The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. It may be effected by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including B-cell LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES, glucocorticoid hormones, halogenated pyrimidines, IONIZING RADIATION, ultraviolet light, and superinfecting viruses.
This plant order includes 8 families, 66 genera, and about 1,800 species. These herbaceous perennials are mainly found in the wet tropics. Members include the banana family (MUSACEAE) and GINGER family (ZINGIBERACEAE).
An analog of DEOXYURIDINE that inhibits viral DNA synthesis. The drug is used as an antiviral agent.
The type species of LYMPHOCRYPTOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting B-cells in humans. It is thought to be the causative agent of INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS and is strongly associated with oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY;), BURKITT LYMPHOMA; and other malignancies.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.
The type species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS, related to COWPOX VIRUS, but whose true origin is unknown. It has been used as a live vaccine against SMALLPOX. It is also used as a vector for inserting foreign DNA into animals. Rabbitpox virus is a subspecies of VACCINIA VIRUS.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
Process of growing viruses in live animals, plants, or cultured cells.
The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS originally isolated from Rhesus monkey kidney tissue. It produces malignancy in human and newborn hamster kidney cell cultures.
The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.
Viruses parasitic on plants higher than bacteria.
Viruses whose nucleic acid is DNA.
Viruses which lack a complete genome so that they cannot completely replicate or cannot form a protein coat. Some are host-dependent defectives, meaning they can replicate only in cell systems which provide the particular genetic function which they lack. Others, called SATELLITE VIRUSES, are able to replicate only when their genetic defect is complemented by a helper virus.
The type species of ALPHAVIRUS normally transmitted to birds by CULEX mosquitoes in Egypt, South Africa, India, Malaya, the Philippines, and Australia. It may be associated with fever in humans. Serotypes (differing by less than 17% in nucleotide sequence) include Babanki, Kyzylagach, and Ockelbo viruses.
The type species of MORBILLIVIRUS and the cause of the highly infectious human disease MEASLES, which affects mostly children.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
The type species of LYSSAVIRUS causing rabies in humans and other animals. Transmission is mostly by animal bites through saliva. The virus is neurotropic multiplying in neurons and myotubes of vertebrates.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
A species of FLAVIVIRUS, one of the Japanese encephalitis virus group (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUSES, JAPANESE). It can infect birds and mammals. In humans, it is seen most frequently in Africa, Asia, and Europe presenting as a silent infection or undifferentiated fever (WEST NILE FEVER). The virus appeared in North America for the first time in 1999. It is transmitted mainly by CULEX spp mosquitoes which feed primarily on birds, but it can also be carried by the Asian Tiger mosquito, AEDES albopictus, which feeds mainly on mammals.
A group of viruses in the PNEUMOVIRUS genus causing respiratory infections in various mammals. Humans and cattle are most affected but infections in goats and sheep have also been reported.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
The type species of VESICULOVIRUS causing a disease symptomatically similar to FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE in cattle, horses, and pigs. It may be transmitted to other species including humans, where it causes influenza-like symptoms.
The ability of a pathogenic virus to lie dormant within a cell (latent infection). In eukaryotes, subsequent activation and viral replication is thought to be caused by extracellular stimulation of cellular transcription factors. Latency in bacteriophage is maintained by the expression of virally encoded repressors.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
Membrane glycoproteins from influenza viruses which are involved in hemagglutination, virus attachment, and envelope fusion. Fourteen distinct subtypes of HA glycoproteins and nine of NA glycoproteins have been identified from INFLUENZA A VIRUS; no subtypes have been identified for Influenza B or Influenza C viruses.
Viruses that produce tumors.
A CELL LINE derived from the kidney of the African green (vervet) monkey, (CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS) used primarily in virus replication studies and plaque assays.
Species of the genus LENTIVIRUS, subgenus primate immunodeficiency viruses (IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUSES, PRIMATE), that induces acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in monkeys and apes (SAIDS). The genetic organization of SIV is virtually identical to HIV.
A species of CERCOPITHECUS containing three subspecies: C. tantalus, C. pygerythrus, and C. sabeus. They are found in the forests and savannah of Africa. The African green monkey (C. pygerythrus) is the natural host of SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS and is used in AIDS research.
The type species of RUBULAVIRUS that causes an acute infectious disease in humans, affecting mainly children. Transmission occurs by droplet infection.
A species of RESPIROVIRUS also called hemadsorption virus 2 (HA2), which causes laryngotracheitis in humans, especially children.
Viruses which produce a mottled appearance of the leaves of plants.
The infective system of a virus, composed of the viral genome, a protein core, and a protein coat called a capsid, which may be naked or enclosed in a lipoprotein envelope called the peplos.
A species in the genus HEPATOVIRUS containing one serotype and two strains: HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS and Simian hepatitis A virus causing hepatitis in humans (HEPATITIS A) and primates, respectively.
A species of ALPHAVIRUS isolated in central, eastern, and southern Africa.
Group of alpharetroviruses (ALPHARETROVIRUS) producing sarcomata and other tumors in chickens and other fowl and also in pigeons, ducks, and RATS.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
