The entering of cells by viruses following VIRUS ATTACHMENT. This is achieved by ENDOCYTOSIS, by direct MEMBRANE FUSION of the viral membrane with the CELL MEMBRANE, or by translocation of the whole virus across the cell membrane.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. ENDOSOMES play a central role in endocytosis.
Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.
The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.
The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS originally isolated from Rhesus monkey kidney tissue. It produces malignancy in human and newborn hamster kidney cell cultures.
The main structural coat protein of COATED VESICLES which play a key role in the intracellular transport between membranous organelles. Each molecule of clathrin consists of three light chains (CLATHRIN LIGHT CHAINS) and three heavy chains (CLATHRIN HEAVY CHAINS) that form a structure called a triskelion. Clathrin also interacts with cytoskeletal proteins.
The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.
Viruses parasitic on plants higher than bacteria.
Viruses whose nucleic acid is DNA.
Viruses which lack a complete genome so that they cannot completely replicate or cannot form a protein coat. Some are host-dependent defectives, meaning they can replicate only in cell systems which provide the particular genetic function which they lack. Others, called SATELLITE VIRUSES, are able to replicate only when their genetic defect is complemented by a helper virus.
The type species of ALPHAVIRUS normally transmitted to birds by CULEX mosquitoes in Egypt, South Africa, India, Malaya, the Philippines, and Australia. It may be associated with fever in humans. Serotypes (differing by less than 17% in nucleotide sequence) include Babanki, Kyzylagach, and Ockelbo viruses.
The type species of MORBILLIVIRUS and the cause of the highly infectious human disease MEASLES, which affects mostly children.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
The type species of LYSSAVIRUS causing rabies in humans and other animals. Transmission is mostly by animal bites through saliva. The virus is neurotropic multiplying in neurons and myotubes of vertebrates.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.
A family of high molecular weight GTP phosphohydrolases that play a direct role in vesicle transport. They associate with microtubule bundles (MICROTUBULES) and are believed to produce mechanical force via a process linked to GTP hydrolysis. This enzyme was formerly listed as EC 3.6.1.50.
A subfamily in the family MURIDAE, comprising the hamsters. Four of the more common genera are Cricetus, CRICETULUS; MESOCRICETUS; and PHODOPUS.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
A species of FLAVIVIRUS, one of the Japanese encephalitis virus group (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUSES, JAPANESE). It can infect birds and mammals. In humans, it is seen most frequently in Africa, Asia, and Europe presenting as a silent infection or undifferentiated fever (WEST NILE FEVER). The virus appeared in North America for the first time in 1999. It is transmitted mainly by CULEX spp mosquitoes which feed primarily on birds, but it can also be carried by the Asian Tiger mosquito, AEDES albopictus, which feeds mainly on mammals.
A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.
Regulatory proteins that down-regulate phosphorylated G-protein membrane receptors, including rod and cone photoreceptors and adrenergic receptors.
A group of viruses in the PNEUMOVIRUS genus causing respiratory infections in various mammals. Humans and cattle are most affected but infections in goats and sheep have also been reported.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Cytoplasmic vesicles formed when COATED VESICLES shed their CLATHRIN coat. Endosomes internalize macromolecules bound by receptors on the cell surface.
The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.
The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. It may be effected by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including B-cell LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES, glucocorticoid hormones, halogenated pyrimidines, IONIZING RADIATION, ultraviolet light, and superinfecting viruses.
The type species of VESICULOVIRUS causing a disease symptomatically similar to FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE in cattle, horses, and pigs. It may be transmitted to other species including humans, where it causes influenza-like symptoms.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Membrane glycoproteins from influenza viruses which are involved in hemagglutination, virus attachment, and envelope fusion. Fourteen distinct subtypes of HA glycoproteins and nine of NA glycoproteins have been identified from INFLUENZA A VIRUS; no subtypes have been identified for Influenza B or Influenza C viruses.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
Specialized regions of the cell membrane composed of pits coated with a bristle covering made of the protein CLATHRIN. These pits are the entry route for macromolecules bound by cell surface receptors. The pits are then internalized into the cytoplasm to form the COATED VESICLES.
The ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant within a cell (latent infection). In eukaryotes, subsequent activation and viral replication is thought to be caused by extracellular stimulation of cellular transcription factors. Latency in bacteriophage is maintained by the expression of virally encoded repressors.
A CELL LINE derived from the kidney of the African green (vervet) monkey, (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS) used primarily in virus replication studies and plaque assays.
The infective system of a virus, composed of the viral genome, a protein core, and a protein coat called a capsid, which may be naked or enclosed in a lipoprotein envelope called the peplos.

Inhibition of Henipavirus fusion and infection by heptad-derived peptides of the Nipah virus fusion glycoprotein. (1/1806)

BACKGROUND: The recent emergence of four new members of the paramyxovirus family has heightened the awareness of and re-energized research on new and emerging diseases. In particular, the high mortality and person to person transmission associated with the most recent Nipah virus outbreaks, as well as the very recent re-emergence of Hendra virus, has confirmed the importance of developing effective therapeutic interventions. We have previously shown that peptides corresponding to the C-terminal heptad repeat (HR-2) of the fusion envelope glycoprotein of Hendra virus and Nipah virus were potent inhibitors of both Hendra virus and Nipah virus-mediated membrane fusion using recombinant expression systems. In the current study, we have developed shorter, second generation HR-2 peptides which include a capped peptide via amidation and acetylation and two poly(ethylene glycol)-linked (PEGylated) peptides, one with the PEG moity at the C-terminus and the other at the N-terminus. Here, we have evaluated these peptides as well as the corresponding scrambled peptide controls in Nipah virus and Hendra virus-mediated membrane fusion and against infection by live virus in vitro. RESULTS: Unlike their predecessors, the second generation HR-2 peptides exhibited high solubility and improved synthesis yields. Importantly, both Nipah virus and Hendra virus-mediated fusion as well as live virus infection were potently inhibited by both capped and PEGylated peptides with IC50 concentrations similar to the original HR-2 peptides, whereas the scrambled modified peptides had no inhibitory effect. These data also indicate that these chemical modifications did not alter the functional properties of the peptides as inhibitors. CONCLUSION: Nipah virus and Hendra virus infection in vitro can be potently blocked by specific HR-2 peptides. The improved synthesis and solubility characteristics of the second generation HR-2 peptides will facilitate peptide synthesis for pre-clinical trial application in an animal model of Henipavirus infection. The applied chemical modifications are also predicted to increase the serum half-life in vivo and should increase the chance of success in the development of an effective antiviral therapy.  (+info)

Calcium-dependent viral internalization is required for adenovirus type 7 induction of IL-8 protein. (2/1806)

The host response to adenovirus (Ad) infection involves induction of cytokines in lung epithelia. We have demonstrated induction of the lung neutrophil chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8) by Ad7, a major lung pathogen, in A549 lung epithelial cells and lung tissue through activation of the Erk signaling pathway. However, the mechanism of IL-8 induction is still unclear. In this paper, we first showed that Ad7 viral gene expression is not essential for IL-8 induction as psoralen-UV inactivation of Ad7 did not affect IL-8 mRNA induction or IL-8 protein induction in A549 cells. We then inhibited internalization of Ad7 by treatment of A549 cells with EGTA in calcium-free medium during exposure to Ad7. We verified that this treatment inhibited Ad internalization by confocal microscopy, FACS analysis and Ad E1A and fiber mRNA expression. Preventing internalization by calcium depletion did not inhibit Erk activation by Ad7. However, calcium-dependent internalization was required for IL-8 protein production in Ad7 exposed cells. This is not likely due to an effect of calcium depletion on downstream Erk signaling or IL-8 protein production since calcium depletion did not block IL-8 protein production stimulated by PMA, and because addition of EGTA subsequent to Ad7 internalization also did not prevent Ad induction of IL-8. These studies indicate that Ad7 internalization is calcium-dependent and is required for IL-8 protein induction upon Ad7 infection. Ad7 induction of Erk is independent of calcium and does not require virus internalization.  (+info)

The small envelope protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus possesses ion channel protein-like properties. (3/1806)

The small envelope (E) protein of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is a hydrophobic 73 amino acid protein encoded in the internal open reading frame (ORF) of the bicistronic mRNA2. As a first step towards understanding the biological role of E protein during PRRSV replication, E gene expression was blocked in a full-length infectious clone by mutating the ATG translational initiation to GTG, such that the full-length mutant genomic clone was unable to synthesize the E protein. DNA transfection of PRRSV-susceptible cells with the E gene knocked-out genomic clone showed the absence of virus infectivity. P129-DeltaE-transfected cells however produced virion particles in the culture supernatant, and these particles contained viral genomic RNA, demonstrating that the E protein is essential for PRRSV infection but dispensable for virion assembly. Electron microscopy suggests that the P129-DeltaE virions assembled in the absence of E had a similar appearance to the wild-type particles. Strand-specific RT-PCR demonstrated that the E protein-negative, non-infectious P129-DeltaE virus particles were able to enter cells but further steps of replication were interrupted. The entry of PRRSV has been suggested to be via receptor-mediated endocytosis, and lysomotropic basic compounds and known ion-channel blocking agents both inhibited PRRSV replication effectively during the uncoating process. The expression of E protein in Escherichia coli-mediated cell growth arrests and increased the membrane permeability. Cross-linking experiments in cells infected with PRRSV or transfected with E gene showed that the E protein was able to form homo-oligomers. Taken together, our data suggest that the PRRSV E protein is likely an ion-channel protein embedded in the viral envelope and facilitates uncoating of virus and release of the genome in the cytoplasm.  (+info)

