Yeasts. Medical search

A general term for single-celled rounded fungi that reproduce by budding. Brewers' and bakers' yeasts are SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE; therapeutic dried yeast is YEAST, DRIED.

A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.

Proteins obtained from the species SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE. The function of specific proteins from this organism are the subject of intense scientific interest and have been used to derive basic understanding of the functioning similar proteins in higher eukaryotes.

Proteins found in any species of fungus.

The functional hereditary units of FUNGI.

The dry cells of any suitable strain of SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE or CANDIDA. It can be obtained as a by-product from the brewing of beer or by growing on media not suitable for beer production. Dried yeast serves as a source of protein and VITAMIN B COMPLEX.

Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.

Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of fungi.

A genus of ascomycetous fungi of the family Schizosaccharomycetaceae, order Schizosaccharomycetales.

The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.

An order of fungi in the phylum Ascomycota that multiply by budding. They include the telomorphic ascomycetous yeasts which are found in a very wide range of habitats.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.

Proteins obtained from the species Schizosaccharomyces pombe. The function of specific proteins from this organism are the subject of intense scientific interest and have been used to derive basic understanding of the functioning similar proteins in higher eukaryotes.

Screening techniques first developed in yeast to identify genes encoding interacting proteins. Variations are used to evaluate interplay between proteins and other molecules. Two-hybrid techniques refer to analysis for protein-protein interactions, one-hybrid for DNA-protein interactions, three-hybrid interactions for RNA-protein interactions or ligand-based interactions. Reverse n-hybrid techniques refer to analysis for mutations or other small molecules that dissociate known interactions.

Ribonucleic acid in fungi having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.

The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.

The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.

Chromosomes in which fragments of exogenous DNA ranging in length up to several hundred kilobase pairs have been cloned into yeast through ligation to vector sequences. These artificial chromosomes are used extensively in molecular biology for the construction of comprehensive genomic libraries of higher organisms.

The complete gene complement contained in a set of chromosomes in a fungus.

Structures within the nucleus of fungal cells consisting of or containing DNA, which carry genetic information essential to the cell.

The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.

Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.

Protein factors released from one species of YEAST that are selectively toxic to another species of yeast.

Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.

Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.

Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.

A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.

The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.

Proteins that control the CELL DIVISION CYCLE. This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen-activated kinases, CYCLINS, and PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASES as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin-associated proteins, CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS, and TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS.

The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.

The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.

Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

A unicellular budding fungus which is the principal pathogenic species causing CANDIDIASIS (moniliasis).

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

Any spaces or cavities within a cell. They may function in digestion, storage, secretion, or excretion.

Proteins found in the nucleus of a cell. Do not confuse with NUCLEOPROTEINS which are proteins conjugated with nucleic acids, that are not necessarily present in the nucleus.

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

Reproductive bodies produced by fungi.

Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.

The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.

Process of generating a genetic MUTATION. It may occur spontaneously or be induced by MUTAGENS.

Change brought about to an organisms genetic composition by unidirectional transfer (TRANSFECTION; TRANSDUCTION, GENETIC; CONJUGATION, GENETIC, etc.) and incorporation of foreign DNA into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells by recombination of part or all of that DNA into the cell's genome.

Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

A red yeast-like mitosporic fungal genus generally regarded as nonpathogenic. It is cultured from numerous sources in human patients.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.

An ascomycetous yeast of the fungal family Saccharomycetaceae, order SACCHAROMYCETALES.

A sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is similar across multiple species. A known set of conserved sequences is represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE. AMINO ACID MOTIFS are often composed of conserved sequences.

Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.

Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.

A group of enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP. The hydrolysis reaction is usually coupled with another function such as transporting Ca(2+) across a membrane. These enzymes may be dependent on Ca(2+), Mg(2+), anions, H+, or DNA.

Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.

A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.

Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)

A type of CELL NUCLEUS division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of CHROMOSOMES of the somatic cells of the species.

Mutation process that restores the wild-type PHENOTYPE in an organism possessing a mutationally altered GENOTYPE. The second "suppressor" mutation may be on a different gene, on the same gene but located at a distance from the site of the primary mutation, or in extrachromosomal genes (EXTRACHROMOSOMAL INHERITANCE).

The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.

RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.

A type of CELL NUCLEUS division, occurring during maturation of the GERM CELLS. Two successive cell nucleus divisions following a single chromosome duplication (S PHASE) result in daughter cells with half the number of CHROMOSOMES as the parent cells.

A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.

Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.

Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.

Production of new arrangements of DNA by various mechanisms such as assortment and segregation, CROSSING OVER; GENE CONVERSION; GENETIC TRANSFORMATION; GENETIC CONJUGATION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; or mixed infection of viruses.

A broad category of proteins involved in the formation, transport and dissolution of TRANSPORT VESICLES. They play a role in the intracellular transport of molecules contained within membrane vesicles. Vesicular transport proteins are distinguished from MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS, which move molecules across membranes, by the mode in which the molecules are transported.

The study of the structure, growth, function, genetics, and reproduction of fungi, and MYCOSES.

A family of enzymes that catalyze the conversion of ATP and a protein to ADP and a phosphoprotein.

The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.

The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.

Substances that destroy fungi by suppressing their ability to grow or reproduce. They differ from FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL because they defend against fungi present in human or animal tissues.

The process by which a DNA molecule is duplicated.

The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)

DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.

The small RNA molecules, 73-80 nucleotides long, that function during translation (TRANSLATION, GENETIC) to align AMINO ACIDS at the RIBOSOMES in a sequence determined by the mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). There are about 30 different transfer RNAs. Each recognizes a specific CODON set on the mRNA through its own ANTICODON and as aminoacyl tRNAs (RNA, TRANSFER, AMINO ACYL), each carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome to add to the elongating peptide chains.

Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.

A carboxypeptidase that catalyzes the release of a C-terminal amino acid with a broad specificity. It also plays a role in the LYSOSOMES by protecting BETA-GALACTOSIDASE and NEURAMINIDASE from degradation. It was formerly classified as EC 3.4.12.1 and EC 3.4.21.13.

The chromosomal constitution of cells, in which each type of CHROMOSOME is represented once. Symbol: N.

Proteins which maintain the transcriptional quiescence of specific GENES or OPERONS. Classical repressor proteins are DNA-binding proteins that are normally bound to the OPERATOR REGION of an operon, or the ENHANCER SEQUENCES of a gene until a signal occurs that causes their release.

A large collection of DNA fragments cloned (CLONING, MOLECULAR) from a given organism, tissue, organ, or cell type. It may contain complete genomic sequences (GENOMIC LIBRARY) or complementary DNA sequences, the latter being formed from messenger RNA and lacking intron sequences.

Microscopy of specimens stained with fluorescent dye (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) or of naturally fluorescent materials, which emit light when exposed to ultraviolet or blue light. Immunofluorescence microscopy utilizes antibodies that are labeled with fluorescent dye.

Procedures for identifying types and strains of fungi.

A genus of ascomycetous yeast in the family Dipodascaceae, order SACCHAROMYCETALES.

A group of enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of serine or threonine residues in proteins, with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.

Protein analogs and derivatives of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein that emit light (FLUORESCENCE) when excited with ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. They are used in REPORTER GENES in doing GENETIC TECHNIQUES. Numerous mutants have been made to emit other colors or be sensitive to pH.

A terminal section of a chromosome which has a specialized structure and which is involved in chromosomal replication and stability. Its length is believed to be a few hundred base pairs.

Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.

Fungal genes that mostly encode TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS. In some FUNGI they also encode PHEROMONES and PHEROMONE RECEPTORS. The transcription factors control expression of specific proteins that give a cell its mating identity. Opposite mating type identities are required for mating.

Proteins that bind to RNA molecules. Included here are RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS and other proteins whose function is to bind specifically to RNA.

Methods for determining interaction between PROTEINS.

A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.

Deletion of sequences of nucleic acids from the genetic material of an individual.

The outermost layer of a cell in most PLANTS; BACTERIA; FUNGI; and ALGAE. The cell wall is usually a rigid structure that lies external to the CELL MEMBRANE, and provides a protective barrier against physical or chemical agents.

A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live parasitically as saprobes, including MUSHROOMS; YEASTS; smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi, commonly known as molds, refer to those that grow as multicellular colonies.

Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.

The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.

A phylum of fungi which have cross-walls or septa in the mycelium. The perfect state is characterized by the formation of a saclike cell (ascus) containing ascospores. Most pathogenic fungi with a known perfect state belong to this phylum.

Nucleoproteins, which in contrast to HISTONES, are acid insoluble. They are involved in chromosomal functions; e.g. they bind selectively to DNA, stimulate transcription resulting in tissue-specific RNA synthesis and undergo specific changes in response to various hormones or phytomitogens.

The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.

Compounds and molecular complexes that consist of very large numbers of atoms and are generally over 500 kDa in size. In biological systems macromolecular substances usually can be visualized using ELECTRON MICROSCOPY and are distinguished from ORGANELLES by the lack of a membrane structure.

A system of cisternae in the CYTOPLASM of many cells. In places the endoplasmic reticulum is continuous with the plasma membrane (CELL MEMBRANE) or outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. If the outer surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum membranes are coated with ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum is said to be rough-surfaced (ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, ROUGH); otherwise it is said to be smooth-surfaced (ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, SMOOTH). (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

The clear constricted portion of the chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and by which the chromosome is attached to the spindle during cell division.

The reconstruction of a continuous two-stranded DNA molecule without mismatch from a molecule which contained damaged regions. The major repair mechanisms are excision repair, in which defective regions in one strand are excised and resynthesized using the complementary base pairing information in the intact strand; photoreactivation repair, in which the lethal and mutagenic effects of ultraviolet light are eliminated; and post-replication repair, in which the primary lesions are not repaired, but the gaps in one daughter duplex are filled in by incorporation of portions of the other (undamaged) daughter duplex. Excision repair and post-replication repair are sometimes referred to as "dark repair" because they do not require light.

The part of a cell that contains the CYTOSOL and small structures excluding the CELL NUCLEUS; MITOCHONDRIA; and large VACUOLES. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)

RNA transcripts of the DNA that are in some unfinished stage of post-transcriptional processing (RNA PROCESSING, POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL) required for function. RNA precursors may undergo several steps of RNA SPLICING during which the phosphodiester bonds at exon-intron boundaries are cleaved and the introns are excised. Consequently a new bond is formed between the ends of the exons. Resulting mature RNAs can then be used; for example, mature mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER) is used as a template for protein production.

Genes that have a suppressor allele or suppressor mutation (SUPPRESSION, GENETIC) which cancels the effect of a previous mutation, enabling the wild-type phenotype to be maintained or partially restored. For example, amber suppressors cancel the effect of an AMBER NONSENSE MUTATION.

Thin structures that encapsulate subcellular structures or ORGANELLES in EUKARYOTIC CELLS. They include a variety of membranes associated with the CELL NUCLEUS; the MITOCHONDRIA; the GOLGI APPARATUS; the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; LYSOSOMES; PLASTIDS; and VACUOLES.

Organisms whose GENOME has been changed by a GENETIC ENGINEERING technique.

The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.

The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

A sequence of successive nucleotide triplets that are read as CODONS specifying AMINO ACIDS and begin with an INITIATOR CODON and end with a stop codon (CODON, TERMINATOR).

The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

DNA sequences encoding RIBOSOMAL RNA and the segments of DNA separating the individual ribosomal RNA genes, referred to as RIBOSOMAL SPACER DNA.

The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).

The material of CHROMOSOMES. It is a complex of DNA; HISTONES; and nonhistone proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON-HISTONE) found within the nucleus of a cell.

Serologic tests in which a positive reaction manifested by visible CHEMICAL PRECIPITATION occurs when a soluble ANTIGEN reacts with its precipitins, i.e., ANTIBODIES that can form a precipitate.

A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).

The ability of fungi to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antifungal agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation.

A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that contains ARABIDOPSIS PROTEINS and MADS DOMAIN PROTEINS. The species A. thaliana is used for experiments in classical plant genetics as well as molecular genetic studies in plant physiology, biochemistry, and development.

The ultimate exclusion of nonsense sequences or intervening sequences (introns) before the final RNA transcript is sent to the cytoplasm.

Commonly observed structural components of proteins formed by simple combinations of adjacent secondary structures. A commonly observed structure may be composed of a CONSERVED SEQUENCE which can be represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE.

The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.

The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Any of various enzymatically catalyzed post-translational modifications of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS in the cell of origin. These modifications include carboxylation; HYDROXYLATION; ACETYLATION; PHOSPHORYLATION; METHYLATION; GLYCOSYLATION; ubiquitination; oxidation; proteolysis; and crosslinking and result in changes in molecular weight and electrophoretic motility.

A microtubule structure that forms during CELL DIVISION. It consists of two SPINDLE POLES, and sets of MICROTUBULES that may include the astral microtubules, the polar microtubules, and the kinetochore microtubules.

The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.

Proteins encoded by the mitochondrial genome or proteins encoded by the nuclear genome that are imported to and resident in the MITOCHONDRIA.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

Warm-blooded vertebrate animals belonging to the class Mammalia, including all that possess hair and suckle their young.

Macromolecular complexes formed from the association of defined protein subunits.

Cells, usually bacteria or yeast, which have partially lost their cell wall, lost their characteristic shape and become round.

Single chains of amino acids that are the units of multimeric PROTEINS. Multimeric proteins can be composed of identical or non-identical subunits. One or more monomeric subunits may compose a protomer which itself is a subunit structure of a larger assembly.

Proteins found in ribosomes. They are believed to have a catalytic function in reconstituting biologically active ribosomal subunits.

The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.

Genes whose loss of function or gain of function MUTATION leads to the death of the carrier prior to maturity. They may be essential genes (GENES, ESSENTIAL) required for viability, or genes which cause a block of function of an essential gene at a time when the essential gene function is required for viability.

A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. It functions in the nucleoplasmic structure and transcribes DNA into RNA. It has different requirements for cations and salt than RNA polymerase I and is strongly inhibited by alpha-amanitin. EC 2.7.7.6.

A stack of flattened vesicles that functions in posttranslational processing and sorting of proteins, receiving them from the rough ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM and directing them to secretory vesicles, LYSOSOMES, or the CELL MEMBRANE. The movement of proteins takes place by transfer vesicles that bud off from the rough endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus and fuse with the Golgi, lysosomes or cell membrane. (From Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)

Members of the class of compounds composed of AMINO ACIDS joined together by peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids into linear, branched or cyclical structures. OLIGOPEPTIDES are composed of approximately 2-12 amino acids. Polypeptides are composed of approximately 13 or more amino acids. PROTEINS are linear polypeptides that are normally synthesized on RIBOSOMES.

Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.

Injuries to DNA that introduce deviations from its normal, intact structure and which may, if left unrepaired, result in a MUTATION or a block of DNA REPLICATION. These deviations may be caused by physical or chemical agents and occur by natural or unnatural, introduced circumstances. They include the introduction of illegitimate bases during replication or by deamination or other modification of bases; the loss of a base from the DNA backbone leaving an abasic site; single-strand breaks; double strand breaks; and intrastrand (PYRIMIDINE DIMERS) or interstrand crosslinking. Damage can often be repaired (DNA REPAIR). If the damage is extensive, it can induce APOPTOSIS.

An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALACTOSE-1-PHOSPHATE URIDYL-TRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY DISEASE) causes an error in galactose metabolism called GALACTOSEMIA, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.

A mitosporic fungal genus causing opportunistic infections, endocarditis, fungemia, a hypersensitivity pneumonitis (see TRICHOSPORONOSIS) and white PIEDRA.

Small chromosomal proteins (approx 12-20 kD) possessing an open, unfolded structure and attached to the DNA in cell nuclei by ionic linkages. Classification into the various types (designated histone I, histone II, etc.) is based on the relative amounts of arginine and lysine in each.

A family of cellular proteins that mediate the correct assembly or disassembly of polypeptides and their associated ligands. Although they take part in the assembly process, molecular chaperones are not components of the final structures.

Proton-translocating ATPases that are involved in acidification of a variety of intracellular compartments.

Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.

The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.

Proteins that are involved in the peptide chain termination reaction (PEPTIDE CHAIN TERMINATION, TRANSLATIONAL) on RIBOSOMES. They include codon-specific class-I release factors, which recognize stop signals (TERMINATOR CODON) in the MESSENGER RNA; and codon-nonspecific class-II release factors.

Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.

A mitosporic Onygenales fungal genus causing HISTOPLASMOSIS in humans and animals. Its single species is Histoplasma capsulatum which has two varieties: H. capsulatum var. capsulatum and H. capsulatum var. duboisii. Its teleomorph is AJELLOMYCES capsulatus.

Filamentous proteins that are the main constituent of the thin filaments of muscle fibers. The filaments (known also as filamentous or F-actin) can be dissociated into their globular subunits; each subunit is composed of a single polypeptide 375 amino acids long. This is known as globular or G-actin. In conjunction with MYOSINS, actin is responsible for the contraction and relaxation of muscle.

The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.

Proteins that originate from plants species belonging to the genus ARABIDOPSIS. The most intensely studied species of Arabidopsis, Arabidopsis thaliana, is commonly used in laboratory experiments.

The study, utilization, and manipulation of those microorganisms capable of economically producing desirable substances or changes in substances, and the control of undesirable microorganisms.

Microscopic threadlike filaments in FUNGI that are filled with a layer of protoplasm. Collectively, the hyphae make up the MYCELIUM.

Proteins which are involved in the phenomenon of light emission in living systems. Included are the "enzymatic" and "non-enzymatic" types of system with or without the presence of oxygen or co-factors.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Post-transcriptional biological modification of messenger, transfer, or ribosomal RNAs or their precursors. It includes cleavage, methylation, thiolation, isopentenylation, pseudouridine formation, conformational changes, and association with ribosomal protein.

Proteins which are synthesized in eukaryotic organisms and bacteria in response to hyperthermia and other environmental stresses. They increase thermal tolerance and perform functions essential to cell survival under these conditions.

In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.

A group of enzymes that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing beta-D-galactose residues in beta-galactosides. Deficiency of beta-Galactosidase A1 may cause GANGLIOSIDOSIS, GM1.

The repeating structural units of chromatin, each consisting of approximately 200 base pairs of DNA wound around a protein core. This core is composed of the histones H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

Mycoses are infections caused by fungi that affect humans and other animals.

A class of enzymes that catalyze the formation of a bond between two substrate molecules, coupled with the hydrolysis of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar energy donor. (Dorland, 28th ed) EC 6.

Toxic compounds produced by FUNGI.

A phylum of fungi that produce their sexual spores (basidiospores) on the outside of the basidium. It includes forms commonly known as mushrooms, boletes, puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns, bird's-nest fungi, jelly fungi, bracket or shelf fungi, and rust and smut fungi.

A class of enzymes that form a thioester bond to UBIQUITIN with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES. They transfer ubiquitin to the LYSINE of a substrate protein with the assistance of UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES.

The orderly segregation of CHROMOSOMES during MEIOSIS or MITOSIS.

Proteins that catalyze the unwinding of duplex DNA during replication by binding cooperatively to single-stranded regions of DNA or to short regions of duplex DNA that are undergoing transient opening. In addition DNA helicases are DNA-dependent ATPases that harness the free energy of ATP hydrolysis to translocate DNA strands.

An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.

Multicomponent ribonucleoprotein structures found in the CYTOPLASM of all cells, and in MITOCHONDRIA, and PLASTIDS. They function in PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS via GENETIC TRANSLATION.

Infection with a fungus of the genus CANDIDA. It is usually a superficial infection of the moist areas of the body and is generally caused by CANDIDA ALBICANS. (Dorland, 27th ed)

A large and heterogenous group of fungi whose common characteristic is the absence of a sexual state. Many of the pathogenic fungi in humans belong to this group.

Diffusible gene products that act on homologous or heterologous molecules of viral or cellular DNA to regulate the expression of proteins.

A set of nuclear proteins in SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE that are required for the transcriptional repression of the silent mating type loci. They mediate the formation of silenced CHROMATIN and repress both transcription and recombination at other loci as well. They are comprised of 4 non-homologous, interacting proteins, Sir1p, Sir2p, Sir3p, and Sir4p. Sir2p, an NAD-dependent HISTONE DEACETYLASE, is the founding member of the family of SIRTUINS.

Double-stranded DNA of MITOCHONDRIA. In eukaryotes, the mitochondrial GENOME is circular and codes for ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs, and about 10 proteins.

Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.

Enzymes catalyzing the transfer of an acetyl group, usually from acetyl coenzyme A, to another compound. EC 2.3.1.

A family of pheromone receptors that were initially discovered in SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE as proteins necessary for fungal conjugation. Each mating factor receptor is expressed in HAPLOID CELLS of a single mating type.

The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.

Presence of warmth or heat or a temperature notably higher than an accustomed norm.

A protein kinase encoded by the Saccharomyces cerevisiae CDC28 gene and required for progression from the G1 PHASE to the S PHASE in the CELL CYCLE.

The process by which two molecules of the same chemical composition form a condensation product or polymer.

Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of mannose from a nucleoside diphosphate mannose to an acceptor molecule which is frequently another carbohydrate. The group includes EC 2.4.1.32, EC 2.4.1.48, EC 2.4.1.54, and EC 2.4.1.57.

An enzyme catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from 3-phospho-D-glycerate in the presence of ATP to yield 3-phospho-D-glyceroyl phosphate and ADP. EC 2.7.2.3.

Proteins and peptides that are involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION within the cell. Included here are peptides and proteins that regulate the activity of TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS and cellular processes in response to signals from CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. Intracellular signaling peptide and proteins may be part of an enzymatic signaling cascade or act through binding to and modifying the action of other signaling factors.

A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)

The process by which the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided.

Glycoside Hydrolases are enzymes that break down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars.

Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.

Genes whose expression is easily detectable and therefore used to study promoter activity at many positions in a target genome. In recombinant DNA technology, these genes may be attached to a promoter region of interest.

Complexes of enzymes that catalyze the covalent attachment of UBIQUITIN to other proteins by forming a peptide bond between the C-terminal GLYCINE of UBIQUITIN and the alpha-amino groups of LYSINE residues in the protein. The complexes play an important role in mediating the selective-degradation of short-lived and abnormal proteins. The complex of enzymes can be broken down into three components that involve activation of ubiquitin (UBIQUITIN-ACTIVATING ENZYMES), conjugation of ubiquitin to the ligase complex (UBIQUITIN-CONJUGATING ENZYMES), and ligation of ubiquitin to the substrate protein (UBIQUITIN-PROTEIN LIGASES).

Those genes found in an organism which are necessary for its viability and normal function.

The phase of cell nucleus division following METAPHASE, in which the CHROMATIDS separate and migrate to opposite poles of the spindle.

Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.

A member of the Rho family of MONOMERIC GTP-BINDING PROTEINS from SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE. It is involved in morphological events related to the cell cycle. This enzyme was formerly listed as EC 3.6.1.47.

Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of positively charged molecules (cations) across a biological membrane.

An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.

A set of genes descended by duplication and variation from some ancestral gene. Such genes may be clustered together on the same chromosome or dispersed on different chromosomes. Examples of multigene families include those that encode the hemoglobins, immunoglobulins, histocompatibility antigens, actins, tubulins, keratins, collagens, heat shock proteins, salivary glue proteins, chorion proteins, cuticle proteins, yolk proteins, and phaseolins, as well as histones, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA genes. The latter three are examples of reiterated genes, where hundreds of identical genes are present in a tandem array. (King & Stanfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

Biologically active DNA which has been formed by the in vitro joining of segments of DNA from different sources. It includes the recombination joint or edge of a heteroduplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.

A multisubunit enzyme complex containing CYTOCHROME A GROUP; CYTOCHROME A3; two copper atoms; and 13 different protein subunits. It is the terminal oxidase complex of the RESPIRATORY CHAIN and collects electrons that are transferred from the reduced CYTOCHROME C GROUP and donates them to molecular OXYGEN, which is then reduced to water. The redox reaction is simultaneously coupled to the transport of PROTONS across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

A family of proteins that are structurally-related to Ubiquitin. Ubiquitins and ubiquitin-like proteins participate in diverse cellular functions, such as protein degradation and HEAT-SHOCK RESPONSE, by conjugation to other proteins.

