other wild ruminants. PPVs found in red deer have been claimed as a unique species according to certain genomic features. So far infection of wildlife has been recognized because of clinical manifestation such as inflammation, stomatitis or typical pox-like lesions in the skin or mucous membranes. Here we report the use of targeted molecular diagnostics for the presence of PPV genomes in tonsil swabs of apparently healthy red deer in the Bavarian Alps. Out of 1764 swabs, 0.79 % tested positive for PPV genome presence. From one sample, PPV was successfully isolated in cell culture. This virus became the subject of complete genome characterization using next generation sequencing and various subsidiary PCR protocols.

Poxviridae are a family of oval or brick-shaped, quite large, double-stranded DNA viruses that can infect both humans and animals. The genus Parapoxvirus is included among these viruses; these viruses measure 260 X 160-nm and possess a unique spiral coat that distinguishes them from the other poxviruses.

Once a human is infected with the parapoxvirus a nodular lesion will appear. This lesion evolves through several stages. It begins as a papule but then progresses into a lesion with a red center surrounded by a white ring. The lesion then becomes red and weeping. If the lesion is located in an area with hair, temporary alopecia (hair loss) occurs. With further progression, the lesion becomes dry with black spots on the surface. It then flattens and forms a dry crust. The lesion then heals with minimal scarring. The progression of this disease occurs in about 6 weeks. Other symptoms such as mild swelling, fever, pain or lymphadenitis may be noted.. The diagnosis of orf is made clinically with confirmatory studies to solidify the diagnosis. A small sample of the crust, tissue, or fluid can detect the parapoxvirus under electron microscopy. In addition, the histologic features observed from a regular biopsy can be used to confirm the clinical diagnosis. Finally, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may ...

Once a human is infected with the parapoxvirus a nodular lesion will appear. This lesion evolves through several stages. It begins as a papule but then progresses into a lesion with a red center surrounded by a white ring. The lesion then becomes red and weeping. If the lesion is located in an area with hair, temporary alopecia (hair loss) occurs. With further progression, the lesion becomes dry with black spots on the surface. It then flattens and forms a dry crust. The lesion then heals with minimal scarring. The progression of this disease occurs in about 6 weeks. Other symptoms such as mild swelling, fever, pain or lymphadenitis may be noted.. The diagnosis of orf is made clinically with confirmatory studies to solidify the diagnosis. A small sample of the crust, tissue, or fluid can detect the parapoxvirus under electron microscopy. In addition, the histologic features observed from a regular biopsy can be used to confirm the clinical diagnosis. Finally, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may ...

Heude (1898) described a least 24 supposedly different serow taxa. Later authors have united some and added others. Even today, authors differ strongly on nomenlature and specific/subspecific status of the various types. Not surprisingly, physical descriptions and distributon range maps differ and assessments of serow conservation stats vary, wht little in the way of conclusive scientific evidence. [1]. Schaller (1977) listet one serow species, Capricornis sumatraensis, with 11 subspecies. Other authors recognized two serow species, Capricornis crispus with two subspecies and Capricornis sumatraensis with five subspecies. Differentiation was mainly based on body size, pelage, and mane presence, colour and length. [1]. The Caprinae Action Plan (1997) lists three serow species: C. sumatraensis with five subspecies (C. s. milneedwardsii, C. s. maritimus, C. s. sumatraensis, C. s. rubidus, C. s. thar) and the two island species C. crispus and C. swinhoe. [1]. Wilson and Reeder (2005) recognize six ...