Induction of transcription factor Egr-1 gene expression in astrocytoma cells by Murine coronavirus infection. (4/1806)

Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) causes encephalitis and demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS) of susceptible rodents. Astrocytes are one of the major targets for MHV infection in the CNS, and respond to MHV infection by expressing diverse molecules that may contribute to CNS pathogenesis. Here we characterized the activation of an immediate-early transcription factor Egr-1 by MHV infection in an astrocytoma cell line. We found that the expression of Egr-1 was dramatically increased following virus infection. Using various inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinases, we identified that the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 were involved in the activation of Egr-1 transcription by MHV infection. Experiments with ultraviolet light-inactivated virus revealed that the induction of Egr-1 did not require virus replication and was likely mediated during cell entry. We further found that over-expression of Egr-1 suppressed the expression of BNip3, a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family. This finding may provide an explanation for our previously observed down-regulation of BNip3 by MHV infection in astrocytoma cells (Cai, Liu, Yu, and Zhang, Virology 316:104-115, 2003). Furthermore, knockdown of Egr-1 by an siRNA inhibited MHV propagation, suggesting the biological relevance of Egr-1 induction to virus replication. In addition, the persistence/demylinating-positive strains (JHM and A59) induced Egr-1 expression, whereas the persistence/demylinating-negative strain (MHV-2) did not. These results indicate a correlation between the ability of MHVs to induce Egr-1 expression and their ability to cause demyelination in the CNS, which may suggest a potential role for the induction of Egr-1 in viral pathogenesis.  (+info)

Paramyxovirus fusion: real-time measurement of parainfluenza virus 5 virus-cell fusion. (5/1806)

Although cell-cell fusion assays are useful surrogate methods for studying virus fusion, differences between cell-cell and virus-cell fusion exist. To examine paramyxovirus fusion in real time, we labeled viruses with fluorescent lipid probes and monitored virus-cell fusion by fluorimetry. Two parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5) isolates (W3A and SER) and PIV5 containing mutations within the fusion protein (F) were studied. Fusion was specific and temperature-dependent. Compared to many low pH-dependent viruses, the kinetics of PIV5 fusion was slow, approaching completion within several minutes. As predicted from cell-cell fusion assays, virus containing an F protein with an extended cytoplasmic tail (rSV5 F551) had reduced fusion compared to wild-type virus (W3A). In contrast, virus-cell fusion for SER occurred at near wild-type levels, despite the fact that this isolate exhibits a severely reduced cell-cell fusion phenotype. These results support the notion that virus-cell and cell-cell fusion have significant differences.  (+info)

Identification and characterization of a novel gene encoding an RGD-containing protein in large yellow croaker iridovirus. (6/1806)

Many virus-encoded RGD-containing proteins have been reported to play important roles in virus attachment and entry. Here we report the identification and functional characterization of a gene encoding an RGD-containing protein (037L) from large yellow croaker iridovirus (LYCIV), a causative agent of epizootics among large yellow croaker, Pseudosciaena crocea. The 037L gene is 1347 bp long and encodes a protein of 449 amino acids containing a biologically active RGD tri-peptide predicted with SURFC and STRIDE software. Temporal analysis of 037L gene transcription showed that this gene was a late gene. Subcellular localization of 037L in insect Hi5 cells using baculovirus vector system indicated that 037L might be a membrane-tropistic protein and functionally associated with the cytoplasma-membrane. The recombinant 037L expressed in E. coli could effectively induce the morphological changes of BF-2 cells and promote cellular aggregation, demonstrating that it can bind with surface molecules of BF-2 cells. The neutralization assay showed that LYCIV infection of BF-2 cells was significantly inhibited by anti-037L IgG, as determined by a real-time PCR of viral concentrations in the culture supernatants of LYCIV-infected cells, suggesting that it might have an important role in virus infectivity. This is the first report of the functional gene involved in virus infection and virus-host interaction in Megalocytivirus.  (+info)

Diverse CD81 proteins support hepatitis C virus infection. (7/1806)

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) entry is dependent on CD81. To investigate whether the CD81 sequence is a determinant of HCV host range, we expressed a panel of diverse CD81 proteins and tested their ability to interact with HCV. CD81 large extracellular loop (LEL) sequences were expressed as recombinant proteins; the human and, to a low level, the African green monkey sequences bound soluble HCV E2 (sE2) and inhibited infection by retrovirus pseudotype particles bearing HCV glycoproteins (HCVpp). In contrast, mouse or rat CD81 proteins failed to bind sE2 or to inhibit HCVpp infection. However, CD81 proteins from all species, when expressed in HepG2 cells, conferred susceptibility to infection by HCVpp and cell culture-grown HCV to various levels, with the rat sequence being the least efficient. Recombinant human CD81 LEL inhibited HCVpp infectivity only if present during the virus-cell incubation, consistent with a role for CD81 after virus attachment. Amino acid changes that abrogate sE2 binding (I182F, N184Y, and F186S, alone or in combination) were introduced into human CD81. All three amino acid changes in human CD81 resulted in a molecule that still supported HCVpp infection, albeit with reduced efficiency. In summary, there is a remarkable plasticity in the range of CD81 sequences that can support HCV entry, suggesting that CD81 polymorphism may contribute to, but alone does not define, the HCV susceptibility of a species. In addition, the capacity to support viral entry is only partially reflected by assays measuring sE2 interaction with recombinant or full-length CD81 proteins.  (+info)

Persistent hepatitis C virus infection in vitro: coevolution of virus and host. (8/1806)

The virological and cellular consequences of persistent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have been elusive due to the absence of the requisite experimental systems. Here, we report the establishment and the characteristics of persistent in vitro infection of human hepatoma-derived cells by a recently described HCV genotype 2a infectious molecular clone. Persistent in vitro infection was characterized by the selection of viral variants that displayed accelerated expansion kinetics, higher peak titers, and increased buoyant densities. Sequencing analysis revealed the selection of a single adaptive mutation in the HCV E2 envelope protein that was largely responsible for the variant phenotype. In parallel, as the virus became more aggressive, cells that were resistant to infection emerged, displaying escape mechanisms operative at the level of viral entry, HCV RNA replication, or both. Collectively, these results reveal the existence of coevolutionary events during persistent HCV infection that favor survival of both virus and host.  (+info)

Virus internalization, also known as viral entry, is the process by which a virus enters a host cell to infect it and replicate its genetic material. This process typically involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The viral envelope proteins bind to specific receptors on the surface of the host cell.
2. Entry: The virus then enters the host cell through endocytosis or membrane fusion, depending on the type of virus.
3. Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the viral capsid is removed, releasing the viral genome into the cytoplasm.
4. Replication: The viral genome then uses the host cell's machinery to replicate itself and produce new viral particles.

It's important to note that the specific mechanisms of virus internalization can vary widely between different types of viruses, and are an active area of research in virology and infectious disease.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Endocytosis is the process by which cells absorb substances from their external environment by engulfing them in membrane-bound structures, resulting in the formation of intracellular vesicles. This mechanism allows cells to take up large molecules, such as proteins and lipids, as well as small particles, like bacteria and viruses. There are two main types of endocytosis: phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell drinking). Phagocytosis involves the engulfment of solid particles, while pinocytosis deals with the uptake of fluids and dissolved substances. Other specialized forms of endocytosis include receptor-mediated endocytosis and caveolae-mediated endocytosis, which allow for the specific internalization of molecules through the interaction with cell surface receptors.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.

There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:

1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.

RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.

The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.

Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.

The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:

1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.

Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.

Virus shedding refers to the release of virus particles by an infected individual, who can then transmit the virus to others through various means such as respiratory droplets, fecal matter, or bodily fluids. This occurs when the virus replicates inside the host's cells and is released into the surrounding environment, where it can infect other individuals. The duration of virus shedding varies depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response. It's important to note that some individuals may shed viruses even before they show symptoms, making infection control measures such as hand hygiene, mask-wearing, and social distancing crucial in preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.

SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.

The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.

Clathrin is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the formation of coated vesicles within cells. These vesicles are responsible for transporting materials between different cellular compartments, such as from the plasma membrane to the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus. Clathrin molecules form a lattice-like structure that curves around the vesicle, providing stability and shape to the coated vesicle. This process is known as clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

The formation of clathrin-coated vesicles begins with the recruitment of clathrin proteins to specific sites on the membrane, where they assemble into a polygonal lattice structure. As more clathrin molecules join the assembly, the lattice curves and eventually pinches off from the membrane, forming a closed vesicle. The clathrin coat then disassembles, releasing the vesicle to continue with its intracellular transport mission.

Disruptions in clathrin-mediated endocytosis can lead to various cellular dysfunctions and diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders and certain types of cancer.

Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.

A plant virus is not defined in medical terms, as viruses are typically considered within the context of living organisms and plants are not classified as such. However, I can provide a general virology definition for you:

Plant viruses are small infectious agents that consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat. They infect various plant species, causing a wide range of symptoms and diseases, which can result in significant economic losses in agriculture and horticulture. Plant viruses lack the ability to replicate outside a host cell, and they rely on the host's metabolic machinery for their reproduction. They can be transmitted through various means, such as insect vectors, seeds, or mechanical contact.

DNA viruses are a type of virus that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. These viruses replicate by using the host cell's machinery to synthesize new viral components, which are then assembled into new viruses and released from the host cell.