A novel H2A/H4 nucleosomal histone acetyltransferase in Tetrahymena thermophila. (1/4035)

Recently, we reported the identification of a 55-kDa polypeptide (p55) from Tetrahymena macronuclei as a catalytic subunit of a transcription-associated histone acetyltransferase (HAT A). Extensive homology between p55 and Gcn5p, a component of the SAGA and ADA transcriptional coactivator complexes in budding yeast, suggests an immediate link between the regulation of chromatin structure and transcriptional output. Here we report the characterization of a second transcription-associated HAT activity from Tetrahymena macronuclei. This novel activity is distinct from complexes containing p55 and putative ciliate SAGA and ADA components and shares several characteristics with NuA4 (for nucleosomal H2A/H4), a 1.8-MDa, Gcn5p-independent HAT complex recently described in yeast. A key feature of both the NuA4 and Tetrahymena activities is their acetylation site specificity for lysines 5, 8, 12, and 16 of H4 and lysines 5 and 9 of H2A in nucleosomal substrates, patterns that are distinct from those of known Gcn5p family members. Moreover, like NuA4, the Tetrahymena activity is capable of activating transcription from nucleosomal templates in vitro in an acetyl coenzyme A-dependent fashion. Unlike NuA4, however, sucrose gradient analyses of the ciliate enzyme, following sequential denaturation and renaturation, estimate the molecular size of the catalytically active subunit to be approximately 80 kDa, consistent with the notion that a single polypeptide or a stable subcomplex is sufficient for this H2A/H4 nucleosomal HAT activity. Together, these data document the importance of this novel HAT activity for transcriptional activation from chromatin templates and suggest that a second catalytic HAT subunit, in addition to p55/Gcn5p, is conserved between yeast and Tetrahymena. (+info)

The LIM-only protein PINCH directly interacts with integrin-linked kinase and is recruited to integrin-rich sites in spreading cells. (2/4035)

PINCH is a widely expressed and evolutionarily conserved protein comprising primarily five LIM domains, which are cysteine-rich consensus sequences implicated in mediating protein-protein interactions. We report here that PINCH is a binding protein for integrin-linked kinase (ILK), an intracellular serine/threonine protein kinase that plays important roles in the cell adhesion, growth factor, and Wnt signaling pathways. The interaction between ILK and PINCH has been consistently observed under a variety of experimental conditions. They have interacted in yeast two-hybrid assays, in solution, and in solid-phase-based binding assays. Furthermore, ILK, but not vinculin or focal adhesion kinase, has been coisolated with PINCH from mammalian cells by immunoaffinity chromatography, indicating that PINCH and ILK associate with each other in vivo. The PINCH-ILK interaction is mediated by the N-terminal-most LIM domain (LIM1, residues 1 to 70) of PINCH and multiple ankyrin (ANK) repeats located within the N-terminal domain (residues 1 to 163) of ILK. Additionally, biochemical studies indicate that ILK, through the interaction with PINCH, is capable of forming a ternary complex with Nck-2, an SH2/SH3-containing adapter protein implicated in growth factor receptor kinase and small GTPase signaling pathways. Finally, we have found that PINCH is concentrated in peripheral ruffles of cells spreading on fibronectin and have detected clusters of PINCH that are colocalized with the alpha5beta1 integrins. These results demonstrate a specific protein recognition mechanism utilizing a specific LIM domain and multiple ANK repeats and suggest that PINCH functions as an adapter protein connecting ILK and the integrins with components of growth factor receptor kinase and small GTPase signaling pathways. (+info)

Phosphorylation of yeast TBP by protein kinase CK2 reduces its specific binding to DNA. (3/4035)

Protein kinase CK2 is a ubiquitous Ser/Thr kinase which phosphorylates a large number of proteins including several transcription factors. Recombinant Xenopus laevis CK2 phosphorylates both recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe TATA binding protein (TBP). The phosphorylation of TBP by CK2 reduces its binding activity to the TATA box. CK2 copurifies with the transcription factor IID (TFIID) complex from HeLa cell extracts and phosphorylates several of the TBP-associated factors within TFIID. Taken together these findings argue for a role of CK2 in the control of transcription by RNA polymerase II through the modulation of the binding activity of TBP to the TATA box. (+info)

An Arabidopsis 14-3-3 protein can act as a transcriptional activator in yeast. (4/4035)

The 14-3-3 proteins are a group of highly conserved and widely distributed eukaryotic proteins with diverse functions. One 14-3-3 protein, AFT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana, was found to be able to activate transcription in yeast. When fused to the DNA-binding domain of a bacterial protein LexA, AFT1 can activate transcription of reporter genes that contain LexA operator sequences in their promoters. Although the in vivo function of AFT1 is not completely known, its similarity to previously identified proteins found in transcription complexes of Arabidopsis and maize suggests that AFT1 and some other 14-3-3 proteins may activate gene expression in other systems as well. (+info)

Identification of yeasts by RFLP analysis of the 5.8S rRNA gene and the two ribosomal internal transcribed spacers. (5/4035)

The identification and classification of yeasts have traditionally been based on morphological, physiological and biochemical traits. Various kits have been developed as rapid systems for yeast identification, but mostly for clinical diagnosis. In recent years, different molecular biology techniques have been developed for yeast identification, but there is no available database to identify a large number of species. In the present study, the restriction patterns generated from the region spanning the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and the 5.8S rRNA gene were used to identify a total of 132 yeast species belonging to 25 different genera, including teleomorphic and anamorphic ascomycetous and basidiomycetous yeasts. In many cases, the size of the PCR products and the restriction patterns obtained with endonucleases CfoI, HaeIII and HinfI yielded a unique profile for each species. Accordingly, the use of this molecular approach is proposed as a new rapid and easy method of routine yeast identification. (+info)

Identification of a novel domain shared by putative components of the endocytic and cytoskeletal machinery. (6/4035)

We have identified a approximately 140 amino acid domain that is shared by a variety of proteins in budding and fission yeast, nematode, rat, mouse, frog, oat, and man. Typically, this domain is located within 20 residues of the N-terminus of the various proteins. The percent identity among the domains in the 12 proteins ranges from 42 to 93%, with 16 absolutely conserved residues: N-x(11-13)-V-x2-A-T-x(34-36)-R-x(7-8)-W-R-x3-K-x12-G-x-E-x15 -L-x11-12-D-x-G-R-x11-D-x7-R. Even though these proteins share little beyond their segment of homology, data are emerging that several of the proteins are involved in endocytosis and or regulation of cytoskeletal organization. We have named this protein segment the ENTH domain, for Epsin N-terminal Homology domain, and hypothesize that it is a candidate for binding specific ligands and/or enzymatic activity in the cell. (+info)

Hmo1p, a high mobility group 1/2 homolog, genetically and physically interacts with the yeast FKBP12 prolyl isomerase. (7/4035)

The immunosuppressive drugs FK506 and rapamycin bind to the cellular protein FKBP12, and the resulting FKBP12-drug complexes inhibit signal transduction. FKBP12 is a ubiquitous, highly conserved, abundant enzyme that catalyzes a rate-limiting step in protein folding: peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerization. However, FKBP12 is dispensible for viability in both yeast and mice, and therefore does not play an essential role in protein folding. The functions of FKBP12 may involve interactions with a number of partner proteins, and a few proteins that interact with FKBP12 in the absence of FK506 or rapamycin have been identified, including the ryanodine receptor, aspartokinase, and the type II TGF-beta receptor; however, none of these are conserved from yeast to humans. To identify other targets and functions of FKBP12, we have screened for mutations that are synthetically lethal with an FKBP12 mutation in yeast. We find that mutations in HMO1, which encodes a high mobility group 1/2 homolog, are synthetically lethal with mutations in the yeast FPR1 gene encoding FKBP12. Deltahmo1 and Deltafpr1 mutants share two phenotypes: an increased rate of plasmid loss and slow growth. In addition, Hmo1p and FKBP12 physically interact in FKBP12 affinity chromatography experiments, and two-hybrid experiments suggest that FKBP12 regulates Hmo1p-Hmo1p or Hmo1p-DNA interactions. Because HMG1/2 proteins are conserved from yeast to humans, our findings suggest that FKBP12-HMG1/2 interactions could represent the first conserved function of FKBP12 other than mediating FK506 and rapamycin actions. (+info)

Genetic analysis of viable Hsp90 alleles reveals a critical role in Drosophila spermatogenesis. (8/4035)

The Hsp90 chaperone protein maintains the activities of a remarkable variety of signal transducers, but its most critical functions in the context of the whole organism are unknown. Point mutations of Hsp83 (the Drosophila Hsp90 gene) obtained in two different screens are lethal as homozygotes. We report that eight transheterozygous mutant combinations produce viable adults. All exhibit the same developmental defects: sterile males and sterile or weakly fertile females. We also report that scratch, a previously identified male-sterile mutation, is an allele of Hsp82 with a P-element insertion in the intron that reduces expression. Thus, it is a simple reduction in Hsp90 function, rather than possible altered functions in the point mutants, that leads to male sterility. As shown by light and electron microscopy, all stages of spermatogenesis involving microtubule function are affected, from early mitotic divisions to later stages of sperm maturation, individualization, and motility. Aberrant microtubules are prominent in yeast cells carrying mutations in HSP82 (the yeast Hsp90 gene), confirming that Hsp90 function is connected to microtubule dynamics and that this connection is highly conserved. A small fraction of Hsp90 copurifies with taxol-stabilized microtubule proteins in Drosophila embryo extracts, but Hsp90 does not remain associated with microtubules through repeated temperature-induced assembly and disassembly reactions. If the spermatogenesis phenotypes are due to defects in microtubule dynamics, we suggest these are indirect, reflecting a role for Hsp90 in maintaining critical signal transduction pathways and microtubule effectors, rather than a direct role in the assembly and disassembly of microtubules themselves. (+info)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins are proteins that are produced by the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast is commonly used in the production of bread, beer, and wine, as well as in scientific research. In the medical field, S. cerevisiae proteins have been studied for their potential use in the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. Some S. cerevisiae proteins have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects, making them of interest for the development of new therapies.

Fungal proteins are proteins that are produced by fungi. They can be found in various forms, including extracellular proteins, secreted proteins, and intracellular proteins. Fungal proteins have a wide range of functions, including roles in metabolism, cell wall synthesis, and virulence. In the medical field, fungal proteins are of interest because some of them have potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of fungal infections or as vaccines against fungal diseases. Additionally, some fungal proteins have been shown to have anti-cancer properties, making them potential targets for the development of new cancer treatments.

DNA, Fungal refers to the genetic material of fungi, which is a type of eukaryotic microorganism that includes yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Fungal DNA is composed of four types of nucleotides: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G), which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code that determines the characteristics and functions of the fungus. In the medical field, fungal DNA is often studied in the context of infections caused by fungi, such as candidiasis, aspergillosis, and cryptococcosis. Fungal DNA can be detected in clinical samples, such as blood, sputum, or tissue, using molecular diagnostic techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or DNA sequencing. These tests can help diagnose fungal infections and guide treatment decisions. Additionally, fungal DNA can be used in research to study the evolution and diversity of fungi, as well as their interactions with other organisms and the environment.

In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.

In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a type of yeast that is commonly used in research to study basic cellular processes and genetics. Proteins produced by this yeast can be important tools in the medical field, as they can be used to study the function of specific genes and to develop new treatments for diseases. One example of a Schizosaccharomyces pombe protein that is of interest in the medical field is the protein called CDC48. This protein is involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the assembly and disassembly of cellular structures, and it has been implicated in the development of several diseases, including cancer. Researchers are studying CDC48 in order to better understand its role in these diseases and to develop new treatments based on this knowledge. Other Schizosaccharomyces pombe proteins that are of interest in the medical field include those involved in DNA repair, cell division, and signal transduction. These proteins can be used as tools to study the function of specific genes and to develop new treatments for diseases that are caused by defects in these genes.

RNA, Fungal refers to the ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that are produced by fungi. RNA is a type of nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in the expression of genes in cells. In fungi, RNA molecules are involved in various biological processes, including transcription, translation, and post-transcriptional modification of genes. RNA, Fungal can be further classified into different types, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Each type of RNA has a specific function in the cell and is involved in different stages of gene expression. In the medical field, RNA, Fungal is of interest because some fungi are pathogenic and can cause infections in humans and animals. Understanding the role of RNA in fungal biology can help researchers develop new strategies for treating fungal infections and for developing antifungal drugs. Additionally, RNA molecules from fungi have been used as targets for gene therapy and as diagnostic tools for fungal infections.

Cloning, molecular, in the medical field refers to the process of creating identical copies of a specific DNA sequence or gene. This is achieved through a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies a specific DNA sequence to produce multiple copies of it. Molecular cloning is commonly used in medical research to study the function of specific genes, to create genetically modified organisms for therapeutic purposes, and to develop new drugs and treatments. It is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their DNA. In the context of human cloning, molecular cloning is used to create identical copies of a specific gene or DNA sequence from one individual and insert it into the genome of another individual. This technique has been used to create transgenic animals, but human cloning is currently illegal in many countries due to ethical concerns.

Chromosomes, Artificial, Yeast refers to a type of artificial chromosome that has been created in the laboratory using genetic engineering techniques. These artificial chromosomes are typically derived from yeast cells and are used as a model system to study the function and behavior of chromosomes in living organisms. Artificial chromosomes are typically created by inserting a piece of DNA into a yeast cell, which then incorporates the foreign DNA into its own genome. The resulting yeast cells contain both the artificial chromosome and the yeast's own chromosomes, allowing researchers to study the behavior of the artificial chromosome in a living organism. Artificial chromosomes have a number of potential applications in the medical field, including the development of new treatments for genetic diseases. For example, researchers are exploring the use of artificial chromosomes to deliver therapeutic genes to cells in the body, potentially providing a new approach to treating genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia.

Chromosomes, fungal, refer to the structures within the cells of fungi that contain genetic information in the form of DNA. Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. Like all living organisms, fungi have chromosomes that carry the genetic information necessary for their growth, development, and reproduction. In fungi, the chromosomes are typically linear and contain both coding and non-coding regions. The coding regions contain the instructions for making proteins, while the non-coding regions play various roles in regulating gene expression and maintaining chromosome structure. The number and structure of fungal chromosomes can vary widely among different species. Some fungi have a single large chromosome, while others have multiple smaller chromosomes. In some cases, fungi can undergo chromosomal rearrangements, such as duplications, deletions, or translocations, which can affect their genetic makeup and contribute to their evolution. Understanding the structure and function of fungal chromosomes is important for various fields, including genetics, molecular biology, and medicine. For example, researchers studying fungal infections may investigate the role of specific genes or chromosomal regions in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Additionally, understanding the genetic diversity of fungi can inform efforts to develop new treatments or control strategies for fungal infections or other fungal-related problems.

In the medical field, "Killer Factors, Yeast" refers to the production of toxic substances by certain types of yeast that can cause harm to the host organism. These toxic substances are known as killer factors and are produced by some strains of yeast, such as Candida albicans, which is a common cause of yeast infections in humans. Killer factors produced by yeast can have a variety of effects on the host organism, depending on the type and concentration of the factor. Some killer factors can cause damage to the host's cells and tissues, while others can interfere with the host's immune system and make it more susceptible to infection. In some cases, killer factors produced by yeast can also be harmful to other microorganisms, such as bacteria, which can make yeast infections more difficult to treat. Understanding the production and effects of killer factors by yeast is important for the development of effective treatments for yeast infections and other conditions caused by yeast overgrowth.

Recombinant fusion proteins are proteins that are produced by combining two or more genes in a single molecule. These proteins are typically created using genetic engineering techniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to insert one or more genes into a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, which then produces the fusion protein. Fusion proteins are often used in medical research and drug development because they can have unique properties that are not present in the individual proteins that make up the fusion. For example, a fusion protein might be designed to have increased stability, improved solubility, or enhanced targeting to specific cells or tissues. Recombinant fusion proteins have a wide range of applications in medicine, including as therapeutic agents, diagnostic tools, and research reagents. Some examples of recombinant fusion proteins used in medicine include antibodies, growth factors, and cytokines.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and controlling the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA. They play a crucial role in the development and function of cells and tissues in the body. In the medical field, transcription factors are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where their activity is often dysregulated. For example, some transcription factors are overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and inhibiting their activity may help to slow or stop the growth of these cells. Transcription factors are also important in the development of stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. By understanding how transcription factors regulate gene expression in stem cells, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Overall, transcription factors are a critical component of gene regulation and have important implications for the development and treatment of many diseases.

DNA-binding proteins are a class of proteins that interact with DNA molecules to regulate gene expression. These proteins recognize specific DNA sequences and bind to them, thereby affecting the transcription of genes into messenger RNA (mRNA) and ultimately the production of proteins. DNA-binding proteins play a crucial role in many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and development. They can act as activators or repressors of gene expression, depending on the specific DNA sequence they bind to and the cellular context in which they are expressed. Examples of DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors, histones, and non-histone chromosomal proteins. Transcription factors are proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the transcription of genes by recruiting RNA polymerase and other factors to the promoter region of a gene. Histones are proteins that package DNA into chromatin, and non-histone chromosomal proteins help to organize and regulate chromatin structure. DNA-binding proteins are important targets for drug discovery and development, as they play a central role in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases.

Cell cycle proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle. The cell cycle is a series of events that a cell goes through in order to divide and produce two daughter cells. It consists of four main phases: G1 (Gap 1), S (Synthesis), G2 (Gap 2), and M (Mitosis). Cell cycle proteins are involved in regulating the progression of each phase of the cell cycle, ensuring that the cell divides correctly and that the daughter cells have the correct number of chromosomes. Some of the key cell cycle proteins include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), and checkpoint proteins. Cyclins are proteins that are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. They bind to CDKs, which are enzymes that regulate cell cycle progression by phosphorylating target proteins. The activity of CDKs is tightly regulated by cyclins, ensuring that the cell cycle progresses in a controlled manner. Checkpoint proteins are proteins that monitor the cell cycle and ensure that the cell does not proceed to the next phase until all the necessary conditions are met. If any errors are detected, checkpoint proteins can halt the cell cycle and activate repair mechanisms to correct the problem. Overall, cell cycle proteins play a critical role in maintaining the integrity of the cell cycle and ensuring that cells divide correctly. Disruptions in the regulation of cell cycle proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer.

Candida albicans is a type of yeast that is commonly found in small amounts in the human body, particularly in the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina. It is a normal inhabitant of the body and is usually harmless. However, in certain circumstances, Candida albicans can overgrow and cause an infection, known as a candidiasis. Candidiasis can occur in various parts of the body, including the mouth (oral thrush), throat (pharyngitis), esophagus (esophagitis), lungs (pneumonia), gut (gastritis), and vagina (vaginitis). Symptoms of candidiasis can vary depending on the location of the infection, but may include itching, burning, redness, and white patches or discharge. Candidiasis can be treated with antifungal medications, which are available in various forms, including creams, ointments, tablets, and suppositories. In severe cases, intravenous antifungal therapy may be necessary. It is important to note that Candida albicans can become resistant to certain antifungal medications, so it is important to follow the prescribed treatment regimen and to complete the full course of medication.

In the medical field, binding sites refer to specific locations on the surface of a protein molecule where a ligand (a molecule that binds to the protein) can attach. These binding sites are often formed by a specific arrangement of amino acids within the protein, and they are critical for the protein's function. Binding sites can be found on a wide range of proteins, including enzymes, receptors, and transporters. When a ligand binds to a protein's binding site, it can cause a conformational change in the protein, which can alter its activity or function. For example, a hormone may bind to a receptor protein, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to a specific cellular response. Understanding the structure and function of binding sites is important in many areas of medicine, including drug discovery and development, as well as the study of diseases caused by mutations in proteins that affect their binding sites. By targeting specific binding sites on proteins, researchers can develop drugs that modulate protein activity and potentially treat a wide range of diseases.

Nuclear proteins are proteins that are found within the nucleus of a cell. The nucleus is the control center of the cell, where genetic material is stored and regulated. Nuclear proteins play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and gene regulation. There are many different types of nuclear proteins, each with its own specific function. Some nuclear proteins are involved in the structure and organization of the nucleus itself, while others are involved in the regulation of gene expression. Nuclear proteins can also interact with other proteins, DNA, and RNA molecules to carry out their functions. In the medical field, nuclear proteins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, where changes in the expression or function of nuclear proteins can contribute to the development and progression of the disease. Additionally, nuclear proteins are important targets for drug development, as they can be targeted to treat a variety of diseases.

In the medical field, carrier proteins are proteins that transport molecules across cell membranes or within cells. These proteins bind to specific molecules, such as hormones, nutrients, or waste products, and facilitate their movement across the membrane or within the cell. Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of molecules within cells and between cells. They are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including nutrient absorption, hormone regulation, and waste elimination. There are several types of carrier proteins, including facilitated diffusion carriers, active transport carriers, and ion channels. Each type of carrier protein has a specific function and mechanism of action. Understanding the role of carrier proteins in the body is important for diagnosing and treating various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, metabolic disorders, and neurological disorders.

Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by genetically engineering bacteria, yeast, or other organisms to express a specific gene. These proteins are typically used in medical research and drug development because they can be produced in large quantities and are often more pure and consistent than proteins that are extracted from natural sources. Recombinant proteins can be used for a variety of purposes in medicine, including as diagnostic tools, therapeutic agents, and research tools. For example, recombinant versions of human proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, and clotting factors are used to treat a variety of medical conditions. Recombinant proteins can also be used to study the function of specific genes and proteins, which can help researchers understand the underlying causes of diseases and develop new treatments.

Membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of substances across the membrane, as well as in cell signaling and communication. There are several types of membrane proteins, including integral membrane proteins, which span the entire membrane, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are only in contact with one or both sides of the membrane. Membrane proteins can be classified based on their function, such as transporters, receptors, channels, and enzymes. They are important for many physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and cell growth and division.

In the medical field, a conserved sequence refers to a segment of DNA or RNA that is highly similar or identical across different species or organisms. These sequences are often important for the function of the molecule, and their conservation suggests that they have been evolutionarily conserved for a long time. Conserved sequences can be found in a variety of contexts, including in coding regions of genes, in regulatory regions that control gene expression, and in non-coding regions that have important functional roles. They can also be used as markers for identifying related species or for studying the evolution of a particular gene or pathway. Conserved sequences are often studied using bioinformatics tools and techniques, such as sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. By identifying and analyzing conserved sequences, researchers can gain insights into the function and evolution of genes and other biological molecules.

DNA primers are short, single-stranded DNA molecules that are used in a variety of molecular biology techniques, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. They are designed to bind to specific regions of a DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of new DNA strands. In PCR, DNA primers are used to amplify specific regions of DNA by providing a starting point for the polymerase enzyme to begin synthesizing new DNA strands. The primers are complementary to the target DNA sequence, and are added to the reaction mixture along with the DNA template, nucleotides, and polymerase enzyme. The polymerase enzyme uses the primers as a template to synthesize new DNA strands, which are then extended by the addition of more nucleotides. This process is repeated multiple times, resulting in the amplification of the target DNA sequence. DNA primers are also used in DNA sequencing to identify the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. In this application, the primers are designed to bind to specific regions of the DNA molecule, and are used to initiate the synthesis of short DNA fragments. The fragments are then sequenced using a variety of techniques, such as Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing. Overall, DNA primers are an important tool in molecular biology, and are used in a wide range of applications to study and manipulate DNA.

Adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). These enzymes play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, muscle contraction, and ion transport. In the medical field, ATPases are often studied in relation to various diseases and conditions. For example, mutations in certain ATPase genes have been linked to inherited disorders such as myopathy and neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, ATPases are often targeted by drugs used to treat conditions such as heart failure, cancer, and autoimmune diseases. Overall, ATPases are essential enzymes that play a critical role in many cellular processes, and their dysfunction can have significant implications for human health.

In the medical field, culture media refers to a nutrient-rich substance used to support the growth and reproduction of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Culture media is typically used in diagnostic laboratories to isolate and identify microorganisms from clinical samples, such as blood, urine, or sputum. Culture media can be classified into two main types: solid and liquid. Solid media is usually a gel-like substance that allows microorganisms to grow in a three-dimensional matrix, while liquid media is a broth or solution that provides nutrients for microorganisms to grow in suspension. The composition of culture media varies depending on the type of microorganism being cultured and the specific needs of that organism. Culture media may contain a variety of nutrients, including amino acids, sugars, vitamins, and minerals, as well as antibiotics or other agents to inhibit the growth of unwanted microorganisms. Overall, culture media is an essential tool in the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, as it allows healthcare professionals to identify the specific microorganisms causing an infection and select the most appropriate treatment.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic material, or DNA. It is typically located in the center of the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus is responsible for regulating gene expression and controlling the cell's activities. It contains a dense, irregularly shaped mass of chromatin, which is made up of DNA and associated proteins. The nucleus also contains a small body called the nucleolus, which is responsible for producing ribosomes, the cellular structures that synthesize proteins.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

In the medical field, "DNA, Complementary" refers to the property of DNA molecules to pair up with each other in a specific way. Each strand of DNA has a unique sequence of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine), and the nucleotides on one strand can only pair up with specific nucleotides on the other strand in a complementary manner. For example, adenine (A) always pairs up with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always pairs up with cytosine (C). This complementary pairing is essential for DNA replication and transcription, as it ensures that the genetic information encoded in one strand of DNA can be accurately copied onto a new strand. The complementary nature of DNA also plays a crucial role in genetic engineering and biotechnology, as scientists can use complementary DNA strands to create specific genetic sequences or modify existing ones.

Vesicular transport proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the movement of molecules and ions across cell membranes. These proteins are responsible for the formation, transport, and fusion of vesicles, which are small, membrane-bound sacs that carry cargo within the cell. There are two main types of vesicular transport proteins: vesicle budding proteins and vesicle fusion proteins. Vesicle budding proteins are responsible for the formation of vesicles, while vesicle fusion proteins are responsible for the fusion of vesicles with their target membranes. Vesicular transport proteins are essential for many cellular processes, including the transport of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft, the transport of hormones and other signaling molecules, and the transport of nutrients and waste products within the cell. Mutations in vesicular transport proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including neurological disorders, lysosomal storage disorders, and certain types of cancer.

Protein kinases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to specific amino acid residues on proteins. This process, known as phosphorylation, can alter the activity, localization, or stability of the target protein, and is a key mechanism for regulating many cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and signaling pathways. Protein kinases are classified into different families based on their sequence, structure, and substrate specificity. Some of the major families of protein kinases include serine/threonine kinases, tyrosine kinases, and dual-specificity kinases. Each family has its own unique functions and roles in cellular signaling. In the medical field, protein kinases are important targets for the development of drugs for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Many cancer drugs target specific protein kinases that are overactive in cancer cells, while drugs for diabetes and cardiovascular disease often target kinases involved in glucose metabolism and blood vessel function, respectively.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, such as nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules, across cell membranes and through the body's various transport systems. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, which is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment. There are several mechanisms of biological transport, including passive transport, active transport, facilitated diffusion, and endocytosis. Passive transport occurs when molecules move down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Active transport, on the other hand, requires energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient. Facilitated diffusion involves the use of transport proteins to move molecules across the cell membrane. Endocytosis is a process by which cells take in molecules from the extracellular environment by engulfing them in vesicles. In the medical field, understanding the mechanisms of biological transport is important for understanding how drugs and other therapeutic agents are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted by the body. This knowledge can be used to design drugs that are more effective and have fewer side effects. It is also important for understanding how diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, affect the body's transport systems and how this can be targeted for treatment.

Antifungal agents are medications used to treat fungal infections. These infections can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, nails, hair, respiratory system, and gastrointestinal tract. Antifungal agents work by inhibiting the growth and reproduction of fungi, either by disrupting their cell walls or by interfering with their metabolism. There are several types of antifungal agents, including: 1. Azoles: These are the most commonly used antifungal agents and include fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole. They work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a vital component of fungal cell membranes. 2. Polyenes: These include amphotericin B and nystatin and work by disrupting the fungal cell membrane. 3. Echinocandins: These include caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin and work by inhibiting the synthesis of β-1,3-glucan, a component of the fungal cell wall. 4. Allylamines: This includes terbinafine and works by inhibiting the synthesis of squalene, a precursor to ergosterol. Antifungal agents are typically prescribed based on the type of fungal infection, the severity of the infection, and the patient's overall health. It is important to follow the prescribed dosage and duration of treatment to ensure effective treatment and prevent the development of drug-resistant fungal strains.

RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a type of RNA that is essential for protein synthesis in cells. It is a major component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for translating the genetic information stored in messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus of the cell and is composed of several distinct regions, including the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S subunits in eukaryotic cells, and the 16S and 23S subunits in prokaryotic cells. These subunits come together to form the ribosomal subunits, which then assemble into a complete ribosome. The rRNA molecules within the ribosome serve several important functions during protein synthesis. They provide a platform for the mRNA molecule to bind and serve as a template for the assembly of the ribosome's protein synthesis machinery. They also participate in the catalytic steps of protein synthesis, including the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids. In summary, RNA, Ribosomal (rRNA) is a critical component of ribosomes and plays a central role in the process of protein synthesis in cells.

RNA, Transfer (tRNA) is a type of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. It acts as an adapter molecule that carries specific amino acids to the ribosome, where they are assembled into proteins. Each tRNA molecule has a specific sequence of nucleotides that corresponds to a particular amino acid. The sequence of nucleotides is called the anticodon, and it is complementary to the codon on the messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that specifies the amino acid. During protein synthesis, the ribosome reads the codons on the mRNA molecule and matches them with the appropriate tRNA molecules carrying the corresponding amino acids. The tRNA molecules then transfer the amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain, which is assembled into a protein. In summary, tRNA is a critical component of the protein synthesis machinery and plays a vital role in translating the genetic information stored in DNA into functional proteins.

Cathepsin A is a protease enzyme that is found in the lysosomes of cells in the human body. It is involved in the degradation of proteins and peptides, and plays a role in the turnover of various cellular components, including extracellular matrix proteins, antibodies, and hormones. Cathepsin A is also involved in the processing of certain proteins that are involved in the immune response, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules. In the medical field, cathepsin A has been studied in relation to a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, cathepsin A has been shown to be upregulated in certain types of cancer, and may play a role in the progression of these diseases. Additionally, cathepsin A has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, and may contribute to the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates in the brain.

Repressor proteins are a class of proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and preventing the transcription of the associated gene. They are often involved in controlling the expression of genes that are involved in cellular processes such as metabolism, growth, and differentiation. Repressor proteins can be classified into two main types: transcriptional repressors and post-transcriptional repressors. Transcriptional repressors bind to specific DNA sequences near the promoter region of a gene, which prevents the binding of RNA polymerase and other transcription factors, thereby inhibiting the transcription of the gene. Post-transcriptional repressors, on the other hand, bind to the mRNA of a gene, which prevents its translation into protein or causes its degradation, thereby reducing the amount of protein produced. Repressor proteins play important roles in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and cellular response to environmental stimuli. They are also involved in the regulation of many diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic disorders.

Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases (PSTKs) are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and apoptosis. These enzymes phosphorylate specific amino acids, such as serine and threonine, on target proteins, thereby altering their activity, stability, or localization within the cell. PSTKs are involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of PSTKs is important for developing new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Green Fluorescent Proteins (GFPs) are a class of proteins that emit green light when excited by blue or ultraviolet light. They were first discovered in the jellyfish Aequorea victoria and have since been widely used as a tool in the field of molecular biology and bioimaging. In the medical field, GFPs are often used as a marker to track the movement and behavior of cells and proteins within living organisms. For example, scientists can insert a gene for GFP into a cell or organism, allowing them to visualize the cell or protein in real-time using a fluorescent microscope. This can be particularly useful in studying the development and function of cells, as well as in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. GFPs have also been used to develop biosensors, which can detect the presence of specific molecules or changes in cellular environment. For example, researchers have developed GFP-based sensors that can detect the presence of certain drugs or toxins, or changes in pH or calcium levels within cells. Overall, GFPs have become a valuable tool in the medical field, allowing researchers to study cellular processes and diseases in new and innovative ways.