Orf virus (ORFV) is a member of the genus Parapoxvirus and family Poxviridae. The virus has a worldwide distribution and infects sheep, goats, humans, and wild animals. However, due to the complex structure of the poxvirus, the underlying mechanism of the entry and infection by ORFV remains largely unknown. ORFV ORF047 encodes a protein named L1R. Poxviral L1R serves as the receptor-binding protein and blocks virus binding and entry independently of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The study aimed to identify the host interaction partners of ORFV ORF047. Yeast two-hybrid cDNA library of sheep testicular cells was applied to screen the host targets with ORF047 as the bait. ORF047 was cloned into a pBT3-N vector and expressed in the NMY51 yeast strain. Then, the expression of bait proteins was validated by Western blot analysis. Sheep SERP1and PABPC4 were identified as host target proteins of ORFV ORF047, and a Co-IP assay further verified their interaction. New host cell proteins SERP1and PABPC4 were found to

Viral vector vaccines still represent most excellent inducers of cell-mediated and humoral immune responses. Therefore, intensive investigations are performed to improve the use of several virus families as safe and efficient viral vectors, not only against diverse infectious diseases but also against tumours. During the last decade we developed a novel vector virus platform using Orf virus (ORFV), a member of the genus Parapoxvirus of Poxviridae. The attractiveness of an ORFV vector rely on the following advantages: (i) A very restricted host range, (ii) No evidence for viral systemic spread, (iii) The fast induction of humoral and cellular immune responses, especially also in non-permissive hosts that do not support vector replication, (iv) A short-term vector-specific immunity allowing multiple re-immunizations, and (v) the possibility to generate recombinants by targeted deletion of ORFV virulence genes on the basis of the highly attenuated, apathogenic ORFV strain D1701-V. ...

Viral vector vaccines still represent most excellent inducers of cell-mediated and humoral immune responses. Therefore, intensive investigations are performed to improve the use of several virus families as safe and efficient viral vectors, not only against diverse infectious diseases but also against tumours. During the last decade we developed a novel vector virus platform using Orf virus (ORFV), a member of the genus Parapoxvirus of Poxviridae. The attractiveness of an ORFV vector rely on the following advantages: (i) A very restricted host range, (ii) No evidence for viral systemic spread, (iii) The fast induction of humoral and cellular immune responses, especially also in non-permissive hosts that do not support vector replication, (iv) A short-term vector-specific immunity allowing multiple re-immunizations, and (v) the possibility to generate recombinants by targeted deletion of ORFV virulence genes on the basis of the highly attenuated, apathogenic ORFV strain D1701-V. ...

protein common to the parapoxvirus, orthopoxvirus, leporipoxvirus and avipoxvirus genera has been identified, prepared by alkaline extraction of the virion. Subsequent investigations have shown four cross-reacting polypeptides between orthopoxviruses and leporipoxviruses, and one between capri-poxviruses and parapoxviruses. However, none of these are significant in cross-immunity between the genera.. Within the orthopoxviruses, there is good cross-immunity between all the members, exemplified by the use of vaccinia to protect against smallpox (variola). The antigens which stimulate protective antibodies are present in the surface tubular elements and in the envelope derived from modified cellular membrane that surrounds the naturally released virion. Virions released from disrupted cells lack this external membrane and are reported to be less infectious. The envelope also contains the glycoprotein hemagglutinin, which is common to all orthopoxviruses but absent from the other seven genera. ...

parapox definition: Noun (uncountable) 1. A disease caused by a parapoxvirus; found chiefly in cows, sheep, goats, and squirrels...

It is known that some viruses are able to induce vigorous immune reactions. This study shows that inactivated parapoxvirus ovis (Orf virus), strain D1701 (PPVO), induces an autoregulatory cytokine response that involves the upregulation of IL-12, IL-18, IFN-γ and other T helper 1-type cytokines and their subsequent downregulation, which is accompanied by induction of IL-4. An increase in IL-10 expression was also found in the livers of PPVO-treated mice. PPVO protects mice from lethal herpes simplex virus type 1 infection and guinea pigs from recurrent genital herpes disease. With dosages as low as 500 000 virus particles, PPVO is more potent than the current standard 3TC therapy in hepatitis B virus transgenic mice. No signs of inflammation or any other side effects were observed. PPVO induces IL-12, TNF-α and, together with a suboptimal concentration of Concanavalin A, IFN-γ in human peripheral blood leukocytes as well. The principle of an autoregulatory cytokine induction by an inactivated virus