DNA viruses can be further classified based on the structure of their genomes and the way they replicate. For example, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses have a genome made up of two strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have a genome made up of a single strand of DNA.

Examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, human papillomavirus, and adenoviruses. Some DNA viruses are associated with specific diseases, such as cancer (e.g., human papillomavirus) or neurological disorders (e.g., herpes simplex virus).

It's important to note that while DNA viruses contain DNA as their genetic material, RNA viruses contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. Both DNA and RNA viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.

Sindbis virus is an alphavirus that belongs to the Togaviridae family. It's named after the location where it was first isolated, in Sindbis, Egypt, in 1952. This virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes and can infect a wide range of animals, including birds and humans. In humans, Sindbis virus infection often causes a mild flu-like illness characterized by fever, rash, and joint pain. However, some people may develop more severe symptoms, such as neurological disorders, although this is relatively rare. There is no specific treatment for Sindbis virus infection, and management typically involves supportive care to alleviate symptoms.

Measles virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the causative agent of measles, a highly contagious infectious disease characterized by fever, cough, runny nose, and a red, blotchy rash. The virus primarily infects the respiratory tract and then spreads throughout the body via the bloodstream.

The genome of the measles virus is approximately 16 kilobases in length and encodes for eight proteins: nucleocapsid (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), fusion protein (F), hemagglutinin (H), large protein (L), and two non-structural proteins, V and C. The H protein is responsible for binding to the host cell receptor CD150 (SLAM) and mediating viral entry, while the F protein facilitates fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.

Measles virus is transmitted through respiratory droplets and direct contact with infected individuals. The virus can remain airborne for up to two hours in a closed space, making it highly contagious. Measles is preventable through vaccination, which has led to significant reductions in the incidence of the disease worldwide.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the nervous system of mammals, including humans. It's caused by the rabies virus (RV), which belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Lyssavirus. The virus has a bullet-shaped appearance under an electron microscope and is encased in a lipid envelope.

The rabies virus primarily spreads through the saliva of infected animals, usually via bites. Once inside the body, it travels along nerve fibers to the brain, where it multiplies rapidly and causes inflammation (encephalitis). The infection can lead to symptoms such as anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, paralysis, coma, and ultimately death if left untreated.

Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear, but prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which includes vaccination and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin, can prevent the disease from developing when administered after an exposure to a potentially rabid animal. Pre-exposure vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure, such as veterinarians and travelers visiting rabies-endemic areas.

"Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the Influenza A virus that is often found in avian species (birds) and can occasionally infect humans. The "H5N1" refers to the specific proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) found on the surface of the virus. This subtype has caused serious infections in humans, with high mortality rates, especially in cases where people have had close contact with infected birds. It does not commonly spread from person to person, but there is concern that it could mutate and adapt to efficiently transmit between humans, which would potentially cause a pandemic.

Dynamins are a family of large GTPase proteins that play important roles in membrane trafficking processes, such as endocytosis and vesicle budding. They are involved in the constriction and separation of membranes during these events by forming helical structures around the necks of budding vesicles and hydrolyzing GTP to provide the mechanical force required for membrane fission. Dynamins have also been implicated in other cellular processes, including cytokinesis, actin dynamics, and maintenance of mitochondrial morphology. There are three main isoforms of dynamin in mammals: dynamin 1, dynamin 2, and dynamin 3, which differ in their expression patterns, subcellular localization, and functions.

Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

"Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes respiratory illness and is known to circulate in humans and animals, including birds and pigs. The "H3N2" refers to the two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). In this subtype, the H protein is of the H3 variety and the N protein is of the N2 variety. This subtype has been responsible for several influenza epidemics and pandemics in humans, including the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic. It is one of the influenza viruses that are monitored closely by public health authorities due to its potential to cause significant illness and death, particularly in high-risk populations such as older adults, young children, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is an Flavivirus, which is a type of virus that is spread by mosquitoes. It was first discovered in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 and has since been found in many countries throughout the world. WNV can cause a mild to severe illness known as West Nile fever.

Most people who become infected with WNV do not develop any symptoms, but some may experience fever, headache, body aches, joint pain, vomiting, diarrhea, or a rash. In rare cases, the virus can cause serious neurological illnesses such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) or meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord). These severe forms of the disease can be fatal, especially in older adults and people with weakened immune systems.

WNV is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, but it can also be spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. There is no specific treatment for WNV, and most people recover on their own with rest and supportive care. However, hospitalization may be necessary in severe cases. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites by using insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito activity hours.

'Cercopithecus aethiops' is the scientific name for the monkey species more commonly known as the green monkey. It belongs to the family Cercopithecidae and is native to western Africa. The green monkey is omnivorous, with a diet that includes fruits, nuts, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates. They are known for their distinctive greenish-brown fur and long tail. Green monkeys are also important animal models in biomedical research due to their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), which is closely related to HIV.

Arrestins are a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. There are four main types of arrestins: visual arrestin (also known as arr1 or S-arrestin), β-arrestin1 (also known as arr2 or Kon/Vec), β-arrestin2 (also known as arr3 or hTHT), and arrestin-domain containing protein 1 (ARRDC1).

Arrestins bind to the intracellular domains of activated GPCRs, which leads to several outcomes:

1. They prevent further activation of G proteins by the receptor, effectively "arresting" the signal transduction process.
2. They promote the internalization (endocytosis) of the receptor from the cell membrane into endosomes, where it can be either degraded or recycled back to the cell surface.
3. They act as scaffolds for various signaling complexes and mediate interactions between GPCRs and other intracellular signaling proteins, leading to the activation of different signaling pathways.

Overall, arrestins play a critical role in fine-tuning GPCR signaling, ensuring appropriate cellular responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, and other extracellular signals.

Respiratory Syncytial Viruses (RSV) are a common type of virus that cause respiratory infections, particularly in young children and older adults. They are responsible for inflammation and narrowing of the small airways in the lungs, leading to breathing difficulties and other symptoms associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia.

The term "syncytial" refers to the ability of these viruses to cause infected cells to merge and form large multinucleated cells called syncytia, which is a characteristic feature of RSV infections. The virus spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes, and it can also survive on surfaces for several hours, making transmission easy.

RSV infections are most common during the winter months and can cause mild to severe symptoms depending on factors such as age, overall health, and underlying medical conditions. While RSV is typically associated with respiratory illnesses in children, it can also cause significant disease in older adults and immunocompromised individuals. Currently, there is no vaccine available for RSV, but antiviral medications and supportive care are used to manage severe infections.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Endosomes are membrane-bound compartments within eukaryotic cells that play a critical role in intracellular trafficking and sorting of various cargoes, including proteins and lipids. They are formed by the invagination of the plasma membrane during endocytosis, resulting in the internalization of extracellular material and cell surface receptors.

Endosomes can be classified into early endosomes, late endosomes, and recycling endosomes based on their morphology, molecular markers, and functional properties. Early endosomes are the initial sorting stations for internalized cargoes, where they undergo sorting and processing before being directed to their final destinations. Late endosomes are more acidic compartments that mature from early endosomes and are responsible for the transport of cargoes to lysosomes for degradation.

Recycling endosomes, on the other hand, are involved in the recycling of internalized cargoes back to the plasma membrane or to other cellular compartments. Endosomal sorting and trafficking are regulated by a complex network of molecular interactions involving various proteins, lipids, and intracellular signaling pathways.

Defects in endosomal function have been implicated in various human diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, developmental abnormalities, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying endosomal trafficking and sorting is of great importance for developing therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Protein transport, in the context of cellular biology, refers to the process by which proteins are actively moved from one location to another within or between cells. This is a crucial mechanism for maintaining proper cell function and regulation.

Intracellular protein transport involves the movement of proteins within a single cell. Proteins can be transported across membranes (such as the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or plasma membrane) via specialized transport systems like vesicles and transport channels.

Intercellular protein transport refers to the movement of proteins from one cell to another, often facilitated by exocytosis (release of proteins in vesicles) and endocytosis (uptake of extracellular substances via membrane-bound vesicles). This is essential for communication between cells, immune response, and other physiological processes.

It's important to note that any disruption in protein transport can lead to various diseases, including neurological disorders, cancer, and metabolic conditions.

Viral activation, also known as viral reactivation or virus reactivation, refers to the process in which a latent or dormant virus becomes active and starts to replicate within a host cell. This can occur when the immune system is weakened or compromised, allowing the virus to evade the body's natural defenses and cause disease.

In some cases, viral activation can be triggered by certain environmental factors, such as stress, exposure to UV light, or infection with another virus. Once activated, the virus can cause symptoms similar to those seen during the initial infection, or it may lead to new symptoms depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response.

Examples of viruses that can remain dormant in the body and be reactivated include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It is important to note that not all viruses can be reactivated, and some may remain dormant in the body indefinitely without causing any harm.

Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Vesiculovirus. It is the causative agent of vesicular stomatitis (VS), a viral disease that primarily affects horses and cattle, but can also infect other species including swine, sheep, goats, and humans.

The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their saliva, as well as through insect vectors such as black flies and sandflies. The incubation period for VS ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which infected animals develop fever, lethargy, and vesicular lesions in the mouth, nose, and feet. These lesions can be painful and may cause difficulty eating or walking.

In humans, VSIV infection is typically asymptomatic or causes mild flu-like symptoms such as fever, muscle aches, and headache. Occasionally, individuals may develop vesicular lesions on their skin or mucous membranes, particularly if they have had contact with infected animals.