In the medical field, alleles refer to the different forms of a gene that exist at a particular genetic locus (location) on a chromosome. Each gene has two alleles, one inherited from each parent. These alleles can be either dominant or recessive, and their combination determines the expression of the trait associated with that gene. For example, the gene for blood type has three alleles: A, B, and O. A person can inherit one or two copies of each allele, resulting in different blood types (A, B, AB, or O). The dominant allele is the one that is expressed when present in one copy, while the recessive allele is only expressed when present in two copies. Understanding the different alleles of a gene is important in medical genetics because it can help diagnose genetic disorders, predict disease risk, and guide treatment decisions. For example, mutations in certain alleles can cause genetic diseases such as sickle cell anemia or cystic fibrosis. By identifying the specific alleles involved in a genetic disorder, doctors can develop targeted therapies or genetic counseling to help affected individuals and their families.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are a class of proteins that interact with RNA molecules, either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus of cells. These proteins play important roles in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA stability, and RNA transport. In the medical field, RBPs are of particular interest because they have been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and viral infections. For example, some RBPs have been shown to regulate the expression of genes that are involved in cell proliferation and survival, and mutations in these proteins can contribute to the development of cancer. Other RBPs have been implicated in the regulation of RNA stability and turnover, and changes in the levels of these proteins can affect the stability of specific mRNAs and contribute to the development of neurological disorders. In addition, RBPs play important roles in the regulation of viral infections. Many viruses encode proteins that interact with host RBPs, and these interactions can affect the stability and translation of viral mRNAs, as well as the overall pathogenesis of the infection. Overall, RBPs are an important class of proteins that play critical roles in many cellular processes, and their dysfunction has been implicated in a number of diseases. As such, they are an active area of research in the medical field, with the potential to lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for a variety of diseases.

In the medical field, the cell wall is a rigid layer that surrounds the cell membrane of certain types of cells, such as plant cells and some bacteria. The cell wall provides structural support and protection to the cell, and helps to maintain its shape and integrity. It is composed of various polysaccharides, proteins, and other molecules, and is essential for the survival and function of these types of cells. In some cases, the cell wall may also play a role in cell division and communication with other cells.

Proton-translocating ATPases are a group of enzymes that use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons across a membrane. These enzymes are found in various cellular compartments, including the inner mitochondrial membrane, the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, and the plasma membrane of bacteria. In the context of the medical field, proton-translocating ATPases are important because they play a crucial role in maintaining the proton gradient across cellular membranes. This gradient is essential for many cellular processes, including the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, the regulation of intracellular pH, and the transport of ions across cell membranes. Proton-translocating ATPases can be classified into two main types: primary and secondary. Primary proton pumps, such as the ATP synthase in mitochondria, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to directly pump protons across a membrane. Secondary proton pumps, such as the vacuolar ATPase in plant cells, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to pump protons indirectly by coupling the proton gradient to the transport of other ions or molecules. Disruptions in the function of proton-translocating ATPases can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including metabolic disorders, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. For example, mutations in the ATP synthase gene can cause Leigh syndrome, a rare inherited disorder that affects the brain and muscles. Similarly, disruptions in the function of the vacuolar ATPase can lead to a variety of diseases, including osteoporosis, cataracts, and cancer.

Ascomycota is a phylum of fungi that includes a diverse group of species, many of which are important in the medical field. Some species of Ascomycota are pathogenic and can cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants. For example, Aspergillus fumigatus is a common cause of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals, and Candida species are responsible for a range of infections, including candidiasis of the skin, mouth, and vagina. Other species of Ascomycota are used in medical applications, such as the production of antibiotics, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds. For example, Penicillium chrysogenum is the source of the antibiotic penicillin, and Aspergillus oryzae is used in the production of enzymes for food and industrial applications. In addition, some species of Ascomycota are used in bioremediation, the process of using living organisms to remove or degrade pollutants from the environment. For example, some species of Aspergillus and Penicillium are able to degrade a wide range of organic compounds, including hydrocarbons, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals. Overall, Ascomycota is an important group of fungi with a wide range of medical and industrial applications.

Chromosomal proteins, non-histone, are proteins that are not directly involved in the structure of chromatin but play important roles in various cellular processes related to chromosomes. These proteins are typically associated with specific regions of the chromosome and are involved in regulating gene expression, DNA replication, and DNA repair. Examples of non-histone chromosomal proteins include transcription factors, coactivators, and chromatin remodeling factors. Abnormalities in the expression or function of non-histone chromosomal proteins have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

In the medical field, macromolecular substances refer to large molecules that are composed of repeating units, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. These molecules are essential for many biological processes, including cell signaling, metabolism, and structural support. Macromolecular substances are typically composed of thousands or even millions of atoms, and they can range in size from a few nanometers to several micrometers. They are often found in the form of fibers, sheets, or other complex structures, and they can be found in a variety of biological tissues and fluids. Examples of macromolecular substances in the medical field include: - Proteins: These are large molecules composed of amino acids that are involved in a wide range of biological functions, including enzyme catalysis, structural support, and immune response. - Carbohydrates: These are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms that are involved in energy storage, cell signaling, and structural support. - Lipids: These are molecules composed of fatty acids and glycerol that are involved in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling. - Nucleic acids: These are molecules composed of nucleotides that are involved in genetic information storage and transfer. Macromolecular substances are important for many medical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and gene therapy. Understanding the structure and function of these molecules is essential for developing new treatments and therapies for a wide range of diseases and conditions.

In the medical field, a centromere is a specialized region of a chromosome that plays a crucial role in the proper segregation of genetic material during cell division. The centromere is responsible for attaching the two sister chromatids of a chromosome to each other and to the spindle fibers that pull them apart during mitosis or meiosis. During cell division, the centromere ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genetic material. If the centromere is not functioning properly, it can lead to chromosomal abnormalities, such as aneuploidy, which can cause a range of health problems, including birth defects, developmental disorders, and cancer. In addition to its role in cell division, the centromere is also involved in the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of chromosome stability. Understanding the function and structure of the centromere is important for understanding the mechanisms of cell division and the development of diseases related to chromosomal abnormalities.

In the medical field, cytoplasm refers to the gel-like substance that fills the cell membrane of a living cell. It is composed of various organelles, such as mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as various dissolved molecules, including proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The cytoplasm plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, including metabolism, protein synthesis, and cell division. It also serves as a site for various cellular activities, such as the movement of organelles within the cell and the transport of molecules across the cell membrane. In addition, the cytoplasm is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the cell and protecting it from external stressors, such as toxins and pathogens. Overall, the cytoplasm is a vital component of the cell and plays a critical role in its function and survival.

RNA precursors, also known as ribonucleotides or ribonucleosides, are the building blocks of RNA molecules. They are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar (ribose), and a phosphate group. In the medical field, RNA precursors are important because they are the starting point for the synthesis of RNA molecules, which play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including protein synthesis, gene expression, and regulation of cellular metabolism. RNA precursors can be synthesized in the cell from nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. They can also be obtained from dietary sources, such as nucleotides found in meat, fish, and dairy products. Deficiencies in RNA precursors can lead to various health problems, including anemia, fatigue, and impaired immune function. In some cases, supplementation with RNA precursors may be recommended to treat or prevent these conditions.

The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin, flexible barrier that surrounds and encloses the cell. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer, which consists of two layers of phospholipid molecules arranged tail-to-tail. The hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids face inward, while the hydrophilic heads face outward, forming a barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. The cell membrane also contains various proteins, including channels, receptors, and transporters, which allow the cell to communicate with its environment and regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell. In addition, the cell membrane is studded with cholesterol molecules, which help to maintain the fluidity and stability of the membrane. The cell membrane plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and function of the cell, and it is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and cell division.

DNA, ribosomal, refers to the specific type of DNA found within ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is transcribed into ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which then forms the core of the ribosome. The rRNA molecules are essential for the assembly and function of the ribosome, and the rDNA sequences that code for these molecules are highly conserved across different species. Mutations in rDNA can lead to defects in ribosome function and can be associated with various medical conditions, including some forms of cancer and inherited disorders.

Chromatin is a complex of DNA, RNA, and proteins that makes up the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. It plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and maintaining the structure of the genome. In the medical field, chromatin is studied in relation to various diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions. For example, chromatin remodeling is a process that can alter the structure of chromatin and affect gene expression, and it has been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer. Additionally, chromatin-based therapies are being explored as potential treatments for diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It is composed of four types of nitrogen-containing molecules called nucleotides, which are arranged in a specific sequence to form the genetic code. In the medical field, DNA is often studied as a tool for understanding and diagnosing genetic disorders. Genetic disorders are caused by changes in the DNA sequence that can affect the function of genes, leading to a variety of health problems. By analyzing DNA, doctors and researchers can identify specific genetic mutations that may be responsible for a particular disorder, and develop targeted treatments or therapies to address the underlying cause of the condition. DNA is also used in forensic science to identify individuals based on their unique genetic fingerprint. This is because each person's DNA sequence is unique, and can be used to distinguish one individual from another. DNA analysis is also used in criminal investigations to help solve crimes by linking DNA evidence to suspects or victims.

Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant species that is widely used as a model organism in the field of plant biology. It is a member of the mustard family and is native to Europe and Asia. Arabidopsis is known for its rapid growth and short life cycle, which makes it an ideal model organism for studying plant development, genetics, and molecular biology. In the medical field, Arabidopsis is used to study a variety of biological processes, including plant growth and development, gene expression, and signaling pathways. Researchers use Arabidopsis to study the genetic basis of plant diseases, such as viral infections and bacterial blight, and to develop new strategies for crop improvement. Additionally, Arabidopsis is used to study the effects of environmental factors, such as light and temperature, on plant growth and development. Overall, Arabidopsis is a valuable tool for advancing our understanding of plant biology and has important implications for agriculture and medicine.

In the medical field, amino acid motifs refer to specific sequences of amino acids that are commonly found in proteins. These motifs can play important roles in protein function, such as binding to other molecules, catalyzing chemical reactions, or stabilizing the protein structure. Amino acid motifs can also be used as diagnostic or prognostic markers for certain diseases, as changes in the amino acid sequence of a protein can be associated with the development or progression of a particular condition. Additionally, amino acid motifs can be targeted by drugs or other therapeutic agents to modulate protein function and treat disease.

Mitochondrial proteins are proteins that are encoded by genes located in the mitochondrial genome and are synthesized within the mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including energy production, cell growth and division, and regulation of the cell cycle. Mitochondrial proteins are essential for the proper functioning of the mitochondria, which are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell. Mutations in mitochondrial proteins can lead to a variety of inherited disorders, including mitochondrial diseases, which can affect multiple organ systems and cause a range of symptoms, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and neurological problems.

Multiprotein complexes are groups of two or more proteins that interact with each other to form a functional unit in the cell. These complexes can be involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including signal transduction, gene expression, metabolism, and protein synthesis. Multiprotein complexes can be transient, meaning they assemble and disassemble rapidly in response to changes in the cellular environment, or they can be stable and persist for longer periods of time. Some examples of well-known multiprotein complexes include the proteasome, the ribosome, and the spliceosome. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of multiprotein complexes is important for understanding how cells work and how diseases can arise. For example, mutations in genes encoding proteins that make up multiprotein complexes can lead to the formation of dysfunctional complexes that contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic disorders. Additionally, drugs that target specific components of multiprotein complexes are being developed as potential treatments for these diseases.

In the medical field, a protein subunit refers to a smaller, functional unit of a larger protein complex. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and these chains can fold into complex three-dimensional structures that perform a wide range of functions in the body. Protein subunits are often formed when two or more protein chains come together to form a larger complex. These subunits can be identical or different, and they can interact with each other in various ways to perform specific functions. For example, the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells, is made up of four subunits: two alpha chains and two beta chains. Each of these subunits has a specific structure and function, and they work together to form a functional hemoglobin molecule. In the medical field, understanding the structure and function of protein subunits is important for developing treatments for a wide range of diseases and conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases.

Ribosomal proteins are a group of proteins that are essential components of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes are composed of both ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and ribosomal proteins, and together they form the machinery that translates messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. There are over 80 different types of ribosomal proteins, each with a specific function within the ribosome. Some ribosomal proteins are located in the ribosome's core, where they help to stabilize the structure of the ribosome and facilitate the binding of mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA). Other ribosomal proteins are located on the surface of the ribosome, where they play a role in the catalytic activity of the ribosome during protein synthesis. In the medical field, ribosomal proteins are of interest because they are involved in a number of important biological processes, including cell growth, division, and differentiation. Abnormalities in the expression or function of ribosomal proteins have been linked to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. As such, ribosomal proteins are the subject of ongoing research in the fields of molecular biology, genetics, and medicine.

RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the process of transcription, which is the first step in gene expression. It is responsible for synthesizing messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template, which is then used by ribosomes to produce proteins. In the medical field, RNA Polymerase II is of great interest because it is involved in the expression of many genes that are important for normal cellular function. Mutations or defects in the genes that encode RNA Polymerase II or its associated proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including some forms of cancer, neurological disorders, and developmental disorders. RNA Polymerase II is also a target for drugs that are designed to treat these diseases. For example, some drugs work by inhibiting the activity of RNA Polymerase II, while others work by modulating the expression of genes that are regulated by this enzyme.

In the medical field, peptides are short chains of amino acids that are linked together by peptide bonds. They are typically composed of 2-50 amino acids and can be found in a variety of biological molecules, including hormones, neurotransmitters, and enzymes. Peptides play important roles in many physiological processes, including growth and development, immune function, and metabolism. They can also be used as therapeutic agents to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. In the pharmaceutical industry, peptides are often synthesized using chemical methods and are used as drugs or as components of drugs. They can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the specific peptide and the condition being treated.

Galactose is a simple sugar that is a component of the disaccharide lactose, which is found in milk and other dairy products. In the medical field, galactose is often studied in relation to its role in the metabolism of carbohydrates and its potential health effects. Galactose is a monosaccharide, which means that it is a single unit of sugar. It is a reducing sugar, which means that it can undergo a chemical reaction called oxidation that can be used to identify it. In the body, galactose is broken down and converted into glucose, which is used for energy. However, if galactose is not properly metabolized, it can build up in the blood and cause a condition called galactosemia. Galactosemia is a rare genetic disorder that occurs when the body is unable to properly break down galactose, leading to a buildup of galactose in the blood and other tissues. Galactose is also used in the production of certain foods and beverages, such as yogurt and some types of soft drinks. It is also used in the production of certain medications and other chemicals.

Histones are proteins that play a crucial role in the structure and function of DNA in cells. They are small, positively charged proteins that help to package and organize DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. Histones are found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and are essential for the proper functioning of genes. There are five main types of histones: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. Each type of histone has a specific role in the packaging and organization of DNA. For example, H3 and H4 are the most abundant histones and are responsible for the formation of nucleosomes, which are the basic unit of chromatin. H1 is a linker histone that helps to compact chromatin into a more condensed structure. In the medical field, histones have been studied in relation to various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. For example, changes in the levels or modifications of histones have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and prostate cancer. Additionally, histones have been shown to play a role in the regulation of gene expression, which is important for the proper functioning of cells.

Molecular chaperones are a class of proteins that assist in the folding, assembly, and transport of other proteins within cells. They play a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and preventing the accumulation of misfolded or aggregated proteins, which can lead to various diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and certain types of infections. Molecular chaperones function by binding to nascent or partially folded proteins, preventing them from aggregating and promoting their proper folding. They also assist in the assembly of multi-subunit proteins, such as enzymes and ion channels, by ensuring that the individual subunits are correctly folded and assembled into a functional complex. There are several types of molecular chaperones, including heat shock proteins (HSPs), chaperonins, and small heat shock proteins (sHSPs). HSPs are induced in response to cellular stress, such as heat shock or oxidative stress, and are involved in the refolding of misfolded proteins. Chaperonins, on the other hand, are found in the cytosol and the endoplasmic reticulum and are involved in the folding of large, complex proteins. sHSPs are found in the cytosol and are involved in the stabilization of unfolded proteins and preventing their aggregation. Overall, molecular chaperones play a critical role in maintaining protein homeostasis within cells and are an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies for various diseases.

Vacuolar proton-translocating ATPases (V-ATPases) are a family of ATP-dependent proton pumps that are found in the membranes of various organelles in eukaryotic cells, including the vacuoles, lysosomes, endosomes, and plasma membrane. These pumps are responsible for maintaining the acidic environment inside these organelles, which is essential for various cellular processes such as protein degradation, nutrient absorption, and immune response. V-ATPases consist of a complex of 14-16 subunits, including a catalytic subunit (V1) and a proton-translocating subunit (V0). The V1 subunit contains the ATPase activity, while the V0 subunit forms a proton channel that allows protons to flow from the cytoplasm to the lumen of the organelle. The energy from ATP hydrolysis is used to pump protons against their concentration gradient, creating a proton gradient that can be used to drive various cellular processes. In the medical field, V-ATPases are of interest because they are involved in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and lysosomal storage diseases. For example, V-ATPases have been shown to be upregulated in many types of cancer, and inhibitors of V-ATPases have been shown to have anti-cancer activity. Additionally, V-ATPases are involved in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, and inhibitors of V-ATPases have been shown to have potential therapeutic benefits in these conditions.

Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of amino acids that play a crucial role in many biological processes in the human body. In the medical field, proteins are studied extensively as they are involved in a wide range of functions, including: 1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, such as digestion, metabolism, and energy production. 2. Hormones: Proteins that regulate various bodily functions, such as growth, development, and reproduction. 3. Antibodies: Proteins that help the immune system recognize and neutralize foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria. 4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across cell membranes, such as oxygen and nutrients. 5. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide support and shape to cells and tissues, such as collagen and elastin. Protein abnormalities can lead to various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of proteins is essential for developing effective treatments and therapies for these conditions.

Peptide Termination Factors are enzymes that play a crucial role in the process of protein synthesis. They are responsible for recognizing and cleaving the peptide bond between two amino acids at the end of a growing polypeptide chain, thereby terminating the chain and allowing it to fold into its correct three-dimensional structure. There are two main types of peptide termination factors: aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and peptidases. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are responsible for attaching the correct amino acid to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which is then used to synthesize a polypeptide chain. Peptidases, on the other hand, are responsible for cleaving the peptide bond between two amino acids at the end of the chain. In the medical field, peptide termination factors are important because they play a critical role in the regulation of protein synthesis and turnover. Mutations or deficiencies in these enzymes can lead to a variety of diseases, including certain types of cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic disorders. Understanding the function and regulation of peptide termination factors is therefore important for developing new treatments for these diseases.

Plant proteins are proteins that are derived from plants. They are an important source of dietary protein for many people and are a key component of a healthy diet. Plant proteins are found in a wide variety of plant-based foods, including legumes, nuts, seeds, grains, and vegetables. They are an important source of essential amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins and are necessary for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Plant proteins are also a good source of fiber, vitamins, and minerals, and are generally lower in saturated fat and cholesterol than animal-based proteins. In the medical field, plant proteins are often recommended as part of a healthy diet for people with certain medical conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure.

Actins are a family of globular, cytoskeletal proteins that are essential for the maintenance of cell shape and motility. They are found in all eukaryotic cells and are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell division, muscle contraction, and intracellular transport. Actins are composed of two globular domains, the N-terminal and C-terminal domains, which are connected by a flexible linker region. They are capable of polymerizing into long, filamentous structures called actin filaments, which are the main component of the cytoskeleton. Actin filaments are dynamic structures that can be rapidly assembled and disassembled in response to changes in the cellular environment. They are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the formation of cellular structures such as the cell membrane, the cytoplasmic cortex, and the contractile ring during cell division. In addition to their role in maintaining cell shape and motility, actins are also involved in a number of other cellular processes, including the regulation of cell signaling, the organization of the cytoplasm, and the movement of organelles within the cell.

Cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two or more daughter cells. This process is essential for the growth, development, and repair of tissues in the body. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells (non-reproductive cells) divide to produce two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for the growth and repair of tissues in the body. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process by which germ cells (reproductive cells) divide to produce four genetically diverse daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction. Abnormalities in cell division can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cancer. In cancer, cells divide uncontrollably and form tumors, which can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

Arabidopsis Proteins refer to proteins that are encoded by genes in the genome of the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis is a small flowering plant that is widely used as a model organism in plant biology research due to its small size, short life cycle, and ease of genetic manipulation. Arabidopsis proteins have been extensively studied in the medical field due to their potential applications in drug discovery, disease diagnosis, and treatment. For example, some Arabidopsis proteins have been found to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-viral properties, making them potential candidates for the development of new drugs. In addition, Arabidopsis proteins have been used as tools for studying human diseases. For instance, researchers have used Arabidopsis to study the molecular mechanisms underlying human diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease. Overall, Arabidopsis proteins have become an important resource for medical research due to their potential applications in drug discovery and disease research.

Luminescent proteins are a class of proteins that emit light when they are excited by a chemical or physical stimulus. These proteins are commonly used in the medical field for a variety of applications, including imaging and diagnostics. One of the most well-known examples of luminescent proteins is green fluorescent protein (GFP), which was first discovered in jellyfish in the 1960s. GFP has since been widely used as a fluorescent marker in biological research, allowing scientists to track the movement and behavior of specific cells and molecules within living organisms. Other luminescent proteins, such as luciferase and bioluminescent bacteria, are also used in medical research and diagnostics. Luciferase is an enzyme that catalyzes a chemical reaction that produces light, and it is often used in assays to measure the activity of specific genes or proteins. Bioluminescent bacteria, such as Vibrio fischeri, produce light through a chemical reaction that is triggered by the presence of certain compounds, and they are used in diagnostic tests to detect the presence of these compounds in biological samples. Overall, luminescent proteins have proven to be valuable tools in the medical field, allowing researchers to study biological processes in greater detail and develop new diagnostic tests and treatments for a wide range of diseases.

Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are a group of proteins that are produced in response to cellular stress, such as heat, oxidative stress, or exposure to toxins. They are also known as stress proteins or chaperones because they help to protect and stabilize other proteins in the cell. HSPs play a crucial role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and preventing the aggregation of misfolded proteins, which can lead to cell damage and death. They also play a role in the immune response, helping to present antigens to immune cells and modulating the activity of immune cells. In the medical field, HSPs are being studied for their potential as diagnostic and therapeutic targets in a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. They are also being investigated as potential biomarkers for disease progression and as targets for drug development.

Beta-galactosidase is an enzyme that is involved in the breakdown of lactose, a disaccharide sugar found in milk and other dairy products. It is produced by the lactase enzyme in the small intestine of most mammals, including humans, to help digest lactose. In the medical field, beta-galactosidase is used as a diagnostic tool to detect lactose intolerance, a condition in which the body is unable to produce enough lactase to digest lactose properly. A lactose tolerance test involves consuming a lactose solution and then measuring the amount of beta-galactosidase activity in the blood or breath. If the activity is low, it may indicate lactose intolerance. Beta-galactosidase is also used in research and biotechnology applications, such as in the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and in the development of new drugs and therapies.

In the medical field, nucleosomes are subunits of chromatin, which is the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up the chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. Each nucleosome is composed of a segment of DNA wrapped around a core of eight histone proteins, which are positively charged and help to compact the DNA. The DNA in nucleosomes is typically about 146 base pairs long, and the histone proteins are arranged in a specific way to form a repeating unit that is about 11 nm in diameter. Nucleosomes play an important role in regulating gene expression by controlling access to the DNA by other proteins.

Mycoses are a group of infections caused by fungi. They can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, hair, nails, respiratory system, and internal organs. Mycoses can be classified into superficial mycoses, which affect the skin and nails, and systemic mycoses, which can spread throughout the body and cause serious health problems. Superficial mycoses are usually mild and can be treated with antifungal creams, ointments, or powders. Examples of superficial mycoses include athlete's foot, ringworm, and jock itch. Systemic mycoses, on the other hand, are more severe and require stronger antifungal medications. Examples of systemic mycoses include candidiasis, aspergillosis, and cryptococcosis. Mycoses can be caused by different types of fungi, including dermatophytes, yeasts, and molds. They can be acquired through contact with contaminated surfaces or objects, inhaling fungal spores, or through weakened immune systems.

Ligases are enzymes that catalyze the formation of covalent bonds between two molecules, typically by joining together small molecules such as nucleotides, amino acids, or sugars. In the medical field, ligases play important roles in various biological processes, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation. One example of a ligase enzyme is DNA ligase, which is responsible for joining together the two strands of DNA during replication and repair. Another example is RNA ligase, which is involved in the formation of RNA molecules by joining together RNA nucleotides. Mutations or deficiencies in ligase enzymes can lead to various medical conditions, such as genetic disorders, cancer, and viral infections. For example, mutations in the DNA ligase gene can cause rare inherited disorders such as Cockayne syndrome and Xeroderma pigmentosum, which are characterized by sensitivity to sunlight and an increased risk of cancer. Similarly, mutations in the RNA ligase gene can lead to various forms of cancer, including breast cancer and leukemia.

Basidiomycota is a phylum of fungi that includes mushrooms, toadstools, and other types of fungi that produce a distinctive reproductive structure called a basidium. These fungi are important decomposers in many ecosystems and are also used in the production of food, medicine, and other products. In the medical field, Basidiomycota are of interest because some species can cause infections in humans and animals. These infections, known as mycoses, can range from superficial skin infections to more serious systemic infections that can be life-threatening. Some common examples of Basidiomycota that can cause infections include Cryptococcus neoformans, which can cause meningitis and other central nervous system infections, and Histoplasma capsulatum, which can cause histoplasmosis, a respiratory infection. In addition to causing infections, some species of Basidiomycota have potential medical applications. For example, certain species of mushrooms have been found to have anti-cancer properties, and some species of yeast in the Basidiomycota phylum are used in the production of bread, beer, and other fermented foods.

Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, also known as E2 enzymes, are a family of enzymes that play a crucial role in the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in the medical field. The UPS is a major pathway for the degradation of proteins in cells, and it is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, signal transduction, and protein quality control. E2 enzymes are responsible for transferring ubiquitin, a small protein that is covalently attached to target proteins, from an E1 enzyme to a target protein. This process is essential for the formation of polyubiquitin chains, which serve as a signal for the degradation of the target protein by the proteasome. In the medical field, the UPS is involved in the regulation of many diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Dysregulation of the UPS has been implicated in the development and progression of these diseases, and targeting the UPS has become an important strategy for the development of new therapies. E2 enzymes are therefore of great interest in the medical field, as they play a central role in the UPS and are involved in the regulation of many important cellular processes. Understanding the function and regulation of E2 enzymes is essential for developing new therapies for diseases that are associated with dysregulation of the UPS.

Chromosome segregation refers to the process by which chromosomes are separated and distributed equally between two daughter cells during cell division. This process is essential for the proper functioning of cells and the maintenance of genetic information. During cell division, the chromosomes replicate and condense into visible structures called bivalents. These bivalents then align at the metaphase plate, a plane equidistant from the two poles of the cell. At anaphase, the sister chromatids of each bivalent are pulled apart and move towards opposite poles of the cell by a mechanism called the mitotic spindle. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, and each pair consists of two identical copies, called homologous chromosomes. During meiosis, the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg cells), the homologous chromosomes are separated and distributed randomly between the two daughter cells, resulting in genetic diversity. Chromosome segregation errors can lead to genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, which is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. In some cases, chromosome segregation errors can also lead to cancer, as they can result in the accumulation of genetic mutations that promote uncontrolled cell growth.

DNA helicases are a class of enzymes that unwind or separate the two strands of DNA double helix, allowing access to the genetic information encoded within. They play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including DNA replication, DNA repair, and transcription. During DNA replication, helicases unwind the double-stranded DNA helix, creating a replication fork where new strands of DNA can be synthesized. In DNA repair, helicases are involved in unwinding damaged DNA to allow for the repair machinery to access and fix the damage. During transcription, helicases unwind the DNA double helix ahead of the RNA polymerase enzyme, allowing it to transcribe the genetic information into RNA. DNA helicases are a diverse group of enzymes, with different families and subfamilies having distinct functions and mechanisms of action. Some helicases are ATP-dependent, meaning they use the energy from ATP hydrolysis to unwind the DNA helix, while others are ATP-independent. Some helicases are also processive, meaning they can unwind the entire length of a DNA helix without dissociating from it, while others are non-processive and require the assistance of other proteins to unwind the DNA. In the medical field, DNA helicases are of interest for their potential as therapeutic targets in various diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, some viruses, such as HIV and herpes simplex virus, encode their own DNA helicases that are essential for their replication. Targeting these viral helicases with small molecules or antibodies could potentially be used to treat viral infections. Additionally, some DNA helicases have been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer, and targeting these enzymes may be a promising strategy for cancer therapy.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule that serves as the primary energy currency in living cells. It is composed of three phosphate groups attached to a ribose sugar and an adenine base. In the medical field, ATP is essential for many cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and the synthesis of macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. ATP is produced through cellular respiration, which involves the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to release energy that is stored in the bonds of ATP. Disruptions in ATP production or utilization can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and neurological disorders. In addition, ATP is often used as a diagnostic tool in medical testing, as levels of ATP can be measured in various bodily fluids and tissues to assess cellular health and function.

Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by the Candida species of yeast. It can affect various parts of the body, including the mouth, throat, esophagus, genitals, and skin. In the mouth and throat, candidiasis is commonly known as thrush and can cause white patches on the tongue, inner cheeks, and roof of the mouth. In the esophagus, it can cause a burning sensation during swallowing and difficulty swallowing. In the genitals, it can cause itching, burning, and white discharge. Candidiasis can be treated with antifungal medications, which are available in various forms such as creams, ointments, tablets, and suppositories. The choice of treatment depends on the location and severity of the infection. In some cases, candidiasis can recur, and long-term treatment may be necessary.

In the medical field, "trans-activators" refer to proteins or molecules that activate the transcription of a gene, which is the process by which the information in a gene is used to produce a functional product, such as a protein. Trans-activators can bind to specific DNA sequences near a gene and recruit other proteins, such as RNA polymerase, to initiate transcription. They can also modify the chromatin structure around a gene to make it more accessible to transcription machinery. Trans-activators play important roles in regulating gene expression and are involved in many biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

Silent Information Regulator Proteins (Sir Proteins) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression in yeast cells. These proteins are involved in the maintenance of chromatin structure and the regulation of transcriptional silencing at specific genomic loci. In yeast cells, Sir Proteins form a complex that binds to specific DNA sequences and recruits other proteins to silence the transcription of nearby genes. This process is important for the proper functioning of the yeast genome, as it helps to prevent the expression of genes that are not needed under certain conditions. Mutations in Sir Proteins can lead to a variety of phenotypes in yeast cells, including changes in gene expression, increased sensitivity to DNA damage, and defects in chromosome segregation. Sir Proteins have also been studied in the context of human diseases, as they are homologous to proteins that play a role in regulating gene expression in human cells.

DNA, Mitochondrial refers to the genetic material found within the mitochondria, which are small organelles found in the cells of most eukaryotic organisms. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is a small circular molecule that is separate from the nuclear DNA found in the cell nucleus. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited, meaning that a person inherits their mtDNA from their mother. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is diploid (contains two copies of each gene), mtDNA is haploid (contains only one copy of each gene). Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can lead to a variety of inherited disorders, including mitochondrial disorders, which are a group of conditions that affect the mitochondria and can cause a range of symptoms, including muscle weakness, fatigue, and neurological problems.

Blotting, Northern is a laboratory technique used to detect and quantify specific RNA molecules in a sample. It involves transferring RNA from a gel onto a membrane, which is then hybridized with a labeled complementary DNA probe. The probe binds to the specific RNA molecules on the membrane, allowing their detection and quantification through autoradiography or other imaging methods. Northern blotting is commonly used to study gene expression patterns in cells or tissues, and to compare the expression levels of different RNA molecules in different samples.

Acetyltransferases are a group of enzymes that transfer an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to other molecules, such as amino acids, lipids, and nucleotides. These enzymes play important roles in various biological processes, including energy metabolism, biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol, and regulation of gene expression. In the medical field, acetyltransferases are of particular interest because they are involved in the metabolism of drugs and toxins. For example, some drugs are metabolized by acetyltransferases, which can affect their efficacy and toxicity. Additionally, certain toxins can be activated by acetyltransferases, leading to toxic effects on the body. There are several types of acetyltransferases, including N-acetyltransferases (NATs), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). NATs are involved in the metabolism of drugs and toxins, while ACC is involved in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. AChE is an enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and is important for proper functioning of the nervous system.

In the medical field, "Receptors, Mating Factor" refers to a type of protein receptor found on the surface of certain cells in the body that are involved in the process of sexual reproduction. These receptors are responsible for recognizing and binding to mating factors, which are chemical signals released by potential mates that trigger the reproductive process. In humans, for example, the receptors for mating factors are found on the surface of sperm cells and are involved in the process of fertilization. When a sperm cell encounters a mating factor released by an egg cell, it binds to the receptor on the sperm cell surface, triggering a series of events that lead to the fusion of the sperm and egg cells and the formation of a new individual. The study of receptors, mating factors, and their role in reproduction is an important area of research in reproductive biology and has implications for understanding fertility, contraception, and the development of new treatments for reproductive disorders.

CDC28 Protein Kinase, S cerevisiae is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating cell cycle progression in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is activated during the G1 phase of the cell cycle and is responsible for initiating the transition from G1 to S phase. The activity of CDC28 is regulated by a number of factors, including cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases inhibitors, and other regulatory proteins. Mutations in the CDC28 gene can lead to defects in cell cycle regulation, which can result in a variety of cellular abnormalities and diseases, including cancer.

Mannosyltransferases are a group of enzymes that transfer mannose sugar molecules from a donor molecule to a receptor molecule. These enzymes play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of complex carbohydrates, such as glycoproteins and glycolipids, which are important components of cell membranes and play a variety of functions in the body. In the medical field, mannosyltransferases are of particular interest because they are involved in the formation of glycans, which are often altered in diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and infectious diseases. For example, changes in the expression or activity of specific mannosyltransferases have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, and targeting these enzymes has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy. Mannosyltransferases are also important in the immune system, where they play a role in the recognition and clearance of pathogens by immune cells. In addition, they are involved in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation, and in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Overall, mannosyltransferases are a diverse group of enzymes that play important roles in many biological processes, and their study is of great interest in the medical field.

Phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism. It is a key enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is the process by which cells convert glucose into energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). PGK catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG), a molecule that is produced during the earlier stages of glycolysis. This reaction generates 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), which is a key intermediate in the glycolytic pathway. PGK is found in all living cells and is essential for the production of ATP, which is the primary source of energy for cellular processes. In addition to its role in glycolysis, PGK has been implicated in a number of other cellular processes, including the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of red blood cell shape. In the medical field, PGK is sometimes used as a diagnostic marker for certain diseases, such as cancer and diabetes. Abnormal levels of PGK in the blood or other bodily fluids can be an indication of these conditions. Additionally, PGK is being studied as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer and heart disease.

Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that are involved in transmitting signals within cells. These molecules can be either proteins or peptides, and they play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins can be activated by a variety of stimuli, including hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. Once activated, they initiate a cascade of intracellular events that ultimately lead to a specific cellular response. There are many different types of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins, and they can be classified based on their structure, function, and the signaling pathway they are involved in. Some examples of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins include growth factors, cytokines, kinases, phosphatases, and G-proteins. In the medical field, understanding the role of intracellular signaling peptides and proteins is important for developing new treatments for a wide range of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is a type of nucleic acid that is involved in the process of protein synthesis in cells. It is composed of a chain of nucleotides, which are made up of a sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are three types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). In the medical field, RNA is often studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs and therapies. For example, some researchers are exploring the use of RNA interference (RNAi) to silence specific genes and treat diseases such as cancer and viral infections. Additionally, RNA is being studied as a potential biomarker for various diseases, as changes in the levels or structure of certain RNA molecules can indicate the presence of a particular condition.

Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division, following mitosis, in which the cytoplasm of a cell is divided into two daughter cells. During cytokinesis, a cleavage furrow forms in animal cells or a cell plate forms in plant cells, ultimately resulting in the physical separation of the two daughter cells. This process is essential for the growth and repair of tissues in multicellular organisms.

Glycoside hydrolases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates. These enzymes are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including digestion, metabolism, and signaling. In the medical field, glycoside hydrolases are often used as diagnostic tools to study carbohydrate metabolism and to develop new treatments for diseases related to carbohydrate metabolism, such as diabetes and obesity. They are also used in the production of biofuels and other industrial products.

Blotting, Western is a laboratory technique used to detect specific proteins in a sample by transferring proteins from a gel to a membrane and then incubating the membrane with a specific antibody that binds to the protein of interest. The antibody is then detected using an enzyme or fluorescent label, which produces a visible signal that can be quantified. This technique is commonly used in molecular biology and biochemistry to study protein expression, localization, and function. It is also used in medical research to diagnose diseases and monitor treatment responses.

Ubiquitin-Protein Ligase Complexes (UPCs) are multi-protein complexes that play a crucial role in the process of protein degradation in cells. These complexes are responsible for attaching small protein molecules called ubiquitin to specific target proteins, which marks them for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. UPCs are composed of several subunits, including E1, E2, and E3 enzymes, which work together to transfer ubiquitin from one enzyme to another and ultimately to the target protein. The E1 enzyme activates ubiquitin, while the E2 enzyme binds to it and transfers it to the E3 enzyme, which recognizes the target protein and facilitates its ubiquitination. UPCs are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and the regulation of protein levels. Dysregulation of UPCs has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of UPCs is an important area of research in the medical field.

Anaphase is a stage of cell division in which sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell. This stage occurs after prophase, during which the chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and before telophase, during which the chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms. Anaphase is a critical stage of mitosis and meiosis, as it ensures that each daughter cell receives an equal and complete set of genetic material. Any errors during anaphase can lead to chromosomal abnormalities and genetic disorders.

Amino acids are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. They are composed of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side chain (R group) that varies in size and structure. There are 20 different amino acids that are commonly found in proteins, each with a unique side chain that gives it distinct chemical and physical properties. In the medical field, amino acids are important for a variety of functions, including the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, and hormones. They are also involved in energy metabolism and the maintenance of healthy tissues. Deficiencies in certain amino acids can lead to a range of health problems, including muscle wasting, anemia, and neurological disorders. In some cases, amino acids may be prescribed as supplements to help treat these conditions or to support overall health and wellness.

In the medical field, "cdc42 GTP-binding protein, Saccharomyces cerevisiae" refers to a specific protein that plays a crucial role in cell division and cell polarity in the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This protein is a member of the Rho GTPase family, which are a group of small GTP-binding proteins that regulate various cellular processes, including cell migration, cytoskeletal organization, and vesicle trafficking. The cdc42 protein is involved in the formation of a complex called the "polarisome," which is responsible for establishing and maintaining cell polarity in yeast cells. This complex is composed of several proteins, including the cdc42 protein itself, as well as other proteins that interact with it to regulate its activity. Mutations in the CDC42 gene can lead to defects in cell division and polarity, which can have a range of effects on yeast cells, including abnormal growth and development, and impaired ability to respond to environmental cues. In addition, the CDC42 protein has been shown to play a role in the development of certain human diseases, including cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

Cation transport proteins are a group of proteins that are responsible for transporting positively charged ions, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of ions inside and outside of cells, which is essential for many cellular processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and the regulation of blood pressure. There are several types of cation transport proteins, including ion channels, ion pumps, and ion cotransporters. Ion channels are pore-forming proteins that allow ions to pass through the cell membrane in response to changes in voltage or other stimuli. Ion pumps are proteins that use energy from ATP to actively transport ions against their concentration gradient. Ion cotransporters are proteins that move two or more ions in the same direction, often in exchange for each other. Cation transport proteins can be found in many different types of cells and tissues throughout the body, and their dysfunction can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hypertension, heart disease, neurological disorders, and kidney disease.

In the medical field, nitrogen is a chemical element that is commonly used in various medical applications. Nitrogen is a non-metallic gas that is essential for life and is found in the air we breathe. It is also used in the production of various medical gases, such as nitrous oxide, which is used as an anesthetic during medical procedures. Nitrogen is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as nitrogen narcosis, which is a condition that occurs when a person breathes compressed air that contains high levels of nitrogen. Nitrogen narcosis can cause symptoms such as dizziness, confusion, and disorientation, and it is typically treated by reducing the amount of nitrogen in the air that the person is breathing. In addition, nitrogen is used in the production of various medical devices and equipment, such as medical imaging equipment and surgical instruments. It is also used in the production of certain medications, such as nitroglycerin, which is used to treat heart conditions. Overall, nitrogen plays an important role in the medical field and is used in a variety of medical applications.

In the medical field, "DNA, Recombinant" refers to a type of DNA that has been artificially synthesized or modified to contain specific genes or genetic sequences. This is achieved through a process called genetic engineering, which involves inserting foreign DNA into a host organism's genome. Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized the field of medicine, allowing scientists to create new drugs, vaccines, and other therapeutic agents. For example, recombinant DNA technology has been used to create insulin for the treatment of diabetes, human growth hormone for the treatment of growth disorders, and vaccines for a variety of infectious diseases. Recombinant DNA technology also has important applications in basic research, allowing scientists to study the function of specific genes and genetic sequences, and to investigate the mechanisms of diseases.

Electron Transport Complex IV, also known as cytochrome c oxidase, is a protein complex located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that plays a crucial role in cellular respiration. It is the final enzyme in the electron transport chain, which is responsible for generating ATP, the energy currency of the cell. During cellular respiration, electrons are passed through a series of protein complexes in the electron transport chain, releasing energy that is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This creates a proton gradient that is used to drive the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase. Electron Transport Complex IV is unique among the other electron transport chain complexes in that it not only pumps protons but also accepts electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to molecular oxygen, which is reduced to water. This process is the final step in the electron transport chain and is essential for the production of ATP. Disruptions in the function of Electron Transport Complex IV can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including mitochondrial disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and certain types of cancer.

Ubiquitins are small, highly conserved proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including protein degradation, signal transduction, and gene expression. In the medical field, ubiquitins are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. One of the key functions of ubiquitins is to mark proteins for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down and removes damaged or unnecessary proteins from the cell. This process is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and regulating the levels of specific proteins in the cell. In addition to their role in protein degradation, ubiquitins are also involved in a number of other cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and immune response. Dysregulation of ubiquitin-mediated processes has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, where it can contribute to the development and progression of tumors. Overall, ubiquitins are an important class of proteins that play a critical role in many cellular processes, and their dysfunction can have significant consequences for human health.

Cell compartmentation refers to the physical separation of different cellular components and organelles within a cell. This separation allows for the efficient functioning of various cellular processes and helps to maintain cellular homeostasis. Each organelle has a specific function and is compartmentalized to allow for the proper execution of that function. For example, the mitochondria are responsible for energy production and are located in the cytoplasm, while the nucleus contains the genetic material and is located in the center of the cell. Cell compartmentation also plays a role in the regulation of cellular processes. For example, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is responsible for protein synthesis and folding, and its compartmentalization allows for the proper processing and transport of proteins within the cell. Disruptions in cell compartmentation can lead to various diseases and disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic disorders, and cancer.

Cryptococcus neoformans is a type of fungus that can cause a serious infection in humans and animals. It is commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil and bird droppings, and can be inhaled into the lungs. The fungus can also cause infections in other parts of the body, such as the brain and spinal cord, and can be life-threatening if left untreated. Infections caused by Cryptococcus neoformans are typically treated with antifungal medications.

Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) are a group of proteins that bind to microtubules, which are important components of the cytoskeleton in cells. These proteins play a crucial role in regulating the dynamics of microtubules, including their assembly, disassembly, and stability. MAPs are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell division, intracellular transport, and the maintenance of cell shape. They can also play a role in the development of diseases such as cancer, where the abnormal regulation of microtubules and MAPs can contribute to the growth and spread of tumors. There are many different types of MAPs, each with its own specific functions and mechanisms of action. Some MAPs are involved in regulating the dynamics of microtubules, while others are involved in the transport of molecules along microtubules. Some MAPs are also involved in the organization and function of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for the proper segregation of chromosomes during cell division. Overall, MAPs are important regulators of microtubule dynamics and play a crucial role in many cellular processes. Understanding the function of these proteins is important for developing new treatments for diseases that are associated with abnormal microtubule regulation.

Blastomyces is a genus of fungi that can cause blastomycosis, a rare but serious fungal infection that affects the lungs and other organs in the body. Blastomycosis is most commonly found in North America, particularly in the Great Lakes region, the Mississippi River valley, and the Ohio River valley. The Blastomyces fungus is typically found in soil and decaying wood, and it can be inhaled into the lungs when the spores are released into the air. Once inside the body, the fungus can spread to other organs, including the skin, bones, and joints. Symptoms of blastomycosis can vary depending on the severity of the infection and which organs are affected. Common symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, fatigue, and night sweats. In severe cases, the infection can cause skin ulcers, joint pain and swelling, and even death if left untreated. Treatment for blastomycosis typically involves antifungal medications, such as itraconazole or ketoconazole. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove infected tissue or drain abscesses. Early diagnosis and treatment are important for a successful outcome.

In the medical field, a cell line refers to a group of cells that have been derived from a single parent cell and have the ability to divide and grow indefinitely in culture. These cells are typically grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the effects of drugs or investigating the underlying mechanisms of diseases. Cell lines are often derived from cancerous cells, as these cells tend to divide and grow more rapidly than normal cells. However, they can also be derived from normal cells, such as fibroblasts or epithelial cells. Cell lines are characterized by their unique genetic makeup, which can be used to identify them and compare them to other cell lines. Because cell lines can be grown in large quantities and are relatively easy to maintain, they are a valuable tool in medical research. They allow researchers to study the effects of drugs and other treatments on specific cell types, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of diseases at the cellular level.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are short chains of DNA or RNA that are synthesized in the laboratory. They are typically used as tools in molecular biology research, as well as in therapeutic applications such as gene therapy. ODNs can be designed to bind to specific DNA or RNA sequences, and can be used to modulate gene expression or to introduce genetic changes into cells. They can also be used as primers in PCR (polymerase chain reaction) to amplify specific DNA sequences. In the medical field, ODNs are being studied for their potential use in treating a variety of diseases, including cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. For example, ODNs can be used to silence specific genes that are involved in disease progression, or to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer cells.

DNA, ribosomal spacer refers to a region of non-coding DNA that is located between the 16S and 23S ribosomal RNA genes in the bacterial genome. This region is also known as the intergenic spacer (IGS) region. The length and sequence of the ribosomal spacer can vary among different bacterial species and strains, and it has been used as a molecular marker for bacterial identification and classification. In addition, the ribosomal spacer region can also contain genes that are involved in bacterial metabolism and pathogenesis.

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol that is commonly used in the medical field as a disinfectant and antiseptic. It is a clear, colorless liquid that is flammable and has a distinctive odor. Ethanol is effective at killing a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, and is often used to clean surfaces and equipment in healthcare settings to prevent the spread of infection. In addition to its use as a disinfectant, ethanol is also used as a solvent for medications and other substances, and as a fuel for medical devices such as inhalers and nebulizers. It is also used as a preservative in some medications and vaccines to prevent the growth of microorganisms. Ethanol can be toxic if consumed in large amounts, and can cause a range of symptoms including dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and even death. It is important to use ethanol and other disinfectants and antiseptics safely and according to the instructions provided, to avoid accidental exposure or injury.

Cytosol is the fluid inside the cytoplasm of a cell, which is the gel-like substance that fills the cell membrane. It is also known as the cytoplasmic matrix or cytosolic matrix. The cytosol is a complex mixture of water, ions, organic molecules, and various enzymes and other proteins that play important roles in cellular metabolism, signaling, and transport. It is the site of many cellular processes, including protein synthesis, energy production, and waste removal. The cytosol is also the site of many cellular organelles, such as the mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum, which are responsible for carrying out specific cellular functions.

Microfilament proteins are a type of cytoskeletal protein that make up the thinest filaments in the cytoskeleton of cells. They are composed of actin, a globular protein that polymerizes to form long, thin filaments. Microfilaments are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell shape maintenance, cell movement, and muscle contraction. They also play a role in the formation of cellular structures such as the contractile ring during cell division. In the medical field, microfilament proteins are important for understanding the function and behavior of cells, as well as for developing treatments for diseases that involve disruptions in the cytoskeleton.

Trehalose is a naturally occurring disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules joined by an alpha-1,1-glycosidic bond. It is found in many organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals, and serves as a protective agent against various stressors, such as dehydration, heat, cold, and oxidative stress. In the medical field, trehalose is used as a cryoprotectant to prevent ice crystal formation during cryopreservation of cells, tissues, and organs. It is also used as a stabilizer in various pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, and as a food additive to improve texture and shelf life of food products. Trehalose has been shown to have potential therapeutic applications in various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, and cardiovascular diseases, such as myocardial infarction. It has also been studied for its potential use in wound healing, cancer therapy, and as a treatment for radiation-induced damage.

Alcohol oxidoreductases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of alcohols. In the medical field, these enzymes are of particular interest because they play a key role in the metabolism of alcohol in the body. There are several different types of alcohol oxidoreductases, including alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). ADH is responsible for converting alcohol (ethanol) into acetaldehyde, a toxic substance that can cause a range of symptoms when present in high concentrations, including headache, nausea, and dizziness. ALDH is responsible for converting acetaldehyde into acetate, a non-toxic substance that can be further metabolized by the body. Alcohol oxidoreductases are found in a variety of tissues throughout the body, including the liver, brain, and lungs. In the liver, ADH and ALDH are particularly important for metabolizing alcohol, as this organ is responsible for processing a large amount of the alcohol that is consumed. Disruptions in the activity of alcohol oxidoreductases can lead to a range of health problems, including alcohol dependence, liver disease, and certain types of cancer. For example, individuals who are unable to effectively metabolize alcohol due to a deficiency in ADH or ALDH may be more susceptible to the negative effects of alcohol consumption, such as liver damage and addiction.

Nuclear pore complex proteins (NPCs) are a group of proteins that form the nuclear pore complex (NPC), a large protein complex that spans the nuclear envelope and serves as a gateway for the transport of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. NPCs are responsible for regulating the movement of macromolecules such as proteins, RNA, and ribonucleoprotein particles (RNPs) through the nuclear envelope. They are composed of multiple subunits, each with distinct functions, and are essential for maintaining the integrity of the nucleus and for the proper functioning of the cell. Mutations in NPC genes can lead to a group of rare genetic disorders known as nuclear pore complex disorders, which are characterized by a wide range of symptoms, including developmental delays, intellectual disability, and skeletal abnormalities.

GTP-binding proteins, also known as G proteins, are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in signal transduction in cells. They are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. G proteins are composed of three subunits: an alpha subunit, a beta subunit, and a gamma subunit. The alpha subunit is the one that binds to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), a molecule that is involved in regulating the activity of the protein. When GTP binds to the alpha subunit, it causes a conformational change in the protein, which in turn activates or inhibits downstream signaling pathways. G proteins are activated by a variety of extracellular signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors. Once activated, they can interact with other proteins in the cell, such as enzymes or ion channels, to transmit the signal and initiate a cellular response. G proteins are found in all eukaryotic cells and play a critical role in many physiological processes. They are also involved in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains the genetic material of the cell in the form of DNA. The nucleus is responsible for controlling the cell's activities, including protein synthesis, cell division, and gene expression. The cell nucleolus is a dense, non-membrane-bound structure located within the nucleus that is responsible for the synthesis of ribosomes, which are the cellular machinery responsible for protein synthesis. The nucleolus is composed of RNA and proteins and is often referred to as the "protein factory" of the cell. In addition to its role in ribosome synthesis, the nucleolus also plays a role in the regulation of cell growth and division, as well as in the maintenance of genomic stability. Abnormalities in the structure or function of the nucleolus can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and genetic diseases.

In the medical field, a multienzyme complex is a group of two or more enzymes that are physically and functionally linked together to form a single, larger enzyme complex. These complexes can work together to catalyze a series of sequential reactions, or they can work in parallel to carry out multiple reactions simultaneously. Multienzyme complexes are found in a variety of biological processes, including metabolism, DNA replication and repair, and signal transduction. They can be found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and they can be composed of enzymes from different cellular compartments. One example of a multienzyme complex is the 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, which is involved in the citric acid cycle and the metabolism of amino acids. This complex consists of three enzymes that work together to catalyze the conversion of 2-oxoglutarate to succinyl-CoA. Multienzyme complexes can have important implications for human health. For example, mutations in genes encoding enzymes in these complexes can lead to metabolic disorders, such as maple syrup urine disease and glutaric acidemia type II. Additionally, some drugs target specific enzymes in multienzyme complexes as a way to treat certain diseases, such as cancer.

The proteasome endopeptidase complex is a large protein complex found in the cells of all eukaryotic organisms. It is responsible for breaking down and recycling damaged or unnecessary proteins within the cell. The proteasome is composed of two main subunits: the 20S core particle, which contains the proteolytic active sites, and the 19S regulatory particle, which recognizes and unfolds target proteins for degradation. The proteasome plays a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis and is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, immune response, and protein quality control. Dysregulation of the proteasome has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Adaptor proteins, signal transducing are a class of proteins that play a crucial role in transmitting signals from the cell surface to the interior of the cell. These proteins are involved in various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Adaptor proteins function as molecular bridges that connect signaling receptors on the cell surface to downstream signaling molecules inside the cell. They are characterized by their ability to bind to both the receptor and the signaling molecule, allowing them to transmit the signal from the receptor to the signaling molecule. There are several types of adaptor proteins, including SH2 domain-containing adaptor proteins, phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain-containing adaptor proteins, and WW domain-containing adaptor proteins. These proteins are involved in a wide range of signaling pathways, including the insulin, growth factor, and cytokine signaling pathways. Disruptions in the function of adaptor proteins can lead to various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and immune disorders. Therefore, understanding the role of adaptor proteins in signal transduction is important for the development of new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

Endodeoxyribonucleases are a class of enzymes that cleave DNA strands by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotides. These enzymes are capable of cutting DNA at specific recognition sites, and are often used in molecular biology techniques such as restriction digestion, ligation, and cloning. In the medical field, endodeoxyribonucleases have potential applications in gene therapy, where they can be used to target and cleave specific DNA sequences, or in the treatment of genetic disorders, where they can be used to correct mutations in the genome.

In the medical field, cell polarity refers to the of a cell, which means that the cell has a distinct front and back, top and bottom, or other spatial orientation. This polarity is established through the differential distribution of proteins and other molecules within the cell, which creates distinct domains or compartments within the cell. Cell polarity is essential for many cellular processes, including cell migration, tissue development, and the proper functioning of organs. For example, in the developing embryo, cells must polarize in order to move and differentiate into specific cell types. In the adult body, cells must maintain their polarity in order to carry out their specialized functions, such as the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine or the secretion of hormones in the pancreas. Disruptions in cell polarity can lead to a variety of diseases and disorders, including cancer, developmental disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms that regulate cell polarity is an important area of research in the medical field.

Blotting, Southern is a laboratory technique used to detect specific DNA sequences in a sample. It is named after Edwin Southern, who developed the technique in the 1970s. The technique involves transferring DNA from a gel onto a membrane, such as nitrocellulose or nylon, and then using labeled probes to detect specific DNA sequences. The blotting process is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, genetic variation, and other aspects of DNA biology.

Cytoskeletal proteins are a diverse group of proteins that make up the internal framework of cells. They provide structural support and help maintain the shape of cells. The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of proteins: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Microfilaments are the thinnest of the three types of cytoskeletal proteins and are composed of actin filaments. They are involved in cell movement, cell division, and muscle contraction. Intermediate filaments are thicker than microfilaments and are composed of various proteins, including keratins, vimentin, and desmin. They provide mechanical strength to cells and help maintain cell shape. Microtubules are the thickest of the three types of cytoskeletal proteins and are composed of tubulin subunits. They play a crucial role in cell division, intracellular transport, and the maintenance of cell shape. Cytoskeletal proteins are essential for many cellular processes and are involved in a wide range of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and muscle diseases.

Ubiquitin-protein ligases, also known as E3 ligases, are a class of enzymes that play a crucial role in the process of protein degradation in cells. These enzymes are responsible for recognizing specific target proteins and tagging them with ubiquitin, a small protein that serves as a signal for degradation by the proteasome, a large protein complex that breaks down proteins in the cell. In the medical field, ubiquitin-protein ligases are of great interest because they are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA repair, and the regulation of immune responses. Dysregulation of these enzymes has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, some E3 ligases have been shown to play a role in the development of certain types of cancer by promoting the degradation of tumor suppressor proteins or by stabilizing oncogenic proteins. In addition, mutations in certain E3 ligases have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease. Overall, understanding the function and regulation of ubiquitin-protein ligases is an important area of research in the medical field, as it may lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies for a variety of diseases.