Because the official declaration of smallpox eradication in 1980, the overall people vaccination has ceased worldwide. responsibility from the Country wide Reference Middle for the Orthopoxviruses was presented with to the machine. This post presents the progression of the machine activity since 2000, and days gone by and current analysis concentrating on orthopoxviruses. family members, whose genome duration is normally varies from 135 to 360 kb, could be grouped into two subfamilies: and subfamily comprises 11 genera: genus (Amount 1). Members from the subfamily possess a broad pet reservoir, mainly linked to rodents. Infections that are users from the genus (VARV, VACV, MPXV, cowpox disease (CPXV), buffalopox disease, cantagalo disease, aracatuba disease), someone to the genus (MCOV), and someone to the genus (tanapox disease). The rest belonged to the genus MLN4924 (orf disease, pseudocowpox disease (PCPV), bovine papular stomatitis disease, deerpox disease, and sealpox disease) [7]. MPXV, ...

ICD-9 code 051.1 for Pseudocowpox is a medical classification as listed by WHO under the range - VIRAL DISEASES ACCOMPANIED BY EXANTHEM (050-059).

El serau de lHimàlaia (Capricornis thar) és un caprí vulnerable, originari de lest i el sud-est de Bangla Desh, lHimàlaia (Bhutan, el nord de lÍndia i el Nepal), el nord-est de lÍndia i probablement loest de Myanmar.[1] En el passat se lha considerat una subespècie del serau comú, Capricornis sumatraensis.[1] ...

Cases of papular stomatitis in Finnish reindeer have been reported for many years. The causative agent was thought to be Orf virus (ORFV), one of the Parapoxviridae, although this assumption was based mainly on clinical symptoms, pathology and electron microscopy. Here sequence analyses of the viral DNA isolated from a recent outbreak of disease in 1999-2000 are presented in comparison to that isolated from earlier outbreaks in 1992-1994. The results show that the virus isolated from the 1999-2000 outbreak is most closely related to Pseudocowpox virus, whereas those from previous years grouped with ORFV. The present study describes a method for genetic characterization and classification of parapoxviruses (PPVs) and provides for the first time an extended phylogenetic analysis of PPVs isolated from Finland, established members of the genus Parapoxvirus and selected members of the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae.

In this study, the gene encoding the GM-CSF inhibitory factor (GIF) was isolated and mapped to the right terminal quarter of the orf virus genome. The orf virus GIF cDNA was expressed as a secreted protein in Chinese hamster ovarian cells as detected by GM-CSF inhibition ELISA. Recombinant GIF was purified by ovine GM-CSF affinity chromatography and gel filtration. Sequence analysis of the 20 N-terminal amino acids was performed on the purified GIF. The GIF gene encodes a 28 kDa protein that exhibits 32% amino acid sequence similarity to the predicted sequence of the A41L gene product encoded by vaccinia virus. Although the vaccinia virus A41L protein has sequence similarity to the T1 secreted chemokine-binding proteins of leporipoxviruses, its function is not known. GIF did not share any homology with any cytokine receptor molecule identified to date. In contrast to other parapoxvirus immunomodulatory proteins that are products of early viral genes, GIF was found to be the product of an ...

The gene Q13L coding for the Capripoxvirus group specific structural protein P32 was expressed in Escherichia coli using plasmid pGEX-2T as a fusion protein with glutathione-s-transferase and purified on glutathione sepharose affinity chromatography column. The protein was then employed for diagnosis of sheeppox, goatpox and lumpyskin disease, by a latex agglutination test (LAT) using the purified P32 antigen and guinea pig detector antiserum raised against the P32 antigen. The LAT and virus neutralization test (VNT) were used to screen one hundred livestock field sera for antibodies to Capripoxvirus, in comparison the LAT was simpler, rapid and 23% more sensitive than the VNT. In addition the LAT was found to be specific for Carpripoxvirus because it did not pick antibodies to Orthopoxvirus and Parapoxvirus. The LA test can be taken for a simple and quick diagnostic tool for primary screening of Carpripoxvirus infection and will reduce the reliance of diagnostic laboratories ...

Free, official info about 2015 ICD-9-CM diagnosis code 051.1. Includes coding notes, detailed descriptions, index cross-references and ICD-10-CM conversion info.