Diagnosis of VSIV infection is typically made through virus isolation from lesion exudates or blood, as well as through serological testing. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at relieving symptoms, as there are no specific antiviral therapies available for VS. Prevention measures include vaccination of susceptible animals, vector control, and biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of infection between animals.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.

Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.

Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

Hemagglutinin (HA) glycoproteins are surface proteins found on influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the virus's ability to infect and spread within host organisms.

The HAs are responsible for binding to sialic acid receptors on the host cell's surface, allowing the virus to attach and enter the cell. After endocytosis, the viral and endosomal membranes fuse, releasing the viral genome into the host cell's cytoplasm.

There are several subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified so far, with H1, H2, and H3 being common in human infections. The significant antigenic differences among these subtypes make them important targets for the development of influenza vaccines. However, due to their high mutation rate, new vaccine formulations are often required to match the circulating virus strains.

In summary, hemagglutinin glycoproteins on influenza viruses are essential for host cell recognition and entry, making them important targets for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of influenza infections.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Coated pits are specialized regions on the cell membrane that are involved in the process of endocytosis. They are called "coated" pits because they are covered or coated with a layer of proteins and clathrin molecules, which form a lattice-like structure that helps to shape and invaginate the membrane inward, forming a vesicle.

Coated pits play an important role in regulating cellular uptake of various substances, such as nutrients, hormones, and receptors. Once the coated pit has pinched off from the cell membrane, it becomes a coated vesicle, which can then fuse with other intracellular compartments to deliver its contents.

The formation of coated pits is a highly regulated process that involves the recruitment of specific proteins and adaptors to the site of endocytosis. Defects in this process have been implicated in various diseases, including neurodevelopmental disorders and cancer.

Virus latency, also known as viral latency, refers to a state of infection in which a virus remains dormant or inactive within a host cell for a period of time. During this phase, the virus does not replicate or cause any noticeable symptoms. However, under certain conditions such as stress, illness, or a weakened immune system, the virus can become reactivated and begin to produce new viruses, potentially leading to disease.

One well-known example of a virus that exhibits latency is the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox in children. After a person recovers from chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in the nervous system for years or even decades. In some cases, the virus can reactivate later in life, causing shingles, a painful rash that typically occurs on one side of the body.

Virus latency is an important concept in virology and infectious disease research, as it has implications for understanding the persistence of viral infections, developing treatments and vaccines, and predicting the risk of disease recurrence.

Vero cells are a line of cultured kidney epithelial cells that were isolated from an African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) in the 1960s. They are named after the location where they were initially developed, the Vervet Research Institute in Japan.

Vero cells have the ability to divide indefinitely under certain laboratory conditions and are often used in scientific research, including virology, as a host cell for viruses to replicate. This allows researchers to study the characteristics of various viruses, such as their growth patterns and interactions with host cells. Vero cells are also used in the production of some vaccines, including those for rabies, polio, and Japanese encephalitis.

It is important to note that while Vero cells have been widely used in research and vaccine production, they can still have variations between different cell lines due to factors like passage number or culture conditions. Therefore, it's essential to specify the exact source and condition of Vero cells when reporting experimental results.

A virion is the complete, infectious form of a virus outside its host cell. It consists of the viral genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat called the capsid, which is often surrounded by a lipid membrane called the envelope. The envelope may contain viral proteins and glycoproteins that aid in attachment to and entry into host cells during infection. The term "virion" emphasizes the infectious nature of the virus particle, as opposed to non-infectious components like individual capsid proteins or naked viral genome.