Chitin synthase is an enzyme that is responsible for synthesizing chitin, a polysaccharide that is a major component of the exoskeletons of arthropods, fungi, and some protozoa. In the medical field, chitin synthase has been studied as a potential target for the development of new drugs to treat a variety of diseases, including cancer, bacterial infections, and parasitic infections. Chitin synthase inhibitors have been shown to have anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, and anti-parasitic effects, and are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents. Additionally, chitin synthase has been used as a diagnostic marker for certain diseases, such as fungal infections and certain types of cancer.

Exoribonucleases are enzymes that degrade RNA molecules from the 3' end, moving towards the 5' end. They are involved in various cellular processes, including RNA degradation, RNA editing, and RNA processing. In the medical field, exoribonucleases have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of viral infections, cancer, and neurological disorders. For example, some exoribonucleases have been shown to selectively target and degrade viral RNA, which could be used to develop antiviral drugs. Additionally, exoribonucleases have been explored as potential targets for cancer therapy, as they are often upregulated in cancer cells and may play a role in promoting tumor growth.

RNA, Small Nuclear (snRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that is involved in the process of RNA splicing. RNA splicing is the process by which introns (non-coding sequences) are removed from pre-mRNA molecules and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNA molecules. snRNA molecules are located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and are part of a complex called the spliceosome, which carries out the process of RNA splicing. There are several different types of snRNA molecules, each of which has a specific role in the splicing process. snRNA molecules are also involved in other processes, such as the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of genome stability.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are enzymes that play a crucial role in protein synthesis. They are responsible for attaching the correct amino acid to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which is then used to synthesize proteins. There are 20 different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, one for each of the 20 different amino acids used in protein synthesis. Each enzyme is specific to a particular amino acid and recognizes its corresponding tRNA molecule through complementary base pairing. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are essential for the proper functioning of cells and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including growth, development, and repair. Mutations in these enzymes can lead to genetic disorders and diseases, such as certain forms of muscular dystrophy and neurodegenerative disorders.

HSP70 heat shock proteins are a family of proteins that are produced in response to cellular stress, such as heat, toxins, or infection. They are also known as heat shock proteins because they are upregulated in cells exposed to high temperatures. HSP70 proteins play a crucial role in the folding and refolding of other proteins in the cell. They act as molecular chaperones, helping to stabilize and fold newly synthesized proteins, as well as assisting in the refolding of misfolded proteins. This is important because misfolded proteins can aggregate and form toxic structures that can damage cells and contribute to the development of diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's. In addition to their role in protein folding, HSP70 proteins also play a role in the immune response. They can be recognized by the immune system as foreign antigens and can stimulate an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies and the activation of immune cells. Overall, HSP70 heat shock proteins are important for maintaining cellular homeostasis and protecting cells from damage. They are also of interest in the development of new therapies for a variety of diseases.

tRNA methyltransferases are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from a methyl donor molecule to specific nucleotides in transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. These enzymes play a critical role in the process of translation, which is the process by which the genetic information in messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to synthesize proteins. There are several different types of tRNA methyltransferases, each of which targets a specific nucleotide in the tRNA molecule. For example, some tRNA methyltransferases target the N6 position of adenosine residues, while others target the N1 position of cytosine residues. These modifications can affect the stability, folding, and function of the tRNA molecule, and can also influence the accuracy of protein synthesis. In the medical field, tRNA methyltransferases have been implicated in a number of different diseases and conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, mutations in certain tRNA methyltransferases have been associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and leukemia. Additionally, some studies have suggested that tRNA methyltransferases may play a role in the development of neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Lysine is an essential amino acid that is required for the growth and maintenance of tissues in the human body. It is one of the nine essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. Lysine plays a crucial role in the production of proteins, including enzymes, hormones, and antibodies. It is also involved in the absorption of calcium and the production of niacin, a B vitamin that is important for energy metabolism and the prevention of pellagra. In the medical field, lysine is used to treat and prevent various conditions, including: 1. Herpes simplex virus (HSV): Lysine supplements have been shown to reduce the frequency and severity of outbreaks of HSV-1 and HSV-2, which cause cold sores and genital herpes, respectively. 2. Cold sores: Lysine supplements can help reduce the frequency and severity of cold sore outbreaks by inhibiting the replication of the herpes simplex virus. 3. Depression: Lysine has been shown to increase levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, in the brain. 4. Hair loss: Lysine is important for the production of hair, and deficiency in lysine has been linked to hair loss. 5. Wound healing: Lysine is involved in the production of collagen, a protein that is important for wound healing. Overall, lysine is an important nutrient that plays a crucial role in many aspects of human health and is used in the treatment and prevention of various medical conditions.

Histone Acetyltransferases (HATs) are enzymes that add acetyl groups to the lysine residues of histone proteins. Histones are proteins that help package and organize DNA into chromatin, which is the complex structure that makes up chromosomes. By adding acetyl groups to histones, HATs can modify the structure of chromatin, making it more open and accessible to the enzymes that read and write DNA. This modification is thought to play a role in regulating gene expression, as it can affect the ability of transcription factors to bind to DNA and activate or repress genes. HATs are important regulators of many cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. In the medical field, HATs are being studied as potential targets for the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and inflammatory diseases.

Glycerol, also known as glycerin, is a simple sugar alcohol that is commonly used in the medical field as a lubricant, a moisturizer, and a preservative. It is a clear, odorless, and tasteless liquid that is derived from fats and oils. In the medical field, glycerol is used in a variety of applications, including: 1. As a lubricant: Glycerol is used as a lubricant in various medical procedures, such as colonoscopies, cystoscopies, and endoscopies, to reduce friction and discomfort. 2. As a moisturizer: Glycerol is used as a moisturizer in skin care products, such as lotions and creams, to hydrate and soothe dry, irritated skin. 3. As a preservative: Glycerol is used as a preservative in some medical products, such as eye drops and nasal sprays, to prevent the growth of bacteria and other microorganisms. 4. As an antifreeze: Glycerol is used as an antifreeze in some medical equipment, such as dialysis machines, to prevent the equipment from freezing during cold weather. Overall, glycerol is a safe and effective ingredient that is widely used in the medical field for a variety of purposes.

Carboxypeptidases are a group of enzymes that cleave peptide bonds at the C-terminus (the end) of amino acids in proteins or peptides. These enzymes are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the pancreas, liver, and kidneys, and play important roles in the metabolism of proteins and peptides. There are several different types of carboxypeptidases, each with its own specific substrate specificity and tissue distribution. For example, carboxypeptidase A is primarily found in the pancreas and is involved in the digestion of proteins, while carboxypeptidase B is found in the liver and kidneys and is involved in the metabolism of hormones and other signaling molecules. Carboxypeptidases are important for maintaining the proper balance of amino acids in the body and for regulating the activity of various signaling molecules. In some cases, defects in carboxypeptidase activity can lead to certain medical conditions, such as inherited disorders of protein metabolism or kidney disease.

In the medical field, a consensus sequence refers to a DNA or protein sequence that is widely accepted as the most accurate or representative of a particular group or species. This sequence is typically determined through a process of consensus building, in which multiple sequences are compared and the most frequently occurring nucleotides or amino acids are chosen to represent the consensus. Consensus sequences are often used in medical research and diagnostics as a reference for comparing and analyzing other sequences. For example, the human genome project used consensus sequences to identify and map the genes and other functional elements of the human genome. Consensus sequences are also used in the design of genetic markers and primers for PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and other molecular techniques. Consensus sequences can be derived from a variety of sources, including genomic databases, experimental data, and computational predictions. They are typically represented as a single sequence, but may also be represented as a multiple sequence alignment, which shows the similarities and differences between multiple sequences.

Hydroxyurea is a medication that is used to treat certain types of blood disorders, including sickle cell anemia and myelofibrosis. It works by slowing down the production of new blood cells in the bone marrow, which can help to reduce the number of abnormal red blood cells in the body and prevent them from getting stuck in small blood vessels. Hydroxyurea is usually taken by mouth in the form of tablets or capsules, and the dosage and frequency of administration will depend on the specific condition being treated and the individual patient's response to the medication. It is important to follow the instructions provided by your healthcare provider and to report any side effects or concerns to them right away.

Basic-Leucine Zipper Transcription Factors (bZIP) are a family of transcription factors that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and stress response. These transcription factors are characterized by the presence of a basic region and a leucine zipper domain, which allow them to interact with DNA and other proteins. The basic region of bZIP proteins contains a cluster of basic amino acids that can bind to DNA, while the leucine zipper domain is a stretch of amino acids that form a coiled-coil structure, allowing bZIP proteins to dimerize and bind to DNA as a pair. bZIP transcription factors regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences called cis-regulatory elements, which are located in the promoter or enhancer regions of target genes. Once bound to DNA, bZIP proteins can recruit other proteins, such as coactivators or corepressors, to modulate the activity of the transcription machinery and control gene expression. In the medical field, bZIP transcription factors have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, mutations in bZIP transcription factors have been identified in some types of cancer, and bZIP proteins have been shown to play a role in regulating the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Additionally, bZIP transcription factors have been implicated in the regulation of genes involved in insulin signaling and glucose metabolism, making them potential targets for the treatment of diabetes.

DNA restriction enzymes are a class of enzymes that are naturally produced by bacteria and archaea to protect their DNA from foreign invaders. These enzymes recognize specific sequences of DNA and cut the strands at specific points, creating a double-stranded break. This allows the bacteria or archaea to destroy the foreign DNA and prevent it from replicating within their cells. In the medical field, DNA restriction enzymes are commonly used in molecular biology techniques such as DNA cloning, genetic engineering, and DNA fingerprinting. They are also used in the diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases, as well as in the study of viral infections and cancer. By cutting DNA at specific sites, researchers can manipulate and analyze the genetic material to gain insights into the function and regulation of genes, and to develop new therapies for genetic diseases.

Chromosomes are structures found in the nucleus of cells that contain genetic information in the form of DNA. In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of a long strand of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones. Chromosomes play a critical role in the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next. During cell division, the chromosomes replicate and are distributed equally to the two daughter cells. This ensures that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information. In the medical field, chromosomes are studied in the context of genetic disorders. Abnormalities in chromosome number or structure can lead to a variety of genetic disorders, including Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome. Chromosome analysis is also used in cancer research to identify genetic changes that may be driving the growth of a tumor.

Glutathione transferase (GST) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the detoxification of various harmful substances in the body, including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens. It is a member of a large family of enzymes that are found in all living organisms and are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including metabolism, cell signaling, and immune response. In the medical field, GST is often studied in relation to various diseases and conditions, including cancer, liver disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. GST enzymes are also used as biomarkers for exposure to environmental toxins and as targets for the development of new drugs for the treatment of these conditions. Overall, GST is an important enzyme that helps to protect the body from harmful substances and plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Amino acid substitution is a genetic mutation that occurs when one amino acid is replaced by another in a protein. This can happen due to a change in the DNA sequence that codes for the protein. Amino acid substitutions can have a variety of effects on the function of the protein, depending on the specific amino acid that is replaced and the location of the substitution within the protein. In some cases, amino acid substitutions can lead to the production of a non-functional protein, which can result in a genetic disorder. In other cases, amino acid substitutions may have little or no effect on the function of the protein.

GTP phosphohydrolases are a family of enzymes that hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP) into guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). These enzymes play a crucial role in regulating various cellular processes, including signal transduction, protein synthesis, and cell division. In the medical field, GTP phosphohydrolases are of particular interest because they are involved in the regulation of many signaling pathways that are implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases. For example, the enzyme Rho GTPase activating protein (RhoGAP) is a GTP phosphohydrolase that regulates the activity of Rho GTPases, which are involved in cell migration, cytoskeletal organization, and cell proliferation. Mutations in RhoGAP have been implicated in several human cancers, including breast cancer and glioblastoma. Other examples of GTP phosphohydrolases that are of medical interest include the enzyme GTPase-activating protein (GAP) for heterotrimeric G proteins, which regulates the activity of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), and the enzyme dynamin, which is involved in endocytosis and autophagy. Mutations in these enzymes have been implicated in various diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In the medical field, a codon is a sequence of three nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil) that codes for a specific amino acid in a protein. There are 64 possible codons, and each one corresponds to one of the 20 amino acids used to build proteins. The sequence of codons in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids in the resulting protein, which ultimately determines the protein's structure and function. Mutations in a gene can change the codon sequence, which can lead to changes in the amino acid sequence and potentially affect the function of the protein.

Myosin type V is a type of motor protein that is involved in the movement of organelles and vesicles within cells. It is a member of the myosin family of proteins, which are responsible for muscle contraction and other cellular movements. Myosin type V is characterized by its long tail, which contains two ATPase domains and a coiled-coil region. This tail is used to bind to actin filaments and generate force for movement. Myosin type V is found in a variety of cell types, including neurons, muscle cells, and immune cells, and is involved in a number of cellular processes, including intracellular transport, cell division, and the formation of cell junctions.

RNA, Transfer, Amino Acyl refers to a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. It is also known as tRNA (transfer RNA) or aminoacyl-tRNA. tRNA molecules are responsible for bringing the correct amino acid to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Each tRNA molecule has a specific sequence of nucleotides that allows it to recognize and bind to a specific amino acid. The amino acid is then attached to the tRNA molecule through a process called aminoacylation, which involves the transfer of an amino acid from an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzyme to the tRNA molecule. During protein synthesis, the ribosome reads the sequence of codons on the messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule and matches each codon with the corresponding tRNA molecule carrying the correct amino acid. The ribosome then links the amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain, which eventually folds into a functional protein. In summary, RNA, Transfer, Amino Acyl refers to the tRNA molecules that play a critical role in protein synthesis by bringing the correct amino acids to the ribosome.

In the medical field, the term "carbon" typically refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 6, which is a vital component of all living organisms. Carbon is the building block of organic molecules, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for the structure and function of cells and tissues. In medicine, carbon is also used in various diagnostic and therapeutic applications. For example, carbon-13 (13C) is a stable isotope of carbon that is used in metabolic studies to investigate the function of enzymes and pathways in the body. Carbon-14 (14C) is a radioactive isotope of carbon that is used in radiocarbon dating to determine the age of organic materials, including human remains. Additionally, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas that is produced by the body during respiration and is exhaled. It is also used in medical applications, such as in carbon dioxide laser therapy, which uses the energy of CO2 lasers to treat various medical conditions, including skin disorders, tumors, and eye diseases.

Protein sorting signals are specific amino acid sequences within a protein that serve as instructions for directing the protein to its proper location within a cell or to a specific organelle within the cell. These signals are recognized by receptors or chaperones within the cell, which then guide the protein to its destination. Protein sorting signals are critical for proper protein function and localization within the cell, and defects in these signals can lead to a variety of diseases and disorders. Examples of protein sorting signals include the signal peptide, which directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion, and the nuclear localization signal, which directs proteins to the nucleus for gene regulation.

Aerobiosis is a type of respiration that occurs in the presence of oxygen. In the medical field, aerobiosis is the process by which cells in the body use oxygen to produce energy through a series of chemical reactions called cellular respiration. This process is essential for the survival of most living organisms, as it provides the energy needed for growth, repair, and other vital functions. During aerobiosis, glucose (a type of sugar) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary energy currency of the cell. Oxygen is required for this process to occur, as it acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, which is the final step in cellular respiration. Aerobic exercise, such as running or cycling, is a type of physical activity that relies on aerobiosis to produce energy. During aerobic exercise, the body uses oxygen to break down glucose and other nutrients, producing energy that can be used to power the muscles and other organs. Regular aerobic exercise has been shown to have numerous health benefits, including improved cardiovascular health, increased endurance, and weight loss.

RNA, Transfer, Phe refers to a specific type of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that carries the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) to the ribosome during protein synthesis. In the process of protein synthesis, the ribosome reads the genetic code in messenger RNA (mRNA) and uses it to assemble a chain of amino acids in the correct order to form a protein. Each amino acid is brought to the ribosome by a specific tRNA molecule, which recognizes the codon (a sequence of three nucleotides) on the mRNA that corresponds to that amino acid. RNA, Transfer, Phe is one of the many different types of tRNA molecules that exist in cells, and it plays a crucial role in ensuring that the correct amino acid is added to the growing protein chain at each step of the process.

Oxidoreductases are a class of enzymes that catalyze redox reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. These enzymes play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, energy production, and detoxification. In the medical field, oxidoreductases are often studied in relation to various diseases and conditions. For example, some oxidoreductases are involved in the metabolism of drugs and toxins, and changes in their activity can affect the efficacy and toxicity of these substances. Other oxidoreductases are involved in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause cellular damage and contribute to the development of diseases such as cancer and aging. Oxidoreductases are also important in the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases. For example, some oxidoreductases are used as markers of liver disease, and changes in their activity can indicate the severity of the disease. In addition, some oxidoreductases are targets for drugs used to treat diseases such as cancer and diabetes. Overall, oxidoreductases are a diverse and important class of enzymes that play a central role in many biological processes and are the subject of ongoing research in the medical field.

Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) are complexes of RNA molecules and proteins that play important roles in various biological processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, and RNA transport. In the medical field, RNPs are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, viral infections, and neurological disorders, as they can be involved in the pathogenesis of these conditions. For example, some viruses use RNPs to replicate their genetic material, and mutations in RNPs can lead to the development of certain types of cancer. Additionally, RNPs are being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these diseases.

Endopeptidases are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds within polypeptide chains, typically within the interior of the molecule. They are a type of protease, which are enzymes that break down proteins into smaller peptides or individual amino acids. Endopeptidases are involved in a variety of physiological processes, including the regulation of hormone levels, the breakdown of blood clots, and the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. They are also important in the immune response, where they help to degrade and remove damaged or infected cells. In the medical field, endopeptidases are often used as research tools to study protein function and as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory conditions.

Rab GTP-binding proteins are a family of small GTPases that play a crucial role in regulating intracellular membrane trafficking in eukaryotic cells. They are involved in the transport of vesicles between different organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and plasma membrane. Rab proteins cycle between an active, GTP-bound state and an inactive, GDP-bound state, which is regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). When bound to GTP, Rab proteins interact with effector proteins that mediate specific vesicle trafficking steps, such as vesicle tethering, docking, and fusion. Mutations in Rab proteins or their regulators have been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and immune system disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of Rab proteins is important for developing new therapeutic strategies for these diseases.

In the medical field, a catalytic domain is a region of a protein that is responsible for catalyzing a specific chemical reaction. Catalytic domains are often found in enzymes, which are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body. These domains are typically composed of a specific sequence of amino acids that form a three-dimensional structure that allows them to bind to specific substrates and catalyze their breakdown or synthesis. Catalytic domains are important for many biological processes, including metabolism, signal transduction, and gene expression. They are also the target of many drugs, which can be designed to interfere with the activity of specific catalytic domains in order to treat diseases.

Methyl Methanesulfonate (MMS) is a chemical compound that is used in various industries, including the medical field. In medicine, MMS is primarily used as a chemotherapy agent to treat certain types of cancer. It works by interfering with the growth and division of cancer cells, ultimately leading to their death. MMS is typically administered intravenously or orally, and its effectiveness depends on the type and stage of cancer being treated. However, it is important to note that MMS is a potent and toxic substance, and its use is closely monitored by medical professionals to minimize the risk of side effects and complications. In addition to its use as a chemotherapy agent, MMS has also been studied for its potential use in other medical applications, such as the treatment of viral infections and the prevention of certain types of cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of MMS in these contexts.

Chitin is a complex polysaccharide that is found in the exoskeletons of many invertebrates, including insects, crustaceans, and fungi. It is a strong, flexible, and lightweight material that provides structural support and protection to these organisms. In the medical field, chitin has been studied for its potential use in a variety of applications. For example, chitin-based materials have been explored as potential drug delivery systems, as they can be modified to release drugs slowly over time. Chitin has also been used to develop wound dressings and other medical devices, as it has antimicrobial properties and can help to promote tissue healing. In addition, chitin has been studied for its potential use in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as diabetes and obesity. Some research has suggested that chitin may help to regulate blood sugar levels and reduce body weight, although more research is needed to confirm these findings. Overall, chitin is a fascinating and versatile material that has many potential applications in the medical field.

Heterochromatin is a type of chromatin that is characterized by a darker staining intensity due to the presence of higher levels of the protein histone H3 that is methylated on lysine 9 (H3K9me). Heterochromatin is typically found in the centromeres and telomeres of chromosomes, as well as in regions of the genome that are not actively transcribed. In the medical field, heterochromatin is important because it plays a role in the regulation of gene expression and the maintenance of genomic stability. Abnormalities in heterochromatin structure or function have been linked to a number of diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and neurological disorders. For example, mutations in genes that are involved in the regulation of heterochromatin formation have been implicated in the development of certain types of cancer, such as breast cancer and prostate cancer. Additionally, changes in the structure or composition of heterochromatin have been observed in a number of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

In the medical field, acetylation refers to the process of adding an acetyl group (-COCH3) to a molecule. This can occur through the action of enzymes called acetyltransferases, which transfer the acetyl group from acetyl-CoA to other molecules. Acetylation is an important regulatory mechanism in many biological processes, including gene expression, metabolism, and signaling pathways. For example, acetylation of histone proteins can affect the packaging of DNA and regulate gene expression, while acetylation of enzymes can alter their activity and function. In some cases, acetylation can also be reversed through a process called deacetylation, which involves the removal of the acetyl group by enzymes called deacetylases. Dysregulation of acetylation and deacetylation processes has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic disorders.

Cyclin B is a protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the progression of the cell cycle, particularly during the M phase (mitosis). It is synthesized and degraded in a tightly regulated manner, with its levels increasing just before the onset of mitosis and decreasing afterwards. Cyclin B forms a complex with the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) 1, which is also known as Cdk1. This complex is responsible for phosphorylating various target proteins, including the nuclear envelope, kinetochores, and microtubules, which are essential for the proper progression of mitosis. Disruptions in the regulation of cyclin B and CDK1 activity can lead to various diseases, including cancer. For example, overexpression of cyclin B or mutations in CDK1 can result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and the development of tumors. Conversely, loss of cyclin B function can lead to cell cycle arrest and genomic instability, which can also contribute to cancer development.

Phosphoprotein phosphatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from phosphoproteins, which are proteins that have been modified by the addition of a phosphate group. These enzymes play a crucial role in regulating cellular signaling pathways by modulating the activity of phosphoproteins. There are several types of phosphoprotein phosphatases, including protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs), protein serine/threonine phosphatases (S/T phosphatases), and phosphatases that can dephosphorylate both tyrosine and serine/threonine residues. Phosphoprotein phosphatases are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell growth and division, metabolism, and immune response. Dysregulation of phosphoprotein phosphatase activity has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Sterols are a type of lipid molecule that are important in the human body. They are primarily found in cell membranes and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including cell signaling, membrane structure, and cholesterol metabolism. In the medical field, sterols are often studied in relation to their role in cardiovascular health. For example, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, which is rich in sterols, can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries and can lead to heart attack or stroke. On the other hand, high levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which is rich in sterols, are generally considered to be protective against cardiovascular disease. Sterols are also important in the production of sex hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, and in the regulation of the immune system. Some medications, such as statins, are used to lower cholesterol levels in the blood by inhibiting the production of sterols in the liver.

Methanol is a colorless, flammable liquid that is commonly used as a solvent in various industries, including the pharmaceutical industry. In the medical field, methanol is used as a chemical intermediate in the production of various drugs and as a solvent for various medications. It is also used as a denaturant for ethanol, which is used as a disinfectant and antiseptic. However, methanol is highly toxic and can cause serious health problems if ingested or inhaled in large quantities. Ingestion of methanol can lead to symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, and even blindness or death. Therefore, it is important to handle methanol with care and to follow proper safety protocols when working with this substance.

Endoribonucleases are a class of enzymes that cleave RNA molecules within their strands. They are involved in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, and degradation of unwanted or damaged RNA molecules. In the medical field, endoribonucleases have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications. For example, some endoribonucleases have been developed as gene therapy tools to target and degrade specific RNA molecules involved in diseases such as cancer, viral infections, and genetic disorders. Additionally, endoribonucleases have been used as research tools to study RNA biology and to develop new methods for RNA analysis and manipulation. For example, they can be used to selectively label or modify RNA molecules for visualization or manipulation in vitro or in vivo. Overall, endoribonucleases play important roles in RNA biology and have potential applications in both basic research and medical therapy.

GTPase-Activating Proteins (GAPs) are a family of enzymes that regulate the activity of small GTPases, which are a class of proteins that play important roles in cell signaling and regulation. GTPases cycle between an active, GTP-bound state and an inactive, GDP-bound state, and GAPs accelerate the rate of this cycling by promoting the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP. In the medical field, GAPs are of interest because many small GTPases are involved in cellular processes that are important for human health, such as cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. Mutations or dysregulation of small GTPases or their regulators, including GAPs, have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of GAPs and other small GTPases is an important area of research in medicine.

Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport (ESCRT) is a group of proteins involved in the sorting and recycling of cellular components, particularly in the endosomal pathway. The ESCRT machinery is responsible for the formation of vesicles that bud off from the endosome and deliver their contents to other cellular compartments or the plasma membrane for degradation or secretion. In the medical field, the ESCRT machinery plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and viral infections. For example, mutations in ESCRT components have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, such as breast and ovarian cancer. Additionally, the ESCRT machinery is involved in the assembly of viral particles, making it a potential target for antiviral therapies. Understanding the function and regulation of the ESCRT machinery is therefore important for the development of new treatments for these diseases.

In the medical field, the term "Cytochrome c Group" refers to a family of heme-containing proteins that are involved in electron transfer reactions in the mitochondria of cells. These proteins play a crucial role in the electron transport chain, which is responsible for generating ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Cytochrome c is a small, water-soluble protein that is released from the mitochondria during apoptosis, a programmed cell death process. The release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria is a key event in the initiation of apoptosis, and it has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular disease. Other members of the cytochrome c group include cytochrome b, cytochrome c1, and cytochrome oxidase. These proteins work together to transfer electrons from one molecule to another, ultimately leading to the reduction of oxygen to water. Any disruption in the function of these proteins can lead to a buildup of reactive oxygen species, which can damage cellular components and contribute to disease.

The cytoskeleton is a complex network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm of a cell. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the shape and structure of the cell, as well as facilitating various cellular processes such as cell division, movement, and intracellular transport. The cytoskeleton is composed of three main types of protein filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments and are involved in cell movement and muscle contraction. Intermediate filaments are slightly thicker than microfilaments and provide mechanical strength to the cell. Microtubules are the thickest filaments and serve as tracks for intracellular transport and as the structural framework for the cell. In addition to these three types of filaments, the cytoskeleton also includes various associated proteins and motor proteins that help to regulate and control the movement of the filaments. Overall, the cytoskeleton is a dynamic and essential component of the cell that plays a critical role in maintaining cellular structure and function.

Endonucleases are a class of enzymes that cleave DNA or RNA at specific sites within the molecule. They are important in various biological processes, including DNA replication, repair, and gene expression. In the medical field, endonucleases are used in a variety of applications, such as gene therapy, where they are used to target and modify specific genes, and in the treatment of genetic disorders, where they are used to correct mutations in DNA. They are also used in molecular biology research to manipulate and analyze DNA and RNA molecules.

Phenylalanine-tRNA ligase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is responsible for attaching the amino acid phenylalanine to its corresponding transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which is then used as a building block for the synthesis of proteins during translation. The enzyme catalyzes the formation of an ester bond between the amino acid phenylalanine and the 2' hydroxyl group of the terminal adenosine residue of the tRNA molecule. This reaction requires the presence of ATP and a divalent metal ion, such as magnesium. Phenylalanine-tRNA ligase is encoded by the FLL gene in humans and is located in the endoplasmic reticulum. Mutations in the FLL gene can lead to phenylketonuria (PKU), a genetic disorder characterized by the inability to metabolize phenylalanine, which can lead to brain damage and other health problems if left untreated.