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The anaphase promoting complex (APC/C) is a multi-component ubiquitin ligase complex responsible for targeting cell cycle proteins for degradation. APC/C consists of at least 12 subunits with additional cofactors. Poxvirus anaphase-promoting complex regulator (PACR) is a RING-H2 protein expressed by orf virus (ORFV), the prototype of the Parapoxvirus genus. PACR shares homology with APC/C subunit APC11, but lacks APC11s ubiquitin ligase activity. Inclusion of PACR in APC/C, in place of APC11 has been shown to impair APC/C function causing mitotic arrest, which potentially leads to apoptosis. This investigation was the first step in attempting to make use of PACRs unique ability to promote cell cycle arrest, by cloning PACR into an inducible expression system, Tet-One. Use of an inducible system would minimise PACRs known toxicity to cells and allow PACR to be used as a potential therapeutic to cause cell death of murine melanoma, B16-F10 cells. PACR with a Flag tag was successfully cloned ...

Orf, having multiple synonyms as contagious pustular dermatitis or contagious ecthyma possesses zoonotic potential, is viral skin disease affecting health of ruminants mainly. It is due to the infection of Orf virus belonging to Parapoxvirus genus of family Poxviridae, with characteristic barn of wool like morphology of capsid. In the present article, all the details from history to patho-physiology of virus (major virulence factors) and host (immune factors) along with up to date diagnostics, epidemiology and control measures have been reviewed.

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Adorable Friendship Between A Farmer And His Pigs... Old MacDonald may have had a farm, which was home... ...n farmer Otchan and his beloved pigs.The hog wild Japanese pig farmer tends to a whopping 1,200 pigs, and yo... ...oves every minute he spends with his porcine pals. Kagawa -based photographer Toshiteru Yamaji has been docu... http://www.neatorama.com/2014/04/18/Adorable-Friendship-Between-A-Farmer-And-His-Pigs/ ...

0112] In preferred embodiments, the adenovirus includes, but is not limited to, a human adenovirus. In preferred embodiments, the astrovirus includes, but is not limited to, a mamastrovirus. In preferred embodiments, the hepadnavirus includes, but is not limited to, the hepatitis B virus. In preferred embodiments, the herpesvirus includes, but is not limited to, a herpes simplex virus type I, a herpes simplex virus type 2, a human cytomegalovirus, an Epstein-Barr virus, a varicella zoster virus, a roseolovirus, and a Kaposis sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. In preferred embodiments, the papovavirus includes, but is not limited to, human papilloma virus and a human polyoma virus. In preferred embodiments, the poxvirus includes, but is not limited to, a variola virus, a vaccinia virus, a cowpox virus, a monkeypox virus, a smallpox virus, a pseudocowpox virus, a papular stomatitis virus, a tanapox virus, a yaba monkey tumor virus, and a molluscum contagiosum virus. In preferred embodiments, the ...

The first rule of coral fight club is everyone shares there experiences so we can make better placement decisions . Just like the movie! Its easy to forget that our corals are actual animals until they go ballistic and burn each others faces off. But thats a thing, so who are the marshmallows and who are the rabid rottweilers of the coral kingdom? Heres my (sad) list of experiences. I can personally vouch for all of these. Last edit 3/2/18: Im not the only one with pugnacious corals. A number of other members have had corals throw down in their tanks and back alleys and were kind enough to share. Their experiences have been added to this post and their names are in brackets so they get a shout-out for their badly behaved cnidarians. Favia: Ill add something here when my Favia starts murdering things. Favia , Montipora capricornis (WV Reefer) Favia , Leptastrea (WV Reefer) Galaxea: this will form sweeper tentacles to sting other corals. Ive heard they can be up to a foot long and have ...