Galinier R, Gout E, Lortat-Jacob H, Wood J, Chroboczek J (2003). "Adenovirus protein involved in virus internalization recruits ... "Latent membrane protein 2A of Epstein-Barr virus binds WW domain E3 protein-ubiquitin ligases that ubiquitinate B-cell tyrosine ...
Galinier R, Gout E, Lortat-Jacob H, Wood J, Chroboczek J (2003). "Adenovirus protein involved in virus internalization recruits ...
It was reported that virus internalization is limited upon cholesterol depletion. The receptor used for cell entry is alpha- ... Lassa viruses are enveloped, single-stranded, bisegmented, ambisense RNA viruses. Their genome is contained in two RNA segments ... Alpha-dystroglycan is also used as a receptor by viruses of the New World clade C arenaviruses (Oliveros and Latino viruses). ... Jamie Dyal and Ben Fohner Lassa virus Stanford University Humans and Viruses Class of 2005, n.d. accessed 9 May 2018 Lashley, ...
... internalization, of these cells' sialic acid receptors along with their attached viruses. A portion of the sialic acid receptor ... "The G Protein-Coupled Receptor FFAR2 Promotes Internalization during Influenza A Virus Entry". Journal of Virology. 94 (2). doi ... 4-CMTB and Compound 58 acted to block the ability of the sialic acid-bound virus to enhance endocytosis. The FFAR2-FFAR3 ... Thus, SCFA activated FFAR2 appeared to reduce the severity of this viruses infection in mice. Different results were found in a ...
AXL mediates internalization into the endosome from which these viruses escape and initiate replication. Studies have shown ... AXL also play an important role in Zika virus and SARS-CoV-2 infection, allowing for entry of the virus into host cells. This ... "Expression Analysis Highlights AXL as a Candidate Zika Virus Entry Receptor in Neural Stem Cells". Cell Stem Cell. 18 (5): 591- ...
Overall, the most effective infection occurred by internalization through membrane lesions of the host. One specific protein, ... Broad bean mottle virus Brome mosaic virus Cassia yellow blotch virus Melandrium yellow fletch virus Spring beauty latent virus ... Typical virus infection involves an exponential increase in virus concentration followed by a rapid decline of virus ... Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, known by the abbreviation CCMV, is a virus that specifically infects the cowpea plant, or black- ...
Immediately after internalization of the particle, the viral RNA is released. Poliovirus is a positive-stranded RNA virus. Thus ... and allowing the virus to infect nervous tissue. The mutation rate in the virus is relatively high even for an RNA virus with a ... Virus is shed in the feces of infected individuals. In 95% of cases only a primary, transient presence of viremia (virus in the ... Medicine portal Viruses portal ICTVdb virus classification 2006 Home of Picornaviruses (latest updates of species, serotypes ...
"Analysis of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus attachment and internalization: distinctive roles for heparan ... Members of the species are also known as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 2. Member viruses are a type of ... By 2010, of the top ten swine production states in the United States, viruses in 3 of the 9 major lineages were present. Two of ... Type 2 PRRSV is an enveloped virus with a non-isometric nucleocapsid core. The Type 2 PRRSV genome has 10 open reading frames ( ...
These receptors promote virus-antibody internalization by the immune cells, which should be followed by the virus destruction. ... When an antibody to a virus is unable to neutralize the virus, it forms sub-neutralizing virus-antibody complexes. Upon ... bringing the virus and the cell close enough for a specific virus receptor to bind the virus, beginning infection. This ... Interaction of a virus with antibodies must prevent the virus from attaching to the host cell entry receptors. However, instead ...
April 2010). "Apoptosis induced by Oropouche virus infection in HeLa cells is dependent on virus protein expression". Virus ... In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is ... Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example, the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF ... Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. ...
... of the internalization signal in the Y543 influenza virus hemagglutinin suggest a model for recognition of internalization ... Measles virus matrix protein specifies apical virus release and glycoprotein sorting in epithelial cells. EMBO J. 19, 3576-3585 ... Basis for selective incorporation of glycoproteins into influenza virus envelope. J. Virol. 67, 4831-4841 Measles Viruses with ... Oncolytic measles virus in cutaneous T-cell lymphomas mount anti-tumor immune responses in vivo and target interferon resistant ...
Olson JK, Grose C (May 1997). "Endocytosis and recycling of varicella-zoster virus Fc receptor glycoprotein gE: internalization ... Although this process is primarily used by non-enveloped viruses, enveloped viruses may also use this. HIV is an example of an ... Payne, Susan (2017). "Virus Interactions With the Cell". Viruses: 23-25. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00003-9. ISBN ... Payne, Susan (2017). "Virus Interactions With the Cell". Viruses: 23-25. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00003-9. ISBN ...
Internalization of the virus into myocytes occurs by binding to coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptors (CAR) located in tight ... with sCAR-Fc-virus binding causing the loss of the virus' internal capsid protein, VP4. This irreversible reaction prevents the ... sCAR-Fc prevents the virus entering the cell by competitively binding to coxsackie virus and adenovirus receptors (CAR) on the ... Once the virus penetrates the host's systemic circulation via contaminated water or food, it can travel and infect the heart ...
... the virus is brought into the cell via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Following the internalization of the virus, the viral ... Some diseases that occur as a result of this virus or are associated with this virus include mild upper respiratory illness, ... from respiratory enteric orphan virus. The Mammalian orthoreovirus was labeled an orphan virus in the 1950s when it was ... After the virus has been fully assembled and matured, the newly formed Mammalian orthoreovirus particle is released from the ...
The virus was then known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Charles D. Hudson and Fred Robert Beaudette cultivated the virus ... can enter cells by either fusing to their lipid envelope with the cell membrane on the cell surface or by internalization via ... Once released the viruses can infect other host cells. Infected carriers are able to shed viruses into the environment. The ... The virus can spread to different organs throughout the chicken. The virus is transmitted by aerosol and food contaminated by ...
... of TRAIL amplified apoptotic signaling with reduced TRAIL internalization to enhance antitumor efficacy Oncolytic viruses ... Oncolytic viruses include adenoviruses, Herpes simplex viruses, Semliki forest viruses, poxviruses, among others. They can be ... Cytokine-loaded oncolytic viruses have shown activity in murine models, with several clinical trials under investigation. ... IMLYGIC (talimogene laherparepvec) was the first FDA-approved oncolytic virus for cancer treatment. It is a modified herpes ...
"Internalization of exogenous human immunodeficiency virus-1 protein, Tat, by KG-1 oligodendroglioma cells followed by ... Krachmarov CP, Chepenik LG, Barr-Vagell S, Khalili K, Johnson EM (November 1996). "Activation of the JC virus Tat-responsive ... of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protein Tat and cellular protein Puralpha on DNA replication initiated at the JC virus ... "Interaction of the single-stranded DNA-binding protein Puralpha with the human polyomavirus JC virus early protein T-antigen". ...
... to host integrin entry receptors mediates internalization into the host cell by clathrin-mediated endocytosis of the virus and ... "Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021. ... The virus exits the host cell by nuclear envelope breakdown, viroporins, and lysis. Human, mammals, and vertebrates serve as ... Mastadenovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Adenoviridae. Humans and other mammals serve as natural hosts. There are 51 ...
... actin polymerization is stimulated in the initial steps of the internalization of some viruses, notably HIV, by, for example, ... The make-up of the cytoskeleton is also related to the pathogenicity of intracellular bacteria and viruses, particularly in the ... In addition the vaccine virus Vaccinia also uses elements of the actin cytoskeleton for its dissemination. Pseudomonas ...
... internalization of artificial "viruses"). Subsequently, and led initially by chance to a discovery, he systematically worked ...
Like other nonenveloped DNA viruses, pathogenicity of parvovirus B19 involves binding to host cell receptors, internalization, ... B19 virus is most known for causing disease in the pediatric population; however, it can also affect adults. It is the classic ... This is due to a combination of hemolysis of the red blood cells, as well as the virus directly negatively affecting the red ... This rate is similar to that of other single-stranded DNA viruses. VP2 codons were found to be under purifying selection. In ...
... causing as a result the internalization of the virus. Secondarily, HA is responsible for the fusion of the viral envelope with ... The hemagglutinin of the H5N1 virus has been associated with the high pathogenicity of this flu virus strain, apparently due to ... how influenza A virus hemagglutinin affects host-specific virus infection". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes ... Therefore, HA is responsible for binding Influenza virus to sialic acid on the surface of target cells, such as cells in the ...
In culture blocking endocytosis traps the virus on the surface. The binding of the SARS-CoV-2 virus through mACE2 receptors ... of the spike protein of the coronavirus with mACE2 induces a drop in the levels of mACE2 in cells through internalization and ... the virus that causes SARS), and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). More specifically, the binding of the spike S1 ... But even with only tiny amounts of mACE2, SARS-CoV-2 virus can gain entry into cells if TMPRSS2 is present. Both ACE inhibitors ...
... as the HIV gp120 molecule causes co-internalization of the DC-SIGN molecule and HIV virus particle (virion). The dendritic cell ... Different studies have demonstrated that the ebola virus infection process starts when the virus reaches the cellular DC-SIGN ... Baribaud F, Doms RW, Pöhlmann S (2006). "The role of DC-SIGN and DC-SIGNR in HIV and Ebola virus infection: can potential ... Bénichou S, Benmerah A (2003). "[The HIV nef and the Kaposi-sarcoma-associated virus K3/K5 proteins: "parasites"of the ...
The most understood helical virus is the tobacco mosaic virus. The virus is a single molecule of (+) strand RNA. Each coat ... leading to penetration of the host cell membrane and internalization of the capsid. Delivery of the genome occurs by subsequent ... In other viruses, especially more complex viruses with double-stranded DNA genomes, the capsid proteins assemble into empty ... The size is also different; the tobacco mosaic virus has a 16.33 protein subunits per helical turn, while the influenza A virus ...
Cell uptake/internalisation still represents the biggest hurdle towards successful ON therapeutics. A straightforward uptake, ... The antisense oligonucleotides have also been used to inhibit influenza virus replication in cell lines. Neurodegenerative ... productive), cell internalisation mostly proceeds in an energy-dependant way (receptor mediated endocytosis) but energy- ... "Nucleic acid-mediated cleavage of M1 gene of influenza A virus is significantly augmented by antisense molecules targeted to ...
"Genetically Modified Viruses Help Save a Patient With a 'Superbug' Infection". NPR.org. Gallagher J (8 May 2019). "Phage ... Even engineered phages and induced artificial internalization of phages into mammalian cells do not result in phage propagation ... "Scientists Modify Viruses with CRISPR to Create New Weapon Against Superbugs". NPR. 22 May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019. Eanes, ... Bacteriophages, known as phages, are a form of virus that attach to bacterial cells and inject their genome into the cell. The ...
TIM-1 enhanced dengue virus infectivity by 500-fold, particularly increased virus internalization. TIM-1 directly interacted ... TIM-1 binds to Ebola virus glycoproteins (GP) and mediates Ebola virus cellular entry by increasing Ebola virus infectivity in ... that include viruses such as dengue and ebola. Entry of Lassa fever virus, influenza A virus, and SARS coronavirus were not ... is a natural ligand of hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 (HAVCR1), and the association of IgA with HAVCR1 enhances virus- ...