Nucleotidyltransferases are a class of enzymes that transfer a nucleotide residue from a donor molecule to a specific acceptor molecule. These enzymes play a crucial role in various biological processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription, as well as RNA synthesis and modification. There are several subclasses of nucleotidyltransferases, including: 1. DNA polymerases: These enzymes synthesize new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing DNA chain. 2. DNA ligases: These enzymes join DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the 3' end of one strand and the 5' end of another. 3. RNA polymerases: These enzymes synthesize new RNA strands by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing RNA chain. 4. Cytidine deaminases: These enzymes convert cytidine to uridine in RNA, which is necessary for the proper functioning of many cellular processes. 5. Transferases: These enzymes transfer a nucleotide residue from one molecule to another, such as from a nucleotide donor to a nucleotide acceptor. Overall, nucleotidyltransferases are essential enzymes that play critical roles in various biological processes and are important targets for the development of new drugs and therapies.

Candidiasis, vulvovaginal, is a fungal infection that affects the vulva and vagina. It is caused by the overgrowth of the yeast Candida albicans, which is normally present in small amounts in the vagina. The infection is more common in women who are pregnant, have a weakened immune system, or are taking antibiotics or corticosteroids. Symptoms of vulvovaginal candidiasis include itching, burning, redness, and a thick, white discharge. Treatment typically involves the use of antifungal medications, such as creams or suppositories, applied to the affected area. In severe cases, oral antifungal medication may be prescribed.

In the medical field, the proteome refers to the complete set of proteins expressed by an organism, tissue, or cell type. It includes all the proteins that are present in a cell or organism, including those that are actively functioning and those that are not. The proteome is made up of the products of all the genes in an organism's genome, and it is dynamic, constantly changing in response to various factors such as environmental stimuli, developmental stage, and disease states. The study of the proteome is an important area of research in medicine, as it can provide insights into the function and regulation of cellular processes, as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying various diseases. Techniques such as mass spectrometry and proteomics analysis are used to identify and quantify the proteins present in a sample, allowing researchers to study changes in the proteome in response to different conditions. This information can be used to develop new diagnostic tools and treatments for diseases, as well as to better understand the underlying biology of various disorders.

Computational biology is an interdisciplinary field that combines computer science, mathematics, statistics, and molecular biology to study biological systems at the molecular and cellular level. In the medical field, computational biology is used to analyze large amounts of biological data, such as gene expression data, protein structures, and medical images, to gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of diseases and to develop new treatments. Some specific applications of computational biology in the medical field include: 1. Genomics: Computational biology is used to analyze large amounts of genomic data to identify genetic mutations that are associated with diseases, such as cancer, and to develop personalized treatments based on an individual's genetic makeup. 2. Drug discovery: Computational biology is used to predict the efficacy and toxicity of potential drug candidates, reducing the time and cost of drug development. 3. Medical imaging: Computational biology is used to analyze medical images, such as MRI and CT scans, to identify patterns and anomalies that may be indicative of disease. 4. Systems biology: Computational biology is used to study complex biological systems, such as the human immune system, to identify key regulatory mechanisms and to develop new therapeutic strategies. Overall, computational biology has the potential to revolutionize the medical field by enabling more accurate diagnoses, more effective treatments, and a deeper understanding of the underlying biology of diseases.

Xylose is a type of sugar that is found in the cell walls of plants. It is a monosaccharide, which means it is a simple sugar made up of one molecule of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In the medical field, xylose is sometimes used as a diagnostic tool to test for certain conditions, such as celiac disease or malabsorption syndromes. In these tests, a person is given a solution containing xylose and then their blood is tested to see how well their body is able to absorb it. If the body is not able to absorb xylose properly, it may be a sign of an underlying medical condition.

Drosophila proteins are proteins that are found in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which is a widely used model organism in genetics and molecular biology research. These proteins have been studied extensively because they share many similarities with human proteins, making them useful for understanding the function and regulation of human genes and proteins. In the medical field, Drosophila proteins are often used as a model for studying human diseases, particularly those that are caused by genetic mutations. By studying the effects of these mutations on Drosophila proteins, researchers can gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of these diseases and potentially identify new therapeutic targets. Drosophila proteins have also been used to study a wide range of biological processes, including development, aging, and neurobiology. For example, researchers have used Drosophila to study the role of specific genes and proteins in the development of the nervous system, as well as the mechanisms underlying age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Thiabendazole is an antihelminthic medication used to treat various types of parasitic infections, including pinworms, hookworms, roundworms, and whipworms. It works by interfering with the metabolism of the parasites, leading to their death. Thiabendazole is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and oral suspension. It is usually taken orally, with or without food, as directed by a healthcare provider. The dosage and duration of treatment depend on the type and severity of the infection. Thiabendazole is generally well-tolerated, but like all medications, it can cause side effects. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. More serious side effects are rare but can include allergic reactions, liver damage, and blood disorders. Thiabendazole is not recommended for use during pregnancy or breastfeeding, as it may harm the developing fetus or newborn. It is also not recommended for use in individuals with certain medical conditions, such as liver disease or a history of blood disorders. Before taking thiabendazole, it is important to inform your healthcare provider of any medical conditions you have, as well as any medications you are currently taking.

Antibodies, fungal, are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of fungal antigens. These antigens are molecules found on the surface of fungi that can trigger an immune response. When the immune system encounters fungal antigens, it produces antibodies that can recognize and bind to these antigens. This binding can help to neutralize the fungi and prevent them from causing harm to the body. Antibodies, fungal, can be detected in the blood or other bodily fluids of individuals who have been exposed to fungi or who have an active fungal infection. They are an important part of the immune response to fungal infections and can be used as a diagnostic tool to help identify and monitor fungal infections.

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs) are a group of proteins that regulate the cell cycle by inhibiting the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). CDKs are a family of enzymes that play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression by phosphorylating target proteins. CDKIs bind to CDKs and prevent them from phosphorylating their target proteins, thereby inhibiting cell cycle progression. CDKIs are important regulators of cell cycle progression and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of CDKIs has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, where the overexpression or loss of function of CDKIs can lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the development of tumors. CDKIs are classified into two main groups: the INK4 family (p16INK4a, p15INK4b, p18INK4c, and p19INK4d) and the Cip/Kip family (p21Cip1, p27Kip1, and p57Kip2). The INK4 family members are primarily involved in inhibiting CDK4 and CDK6, while the Cip/Kip family members can inhibit multiple CDKs.

Phosphoproteins are proteins that have been modified by the addition of a phosphate group to one or more of their amino acid residues. This modification is known as phosphorylation, and it is a common post-translational modification that plays a critical role in regulating many cellular processes, including signal transduction, metabolism, and gene expression. Phosphoproteins are involved in a wide range of biological functions, including cell growth and division, cell migration and differentiation, and the regulation of gene expression. They are also involved in many diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Phosphoproteins can be detected and studied using a variety of techniques, including mass spectrometry, Western blotting, and immunoprecipitation. These techniques allow researchers to identify and quantify the phosphorylation status of specific proteins in cells and tissues, and to study the effects of changes in phosphorylation on protein function and cellular processes.

Affinity chromatography is a type of chromatography that is used to separate and purify proteins or other biomolecules based on their specific interactions with a ligand that is immobilized on a solid support. The ligand is typically a molecule that has a high affinity for the biomolecule of interest, such as an antibody or a specific protein. When a mixture of biomolecules is passed through the column, the biomolecules that interact strongly with the ligand will be retained on the column, while those that do not interact or interact weakly will pass through the column. The retained biomolecules can then be eluted from the column using a solution that disrupts the interaction between the biomolecule and the ligand. Affinity chromatography is a powerful tool for purifying and characterizing proteins and other biomolecules, and it is widely used in the fields of biochemistry, molecular biology, and biotechnology.

Chromatography, Gel is a technique used in the medical field to separate and analyze different components of a mixture. It involves passing a sample through a gel matrix, which allows different components to move through the gel at different rates based on their size, charge, or other properties. This separation is then detected and analyzed using various techniques, such as UV absorbance or fluorescence. Gel chromatography is commonly used in the purification of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules, as well as in the analysis of complex mixtures in environmental and forensic science.

Active transport is a cellular process in which molecules or ions are transported across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This process requires energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is facilitated by specific transport proteins embedded in the cell membrane. The cell nucleus is the control center of the cell, containing the genetic material (DNA) and regulating gene expression. It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which contains nuclear pores that allow for the exchange of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In the context of active transport, the cell nucleus plays a role in regulating the expression of genes that encode for transport proteins. These transport proteins are responsible for moving molecules and ions across the cell membrane through active transport, and their expression is tightly regulated by the cell nucleus. Additionally, the cell nucleus may also directly participate in active transport by transporting molecules or ions across its own nuclear envelope.

Protein precursors are molecules that are converted into proteins through a process called translation. In the medical field, protein precursors are often referred to as amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids that can be combined in various ways to form different proteins, each with its own unique function in the body. Protein precursors are essential for the proper functioning of the body, as proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including metabolism, cell signaling, and immune function. They are also important for tissue repair and growth, and for maintaining the structure and function of organs and tissues. Protein precursors can be obtained from the diet through the consumption of foods that are rich in amino acids, such as meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products. In some cases, protein precursors may also be administered as supplements or medications to individuals who are unable to obtain sufficient amounts of these nutrients through their diet.

In the medical field, "COS Cells" typically refers to "cumulus-oocyte complexes." These are clusters of cells that are found in the ovaries of women and are involved in the process of ovulation and fertilization. The cumulus cells are a type of supporting cells that surround the oocyte (egg cell) and help to nourish and protect it. The oocyte is the female reproductive cell that is produced in the ovaries and is capable of being fertilized by a sperm cell to form a zygote, which can develop into a fetus. During the menstrual cycle, the ovaries produce several follicles, each containing an oocyte and surrounding cumulus cells. One follicle will mature and release its oocyte during ovulation, which is triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH). The released oocyte then travels down the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by a sperm cell. COS cells are often used in assisted reproductive technologies (ART), such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), to help facilitate the growth and development of oocytes for use in fertility treatments.

Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) are a class of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the activity of small GTPases, a family of proteins that are involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including cell signaling, cytoskeletal dynamics, and vesicle trafficking. GEFs function by catalyzing the exchange of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) on the small GTPase, thereby activating the protein. This activation allows the small GTPase to bind to and regulate downstream effector proteins, which in turn can initiate a variety of cellular responses. In the medical field, GEFs are of particular interest because many of the small GTPases that they regulate are involved in diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, mutations in GEFs that activate certain small GTPases have been linked to the development of certain types of cancer, while defects in other GEFs can lead to abnormal cell signaling and contribute to the progression of these diseases. As such, GEFs are being actively studied as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of a variety of diseases.

RNA, Transfer, Asp refers to a specific type of transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule that carries the amino acid aspartic acid (Asp) during protein synthesis in cells. Transfer RNAs are small RNA molecules that recognize specific codons on messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules and bring the corresponding amino acids to the ribosome for assembly into proteins. The tRNA molecule for Asp contains a specific sequence of nucleotides that allows it to recognize and bind to the codon for Asp on the mRNA molecule. This process is essential for the proper translation of genetic information from mRNA into functional proteins.

In the medical field, "Antigens, Fungal" refers to substances that can trigger an immune response in the body when they are recognized as foreign or harmful. These substances are produced by fungi and can be found in various forms, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids. When the immune system encounters fungal antigens, it produces antibodies and immune cells that can recognize and attack the fungi. This immune response can help to prevent or treat fungal infections, such as candidiasis, aspergillosis, and cryptococcosis. However, in some cases, the immune system may overreact to fungal antigens, leading to an autoimmune response that can cause damage to healthy tissues. This can occur in conditions such as chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, where the immune system becomes hyperactive and attacks the skin and mucous membranes. Overall, understanding the role of fungal antigens in the immune system is important for the diagnosis and treatment of fungal infections and other immune-related conditions.

Caenorhabditis elegans is a small, transparent, soil-dwelling nematode worm that is widely used in the field of biology as a model organism for research. It has been extensively studied in the medical field due to its simple genetics, short lifespan, and ease of cultivation. In the medical field, C. elegans has been used to study a wide range of biological processes, including development, aging, neurobiology, and genetics. It has also been used to study human diseases, such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and infectious diseases. One of the key advantages of using C. elegans as a model organism is its transparency, which allows researchers to easily observe and manipulate its cells and tissues. Additionally, C. elegans has a relatively short lifespan, which allows researchers to study the effects of various treatments and interventions over a relatively short period of time. Overall, C. elegans has become a valuable tool in the medical field, providing insights into a wide range of biological processes and diseases.

Inositol is a type of sugar alcohol that is found naturally in many foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds. It is also available as a dietary supplement and is used in the medical field for a variety of purposes. Inositol is classified as a vitamin-like substance because it is essential for the proper functioning of the body, but it is not considered a true vitamin because it can be synthesized by the body. Inositol is involved in many important cellular processes, including metabolism, nerve function, and cell signaling. In the medical field, inositol is used to treat a variety of conditions, including depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It is also used to treat polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a hormonal disorder that affects women of reproductive age. Inositol has also been studied for its potential to improve insulin sensitivity and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. Inositol is generally considered safe when taken in recommended doses, but it can interact with certain medications and may not be suitable for everyone. It is important to talk to a healthcare provider before taking inositol, especially if you have any underlying health conditions or are taking any medications.

Crystallography, X-ray is a technique used in the medical field to study the structure of biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, by analyzing the diffraction patterns produced by X-rays passing through the sample. This technique is used to determine the three-dimensional structure of these molecules, which is important for understanding their function and for developing new drugs and therapies. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool that has been instrumental in advancing our understanding of many important biological processes and diseases.

Glucan Endo-1,3-beta-D-Glucosidase, also known as alpha-glucosidase, is an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates, such as starch and glycogen, into simpler sugars like glucose. This enzyme is found in the pancreas, small intestine, and other parts of the body and plays a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. In the medical field, Glucan Endo-1,3-beta-D-Glucosidase is often used to treat conditions related to carbohydrate metabolism, such as diabetes. For example, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors are a type of medication that work by slowing down the breakdown of carbohydrates in the small intestine, which can help to lower blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes. These medications are often used in combination with other diabetes medications, such as insulin or metformin, to help manage blood sugar levels.

Mannose is a simple sugar that is a monosaccharide with the chemical formula C6H12O6. It is a component of many complex carbohydrates, including glycans and glycoproteins, which are found in the human body and play important roles in various biological processes. In the medical field, mannose is used as a diagnostic tool to detect certain diseases and conditions. For example, it is used in the diagnosis of certain types of cancer, such as ovarian cancer, by detecting changes in the levels of mannose in the blood or urine. Mannose is also used in the treatment of certain conditions, such as diabetes, by helping to regulate blood sugar levels. It is also used in the development of vaccines and as a component of some dietary supplements. In addition, mannose has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties, which may make it useful in the treatment of a variety of conditions, including infections, autoimmune diseases, and allergies.

Ribonucleoproteins, Small Nuclear (snRNPs) are complexes of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and associated proteins that play a crucial role in the process of RNA splicing. RNA splicing is the process by which introns (non-coding sequences) are removed from pre-mRNA transcripts and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNA molecules. snRNPs are found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and are composed of a small RNA molecule (usually 70-300 nucleotides in length) and a group of associated proteins. There are several different types of snRNPs, each with a specific function in RNA splicing. Mutations in genes encoding snRNP proteins can lead to a group of genetic disorders known as small nuclear ribonucleoprotein diseases (snRNP diseases), which are characterized by abnormalities in RNA splicing and can cause a range of symptoms, including muscle weakness, joint pain, and neurological problems.

Sphingolipids are a type of lipid molecule that are composed of a sphingosine backbone, a fatty acid chain, and a polar head group. They are important components of cell membranes and play a variety of roles in cellular signaling and metabolism. In the medical field, sphingolipids are often studied in relation to various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. For example, changes in the levels or composition of sphingolipids have been implicated in the development of conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. Additionally, sphingolipids are being investigated as potential therapeutic targets for these and other diseases.

Histidine is an amino acid that is naturally occurring in the human body. It is a building block of proteins and is essential for the proper functioning of many bodily processes. In the medical field, histidine is often used as a diagnostic tool to help diagnose certain medical conditions. For example, high levels of histidine in the blood can be a sign of a genetic disorder called histidinemia, which can cause a range of symptoms including intellectual disability, seizures, and liver problems. Histidine is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as acidosis, which is a condition in which the body's pH balance is disrupted.

In the medical field, copper is a trace element that is essential for various bodily functions. It plays a crucial role in the formation of red blood cells, the maintenance of healthy bones, and the proper functioning of the immune system. Copper is also involved in the metabolism of iron and the production of energy in the body. Copper deficiency can lead to a range of health problems, including anemia, osteoporosis, and impaired immune function. On the other hand, excessive copper intake can be toxic and can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and other organs. In some medical treatments, copper is used as a component of certain medications, such as antibiotics and antifungal drugs. Copper is also used in medical devices, such as catheters and implants, due to its antimicrobial properties. Overall, copper is an important nutrient in the medical field, and its proper balance is crucial for maintaining good health.

The Anaphase-Promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) is a large multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that plays a critical role in regulating the progression of cell division, specifically the transition from metaphase to anaphase. The APC/C is responsible for the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of a number of key regulatory proteins, including securin and cyclin B, which are essential for the proper progression of cell division. Dysregulation of the APC/C has been implicated in a number of diseases, including cancer, and is an important target for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

In the medical field, "Crosses, Genetic" refers to the process of crossing two different organisms or strains of organisms to produce offspring with a combination of genetic traits from both parents. This process is commonly used in genetics research to study inheritance patterns and to create new strains of organisms with desired traits. In humans, genetic crosses can be used to study the inheritance of genetic diseases and to develop new treatments or cures. For example, researchers may cross two strains of mice that differ in their susceptibility to a particular disease in order to study the genetic factors that contribute to the disease. Genetic crosses can also be used in agriculture to create new crop varieties with desirable traits, such as resistance to pests or improved yield. In this context, the offspring produced by the cross are often selectively bred to further refine the desired traits.

Cell fractionation is a technique used in the medical field to isolate specific cellular components or organelles from a mixture of cells. This is achieved by fractionating the cells based on their size, density, or other physical properties, such as their ability to float or sediment in a solution. There are several different methods of cell fractionation, including differential centrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, and free-flow electrophoresis. Each method is designed to isolate specific cellular components or organelles, such as mitochondria, lysosomes, or nuclei. Cell fractionation is commonly used in research to study the function and interactions of different cellular components, as well as to isolate specific proteins or other molecules for further analysis. It is also used in clinical settings to diagnose and treat various diseases, such as cancer, by analyzing the composition and function of cells in tissues and fluids.

Acetic acid is a weak organic acid that is commonly used in the medical field for various purposes. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic sour smell and is the main component of vinegar. In the medical field, acetic acid is used as a disinfectant and antiseptic. It is effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It is commonly used to clean and disinfect medical equipment, such as scalpels, needles, and syringes, to prevent the spread of infection. Acetic acid is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions. For example, it is used in the treatment of warts and other skin growths. It is applied topically to the affected area and can cause the wart to peel off over time. In addition, acetic acid is used in the production of certain medications, such as aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It is also used in the production of some types of plastics and other industrial products. Overall, acetic acid is a versatile compound with many uses in the medical field, including as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and medication ingredient.

In the medical field, isoenzymes refer to different forms of enzymes that have the same chemical structure and catalytic activity, but differ in their amino acid sequence. These differences can arise due to genetic variations or post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation or glycosylation. Isoenzymes are often used in medical diagnosis and treatment because they can provide information about the function and health of specific organs or tissues. For example, the presence of certain isoenzymes in the blood can indicate liver or kidney disease, while changes in the levels of specific isoenzymes in the brain can be indicative of neurological disorders. In addition, isoenzymes can be used as biomarkers for certain diseases or conditions, and can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. For example, drugs that inhibit specific isoenzymes can be used to treat certain types of cancer or heart disease.

Anaerobiosis is a condition in which an organism cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. In the medical field, anaerobiosis is often associated with infections caused by anaerobic bacteria, which are bacteria that do not require oxygen to grow and survive. These bacteria are commonly found in the human body, particularly in areas such as the mouth, gut, and female reproductive tract, where oxygen levels are low. Anaerobic bacteria can cause a range of infections, including dental caries, periodontitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. Treatment for anaerobic infections typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against anaerobic bacteria.

Pyruvate decarboxylase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of glucose in the body. It catalyzes the decarboxylation of pyruvate, a molecule produced during glycolysis, to produce acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. This reaction is the first step in the process of converting pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, which is then used in the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Pyruvate decarboxylase is primarily found in the mitochondria of cells and is essential for the production of energy in the brain and other tissues that have a high demand for ATP. It is also involved in the production of certain neurotransmitters, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which plays a role in regulating the activity of neurons in the brain. In the medical field, pyruvate decarboxylase is often studied in the context of neurological disorders, such as epilepsy, where abnormal levels of GABA have been implicated in the development of seizures. It is also a target for the development of new drugs for the treatment of these conditions. Additionally, pyruvate decarboxylase is involved in the metabolism of certain types of cancer cells, and its activity has been shown to be altered in some types of cancer, making it a potential target for cancer therapy.

The Exosome Multienzyme Ribonuclease Complex (EMRC) is a large protein complex that plays a crucial role in the degradation and turnover of RNA molecules in cells. It is composed of multiple subunits, including ribonucleases, helicases, and other accessory proteins, that work together to degrade RNA molecules in a highly regulated manner. The EMRC is particularly important in the regulation of gene expression, as it can degrade both messenger RNA (mRNA) and non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecules. This degradation can either silence gene expression by preventing the translation of mRNA into proteins, or activate gene expression by promoting the degradation of ncRNA molecules that regulate gene expression. In addition to its role in RNA degradation, the EMRC has also been implicated in a number of other cellular processes, including the maintenance of genome stability, the regulation of immune responses, and the clearance of cellular debris. Overall, the EMRC is a highly complex and important protein complex that plays a critical role in the regulation of gene expression and other cellular processes.

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are a family of protein kinases that play a critical role in regulating cell cycle progression in eukaryotic cells. They are activated by binding to specific regulatory proteins called cyclins, which are synthesized and degraded in a cyclic manner throughout the cell cycle. CDKs phosphorylate target proteins, including other kinases and transcription factors, to promote or inhibit cell cycle progression at specific points. Dysregulation of CDK activity has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, and is a target for therapeutic intervention.

Cytochromes c1 are a group of electron transport chain proteins that are found in the inner mitochondrial membrane. They are involved in the transfer of electrons from complex III to complex IV in the electron transport chain, which is a series of protein complexes that are responsible for generating ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from the energy produced by cellular respiration. In the medical field, cytochromes c1 are of interest because they play a critical role in the production of energy within cells, and disruptions in their function can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular disease.

CDC2 Protein Kinase is a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in cell division and the regulation of the cell cycle. It is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is activated during the G2 phase of the cell cycle and is responsible for the initiation of mitosis. CDC2 is also involved in the regulation of DNA replication and the maintenance of genomic stability. In the medical field, CDC2 Protein Kinase is often studied in the context of cancer research, as its dysregulation has been linked to the development and progression of various types of cancer.

Casein kinase I (CKI) is a family of protein kinases that play important roles in various cellular processes, including cell cycle regulation, DNA replication, and gene expression. In the medical field, CKI has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. CKI is a serine/threonine kinase that phosphorylates a wide range of substrates, including casein, histone H1, and other regulatory proteins. There are four subtypes of CKI: CKIα, CKIβ, CKIγ, and CKIδ, each with distinct tissue distribution and functions. In cancer, CKI has been shown to regulate cell cycle progression and apoptosis, and its overexpression or activation has been associated with the development and progression of various types of cancer, including breast, prostate, and colon cancer. In neurodegenerative disorders, CKI has been implicated in the regulation of tau protein phosphorylation, which is a key event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. In cardiovascular diseases, CKI has been shown to regulate cardiac contractility and arrhythmias. Overall, CKI is a critical regulator of cellular processes, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases. Understanding the role of CKI in disease pathogenesis may provide new therapeutic targets for the treatment of these conditions.

Autophagy is a cellular process in which cells break down and recycle their own damaged or unnecessary components. This process is essential for maintaining cellular health and function, as it helps to eliminate damaged organelles, misfolded proteins, and other cellular debris that can accumulate over time. Autophagy involves the formation of double-membrane vesicles called autophagosomes, which engulf and sequester the targeted cellular components. These autophagosomes then fuse with lysosomes, which contain enzymes that break down the contents of the autophagosome into smaller molecules that can be recycled by the cell. Autophagy plays a critical role in a variety of physiological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and survival. It is also involved in the immune response, as it helps to eliminate intracellular pathogens and damaged cells. Dysregulation of autophagy has been implicated in a number of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases.

Peptide initiation factors are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the initiation of protein synthesis in cells. They are involved in the assembly of the ribosome, the cellular machinery responsible for translating the genetic information stored in messenger RNA (mRNA) into a sequence of amino acids that make up proteins. There are several types of peptide initiation factors, including eIF1, eIF1A, eIF2, eIF3, eIF4, eIF5, and eIF6. Each of these factors has a specific function in the initiation process, and they work together to ensure that the ribosome is properly assembled and ready to begin translating the mRNA. Disruptions in the function of peptide initiation factors can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including various forms of cancer, neurological disorders, and developmental disorders. For example, mutations in the eIF2 gene have been linked to several forms of cancer, while mutations in the eIF3 gene have been associated with intellectual disability and other developmental disorders.

RNA Polymerase III (Pol III) is an enzyme that synthesizes a specific type of RNA called transfer RNA (tRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA) in the cell. It is one of three RNA polymerases found in eukaryotic cells, the others being RNA Polymerase I and RNA Polymerase II. tRNA is a small RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis by carrying amino acids to the ribosome during translation. snRNA, on the other hand, is involved in various cellular processes such as splicing, ribosome biogenesis, and RNA degradation. RNA Polymerase III is located in the nucleus of the cell and is composed of 12 subunits. It initiates transcription by binding to a specific promoter sequence on the DNA template and then synthesizes RNA in the 5' to 3' direction. The process of transcription by RNA Polymerase III is relatively simple and does not require the involvement of general transcription factors or RNA Polymerase II. In summary, RNA Polymerase III is a key enzyme involved in the synthesis of tRNA and snRNA in eukaryotic cells, and plays an important role in protein synthesis and various cellular processes.

RNA Polymerase I is an enzyme responsible for synthesizing a specific type of RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in eukaryotic cells. rRNA is a large, complex molecule that is a component of ribosomes, the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis. RNA Polymerase I is found in the nucleolus of the cell and is composed of 12 subunits. It is one of three RNA polymerases found in eukaryotic cells, with each polymerase responsible for synthesizing a different type of RNA. RNA Polymerase I is essential for the proper functioning of ribosomes and protein synthesis in cells.

In the medical field, a peptide fragment refers to a short chain of amino acids that are derived from a larger peptide or protein molecule. Peptide fragments can be generated through various techniques, such as enzymatic digestion or chemical cleavage, and are often used in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Peptide fragments can be used as biomarkers for various diseases, as they may be present in the body at elevated levels in response to specific conditions. For example, certain peptide fragments have been identified as potential biomarkers for cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disease. In addition, peptide fragments can be used as therapeutic agents themselves. For example, some peptide fragments have been shown to have anti-inflammatory or anti-cancer properties, and are being investigated as potential treatments for various diseases. Overall, peptide fragments play an important role in the medical field, both as diagnostic tools and as potential therapeutic agents.

In the medical field, a "cell-free system" refers to a biological system that does not contain living cells. This can include isolated enzymes, proteins, or other biological molecules that are studied in a laboratory setting outside of a living cell. Cell-free systems are often used to study the function of specific biological molecules or to investigate the mechanisms of various cellular processes. They can also be used to produce proteins or other biological molecules for therapeutic or research purposes. One example of a cell-free system is the "cell-free protein synthesis" system, which involves the use of purified enzymes and other biological molecules to synthesize proteins in vitro. This system has been used to produce a variety of proteins for research and therapeutic purposes, including vaccines and enzymes for industrial applications.

Profilins are a family of actin-binding proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the dynamics of the cytoskeleton. They are small, globular proteins that are highly conserved across different species and are found in all eukaryotic cells. Profilins bind to actin filaments and modulate their assembly, disassembly, and stability. They also interact with other proteins involved in cytoskeletal dynamics, such as actin-related proteins (Arps) and formins, and regulate their activity. In the medical field, profilins have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, changes in profilin expression or activity have been observed in many types of cancer, and they have been proposed as potential therapeutic targets. Additionally, profilins have been shown to play a role in the pathogenesis of diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, where they may contribute to the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and Lewy bodies.