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Sore mouth disease (also known as contagious ecthyma) is thought to be responsible for an illness observed among bighorn rams in Yellowstone National Park. Sore mouth disease is a virus caused by the parapoxvirus. It is transmittable to people if direct contact with infected sheep occurs. The park reminds people to not approach or touch wildlife.Sore mouth disease is common in farmed sheep and goats and widespread in wild bighorn sheep in the Rocky Mountains from Alaska to California. Typically spread from ewes to lambs, the disease can manifest itself as scabby sores around the mouth and face. Lesions disappear in 2-4 weeks and animals typically heal without scarring. Generally, affected animals recover but deaths can occur in severe outbreaks, especially with young animals who cannot feed. The virus has the greatest effect on lambs that refuse to nurse because of sore mouths.. So far, only breeding age rams in the park have been observed with lesions. This is likely a result of frequent ...

Poxviruses are large double-stranded DNA viruses that have a wide range of susceptible host species. Monkeypox is of increased interest since its importation into the United States in 2003 and has increased concerns of zoonotic transmission of poxviruses. This chapter addresses molecular and immunological diagnostic issues for detection of viral infections associated with four genera of the Chordopoxvirinae that cause human disease and their public health significance. Diagnostic methods are similar for these viruses and are addressed cumulatively. Parapoxviruses are structurally distinct from other Chordopoxvirinae and commonly cause agricultural disease of sheep, goats, and cattle that may be transmitted by direct contact to humans. The basis for diagnosis of any poxviruses can be attributed historically to smallpox. Detection of humoral antibody responses by serology is an indirect approach to diagnosis and has been a hallmark for laboratory diagnosis of viral infections. The most pragmatic serology

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The School of Biological Sciences invites you to attend a special one-hour seminar on Monday 13th November.. Professor Andrew Mercer, Webster Family Chair in Viral Pathogenesis, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, will be discussing his research, which focuses on viral virulence and pathogenicity.. His work aims to combat viruses of risk to human health, and also explore aspects of viruses that will enable them to be developed as therapeutics for the treatment of a wide range of human diseases.. Large DNA viruses such as orf virus express an astonishing array of proteins that manipulate responses to infection, including growth factors, cytokines, apoptosis inhibitors, cell cycle regulators, and more.. Orf virus encodes a unique repertoire of these proteins, which provide an exciting source of new therapeutics with potential benefits to a wide range of human conditions.. In this seminar, Professor Andrew Mercer will review his investigations into a selection of these ...

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This chapter deals with poxviruses belonging to the family Poxviridae and subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. The G+C contents of orthopoxviruses, yatapoxviruses, Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV), and parapoxviruses are ~33, ~32, ~60, and ~63%, respectively. The zoonotic poxviruses include members of the genera Orthopoxvirus (monkeypox virus, cowpox virus, and the vaccinia virus subspecies, including buffalopox virus), Parapoxvirus (orf, pseudocowpox, sealpox, and papulosa stomatitis viruses), and Yatapoxvirus (tanapox virus [TPV], Yaba monkey tumor virus [YMTV], and Yaba-like disease virus [YLDV]). Poxviruses produce inclusions that have characteristic appearances when stained with May-Grunwald Giemsa and hematoxylin-eosin stains. Perinuclear basophilic or B-type cytoplasmic inclusions (virus factories or viroplasm) are observed with cells infected with any of the poxviruses and represent sites of virus replication. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis is used by the WHO collaborating center (WHOCC) at

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The family Poxviridae is divided in two subfamilies: Entomopoxvirinae, which infect insects, and Chordopoxvirinae, which infect vertebrates[1]. Genera of the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae that may cause human infections include Orthopoxvirus, Parapoxvirus, Molluscipoxvirus and Yatapoxvirus[1, 2]. The genus Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) is the most relevant in terms of human public health concerns and includes viruses that have been associated with severe febrile, rash illness in humans. Its members include: Variola virus, a solely human pathogen and the etiological agent of smallpox[2-4]; Monkeypox virus, a zoonotic disease that causes a generalized rash similar to smallpox with up to 10% case fatality rate[5]; Vaccinia virus (VACV), the smallpox vaccine which can produce generalized illness in immunocompromised individuals[6]; and Cowpox virus, another zoonotic disease which can cause generalized illness in immunocompromised individuals[6, 7]. In immunocompetent individuals, infection with vaccinia or ...

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