Carriers can be bio-inspired, such as reconstituted viruses, virus like particles, vesicles, cell ghosts, and functional ... For example, GalNAc-siRNA conjugates not only provide an approach for ligand based cell internalization without the need of ... Virus-like Particles. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are assemblies of viral proteins that package cargo materials such as mRNAs, ... adeno-associated virus(AAV), and other viruses) Re-purposed bacterial toxins and viral components Research into how carriers ...
... simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV), wobbly possum disease virus, and lactate dehydrogenase elevating virus (LDV). PRRSV is a ... Upon binding and internalization, GP2-GP3-GP4 interacts with CD163 mediating the disassembly and release of the nucleocapsid. ... virus isolate and the virus dose. It was shown that pigs could be infected with PRRS virus by several routes of exposure: ... Betaarterivirus suid 1, commonly Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), is a virus that causes a disease ...
Abstract B149: Real-time analysis of cell membrane protein and virus internalization using site-specific conjugation of ... Real-time analysis of cell membrane protein and virus internalization using site-specific conjugation of protease-sensitive ... Real-time analysis of cell membrane protein and virus internalization using site-specific conjugation of protease-sensitive ... Here we report a method for the characterization of protein internalization in real time through the sortase-mediated, site- ...
Selective internalization of sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons infected with herpes simplex virus-1 ... Selective internalization of sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons infected with herpes simplex virus-1 ... Correction: Selective internalization of sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons infected with herpes simplex virus ... Correction: Selective internalization of sodium channels in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons infected with herpes simplex virus ...
Figure 3. Internalization profile of ASC1R in transfected HEL299 and A549 cells. The insets show representative confocal ... With a length of about 30 kb, the genome of SARS-CoV-2 is the largest RNA genome of all known RNA viruses. The replication of ... Figure 3. Internalization profile of ASC1R in transfected HEL299 and A549 cells. The insets show representative confocal ... Tregoning, J.S.; Flight, K.E.; Higham, S.L.; Wang, Z.; Pierce, B.F. Progress of the COVID-19 vaccine effort: Viruses, vaccines ...
Virus Internalization Substances * Affinity Labels * Calcium Channels * Carrier Proteins * JPT2 protein, human ...
Therefore, a trial giving fenofibrate to patients with corona virus infection is recommended. ... Virus Internalization Substances * Hypolipidemic Agents * PPAR alpha * PPARA protein, human * Sulfoglycosphingolipids * ...
... not DC-SIGN-mediated internalization of human immunodeficiency virus, is required for long-term transfer of virus to T cells. ... We suggest that such a mechanism, rather than intracellular storage of incoming virus, accounts for the long-term transfer of ... The C-type lectin DC-SIGN expressed on immature dendritic cells (DCs) captures human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particles and ... allowing incoming virus to persist for several days before infecting target cells. In this study, we provide several lines of ...
Galinier R, Gout E, Lortat-Jacob H, Wood J, Chroboczek J (2003). "Adenovirus protein involved in virus internalization recruits ... "Latent membrane protein 2A of Epstein-Barr virus binds WW domain E3 protein-ubiquitin ligases that ubiquitinate B-cell tyrosine ...
1) Binding and internalization. HSC70 is part of the viral particle and may play a role in viral entry. Also HCV ... Figure 1 A schematic of the hepatitis C virus life cycle. The six steps of the viral life cycle are indicated in colored boxes ... Chaperones in hepatitis C virus infection. World J Hepatol 2016; 8(1): 9-35 [PMID: 26783419 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v8.i1.9] ... Cyp: Cyclophilin; ER: Endoplasmic reticulum; FKBP: FK506-binding protein; HCV: Hepatitis C virus; HSC70: Heat shock cognate ...
This enables the virus to bypass internalization through endosomes. After replication the virus matures by budding from the ... Both virus subtypes in RSV infection of Saudi Arabia children are found to occur with a greater dominance of type A viruses in ... Virus Res 2011, 162:80-99.. *12. Collins PL, Murphy BR. New generation live vaccines against human respiratory syncytial virus ... Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a ubiquitous virus of worldwide distribution and is the leading cause of infant ...
HCV life cycle • a) Virus binding and internalization, • b) cytoplasmic release and uncoating, • c) translation, • d) RNA ... Hepatitis D virus (HDV) - delta agent ss, circular (-) RNA virus similar to certain plant viroids. It has delta antigen. - HDV ... Hepatitis B Virus: Causes, Symptoms, and Detection - Head Start Testing. Infection with Hep B virus is specified by the ... Hepatitis C and G viruses Enveloped ss+RNA viruses, 55-65 nm diameter. 14 genotypes of HCV. 5 genotypes of HGV. Electron ...
... mediated enhancement of dengue virus infection is independent of DC-SIGN internalization signals. Download Prime PubMed App to ... not DC-SIGN-mediated internalization of human immunodeficiency virus, is required for long-term transfer of virus to T cells. ... DC-SIGN (CD209) mediates dengue virus infection of human dendritic cells.. *Beyond attachment: Roles of DC-SIGN in dengue virus ... mediated Enhancement of Dengue Virus Infection Is Independent of DC-SIGN Internalization Signals. J Biol Chem. 2005 Jun 24;280( ...
We propose that additional investigation into the role of ADCP in protective viral responses, the specific virus epitopes ... We propose that additional investigation into the role of ADCP in protective viral responses, the specific virus epitopes ... targeted by ADCP antibodies, and the types of phagocytes and Fc receptors involved in ADCP at sites of virus infection will ... provides mechanisms for clearance of virus and virus-infected cells, as well as for stimulation of downstream adaptive immune ...
Huang Y et al. Nisoldipine Inhibits Influenza A Virus Infection by Interfering with Virus Internalization Process. Viruses 14:N ...
Virus Internalization account_balance. Affiliation. * Faculté de médecine / Section de médecine fondamentale / Département de ... We studied the evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope function during the process of coreceptor ... Conserved changes in envelope function during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coreceptor switching. In: Journal of virology ... Conserved changes in envelope function during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coreceptor switching. ...
2021) Stapled ACE2 peptidomimetics designed to target the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein do not prevent virus internalisation. ... 2013) The genetics of virus particle shape in equine influenza A virus. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, 7(s4), pp. 81- ... 2013) The genetics of virus particle shape in equine influenza A virus. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, 7(s4), pp. 81- ... 2021) Stapled ACE2 peptidomimetics designed to target the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein do not prevent virus internalisation. ...
This study describes a new molecular mechanism implemented by a virus to escape immunosurveillance by selectively targeting ... Inhibition of TNF receptor 1 internalization by adenovirus 14.7K as a novel immune escape mechanism. ... Inhibition of TNF receptor 1 internalization by adenovirus 14.7K as a novel immune escape mechanism. ... Here we report that adenovirus 14.7K protein inhibits ligand-induced TNFR1 internalization. Analysis of purified magnetically ...
Computational study of pomegranate peel extract polyphenols as potential inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 virus internalization. DOI. ...
Hepatitis C virus induces epidermal growth factor receptor activation via CD81 binding for viral internalization and entry. J ... Hepatitis C virus induces epidermal growth factor receptor activation via CD81 binding for viral internalization and entry. J ... Hepatitis C virus NS2 coordinates virus particle assembly through physical interactions with the E1-E2 glycoprotein and NS3- ... Intracellular proton conductance of the hepatitis C virus p7 protein and its contribution to infectious virus production. PLoS ...
Many viruses display affinity for cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans playing crucial role in virus entry. This raises ... Combating viral infection has been shown by adsorption and internalization steps (Kim et al. 2011, 2012). ... Kim M, Yim JH, Kim S-Y, Kim HS, Lee WG, Kim SJ,Kang P-S, Lee C-K (2012) In vitro inhibition of influenza A virus infection by ... Kazłowski B, Chiu Y-H, Kazłowska K, Pan C-L, Wu C-J (2012) Prevention of Japanese encpalitis virus infections by low-degree- ...
... intracellular enveloped virus (IEV), cell-associated enveloped virus (CEV) and extracellular enveloped virus (EEV). These ... Lastly, EEV mediates the long-range dissemination of virus in cell culture and, probably, in vivo. Seven virus-encoded proteins ... IMV is the most abundant form of virus and is retained in cells until lysis; it is a robust, stable virion and is well suited ... The roles of these proteins in virus morphogenesis and dissemination, and as targets for neutralizing antibody are reviewed. ...
In this review article, we outline key characteristics of major gene therapy viruses-adenovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV), ... including host cell interaction and internalization, intracellular sorting, long-range retrograde axonal transport, endosomal ... In this review, we outline key characteristics of major gene therapy viruses - adenovirus, adeno-associated virus and ... Administration of gene therapy viruses into skeletal muscle, where distal terminals of motor and sensory neurons reside, has ...
The effect of PLC-inhibitor on echovirus 1 internalization probed with fluorescently labeled echovirus 1  Myllynen, Mira (2014 ... EV1 on pieni ja vaipaton RNA-virus, jonka proteiinikuori koostuu neljästä proteiinista VP1-VP4. Infektion on osoitettu alkavan ...
... the natural host cell for the viruses, implies a series of constraints restricting the possibilities of analyzing virus-host ... While the molecular biology of the two viruses has been characterized in great detail, the absence of robust cell culture ... and hepatitis D virus (HDV) infections are major causes of liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma worldwide. Despite the ... models for HBV and/or HDV infection has limited the investigation of virus-host interactions. Native hepatoma cell lines do not ...
Viral life cycle Life cycle Entry Replication Shedding Latency Viral shedding refers to the successful production of virus ... "Endocytosis and recycling of varicella-zoster virus Fc receptor glycoprotein gE: internalization mediated by a YXXL motif in ... These include enveloped viruses such as HSV, SARS or smallpox. Prior to budding, the virus may put its own receptor onto the ... Although this process is primarily used by non-enveloped viruses, enveloped viruses may also use this. HIV is an example of an ...
Besides this, CD209 mediates recognition of a wide variety of pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites) and is involved ... in their capture and internalization [20,21]. Plazolles et al. [43] demonstrated the presence of a full‐length soluble secreted ...
Investigation of the Internalization of Dengue Non-Structural Protein 1. Dengue virus is an arbovirus that affects infects as ... My project aims to confirm this and determine the mechanism of internalization and its role in pathology. Results from this ... Interestingly, higher levels of dengue virus non-structural protein 1 (NS1), a protein secreted from infected cells, is ...
Tracking the abundance of TfR on the cell surface and the internalization of its ligand transferrin revealed that USMB acutely ... for the internalization of receptor-bound macromolecules such as Transferrin Receptor (TfR), and distinct mechanism(s) that ... thus impacting the membrane traffic of certain viruses following internalization [61]. It is also possible that the increase in ... their internalization is mediated by the collective action of a number of internalization mechanisms, although the role of ...
... is a kind of γ-herpes virus that is infected with human beings. In 1964, the Epstein team found in Burkittlymphoma (BL) that it ... Internalization of the EBV-IgA-SC complex into glandular epithelial cells via an endocytic pathway is associated with an ... Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a kind of γ-herpes virus that is infected with human beings. In 1964, the Epstein team found in ... EBV is a virus transmitted through saliva. Oral mucosal epithelial cells are the first threshold for their invasive host cells ...