Monomeric GTP-binding proteins, also known as small GTPases, are a family of proteins that play important roles in various cellular processes, including signal transduction, cell motility, and vesicle trafficking. These proteins are characterized by their ability to bind and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP), a nucleotide that serves as a molecular switch to regulate the activity of the protein. Monomeric GTP-binding proteins exist in two states: an inactive state in which they are bound to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and an active state in which they are bound to GTP. The switch between these two states is regulated by a variety of factors, including the binding of ligands, the activity of other proteins, and the presence of specific post-translational modifications. In the active state, monomeric GTP-binding proteins can interact with and regulate the activity of other proteins, often by recruiting them to specific cellular locations or by modulating their activity. This makes these proteins important mediators of cellular signaling pathways and allows them to play a role in a wide range of cellular processes.

HSP40 Heat-Shock Proteins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the cellular response to stress and damage. They are also known as molecular chaperones, as they assist in the folding and assembly of other proteins, as well as in the refolding of misfolded proteins. HSP40 proteins are found in all living organisms and are particularly important in cells that are exposed to high levels of stress, such as those in the immune system, neurons, and cancer cells. They are also involved in a number of cellular processes, including protein synthesis, signal transduction, and apoptosis. In the medical field, HSP40 proteins are being studied for their potential role in the treatment of a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

In the medical field, glucans refer to a group of polysaccharides that are composed of glucose molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. Glucans are found in various organisms, including plants, fungi, and bacteria, and they play important roles in their biology and physiology. In humans, glucans have been studied for their potential health benefits, particularly in the context of immune function. Some types of glucans, such as beta-glucans, have been shown to stimulate the immune system and enhance the body's ability to fight off infections and diseases. Glucans have also been used in the development of dietary supplements and functional foods, as well as in the treatment of certain medical conditions, such as cancer and HIV/AIDS. Overall, glucans are an important class of biomolecules that have a wide range of biological and medical applications.

Qa-SNARE proteins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in the process of membrane fusion in cells. They are involved in the formation of a complex with another family of proteins called Rab GTPases, which helps to regulate the movement of vesicles within cells. Qa-SNARE proteins are found in the plasma membrane of cells and are involved in the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane. They are characterized by a conserved amino acid sequence called the Qa domain, which is responsible for their interaction with Rab GTPases. Mutations in Qa-SNARE proteins have been linked to a number of neurological disorders, including Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1B (CMT1B) and hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). These disorders are characterized by the degeneration of nerve fibers and muscle weakness, respectively. In summary, Qa-SNARE proteins are a family of proteins that play a critical role in membrane fusion in cells and are involved in the regulation of vesicle movement. Mutations in these proteins have been linked to a number of neurological disorders.

Acyltransferases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of an acyl group from one molecule to another. In the medical field, acyltransferases play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including fatty acid metabolism, cholesterol metabolism, and drug metabolism. One example of an acyltransferase enzyme is acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which is involved in the synthesis of fatty acids. This enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a carboxyl group from bicarbonate to acetyl-CoA, producing malonyl-CoA. Malonyl-CoA is then used as a substrate for fatty acid synthesis. Another example of an acyltransferase enzyme is the cholesterol biosynthesis enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. This enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a hydrogen atom from NADPH to HMG-CoA, producing mevalonate. Mevalonate is then used as a substrate for the synthesis of cholesterol. In the field of drug metabolism, acyltransferases are involved in the metabolism of many drugs. For example, the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2C9 is an acyltransferase that is involved in the metabolism of several drugs, including warfarin and diazepam. Overall, acyltransferases play important roles in various metabolic pathways and are important targets for the development of new drugs and therapies.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) is an enzyme that plays a key role in the metabolism of alcohol in the human body. It is found in many tissues, including the liver, brain, and stomach, but it is particularly abundant in the liver. When alcohol is consumed, it is absorbed into the bloodstream and eventually reaches the liver, where it is metabolized by ADH. ADH catalyzes the conversion of alcohol (ethanol) into acetaldehyde, a toxic substance that can cause a range of symptoms, including nausea, headache, and dizziness. Once acetaldehyde is formed, it is further metabolized by another enzyme called aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) into acetate, a non-toxic substance that can be easily eliminated from the body in the form of carbon dioxide and water. ADH is also involved in the metabolism of other substances, including some drugs and toxins. In some cases, ADH activity can be affected by factors such as genetics, age, gender, and chronic alcohol consumption, which can impact the body's ability to metabolize alcohol and other substances.

Rad51 recombinase is a protein that plays a crucial role in DNA repair and maintenance. It is involved in the process of homologous recombination, which is a mechanism for repairing DNA damage, such as double-strand breaks. Rad51 recombinase helps to align the two broken ends of the DNA molecule and facilitate the exchange of genetic material between the two strands. This process is essential for maintaining the integrity of the genome and preventing mutations that can lead to cancer and other diseases. In the medical field, Rad51 recombinase is often studied as a potential target for cancer therapy, as its activity is often upregulated in cancer cells.

Ribonucleases (RNases) are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of RNA molecules. They are found in all living organisms and play important roles in various biological processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, and cellular signaling. In the medical field, RNases are used as research tools to study RNA biology and as therapeutic agents to treat various diseases. For example, RNases have been used to degrade viral RNA, which can help to prevent viral replication and infection. They have also been used to degrade abnormal RNA molecules that are associated with certain diseases, such as cancer and neurological disorders. In addition, RNases have been developed as diagnostic tools for detecting and monitoring various diseases. For example, some RNases can bind specifically to RNA molecules that are associated with certain diseases, allowing for the detection of these molecules in biological samples. Overall, RNases are important tools in the medical field, with applications in research, diagnosis, and therapy.

Chromatin assembly and disassembly refers to the process of organizing and condensing DNA into a compact structure called chromatin, as well as the process of unpacking and making the DNA accessible for gene expression. This process is essential for the proper functioning of cells and is tightly regulated in response to various cellular signals and environmental cues. Disruption of chromatin assembly and disassembly can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and neurological diseases.

Ras-GRF1, also known as Ras guanine nucleotide releasing factor 1, is a protein that plays a role in cell signaling pathways. It is involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and survival. Ras-GRF1 is a member of the GRF family of proteins, which are activators of the small GTPase Ras. Ras is a key regulator of cell signaling pathways that control cell growth and division, and mutations in the Ras gene are associated with various types of cancer. Therefore, Ras-GRF1 is an important protein in the study of cancer biology and the development of new cancer treatments.

Nucleocytoplasmic transport proteins are a group of proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell. These proteins are responsible for regulating the transport of molecules such as RNA, DNA, and proteins, which are essential for various cellular processes such as gene expression, protein synthesis, and cell division. There are two main types of nucleocytoplasmic transport proteins: nuclear transport receptors and nuclear transport factors. Nuclear transport receptors, also known as importins and exportins, recognize and bind to specific molecules in the cytoplasm or nucleus, and then transport them across the nuclear envelope. Nuclear transport factors, on the other hand, assist in the assembly and disassembly of nuclear transport receptors, and help to regulate their activity. Disruptions in the function of nucleocytoplasmic transport proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and genetic disorders such as fragile X syndrome and spinal muscular atrophy.

Glucosyltransferases are a group of enzymes that transfer glucose molecules from a donor substrate to an acceptor substrate. These enzymes play important roles in various biological processes, including the synthesis of complex carbohydrates, glycosylation of proteins and lipids, and the metabolism of drugs and toxins. In the medical field, glucosyltransferases are often studied in the context of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and inflammatory disorders. For example, certain types of cancer cells overexpress specific glucosyltransferases, which can contribute to the growth and spread of the tumor. Similarly, changes in the activity of glucosyltransferases have been implicated in the development of diabetes and other metabolic disorders. In addition, glucosyltransferases are also important targets for drug development. For example, inhibitors of specific glucosyltransferases have been shown to have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects, and are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents.

Nucleotide transport proteins are a group of proteins that are responsible for the transport of nucleotides across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in the metabolism of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. There are several types of nucleotide transport proteins, including concentrative nucleoside transporters (CNTs), equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs), and nucleotide-specific transporters (NSTs). These proteins are found in various tissues and cells throughout the body, and they are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including energy metabolism, immune function, and neurotransmission. Mutations in nucleotide transport proteins can lead to a variety of diseases, including inherited disorders of metabolism and cancer.

"Crossing over, genetic" refers to the process of genetic recombination that occurs during meiosis, the process of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg cells) in sexually reproducing organisms. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes (chromosomes that carry the same genes but may have different versions of those genes) pair up and exchange genetic material through a process called crossing over. Crossing over results in the formation of new combinations of genetic material on the chromosomes, which can lead to genetic variation in the offspring. This genetic variation is important for evolution, as it allows populations to adapt to changing environments over time. In the medical field, crossing over is important for understanding genetic disorders and diseases. For example, certain genetic disorders may be caused by mutations in specific genes, and understanding how these mutations are inherited can help researchers develop treatments or prevent the spread of the disorder. Additionally, understanding the process of crossing over can help researchers develop new techniques for genetic engineering and gene therapy.

Hexokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the first step of glycolysis, the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into energy. It catalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, which is a key intermediate in the glycolytic pathway. There are several types of hexokinases, including hexokinase I, hexokinase II, and hexokinase III, which are found in different tissues and have different properties. Hexokinase I is the most abundant form of the enzyme and is found in most tissues, including the liver, muscle, and brain. Hexokinase II is found primarily in the liver and muscle and has a higher affinity for glucose than hexokinase I. Hexokinase III is found in the testes and is thought to play a role in sperm metabolism. In the medical field, hexokinase is used as a diagnostic tool to detect and monitor various diseases, including diabetes, cancer, and liver disease. Abnormal levels of hexokinase can indicate problems with glucose metabolism or liver function. Additionally, hexokinase is used as a target for cancer therapy, as many cancer cells rely on glycolysis for energy production and are therefore more sensitive to inhibitors of hexokinase.

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication that is used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including candidiasis (a yeast infection), cryptococcal meningitis, and aspergillosis (a lung infection caused by a fungus). It is available in both oral and intravenous forms and is often used to treat fungal infections that are resistant to other antifungal medications. Fluconazole works by inhibiting the growth of fungi and preventing them from multiplying in the body. It is generally well-tolerated, but like all medications, it can cause side effects in some people. These may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are composed of long chains of monosaccharide units linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are found in many different types of biological materials, including plant cell walls, animal tissues, and microorganisms. In the medical field, polysaccharides are often used as drugs or therapeutic agents, due to their ability to modulate immune responses, promote wound healing, and provide other beneficial effects. Some examples of polysaccharides that are used in medicine include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin, and dextran.

Cysteine is an amino acid that is essential for the proper functioning of the human body. It is a sulfur-containing amino acid that is involved in the formation of disulfide bonds, which are important for the structure and function of many proteins. Cysteine is also involved in the detoxification of harmful substances in the body, and it plays a role in the production of glutathione, a powerful antioxidant. In the medical field, cysteine is used to treat a variety of conditions, including respiratory infections, kidney stones, and cataracts. It is also used as a dietary supplement to support overall health and wellness.

Histoplasmosis is a fungal infection caused by the Histoplasma capsulatum fungus. It is commonly found in soil and bird droppings, particularly in areas with damp or decaying organic matter. The fungus can be inhaled when the dust containing it is disturbed, leading to an infection in the lungs. Symptoms of histoplasmosis can range from mild to severe and may include fever, cough, chest pain, and fatigue. In some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver, spleen, or bones, leading to more serious complications. Histoplasmosis is usually treated with antifungal medications, and the severity of the infection will determine the length of treatment. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary. It is important to note that histoplasmosis can be prevented by avoiding exposure to contaminated soil and bird droppings, wearing protective clothing and masks when working in areas where the fungus is present, and washing hands thoroughly after exposure.

Oligonucleotide probes are short, synthetic DNA or RNA molecules that are designed to bind specifically to a target sequence of DNA or RNA. They are commonly used in medical research and diagnostic applications to detect and identify specific genetic sequences or to study gene expression. In medical research, oligonucleotide probes are often used in techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in situ hybridization (ISH) to amplify and visualize specific DNA or RNA sequences. They can also be used in gene expression studies to measure the levels of specific mRNAs in cells or tissues. In diagnostic applications, oligonucleotide probes are used in a variety of tests, including DNA sequencing, genetic testing, and infectious disease diagnosis. For example, oligonucleotide probes can be used in PCR-based tests to detect the presence of specific pathogens in clinical samples, or in microarray-based tests to measure the expression levels of thousands of genes at once. Overall, oligonucleotide probes are a powerful tool in medical research and diagnostic applications, allowing researchers and clinicians to study and understand the genetic basis of disease and to develop new treatments and diagnostic tests.

... the Fleischmann Yeast Company began to promote yeast cakes in a "Yeast for Health" campaign. They initially emphasized yeast as ... Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: baker's yeast in bread production, brewer's yeast in beer fermentation, ... Yeast killer toxins may also have medical applications in treating yeast infections (see "Pathogenic yeasts" section below). ... This will change the yeast process. The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as kahm yeast, is often a ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast

Website of the Working Group Black Yeast Archived 2012-01-15 at the Wayback Machine Black Yeast Database from the Broad ... Black yeasts are not related to the edible cloud ear fungus Auricularia polytricha. Sterflinger, Katja (2006). "Black Yeasts ... Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts. The Yeast Handbook. pp. 501-14. doi:10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20. ISBN 978-3-540-26100-1 ... These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date. They were firstly described in the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_yeast

Total selenium in selenium yeast can be reliably determined using open acid digestion to extract selenium from the yeast matrix ... Selenium yeast is a feed additive for livestock, used to increase the selenium content in their fodder. It is a form of ... Selenium-enriched yeast as source for selenium added for nutritional purposes in foods for particular nutritional uses and ... Selenium supplementation in yeast form has been shown to increase pig selenium-containing antioxidant enzymes, broiler growth ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_yeast

Yeast: Yeast, eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms Baker's yeast Yeast extract Yeast (novel), aka Yeast: A Problem, a novel ... Yeast (journal), a monthly journal Yeast (wine) This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Yeast. If an ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_(disambiguation)

... bread machine yeast, an instant yeast sold in a glass jar; and (v) pizza crust yeast, an instant yeast packaged with enzymes ... Fleischmann's Active Dry Yeast is the best-known of their yeast products due to its extended shelf life compared to fresh yeast ... "The Reason There's Still a Yeast Shortage". 15 April 2020. Brown, Davis (2022-11-28). "Is Pizza Yeast the Same as Instant Yeast ... an original form of packaged yeast that is soft and perishable; (ii) packets of Active Dry Yeast, a shelf stable granular yeast ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleischmann's_Yeast

... typically refers to the clumping together (flocculation) of brewing yeast once the sugar in a wort has been ... In the case of "top-fermenting" ale yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), the yeast creates a krausen, or barm on the top of the ... Agglomeration only occurs following the pressing and rehydration of yeast cakes and both flocculent and non-flocculent yeast ... Louis Pasteur is erroneously credited with first describing flocculation of brewer's yeast. Brewer's yeast flocculation has ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_flocculation

... (or yeast surface display) is a protein engineering technique that uses the expression of recombinant proteins ... The Aga2p protein is naturally used by yeast to mediate cell-cell contacts during yeast cell mating. As such, display of a ... The yeast display technique was first published by the laboratory of Professor K. Dane Wittrup and Eric T. Boder. The ... Advantages of yeast display over other in vitro evolution methods include eukaryotic expression and processing, quality control ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_display

... is a whole-cell inactive yeast that contains both soluble and insoluble parts, which is different from yeast ... Yeast extract is made by centrifuging inactive nutritional yeast and concentrating the water-soluble yeast cell proteins which ... When the yeast is ready, it is killed with heat and then harvested, washed, dried and packaged. The species of yeast used is ... Nutritional yeast is produced by culturing yeast in a nutrient medium for several days. The primary ingredient in the growth ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutritional_yeast

Yeast was first published in instalments in Fraser's Magazine, starting in July 1848, but as the radicalism of Kingsley's ideas ... Yeast: A Problem (1848) was the first novel by the Victorian social and religious controversialist Charles Kingsley. Motivated ... Birch, Dinah (2009). Yeast: A Problem. ISBN 978-0-19-280687-1. {{cite book}}: ,website= ignored (help) Ward & Waller 1964-1967 ... The title was intended to suggest the "ferment of new ideas".Yeast was influenced by the works of the philosopher Thomas ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_(novel)

Yeast was selected by the Los Angeles Rams in the seventh round, 253rd overall, in the 2022 NFL Draft. Yeast played largely on ... Yeast's mother, Tori Tillman Yeast, played basketball at Kentucky. His sister, Kiyah, is a sprinter on the Louisville track ... Craig Russell Yeast II (born May 8, 1999) is an American football safety for the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football ... Yeast left that game early with a pulmonary contusion that kept him in a hospital overnight in Seattle. After the offseason ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Yeast

Yeast is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell. It publishes original research articles, ... "Yeast". 2011 Journal Citation Reports. Web of Science (Science ed.). Thomson Reuters. 2013. Official website (Articles with ... reviews, and short communications on all aspects of Saccharomyces and other clinically important yeasts. The journal focuses on ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_(journal)

Yeast from other sources are not affected by this issue. Spent brewer's yeast is also quite biodiverse, containing yeasts other ... "Yeast in the Animal Feed Industry". American Dairymen. 18 July 2017. "Yeast Extract , Culture Media". Neogen. "Yeast Extract ( ... Yeast extracts in liquid form can be dried to a light paste or a dry powder. This is not the same as nutritional yeast, which ... Yeast extracts consist of the cell contents of yeast without the cell walls; they are used as food additives or flavorings, or ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_extract

A killer yeast is a yeast, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is able to secrete one of a number of toxic proteins which ... These yeast cells are immune to the toxic effects of the protein due to an intrinsic immunity. Killer yeast strains can be a ... Yeast in winemaking Young TW, Yagiu M (1978). "A comparison of the killer character in different yeasts and its classification ... Palpacelli V, Ciani M, Rosini G (November 1991). "Activity of different 'killer' yeasts on strains of yeast species undesirable ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_yeast

In 2021, Yeast was inducted into the College Baseball Hall of Fame. Internationally, Yeast worked as an umpire for the 1996 ... Dave Yeast is an American baseball administrator and former baseball umpire from 1981 to 2015. Between 1996 and 2008 Yeast was ... "Dave Yeast , Society for American Baseball Research". sabr.org. "Q&A With Umpire Extraordinaire Dave Yeast « College Baseball ... "CBUA - Information - Dave Yeast, CBUA Director of Video Training". cbua.arbitersports.com. "Dave Yeast Profile - The Baseball ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Yeast

... could refer to: Yeast#Ecology Yeast in winemaking Brewing#Spontaneous fermentation Sourdough Cider#Yeast This ... disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Wild yeast. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_yeast

"Review: The Yeasts Are Alive", theaterinthenow.com, August 25, 2011 "Yeast Nation (The triumph of life)". Hetrick, Adam. "Yeast ... "Review: 'Yeast Nation (The Triumph of Life)'", Variety, September 24, 2009 Nestor, Frank. "N.Y. Fringe Fest Names 'Yeast Nation ... Yeast Nation'", The New York Times, August 17, 2011 Connema, Richard "A Challenging Production of Yeast Nation" Interview with ... Yeast Nation (The Triumph of Life) is a musical that premiered in 2007, with music by Mark Hollmann, lyrics by Hollmann and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_Nation

SAE2 is a gene in budding yeast, coding for the protein Sae2, which is involved in DNA repair. Sae2 is a part of the homologous ... Homologous genes in other organisms include Ctp1 in fission yeast, Com1 in plants, and CtIP in higher eukaryotes including ... It is best characterized in the yeast model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE2_(yeast)

The most common mechanism of arming yeast is to fuse a protein of interest to the extracellular domain of the yeast mating ... Arming yeast is a tool in biotechnology and biological research where a protein of interest is expressed on the surface of ... Arming yeast have been used for a variety of industrial and research processes. S. cerevisiae armed with a glucoamylase from ... Similarly, yeast expressing endoglucanase from Trichoderma reesei as well as β-glucosidase from Aspergillus aculeatus were used ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arming_yeast

... might refer to: A cultivated growth of the yeast organism Yeast Culture (company), a British film and digital ... media production company A yeast starter culture used in winemaking National Collection of Yeast Cultures This disambiguation ... page lists articles associated with the title Yeast culture. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_culture

... and such yeasts are more generally known as osmotolerant yeasts. Rapid-rise yeast is a variety of dried yeast (usually a form ... Cream yeast is the closest form to the yeast slurries of the 19th century, in essence being a suspension of yeast cells in ... Instant yeast needs less time to rise. Since instant yeast has a finer texture than active dry yeast, it's possible to skip the ... The slurry yeast made by small bakers and grocery shops became cream yeast, a suspension of live yeast cells in growth medium, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker's_yeast

Yeast was also a member of the Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. Yeast was the third pick of the fourth round in the 1999 NFL Draft. ... In 2005 Yeast had 65 catches for 1,010 yards (15.5 average) and three touchdowns. On July 29, 2006, Yeast was released by the ... Yeast played college football at the University of Kentucky from 1995 to 1998. When he graduated, Yeast was the all-time leader ... "Ticats cut receiver Yeast - CBC News". Archived from the original on October 24, 2012. Retrieved July 5, 2007. "Coach Yeast ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Yeast

Otaka Y, Uchida T, Sakai T (1963). "Purification and properties of ribonuclease from yeast". J. Biochem. 54: 322-327. Yeast+ ... Yeast ribonuclease (EC 3.1.14.1) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction Exonucleolytic cleavage to ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_ribonuclease

Yeast Culture shot and edited four, one-hour documentaries for Channel 4 and BBC 2; Naked Protest, Burning Man - Community or ... Yeast Culture, sometimes spelt yeastCulture is a company engaged in film making and digital media, based in Camden, London. The ... Video artists Yeast did their best to unify all this Nordic diversity with arresting, largely monochrome visuals. 4docs films ... Yeast Culture. Retrieved 19 February 2018. Johnson, Phil (15 January 2006). "Jamie Cullum, Colston Hall, Bristol". The ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_Culture_(company)

S. cerevisiae (yeast) can stably exist as either a diploid or a haploid. Both haploid and diploid yeast cells reproduce by ... Thus the above description, given for a-type yeast stimulated with α-factor, works equally well for α-type yeast stimulated ... "Fusion of a fission yeast". Yeast. 14 (16): 1529-66. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0061(199812)14:16. 3.0.CO;2-0. PMID 9885154. S2CID ... Mating in yeast is stimulated by the presence of a pheromone which binds to either the Ste2 receptor (in a-cells) or the Ste3 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_of_yeast

Baker's yeast List of biological databases Metabolome Metabolomics Yeast Yeast in winemaking Jewison, Timothy; Knox, Craig; ... Baker's yeast). The YMDB was designed to facilitate yeast metabolomics research, specifically in the areas of general ... The Yeast Metabolome Database (YMDB) is a comprehensive, high-quality, freely accessible, online database of small molecule ... YMDB supports the identification and characterization of yeast metabolites using NMR spectroscopy, GC-MS spectrometry and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_Metabolome_Database

... is a growth medium containing yeast extract. It may refer to: The nonselective yeast extract agar of Windle ... for yeasts and molds Buffered charcoal yeast extract agar, for Legionella This article includes a list of related items that ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_extract_agar

These yeast are normally present in the vagina in small numbers. Vaginal yeast infections are typically caused by the yeast ... Vaginal yeast infection, also known as candidal vulvovaginitis and vaginal thrush, is excessive growth of yeast in the vagina ... While Candida albicans is the most common yeast species associated with vaginal thrush, infection by other types of yeast can ... Nemes-Nikodém É, Tamási B, Mihalik N, Ostorházi E (January 2015). "[Yeast species in vulvovaginitis candidosa]" [Yeast species ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginal_yeast_infection

Commonly called "film yeast", these yeasts are distinguished from the flor sherry yeast that are usually welcomed by winemakers ... Yeast is often inoculated in a volume of water or grape must that is 5-10 times the weight of the dry yeast. This liquid is ... Yeast taxonomy includes classification of yeast species depending on the presence or absence of a sexual phase. Therefore, some ... Re-hydration at lower temperatures can greatly reduce the viability of the yeast with up to 60% cell death if the yeast is re- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking

The Yeast Promoter Atlas (YPA) is a repository of promoter features in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Chang, Darby Tien-Hao; Huang ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_Promoter_Atlas

Yeast expression vectors, such as YACs, YIps (yeast integrating plasmids), and YEps (yeast episomal plasmids), have an ... Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) are genetically engineered chromosomes derived from the DNA of the yeast, Saccharomyces ... Hsiao CL, Carbon J (August 1979). "High-frequency transformation of yeast by plasmids containing the cloned yeast ARG4 gene". ... Yeast+Artificial+Chromosomes at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) North Dakota State ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_artificial_chromosome

A yeast infection (also called candidiasis) is fungal infection that affects different body parts. Get the facts on it and ... Yeast infections affect different parts of the body in different ways:. *Thrush is a yeast infection that causes white patches ... Yeast infections in your bloodstream can be life-threatening Antifungal medicines get rid of yeast infections in most people. ... Male Yeast Infection: How Can I Tell if I Have One? (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research) Also in Spanish ...

https://medlineplus.gov/yeastinfections.html

... is one of the easiest and most accurate methodologies for identifying yeasts. ... Slow-growing yeast (e.g., Candida haemulonii) may need to grow for several days before testing. ... This document outlines the procedure for identification of yeast isolates using the MALDI-ToF MS Bruker Biotyper platform and a ... 2016). "Rapid identification of 6328 isolates of pathogenic yeasts using MALDI-ToF MS and a simplified, rapid extraction ...

https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/lab-professionals/yeast-maldi-tof.html

... you want to store your nutritional yeast in a cool, dark place to prolong shelf life. ... Using Nutritional Yeast There are a number of ways you can include nutritional yeast in your diet to boost your B-vitamin ... After harvesting, nutritional yeast is heated, dried and made into flakes or powder. The processing inactivates the yeast, ... Vegans may use nutritional yeast to make cheese. As a dry ingredient, nutritional yeast may not spoil, but it is important to ...

https://www.ehow.com/how_7849400_store-nutritional-yeast-flakes.html

Results indicate that the new yeast-derived treatment acts similarly to insulin in the rats, lowering the level of glucose, and ... Yeast-Based Oral Diabetes Treatment Discovered. Date:. January 3, 2008. Source:. University of Haifa. Summary:. Scientists have ... "Yeast-Based Oral Diabetes Treatment Discovered." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com. /. releases. /. 2007. /. 12. /. ... Results indicate that the new yeast-derived treatment acts similarly to insulin in the rats, lowering the level of glucose, and ...