Method for measuring viral infectivity and multiplication in CULTURED CELLS. Clear lysed areas or plaques develop as the VIRAL PARTICLES are released from the infected cells during incubation. With some VIRUSES, the cells are killed by a cytopathic effect; with others, the infected cells are not killed but can be detected by their hemadsorptive ability. Sometimes the plaque cells contain VIRAL ANTIGENS which can be measured by IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE.
The binding of virus particles to receptors on the host cell surface. For enveloped viruses, the virion ligand is usually a surface glycoprotein as is the cellular receptor. For non-enveloped viruses, the virus CAPSID serves as the ligand.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS apparently infecting over 90% of children but not clearly associated with any clinical illness in childhood. The virus remains latent in the body throughout life and can be reactivated under certain circumstances.
Infections produced by oncogenic viruses. The infections caused by DNA viruses are less numerous but more diverse than those caused by the RNA oncogenic viruses.
Viruses whose taxonomic relationships have not been established.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS, originally isolated from the brain of a patient with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. The patient's initials J.C. gave the virus its name. Infection is not accompanied by any apparent illness but serious demyelinating disease can appear later, probably following reactivation of latent virus.
The type species of ALPHARETROVIRUS producing latent or manifest lymphoid leukosis in fowl.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
A family of RNA viruses causing INFLUENZA and other diseases. There are five recognized genera: INFLUENZAVIRUS A; INFLUENZAVIRUS B; INFLUENZAVIRUS C; ISAVIRUS; and THOGOTOVIRUS.
The type species of ORBIVIRUS causing a serious disease in sheep, especially lambs. It may also infect wild ruminants and other domestic animals.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic factors influence the differential control of gene action in viruses.
The type species of RESPIROVIRUS in the subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE. It is the murine version of HUMAN PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS 1, distinguished by host range.
A strain of Murine leukemia virus (LEUKEMIA VIRUS, MURINE) arising during the propagation of S37 mouse sarcoma, and causing lymphoid leukemia in mice. It also infects rats and newborn hamsters. It is apparently transmitted to embryos in utero and to newborns through mother's milk.
Insertion of viral DNA into host-cell DNA. This includes integration of phage DNA into bacterial DNA; (LYSOGENY); to form a PROPHAGE or integration of retroviral DNA into cellular DNA to form a PROVIRUS.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The outer protein protective shell of a virus, which protects the viral nucleic acid.
The type species of the FLAVIVIRUS genus. Principal vector transmission to humans is by AEDES spp. mosquitoes.
A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily ALPHAHERPESVIRINAE, consisting of herpes simplex-like viruses. The type species is HERPESVIRUS 1, HUMAN.
The type species of TOBAMOVIRUS which causes mosaic disease of tobacco. Transmission occurs by mechanical inoculation.
Pneumovirus infections caused by the RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUSES. Humans and cattle are most affected but infections in goats and sheep have been reported.
The type species of LEPORIPOXVIRUS causing infectious myxomatosis, a severe generalized disease, in rabbits. Tumors are not always present.
Inactivation of viruses by non-immune related techniques. They include extremes of pH, HEAT treatment, ultraviolet radiation, IONIZING RADIATION; DESICCATION; ANTISEPTICS; DISINFECTANTS; organic solvents, and DETERGENTS.
A species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS that is the etiologic agent of COWPOX. It is closely related to but antigenically different from VACCINIA VIRUS.
Visible morphologic changes in cells infected with viruses. It includes shutdown of cellular RNA and protein synthesis, cell fusion, release of lysosomal enzymes, changes in cell membrane permeability, diffuse changes in intracellular structures, presence of viral inclusion bodies, and chromosomal aberrations. It excludes malignant transformation, which is CELL TRANSFORMATION, VIRAL. Viral cytopathogenic effects provide a valuable method for identifying and classifying the infecting viruses.
A species of ORTHOPOXVIRUS causing infections in humans. No infections have been reported since 1977 and the virus is now believed to be virtually extinct.
The type species of PNEUMOVIRUS and an important cause of lower respiratory disease in infants and young children. It frequently presents with bronchitis and bronchopneumonia and is further characterized by fever, cough, dyspnea, wheezing, and pallor.
A species of ARENAVIRUS, part of the Old World Arenaviruses (ARENAVIRUSES, OLD WORLD), and the etiologic agent of LASSA FEVER. LASSA VIRUS is a common infective agent in humans in West Africa. Its natural host is the multimammate mouse Mastomys natalensis.
A species of ALPHAVIRUS causing an acute dengue-like fever.
The type species in the genus NOROVIRUS, first isolated in 1968 from the stools of school children in Norwalk, Ohio, who were suffering from GASTROENTERITIS. The virions are non-enveloped spherical particles containing a single protein. Multiple strains are named after the places where outbreaks have occurred.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
A collection of single-stranded RNA viruses scattered across the Bunyaviridae, Flaviviridae, and Togaviridae families whose common property is the ability to induce encephalitic conditions in infected hosts.
DNA virus infections refer to diseases caused by viruses that incorporate double-stranded or single-stranded DNA as their genetic material, replicating within host cell nucleus or cytoplasm, and including various families such as Herpesviridae, Adenoviridae, Papillomaviridae, and Parvoviridae.
Biological properties, processes, and activities of VIRUSES.
The type species of SIMPLEXVIRUS causing most forms of non-genital herpes simplex in humans. Primary infection occurs mainly in infants and young children and then the virus becomes latent in the dorsal root ganglion. It then is periodically reactivated throughout life causing mostly benign conditions.
Infection with human herpesvirus 4 (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN); which may facilitate the development of various lymphoproliferative disorders. These include BURKITT LYMPHOMA (African type), INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS, and oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY).
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.