Information sharing, internalisation and comprehension. Information sharing and internalisation refers to the process of ... Family caregivers overwhelmingly agreed (82.3%) (n = 28) that females were at a greater risk of getting the virus but, 18.8% (n ... Some respondents (18.9%) (n = 15) were uncertain as to whether women could be infected more easily by the virus t n men. The ... The increased risk for virus transmission during birth was confirmed by 84.8% (n = 67) of the respondents and denied by 3.8% (n ...
  • This method revealed variation in the rate of internalization for different cell surface receptors and allowed for kinetic characterization of influenza virus internalization. (aacrjournals.org)
  • We propose that additional investigation into the role of ADCP in protective viral responses, the specific virus epitopes targeted by ADCP antibodies, and the types of phagocytes and Fc receptors involved in ADCP at sites of virus infection will provide insight into strategies to successfully leverage this important immune response for improved antiviral immunity through rational vaccine design. (frontiersin.org)
  • APOE associated to the LVP allows the initial virus attachment to cell surface receptors such as the heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), syndecan-1 (SDC1), syndecan-1 (SDC2), the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) and scavenger receptor class B type I (SCARB1) (PubMed:12970454, PubMed:12356718, PubMed:12913001, PubMed:28404852, PubMed:22767607). (proteopedia.org)
  • Prior to budding, the virus may put its own receptor onto the surface of the cell in preparation for the virus to bud through, forming an envelope with the viral receptors already on it. (bionity.com)
  • An example is the use of recycling viral particle receptors in the enveloped varicella-zoster virus [6] . (bionity.com)
  • Our proposed pathway of CAV-2 entry is in contrast to that of human AdV type 5 (HAdV-C5) in non-neuronal cells, where internalization is mediated by auxiliary receptors such as integrins. (cnrs.fr)
  • Virus infection is initiated by the interaction between S protein and host cell surface receptors. (newvita.com)
  • Chemokine receptors (CR), which can mediate migration of immune cells to the site of inflammation, also function as coreceptors for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) entry into CD4 + T lymphocytes and antigen- presenting cells. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • The most common method for monitoring internalization relies on labeling proteins with antibodies modified with a fluorophore or other tag that can also be used to report on whether the protein of interest has been internalized. (aacrjournals.org)
  • Here we report a method for the characterization of protein internalization in real time through the sortase-mediated, site-specific labeling of single domain antibodies or viral proteins with a newly developed, cathepsin-sensitive quenched-fluorophore probe. (aacrjournals.org)
  • DNA viruses encapsidated within a protein shell and 14p) ( 9 , 11 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Binding of mannosylated N-glycans on DV E protein to DC-SIGN triggers a rapid and efficient internalization of the viral glycoprotein. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Here we report that adenovirus 14.7K protein inhibits ligand-induced TNFR1 internalization. (jci.org)
  • Lipase activities of p37, the major envelope protein of vaccinia virus. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Extracellular vaccinia virus formation and cell-to-cell virus transmission are prevented by deletion of the gene encoding the 37,000-Dalton outer envelope protein. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Sequence analysis, expression, and deletion of a vaccinia virus gene encoding a homolog of profilin, a eukaryotic actin-binding protein. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Interestingly, higher levels of dengue virus non-structural protein 1 (NS1), a protein secreted from infected cells, is associated with severe cases of dengue. (berkeley.edu)
  • A hydrophobic domain in the large envelope protein is essential for fusion of duck hepatitis B virus. (edu.au)
  • However, how virus protein-lipid interactions contribute to the viral life cycle remains unclear. (bvsalud.org)
  • Transferrin Receptor Protein 1 Cooperates with mGluR2 To Mediate the Internalization of Rabies Virus and SARS-CoV-2. (cdc.gov)
  • A Novel Vaccine Employing Non-Replicating Rabies Virus Expressing Chimeric SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Domains: Functional Inhibition of Viral/Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Complexes. (cdc.gov)
  • Cells constitutively utilize several distinct mechanisms of endocytosis, including clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) for the internalization of receptor-bound macromolecules such as Transferrin Receptor (TfR), and distinct mechanism(s) that mediate the majority of fluid-phase endocytosis. (plos.org)
  • The inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis using chlorpromazine, siRNAs, and a dominant negative (DN) mutant blocked entry and infection of PSaV Cowden strain, confirming a role for clathrin-mediated internalization. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The internalization process can occur via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, caveolar/lipid raft-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, or a variety of other still poorly characterized mechanisms [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is generally accepted to be a major route by which nonenveloped viruses infect cells [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Therefore, a trial giving fenofibrate to patients with corona virus infection is recommended. (nih.gov)
  • The C-type lectin DC-SIGN expressed on immature dendritic cells (DCs) captures human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particles and enhances the infection of CD4+ T cells. (pasteur.fr)
  • We show that endocytosis-defective DC-SIGN molecules enhance T-cell infection as efficiently as their wild-type counterparts, indicating that DC-SIGN-mediated HIV internalization is dispensable for trans-enhancement. (pasteur.fr)
  • We suggest that such a mechanism, rather than intracellular storage of incoming virus, accounts for the long-term transfer of HIV to CD4+ T cells and may contribute to the spread of infection by DCs. (pasteur.fr)
  • Nearly 100% of children in the USA are infected with the virus by 2 to 3 years of age, several hundred infants may die directly from the infection, while the deaths of an additional several thousand may be attributed to RSV-related complications ( Nair et al, 2010 ). (intechopen.com)
  • While the molecular biology of the two viruses has been characterized in great detail, the absence of robust cell culture models for HBV and/or HDV infection has limited the investigation of virus-host interactions. (mdpi.com)
  • HIV is an example of an enveloped virus that exhibits this process for the infection of macrophages [5] . (bionity.com)
  • EBV's primary infection is considered to be caused by viruses through the oropharyngeal epithelium. (selfgrowth.com)
  • A 2011 research paper in the journal Archives of Virology entitled , "Inhibition of Lassa virus and Ebola virus infection in host cells treated with the kinase inhibitors genistein and tyrphostin," details the pair's therapeutic role in reducing the severity of hemorrhagic fever. (beforeitsnews.com)
  • Untangling the viral replication pathways from host cell functions is challenging because viruses hijack cell machinery upon infection, creating cell conditions more conducive for virus production. (thermofisher.cn)
  • Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites, and so must deliver their genetic material into host cells to initiate infection. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The immune system could play a crucial role in virus infection. (medsci.org)
  • The successful development and implementation to intervene prevention and treatment of virus infection over the past hundred years have had great advances on human and animal health. (medsci.org)
  • However, to this day, in the fight against virus infection, there is no real winner. (medsci.org)
  • The high hydrophobicity of the TM1 domain of L, but not of S, was shown to be essential for virus infection at a step downstream of receptor binding and virus internalization. (edu.au)
  • For successful infection of host cells and virion production, enveloped viruses, including Zika virus (ZIKV), extensively rely on cellular lipids. (bvsalud.org)
  • Consequently, there are complex relationships between the infection process and inflammatory responses to EN resulting in potent effects of nanoparticle s on pulmonary clearance of bacteria. (cdc.gov)
  • However, we observed that endocytosis-defective DC-SIGN molecules allow efficient DV replication, indicating that DC-SIGN endocytosis is dispensable for the internalization step in DV entry. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Furthermore, we found that the same TNF defense mechanisms were instrumental in protecting wild-type adenovirus-infected human cells expressing 14.7K. This study describes a new molecular mechanism implemented by a virus to escape immunosurveillance by selectively targeting TNFR1 endocytosis to prevent TNF-induced DISC formation. (jci.org)
  • Endocytosis and recycling of varicella-zoster virus Fc receptor glycoprotein gE: internalization mediated by a YXXL motif in the cytoplasmic tail. (bionity.com)
  • Although genistein and tyrophostin individually inhibited the entry of these viruses into the cells, together they were able to interfere with endocytosis (the process by which a cell pulls in a virus) and uncoating proteins (the process by which a virus alters proteins on the surface of the host cell to gain entry) while also producing a synergistic effect. (beforeitsnews.com)
  • GP then induces virion internalization by a process that resembles cellular macropinocytosis. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Vaccinia virus produces four different types of virion from each infected cell called intracellular mature virus (IMV), intracellular enveloped virus (IEV), cell-associated enveloped virus (CEV) and extracellular enveloped virus (EEV). (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • IEV is formed by wrapping of IMV with intracellular membranes, and is an intermediate between IMV and CEV/EEV that enables efficient virus dissemination to the cell surface on microtubules. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • An antigenic difference between intracellular and extracellular rabbitpox virus. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • For successful transgene expression, viruses administered into muscle must undergo a series of processes, including host cell interaction and internalization, intracellular sorting, long-range retrograde axonal transport, endosomal liberation, and nuclear import. (frontiersin.org)
  • The mechanisms by which viruses gain entry into host cells are diverse and include direct penetration through the plasma membrane or endocytic uptake followed by vesicular transport through the cytoplasm and delivery to endosomes and other intracellular organelles [ 2 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We therefore asked if in fibroblast-like cells the intracellular domain (ICD) of CAR plays a role in the internalization of the CAV-2 fiber knob (FKCAV), CAV-2, or HAdV-C5 when the capsid cannot engage integrins. (cnrs.fr)
  • IMPORTANCE: Understanding how viruses interact with the host cell surface and reach the intracellular space is of crucial importance for applied and fundamental virology. (cnrs.fr)
  • Dissociation of progeny vaccinia virus from the cell membrane is regulated by a viral envelope glycoprotein: effect of a point mutation in the lectin homology domain of the A34R gene. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • The GP42 in the complex is combined with the HLA II molecular molecules, and caused the virus cell fusion under the participation of GP85/GP25 and GP110 glycoprotein. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Hepatitis C virus (HCV) enters cells via interactions with several host factors, a key one being that between the viral E2 envelope glycoprotein and the CD81 receptor. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses , 7(s4), pp. 81-89. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Virulence and transmission characteristics of clade 2.3.4.4b H5N6 subtype avian influenza viruses possessing different internal gene constellations. (qxmd.com)
  • Shedding - The release of rabies virus from the salivary glands into the saliva. (bionity.com)
  • VINCOV-19 contains Equine polyclonal antibodies (EpAbs) against the COVID-19 virus. (siasat.com)
  • Since neutralizing antibodies could block the internalization of SARS-CoV-2 to lung cells, it was postulated that their passive administration should render maximal clinical benefits if they are applied at the early stages of the disease. (siasat.com)
  • Analysis of purified magnetically labeled TNFR1 complexes from murine and human cells stably transduced with 14.7K revealed that prevention of TNFR1 internalization resulted in inhibition of DISC formation. (jci.org)