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071226230111.htm

What are vaginal yeast infections? Can anything be done to prevent them? ... Do Guys Get Yeast Infections?. Guys can get an infection of the head of the penis from the same yeast that causes vaginal ... Yeast infections (also known as candidiasis) are common infections caused by Candida albicans yeast, which is a type of fungus ... How Are Vaginal Yeast Infections Diagnosed?. Treating a yeast infection is simple, but its important to visit your doctor for ...

https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/yeast-infections.html

Humans and yeast are similar. According to Daran-Lapujade, theres a lot of similarity between a yeast and a human-being: "It ... "Many pivotal discoveries such as the cell division cycle, were elucidated thanks to yeast.". Humanised yeast. Previously, Daran ... "We didnt just transplant the human genes into yeast, we also removed the corresponding yeast genes and completely replaced ... of a yeast cell (in yellow). The humanized yeast can be used as a tool for medical studies, for example in drug screening and ...

https://www.tudelft.nl/en/2022/tnw/bakers-yeast-with-human-muscle-genes

1.) yeast into overly warm wort (it kills the yeast)--so wait until the wort gets down to 80F or less.. 2.) warm yeast (e.g., ... When I pitch yeast from a yeast starter, do I dump the whole thing right in the fermenter, or do I scrape off just the kraesen ... In the Yeast book, I think JZ and CW discouraged two types of yeast pitching:. ... not before the yeast gets there. I find I get far better yeast performance by pitching cold. Id encourage you to try it a few ...

https://www.homebrewersassociation.org/forum/index.php?topic=5420.0

This is an all purpose ale yeast.. Yeast Lab A03 London Ale Yeast. Classic Pale Ale strain, very dry. A powdery yeast with a ... Yeast Culture Kit A37. From Bavaria, Germany. VSU: Altbier, Kolsch.. Yeast Lab A01 Australian Ale Yeast. This all purpose ... Yeast Lab A06 Dusseldorf Ale Yeast. German Altbier yeast strain finishes with full body, complex flavor and spicy sweetness. ... Yeast Culture Kit A13. From Ireland. VSU: Porter, Stout, Imperial Stout.. Yeast Culture Kit A15. From England. VSU: Brown Ale, ...

http://www.brewery.org/library/liqale.html

Shop the best selection of Yeast Breads from Sur La Table and satisfy all your Yeast Breads needs. ...

https://www.surlatable.com/recipes/breads/yeast-breads/?prefn1=brand&prefv1=Le%20Creuset%7CAndris%20Lagsdin%2C%20The%20Baking%20Steel&srule=best-matches&start=0&sz=24

Have anybody used this for an yeast infection in the first trimester? My doctor prescribed this cream to me and Ive googled it ... Have anybody used this for an yeast infection in the first trimester? My doctor prescribed this cream to me and Ive googled it ...

https://community.babycenter.com/post/a77715209/yeast-infection

Here are 7 of the best over-the-counter yeast infection pills, creams, gels, and treatments. ... A yeast infection is a common condition caused by an overgrowth of the fungus Candida. Yeast infections can affect any part of ... Yeast infection probiotics. You can take probiotics to reduce the risk of a yeast infection, but they can also improve symptoms ... How fast do yeast infection treatments work?. Yeast infection treatments are usually sold in 1-, 3-, 7-, and 14-day treatments ...

https://www.healthline.com/health/womens-health/yeast-infection-pill

In yeast flavoHb, the small heme iron ligand adjusts a catalytically productive active site geometry that reliably suggests the ... Active site analysis of yeast flavohemoglobin based on its structure with a small ligand or econazole.. El Hammi, E., Warkentin ... Yeast Yhb and Ralstonia eutropha flavoHb both structurally studied in complex with econazole indicate conformational ... X-ray structure of yeast flavohemoglobin. *PDB DOI: https://doi.org/10.2210/pdb4G1V/pdb ...

https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4g1v

... we determined the in vivo RBP repertoire of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and identified 678 RBPs from yeast and ... Only 60% of yeast and 73% of the human RBPs have functions assigned to RNA biology or structural motifs known to convey RNA ... Here the authors expand the human and yeast RNA interactome identifying new and conserved RBPs, several of which with no prior ... Combined analyses of these and recently published data sets define the core RBP repertoire conserved from yeast to man. ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms10127?error=cookies_not_supported&code=c5091869-768e-4980-abc7-a18a86bad28d

... and how to treat a yeast infection during pregnancy. ... Yeast Infections and Your Baby. While a yeast infection does ... Yeast Infection Symptoms. If youve ever had a yeast infection, you are well aware of how unbearable they can make life. It is ... Home › Pregnancy › Discomfort › Yeast Infection. Yeast Infections. While many of your pregnancy discomforts can make you feel ... Yeast infections are incredibly common. So common, in fact, that it is estimated that half of all American women will develop ...

https://www.pregnancy-info.net/thrush.html

Yeast infections are treated with medicine. It may be available as pills or creams. ... Yeast infections are treated with medicine. It may be available as pills or creams. ...

https://www.denverhealth.org/conditions/v/vaginal-yeast-infection

Treating a yeast infection while pregnant can take longer because your medication options are more limited. Learn what medical ... Yeast infections are caused by a yeast fungus called candida. ... treatments can help ease your yeast infection symptoms and ... Nutritional yeast is deactivated yeast, meaning the yeast cells are killed while being processed and the inactive yeast is the ... Is a Yeast Infection Contagious?. Yeast is a fungus that has many types. A type of yeast that can cause infection in humans is ...

https://www.medicinenet.com/the_fastest_way_to_get_rid_of_a_yeast_infection/article.htm

Yeast is doing plenty of that work, but bacteria also get in on the action. Sourdough cultures contain - along with wild yeast ... I made baked yeasted doughnuts that you can really sink your teeth into. If you like those soft, lighter-than-air Krispy Kreme ... This work is © 2007 - 2012 by Wild Yeast. If you would like to use something you see here, please ask me. ...

https://www.wildyeastblog.com/category/recipes/10-snacks-recipes/

Yeast Intermediary Metabolism. Subject Area(s): Yeast; Molecular Biology; Biochemistry. By Dan G. Fraenkel, Harvard Medical ... In recent years, an analogous workhorse has been the eukaryotic microbe baker s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, used in many ... Download Free Excerpts from Yeast Intermediary Metabolism:. Download Preface and Contents. Download Chapter 1. Download Chapter ...

https://www.cshlpress.com/default.tpl?action=full&cart=1619127447100079355&--eqskudatarq=894&typ=ps&newtitle=Yeast%20Intermediary%20Metabolism

In a large bowl, dissolve yeast in warm water. Beat in the milk, sugar, butter, orange zest and salt. Beat in the zucchini, ...

https://www.tasteofhome.com/recipes/zucchini-yeast-bread/

High-Selenium Yeast) Market Analysis Revealing Key Drivers & Growth Trends through 2025 - published on openPR.com ... 2.2 High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) Growth Rate by Regions. 2.2.1 Global High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) ... 3.1 High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) Sales by Manufacturers. 3.1.1 High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) Sales by ... 3.2 High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) Revenue by Manufacturers. 3.2.1 High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) Revenue ...

https://www.openpr.com/news/1287468/global-high-selenium-yeast-high-selenium-yeast-market-analysis-revealing-key-drivers-growth-trends-through-2025.html

The yeast produced a good fruity flavor. My issue with this yeast was that it formed this loose sludge of yeast on the bottom ... The yeast produced a good fruity flavor. My issue with this yeast was that it formed this loose sludge of yeast on the bottom ... Also, this yeast grew so voraciously that I had to construct a blow off tube because the foam of the fermentation was hitting ... Also, this yeast grew so voraciously that I had to construct a blow off tube because the foam of the fermentation was hitting ...

https://www.midwestsupplies.com/products/imperial-yeast-a20-citrus

Order yeast online for pickup or delivery. Find ingredients, recipes, coupons and more. ... Red Star Nutritional Yeast Active Dry Yeast - 2 lb.. Case of 1 - 2 # each ... Red Star Nutritional Yeast Yeast - Active - Dry - Case of 12 - 4 oz. 4 OZ ... Swanson Brewers Yeast Powder - Non-Gmo 1 lb Pwdr. 1 lb PWDR ... Monistat 7-Day Low Dose Yeast Infection Treatment Applicators. ...

https://www.frysfood.com/q/yeast

pd.yeast.2. DOI: 10.18129/B9.bioc.pd.yeast.2 Platform Design Info for The Manufacturers Name Yeast_2. Bioconductor version: ... if (!require("BiocManager", quietly = TRUE)) install.packages("BiocManager") BiocManager::install("pd.yeast.2"). For older ...

https://bioconductor.org/packages/release/data/annotation/html/pd.yeast.2.html

This cider yeast works at a wide temperature range between 10-30°C (50-86°F) with ideal temperatures between 18-24°C (64-75°F ... The best cider yeast for balanced ciders, combining delicate fresh apple and apple sauce notes. Fast and clean fermenter able ... Low nitrogen requirements: from 150ppm of Yeast Available Nitrogen. Very good assimilation of fructose. Highly flocculant. ...

https://www.northernbrewer.com/products/500-g-fermentis-safcider-ab-1-yeast

The Dough Doctor discusses when and how to add yeast to your mix. What is the best way to add yeast to the dough?. A: This will ... This is done by placing the yeast in a bowl with warm (100 to 105 F) water. The amount of water used to activate the yeast ... By adding the yeast to the flour just as were ready to begin mixing, the potential for harming the yeast is reduced. Remember ... Compressed yeast (CY) is ready to use right from the package. There is no need to activate or put it into a suspension prior to ...

https://pizzatoday.com/topics/dough-production-development/knead-to-know-talking-yeast/

... was formed from C14-labeled DDT in the presence of yeast. The formation of DDD from DDE [1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl)- ... Labeled DDD [ 1,1-dichlor-o-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-ethane] was formed from C14-labeled DDT in the presence of yeast. The ...

https://www.usgs.gov/publications/reductive-dechlorination-ddt-ddd-yeast

... Nature. 2009 May 14;459(7244):278-81 ...

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19369939/

Fission yeast are unicellular, rod-shaped fungi that divide by medial fission. Studies using fission yeast were instrumental in ... Schizosaccharomyces japonicus: A Distinct Dimorphic Yeast among the Fission Yeast. Keita Aoki, Kanji Furuya, and Hironori Niki ... Fission Yeast: A Laboratory Manual. Subject Area(s): Yeast; Cell Biology; Microbiology. Edited by Iain Hagan, Cancer Research ... Download a Free Excerpt from Fission Yeast:. Preface. Intro: Introduction to Fission Yeast as a Model System. Chapter 2: Growth ...

https://cshlpress.com/default.tpl?action=full&cart=1664390074314446555&--eqskudatarq=1106&typ=ps&newtitle=Fission%20Yeast%3A%20A%20Laboratory%20Manual

This kind of yeast naturally lives on your skin. When too much yeast grows, it is called a yeast skin infection. Yeast skin ... A yeast infection is usually caused by a fungus called Candida albicans. ... Top of the pageYeast Skin InfectionCondition BasicsWhat is a yeast skin infection? ... Yeast Skin Infection. Condition Basics. What is a yeast skin infection? A yeast infection is usually caused by a fungus called ...

https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/abr7621

0.91 kg) of yeast. Most yeast come in 500 g packages, which is just about exactly one pound (1 lb. = 454 g). To run through the ... The EC-1118 yeast, therefore, is intended as the "secondary" fermenter, or the yeast that youll add when you dose the new ... Rehydrating dried yeast is a simple and straightforward process, and one that I find to be essential when using dried yeast for ... If youve got 1 g/gallon (0.26 g/L) of yeast, then that means you have enough of one yeast strain to ferment the whole batch. ...

https://winemakermag.com/wine-wizard/yeast-pitching-rates

Candida is the scientific name for yeast. (medlineplus.gov)
Yeast infections (also known as candidiasis) are common infections caused by Candida albicans yeast, which is a type of fungus . (kidshealth.org)
A yeast infection is a common condition caused by an overgrowth of the fungus Candida . (healthline.com)
A yeast infection, also known as thrush, is caused by an overgrowth of the fungus Candida albicans in your vagina. (pregnancy-info.net)
Candidiasis is an infection by Candida yeast. (msdmanuals.com)
Candida yeast usually live on your body in small amounts without causing symptoms. (msdmanuals.com)
A yeast infection is caused by Candida yeast, a fungus that usually lives on your body in small amounts. (msdmanuals.com)
Candidiasis is infection with the yeast Candida . (msdmanuals.com)
Candida is a yeast that normally resides on the skin and in the mouth, digestive tract, and vagina and usually causes no harm. (msdmanuals.com)
Candidiasis Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by several species of the yeast Candida , especially Candida albicans . (msdmanuals.com)
Objective This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Candida albicans and non-albicans yeast species isolated from oral samples of children with AIDS and of children exposed and not exposed to HIVduring pregnancy and served by the public health system in a county located in the interior of the state of Bahia, Brazil. (bvsalud.org)
Yeast infections are usually caused by Candida albicans , a fungus that many of us carry harmlessly on our skin and mucous membranes. (cdc.gov)

Some medicines used to treat yeast infections are available without a prescription, but you see a doctor for your diagnosis before buying one. (kidshealth.org)
However, there are many over-the-counter (OTC) treatments that effectively treat yeast infections, allowing you to skip the trip to the doctor's office. (healthline.com)
Alternatively, yogurt has long been known to help treat yeast infections. (pregnancy-info.net)
The medications used to treat yeast infections are antifungals either applied topically as a cream, taken orally as a pill, or used as suppositories placed in the vagina. (medicinenet.com)

Yeast is a fungus that is normally found on your skin and digestive system . (medicinenet.com)
Because yeast is a type of fungus, candidiasis is a fungal infection, but it's usually referred to as a yeast infection. (msdmanuals.com)
Yeast is a type of fungus. (msdmanuals.com)

Red Star Nutritional Yeast Active Dry Yeast - 2 lb. (frysfood.com)
If you're using active dry yeast (ADY) you will need to activate it prior to addition to the dough. (pizzatoday.com)

If you're taking antibiotics, such as for strep throat, the antibiotics can kill the "good" bacteria that normally keep the yeast in check. (kidshealth.org)
Using scented sanitary products and douching can upset the healthy balance of bacteria in the vagina and make yeast infections more likely. (kidshealth.org)
Vaginas typically have a balance of good bacteria and yeast. (healthline.com)
Yogurt contains acidophilus bacteria, which kills off the yeast. (pregnancy-info.net)
Yeast is doing plenty of that work, but bacteria also get in on the action. (wildyeastblog.com)
Gram staining technique is used for staining bacteria, yeasts and aerobic actinomycetes. (who.int)

You can take probiotics to reduce the risk of a yeast infection, but they can also improve symptoms if you already have one. (healthline.com)

Purchase nutritional yeast flakes in bulk from a reputable purveyor with a high turnover to ensure you get the freshest product. (ehow.com)

Yeasts and molds are types of fungi. (msdmanuals.com)

While a yeast infection does not pose a problem to your child during pregnancy, a yeast infection during labor may lead to oral thrush . (pregnancy-info.net)

Biotechnologist Pascale Daran-Lapujade and her group at Delft University of Technology managed to build human muscle genes in the DNA of baker's yeast. (tudelft.nl)

If this is your first time experiencing a yeast infection, it's best to talk with your doctor for an official diagnosis. (healthline.com)

Yeast infections are usually caused by yeast overgrowth in the parts of the body where it is normally found. (medicinenet.com)

To explore the scope of RBPs across eukaryotic evolution, we determined the in vivo RBP repertoire of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and identified 678 RBPs from yeast and additionally 729 RBPs from human hepatocytic HuH-7 cells. (nature.com)
In recent years, an analogous workhorse has been the eukaryotic microbe baker s yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, used in many studies of cell biology common to multicellular organisms. (cshlpress.com)
Selenium yeast is produced using the microorganism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is better known as bakers yeast or brewers yeast. (openpr.com)

but reports of infections caused by rare molds and unusual yeasts are increasing. (cdc.gov)
They may differ in size, shape, and other ways, but there are some molds, yeasts, and mushrooms that can make people sick. (cdc.gov)

If you are adding instant dry yeast (IDY) you can just add it in the dry form out of the bag. (pizzatoday.com)

A yeast infection in the vagina is known as vulvovaginal candidiasis (pronounced: can-dih-DYE-uh-sis). (kidshealth.org)
Also called vaginal candidiasis, vaginal yeast infections affect up to 75 percent of people with a vagina at some point in their lifetime. (healthline.com)
A yeast infection is a condition that occurs when too much yeast grows in certain areas of your body, causing an infection called candidiasis . (medicinenet.com)

What Are the Signs & Symptoms of Vaginal Yeast Infections? (kidshealth.org)
It's easy to confuse the symptoms of a yeast infection with those of some STDs and other vaginal infections. (kidshealth.org)
If you have a vaginal yeast infection, your doctor can recommend treatment to clear up the symptoms and cure the infection quickly. (kidshealth.org)
But yeast in the vagina can sometimes "overgrow" and lead to symptoms of a yeast infection. (kidshealth.org)
The itching, irritation, and burning symptoms of a yeast infection can be very uncomfortable. (healthline.com)
However, if you're familiar with the symptoms, you'll likely be able to pick up an OTC medication to treat the yeast infection. (healthline.com)
While it is extremely hard to miss the symptoms of a yeast infection, it is important that you get a proper diagnosis from a doctor before you begin any yeast infection treatment. (pregnancy-info.net)
Since the signs and symptoms of a yeast infection are often very similar to other vaginal problems, like bacterial vaginosis , it can be easy to misdiagnose the problem. (pregnancy-info.net)

Only 60% of yeast and 73% of the human RBPs have functions assigned to RNA biology or structural motifs known to convey RNA binding, and many intensively studied proteins surprisingly emerge as RBPs (termed 'enigmRBPs'), including almost all glycolytic enzymes, pointing to emerging connections between gene regulation and metabolism. (nature.com)
The contributors describe basic methods for culturing and genetically manipulating fission yeast, synchronization strategies for probing the cell cycle, technologies for assessing proteins, metabolites, and cell wall constituents, imaging methods to visualize subcellular structures and dynamics, and protocols for investigating chromatin and nucleic acid metabolism. (cshlpress.com)

Stress, pregnancy, and illnesses that affect the immune system may let yeast multiply. (kidshealth.org)

A vaginal yeast infection is a fungal infection that causes irritation, discharge, and intense itchiness of the vagina and the vulva - the tissues at the vaginal opening. (healthline.com)
The emergence of this yeast in an area in which it is not known to be endemic should alert clinicians caring for immunocompromised patients outside the Mediterranean region to consider infections caused by unfamiliar fungal pathogens. (cdc.gov)
Killer Yeasts for the Biological Control of Postharvest Fungal Crop Diseases. (bvsalud.org)
Here, after the elaboration of the complex of problems, we explain the hitherto known yeast killer mechanisms and present the implementation of yeasts displaying such phenotype in biocontrol strategies for pre- or postharvest treatments to be aimed at combating postharvest fungal decay in numerous agricultural products. (bvsalud.org)
Stephen Monroe] How is Valley fever different from other fungal infections, such as the one people got from the cortisone spine injections and from yeast infections? (cdc.gov)

Yeast infections usually happen in warm, moist parts of the body, such as the mouth, and moist areas of skin. (kidshealth.org)
Yeast likes to live in dark, moist areas of your body. (msdmanuals.com)

While many of your pregnancy discomforts can make you feel uncomfortable, few can make you as unceasingly uncomfortable as a yeast infection. (pregnancy-info.net)

Fission yeast are unicellular, rod-shaped fungi that divide by medial fission. (cshlpress.com)

Medications for yeast infections include oral pills, suppositories and topical creams, which are applied directly to the vaginal area. (pregnancy-info.net)
If you are a woman, you will also find yeast in your vaginal area. (medicinenet.com)

The vaginal suppository Monistat and generic versions of this medication ( Miconazole ) will successfully treat most vaginal yeast infections. (medicinenet.com)

Usually, your immune system keeps yeast under control. (medlineplus.gov)
If a person's immune system changes or is weakened, this yeast can overgrow and cause a yeast infection. (cdc.gov)

Antifungal medicines get rid of yeast infections in most people. (medlineplus.gov)

Because the common medications for yeast infections involve strong chemicals and antifungal creams, it is not a good idea to use these methods without knowing for sure that you are using the right treatment. (pregnancy-info.net)

and yeast extracts containing mannoproteins). (who.int)

These yeast infections cause itching and discomfort and may bring about complications like vaginitis . (medicinenet.com)

Prescription and OTC medications both treat vaginal yeast infections. (healthline.com)

Girls who have diabetes that isn't controlled are more likely to get yeast infections. (kidshealth.org)

Also, this yeast grew so voraciously that I had to construct a blow off tube because the foam of the fermentation was hitting the air lock in the primary fermentation. (midwestsupplies.com)
Use of an oxidation-fermentation medium in the identification of yeasts. (cdc.gov)

How do yeast infection treatments work? (healthline.com)

For a severe yeast infection, your doctor may recommend a longer prescription course. (healthline.com)

Modifications to techniques commonly used in related species (e.g., budding yeast) are noted, as are useful resources for fission yeast researchers, including various databases and repositories. (cshlpress.com)
The well-studied fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is the focus throughout, but the emerging model S. japonicus a larger, dimorphic species with several desirable characteristics is also covered. (cshlpress.com)
A total of 44 species were identified with Penicillium aurantiogriseum, Epicoccum nigrum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, yeasts, and Alternaria alternata recovered from at least 70% of the aliquots. (cdc.gov)

As a dry ingredient, nutritional yeast may not spoil, but it is important to store properly to prevent contamination or loss of flavor. (ehow.com)
A smooth, clean, strong fermenting ale yeast that works well down to 56F.The neutral character of this yeast makes it ideal for Cream Ales and other beers in which you want maintain a clean malt flavor. (brewery.org)
One of our (Brewtek's) favorite Ale yeasts, gives a full bodied, well rounded flavor with a touch of diacetyl. (brewery.org)
The yeast produced a good fruity flavor. (midwestsupplies.com)

Treating a yeast infection is simple, but it's important to visit your doctor for the right diagnosis. (kidshealth.org)
If you are seeking treatment for a vaginal yeast infection, your doctor will first complete a vaginal exam to ensure proper diagnosis. (medicinenet.com)

If the yeast grows too much, you get a rash. (msdmanuals.com)

Keep your opened nutritional yeast in a tightly sealed container and store in a cool, dark place . (ehow.com)
You might think that you cannot exchange the yeast version with the human one, because it's such a specific and tightly regulated process both in human and yeast cells. (tudelft.nl)

We also adapted the mRNA interactome capture protocol to yeast (see Methods and Supplementary Fig. 1 ) using PAR-CL at 0.72 or 7.2 J cm −2 (ref. 8 ) with 4-thio-uracil. (nature.com)
Luckily, yeast infections can easily be treated through a variety of methods. (pregnancy-info.net)

As the name implies, nutritional yeast is more about boosting the nutrient content of your food than helping your bread rise. (ehow.com)

The amount of water used to activate the yeast should be at least five times the weight of ADY being activated. (pizzatoday.com)

This is the first time researchers have successfully placed such a vital human feature into a yeast cell. (tudelft.nl)
Because researchers can get rid of all other interactions there might be in the human body, yeast provides a clean environment where they can study just one process. (tudelft.nl)
The researchers have worked together with Professor Barbara Bakker's lab (University Medical Centre Groningen), where they could compare the expression of human genes in yeast and in their native human muscle environment using lab-grown human tissue cells. (tudelft.nl)

As you begin mixing, the agitator will effectively disperse the yeast throughout the flour and allow for proper hydration/activation as it contacts the water during the mixing stage. (pizzatoday.com)

After harvesting, nutritional yeast is heated, dried and made into flakes or powder. (ehow.com)

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) is one of the easiest and most accurate methodologies for identifying yeasts. (cdc.gov)
If your yeast infection remains untreated for a long time it could develop into complications. (medicinenet.com)
This manual is an important reference for existing fission yeast laboratories and will serve as an essential start-up guide for those working with fission yeast for the first time. (cshlpress.com)

This is a type of yeast infection that affects the mouth and throat. (medicinenet.com)
This type of yeast infection affects the skin and may cause your skin to itch and develop a rash . (medicinenet.com)
This research report categorizes the global High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) market by players/brands, region, type and application. (openpr.com)
The objectives of this study are to define, segment, and project the size of the High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) market based on company, product type, application and key regions. (openpr.com)
This will depend upon the type of yeast you're using. (pizzatoday.com)
Regardless of the type of yeast being used, I always recommend that it not be brought into direct contact with salt and/or sugar after it has been hydrated. (pizzatoday.com)

Studies using fission yeast were instrumental in identifying fundamental mechanisms that govern cell division, differentiation, and epigenetics, to name but a few. (cshlpress.com)

This cider yeast works at a wide temperature range between 10-30°C (50-86°F) with ideal temperatures between 18-24°C (64-75°F). Works at low pH from 3.3. (northernbrewer.com)
At the two-week-long storage, Cladosporium and yeast levels were closest to the baseline values for -80 degrees C storage, while for Penicillium, all three temperature conditions gave similar results. (cdc.gov)

the majority of the yeast will settle to the bottom. (homebrewersassociation.org)
Also, the yeast, troub, etc. did not settle well, so I too lost a lot of volume as well. (midwestsupplies.com)

This yeast leaves a smooth, full character to the malt with mild yet pleasant esters and flavors reminiscent of apple pie spices. (brewery.org)

If you do have a yeast infection, your health care provider probably will prescribe a pill to swallow or a cream, tablet, or suppository to put in the vagina. (kidshealth.org)
After you have been diagnosed, your doctor may prescribe medication to get rid of the yeast infection. (medicinenet.com)

Additionally, if left untreated, you can experience chronic yeast infections or, more seriously, it can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease or an infected fallopian tube. (pregnancy-info.net)

There are a number of ways you can include nutritional yeast in your diet to boost your B-vitamin intake. (ehow.com)
The various contributors involved in the value chain of High Selenium Yeast (High-Selenium Yeast) include manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, intermediaries, and customers. (openpr.com)

Vaginal yeast infections are common in young women, and many will have one at some point. (kidshealth.org)
Therefore it is quite common in science to transplant human genes in a yeast. (tudelft.nl)
Yeast infections are incredibly common. (pregnancy-info.net)
So common, in fact, that it is estimated that half of all American women will develop at least one vaginal yeast infection by their 25th birthday. (pregnancy-info.net)
Yeast infections are more common than you might think. (medicinenet.com)
While it is a common practice with many operators to add the water to the mixing bowl and then add the yeast, salt and sugar to the bowl followed by the flour, I don't recommend the practice as a delay in beginning. (pizzatoday.com)

Anatomy26

Organisms24

Diseases2

Chemicals and Drugs103

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment23

Phenomena and Processes81

Disciplines and Occupations2

Technology, Industry, Agriculture2

Information Science3

Health Care2

A novel H2A/H4 nucleosomal histone acetyltransferase in Tetrahymena thermophila. (1/4035)

The LIM-only protein PINCH directly interacts with integrin-linked kinase and is recruited to integrin-rich sites in spreading cells. (2/4035)

Phosphorylation of yeast TBP by protein kinase CK2 reduces its specific binding to DNA. (3/4035)

An Arabidopsis 14-3-3 protein can act as a transcriptional activator in yeast. (4/4035)

Identification of yeasts by RFLP analysis of the 5.8S rRNA gene and the two ribosomal internal transcribed spacers. (5/4035)

Identification of a novel domain shared by putative components of the endocytic and cytoskeletal machinery. (6/4035)

Hmo1p, a high mobility group 1/2 homolog, genetically and physically interacts with the yeast FKBP12 prolyl isomerase. (7/4035)

Genetic analysis of viable Hsp90 alleles reveals a critical role in Drosophila spermatogenesis. (8/4035)

Yeasts

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Proteins

Fungal Proteins

Genes, Fungal

Yeast, Dried

Molecular Sequence Data

DNA, Fungal

Schizosaccharomyces

Amino Acid Sequence

Saccharomycetales

Mutation

Base Sequence

Schizosaccharomyces pombe Proteins

Two-Hybrid System Techniques

RNA, Fungal

Sequence Homology, Amino Acid

Cloning, Molecular

Chromosomes, Artificial, Yeast

Genome, Fungal

Chromosomes, Fungal

Protein Binding

Plasmids

Killer Factors, Yeast

Recombinant Fusion Proteins

Transcription Factors

DNA-Binding Proteins

Gene Deletion

Transcription, Genetic

Cell Cycle Proteins

Sequence Alignment

Protein Structure, Tertiary

Mitochondria

Candida albicans

Binding Sites

Vacuoles

Nuclear Proteins

Kinetics

Spores, Fungal

Carrier Proteins

Temperature

Mutagenesis

Transformation, Genetic

Recombinant Proteins

Membrane Proteins

Rhodotorula

Models, Biological

Fermentation

Kluyveromyces

Conserved Sequence

Restriction Mapping

DNA Primers

Adenosine Triphosphatases

Culture Media

Escherichia coli

Cell Nucleus

Mitosis

Suppression, Genetic

Species Specificity

RNA, Messenger

Meiosis

Substrate Specificity

Mutagenesis, Site-Directed

DNA, Complementary

Recombination, Genetic

Vesicular Transport Proteins

Mycology

Protein Kinases

Protein Transport

Biological Transport

Antifungal Agents

DNA Replication

RNA, Ribosomal

Promoter Regions, Genetic

RNA, Transfer

Models, Molecular

Cathepsin A

Haploidy

Repressor Proteins

Gene Library