  • Binds RNA and may function as a RNA chaperone to induce the RNA structural rearrangements taking place during virus replication (PubMed:18033802). (proteopedia.org)
  • The production of several different virus particles in the VV replication cycle represents a coordinated strategy to exploit cell biology to promote virus spread and to aid virus evasion of antibody and complement. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Once replication has been completed and the host cell is exhausted of all resources in making viral progeny, the viruses may begin to leave the cell by several methods [1] . (bionity.com)
  • Even though the replicative lifecycle of viruses differs greatly between species and categories, there are common stages that are essential for viral replication: attachment, entry and uncoating, replication, assembly, and release. (thermofisher.cn)
  • It was further determined that cell entry of PSaV Cowden strain required actin rearrangements for vesicle internalization, endosomal trafficking from early to late endosomes through microtubules, and late endosomal acidification for uncoating. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The Fc receptor-dependent function of antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP) provides mechanisms for clearance of virus and virus-infected cells, as well as for stimulation of downstream adaptive immune responses by facilitating antigen presentation, or by stimulating the secretion of inflammatory mediators. (frontiersin.org)
  • This interaction is probably promoted via the up-regulation of cellular autophagy by the virus (PubMed:29695434). (proteopedia.org)
  • Overall, the mechanisms of recognition, cellular internalization of EN by immune competent cells, particularly macrophages, represent an important new field of molecular nanotoxicology. (cdc.gov)
  • The roles of these proteins in virus morphogenesis and dissemination, and as targets for neutralizing antibody are reviewed. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • REFERENCE 1 (bases 1 to 7558) AUTHORS Dicaprio,E., Ma,Y., Purgianto,A., Hughes,J. and Li,J. TITLE Internalization and dissemination of human norovirus and animal caliciviruses in hydroponically grown romaine lettuce JOURNAL Appl. (cdc.gov)
  • In this review article, we outline key characteristics of major gene therapy viruses-adenovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV), and lentivirus-and summarize the mechanisms regulating important steps in the virus journey from binding at peripheral nerve terminals to nuclear delivery. (frontiersin.org)
  • To this end recognition of EN by the immune system, our primary defense outpost against foreign invasion is a critical point. (cdc.gov)
  • Recognition versus non-recognition of EN by the immune system not only determines the distribution of nanomaterial s in the body but may also dictate their toxic potential. (cdc.gov)
  • It is therefore not surprising that immune-competent cells may respond to EN in a similar manner as to viruses/bacteria. (cdc.gov)
  • Elucidation of how EN impact the conserved mechanism of autophagy, recognition and/or phagocytosis promise to be an interesting and fruitful area for better understanding of interactions of EN with the cells of innate immune system, particularly macrophages. (cdc.gov)
  • Penetration required intact late endosomes and occurred within 30 min following internalization. (bvsalud.org)
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpr Induces Apoptosis through Caspase Activation. (bionity.com)
  • Unfortunately, no drugs or vaccines have been approved for combating the virus [ 7 ]. (newvita.com)
  • Editorial: mRNA Vaccines and Future Epidemic, Pandemic, and Endemic Zoonotic Virus Infections. (cdc.gov)
  • Viral shedding refers to the successful production of virus progeny and that the progeny is leaving the cell to infect other host cells. (bionity.com)
  • The term is used to refer to shedding from a single cell, shedding from one part of the body into another part of the body, [2] and shedding from bodies into the environment where the viruses may infect other bodies. (bionity.com)
  • This is a good way for a virus to get into macrophages either to infect them or simply travel to other tissues in the body. (bionity.com)
  • Here, we compare the role of a cell adhesion molecule (CAR), in the internalization of adenoviruses that naturally infect humans and Canidae. (cnrs.fr)
  • Dengue virus (DV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus that causes hemorrhagic fever in humans. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Dengue virus is an arbovirus that affects infects as many as 390 million individuals annually. (berkeley.edu)
  • We studied the evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope function during the process of coreceptor switching from CCR5 to CXCR4. (unige.ch)
  • Seven virus-encoded proteins have been identified that are components of IEV, and five of them are present in CEV or EEV. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • The duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) envelope is comprised of two transmembrane (TM) proteins, the large (L) and the small (S), that assemble into virions and subviral particles. (edu.au)
  • While it was previously thought that amyloid fibril-forming proteins are exclusively host-cell encoded, recent studies have revealed that pathogenic viruses can form amyloid-like fibrils too. (bvsalud.org)
  • Further, the presence of specific signals on the surface of EN, such as adsorbed lipids or proteins, confers additional features to the effectiveness of the recognition of nanoparticle s by professions phagocytes. (cdc.gov)
  • Mechanisms of enveloped RNA virus budding. (bionity.com)
  • There have been strenuous efforts to reveal the mechanisms that the host defends itself against invasion by this virus. (medsci.org)
  • However, early virus-host cell interactions and entry mechanisms remain poorly characterized. (bvsalud.org)
  • My project aims to confirm this and determine the mechanism of internalization and its role in pathology. (berkeley.edu)
  • Exchange of the TM1 of DHBV with that of hepatitis B virus yielded functional, infectious DHBV particles, suggesting that TM1 of all of the hepadnaviruses act similarly in the fusion mechanism. (edu.au)
  • Finally, oxidative stress - known to act as an underlying mechanism that drives the toxicities of EN in vitro as well as in vivo - may be triggered as a macrophage response to recognized nanoparticle s. (cdc.gov)
  • The Mechanism and Clinical Outcome of patients with Corona Virus Disease 2019 Whose Nucleic Acid Test has changed from negative to positive, and the therapeutic efficacy of Favipiravir: A structured summary of a study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. (cdc.gov)
  • Viral progeny are synthesized within the cell and the host cell's transport system is used to enclose vacuoles of virus progeny for release into the extracellular space. (bionity.com)
  • We previously proposed that the preferential transduction of neurons by canine adenovirus type 2 (CAV-2) is due to CAR-mediated internalization. (cnrs.fr)
  • It has been proposed that DC-SIGN targets HIV to a nondegradative compartment within DCs and DC-SIGN-expressing cells, allowing incoming virus to persist for several days before infecting target cells. (pasteur.fr)
  • The mode of entry of vaccinia virus into L cells. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Administration of gene therapy viruses into skeletal muscle, where distal terminals of motor and sensory neurons reside, has been shown to result in extensive transduction of cells within the spinal cord, brainstem, and sensory ganglia. (frontiersin.org)
  • Crucially, some viral vectors (i.e., viruses specifically used to deliver genetic material into cells) have the potential to circumvent the blood-brain- (BBB) and blood-spinal cord barriers (BSCB) when intravenously injected. (frontiersin.org)
  • This is also how antiviral responses are able to detect virus infected cells [4] . (bionity.com)
  • Overall, our study establishes Toscana virus as a late-penetrating virus and reveals an atypical use of vacuolar acidity by this virus to enter host cells. (bvsalud.org)
  • We propose that DC-SIGN concentrates mosquito-derived DV particles at the cell surface to allow efficient interaction with an as yet unidentified entry factor that is ultimately responsible for DV internalization and pH-dependent fusion into DCs. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Together, our data indicate a model where alteration at position 420 causes a subtle change in E2 conformation that prevents interaction with SR-BI and increases accessibility to the CD81 binding site in-turn favoring a particular internalization route. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Furthermore, alteration of this residue modulated the interaction with the SR-BI receptor and changes to these key interactions were found to affect the virus internalization route involving the host co-factor, EGFR. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a ubiquitous virus of worldwide distribution and is the leading cause of infant morbidity from respiratory infections. (intechopen.com)
  • Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis D virus (HDV) infections are major causes of liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma worldwide. (mdpi.com)
  • The attempts to treat virus infections occur even earlier than there was an understanding of the concept of a virus as an independent entity. (medsci.org)
  • The number of reported COVID-19 virus infections is still increasing. (newvita.com)
  • The authors, which include researchers from the University of Texas Medical Branch, also reference a previous animal study which shows genistein's ability to reduce harm from Pichinde ́virus (PICV), an Ebola-like virus that also causes hemorrhagic fever. (beforeitsnews.com)
  • Investigating iPSC-derived human neurons and cell lines, we found that virus binding to the cell surface was specific, and 50% of bound virions were endocytosed within 10 min. (bvsalud.org)
  • Budding" through the cell envelope, in effect using the cell's membrane for the virus itself is most effective for viruses that need an envelope in the first place. (bionity.com)
  • The genome of camelpox virus. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • SARS-CoV-2 is a spherical, enveloped, single-stranded positive RNA virus with a diameter of 80 nm-160 nm and a genome size of 29.9 kb [ 8 ]. (newvita.com)
  • It becomes clear that the presence of specific recognition patterns primarily defined by the EN' size and charges are essential for their recognition and uptake by macrophages. (cdc.gov)
  • Role of cell-associated enveloped vaccinia virus in cell-to-cell spread. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Numerous plant compounds, which also come with a host of additional medicinal benefits outside of their role in the fight against the Ebola virus, have been documented to have extreme promise in the deterrence of yet another virus epidemic. (beforeitsnews.com)
  • In summary, we identify a bifunctional role of prM in the ZIKV life cycle by mediating viral entry and virus assembly in a cholesterol-dependent manner. (bvsalud.org)
  • Both mutant viruses were significantly less dependent on SR-BI, and its lipid-transfer activity, for virus entry. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Virus entry relied on vacuolar acidification, with an optimal pH for viral membrane fusion at pH 5.5. (bvsalud.org)
  • Nucleotide sequence of 21·8 kbp of variola major virus strain Harvey and comparison with vaccinia virus. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Gene therapy viruses are non-replicating, but still hijack host cell machinery to express transgenes of interest in the nucleus. (frontiersin.org)
  • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a kind of γ-herpes virus that is infected with human beings. (selfgrowth.com)
  • SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is an enveloped, non-segmented, single-stranded positive-sense RNA (+ssRNA) virus and a newly identified β-coronavirus. (thermofisher.cn)
  • Tracking the abundance of TfR on the cell surface and the internalization of its ligand transferrin revealed that USMB acutely enhances the rate of CME. (plos.org)
  • Although this process is primarily used by non-enveloped viruses, enveloped viruses may also use this. (bionity.com)
  • These include enveloped viruses such as HSV , SARS or smallpox. (bionity.com)
  • Thermo Fisher Scientific offers a complete portfolio of tools and technologies to enable SARS-CoV-2 virus research, supporting collaboration and the acceleration of lifesaving discoveries. (thermofisher.cn)
  • VINCOV-19 comprises highly purified F(ab')2 antibody fragments that have a high neutralizing capacity against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. (siasat.com)
  • In addition, we discuss the functional implications for viral amplification and the complex interplay between viral amyloids, biological functions, virulence, and virus-induced pathologies. (bvsalud.org)