The amino-terminal C/H1 domain of CREB binding protein mediates zta transcriptional activation of latent Epstein-Barr virus. (1/1814)

Latent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is maintained as a nucleosome-covered episome that can be transcriptionally activated by overexpression of the viral immediate-early protein, Zta. We show here that reactivation of latent EBV by Zta can be significantly enhanced by coexpression of the cellular coactivators CREB binding protein (CBP) and p300. A stable complex containing both Zta and CBP could be isolated from lytically stimulated, but not latently infected RAJI nuclear extracts. Zta-mediated viral reactivation and transcriptional activation were both significantly inhibited by coexpression of the E1A 12S protein but not by an N-terminal deletion mutation of E1A (E1ADelta2-36), which fails to bind CBP. Zta bound directly to two related cysteine- and histidine-rich domains of CBP, referred to as C/H1 and C/H3. These domains both interacted specifically with the transcriptional activation domain of Zta in an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Interestingly, we found that the C/H3 domain was a potent dominant negative inhibitor of Zta transcriptional activation function. In contrast, an amino-terminal fragment containing the C/H1 domain was sufficient for coactivation of Zta transcription and viral reactivation function. Thus, CBP can stimulate the transcription of latent EBV in a histone acetyltransferase-independent manner mediated by the CBP amino-terminal C/H1-containing domain. We propose that CBP may regulate aspects of EBV latency and reactivation by integrating cellular signals mediated by competitive interactions between C/H1, C/H3, and the Zta activation domain.  (+info)

Bacteriophage inactivation at the air-water-solid interface in dynamic batch systems. (2/1814)

Bacteriophages have been widely used as surrogates for human enteric viruses in many studies on virus transport and fate. In this investigation, the fates of three bacteriophages, MS2, R17, and phiX174, were studied in a series of dynamic batch experiments. Both MS2 and R17 readily underwent inactivation in batch experiments where solutions of each phage were percolated through tubes packed with varying ratios of glass and Teflon beads. MS2 and R17 inactivation was the result of exposure to destructive forces at the dynamic air-water-solid interface. phiX174, however, did not undergo inactivation in similar studies, suggesting that this phage does not accumulate at air-water interfaces or is not affected by interfacial forces in the same manner. Other batch experiments showed that MS2 and R17 were increasingly inactivated during mixing in polypropylene tubes as the ionic strength of the solution was raised (phiX174 was not affected). By the addition of Tween 80 to suspensions of MS2 and R17, phage inactivation was prevented. Our data suggest that viral inactivation in simple dynamic batch experiments is dependent upon (i) the presence of a dynamic air-water-solid interface (where the solid is a hydrophobic surface), (ii) the ionic strength of the solution, (iii) the concentration of surface active compounds in the solution, and (iv) the type of virus used.  (+info)

Activation in vivo of retroperitoneal fibromatosis-associated herpesvirus, a simian homologue of human herpesvirus-8. (3/1814)

Retroperitoneal fibromatosis-associated herpesvirus of rhesus macaques (RFHVMm) is a gammaherpesvirus closely related to human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8), which is thought to be a necessary cofactor for the development of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) in humans. Here, RFHVMm infection of rhesus macaques exposed to the D-type retrovirus simian retrovirus-2 (SRV-2) is described. Development of SRV-2 viraemia, infection with simian immunodeficiency virus or administration of cyclosporin A could result in persistent RFHVMm viraemia. From this, it is concluded that productive retrovirus infection or otherwise-induced immune suppression has the ability to activate this herpesvirus in vivo. Elevated levels of circulating interleukin-6, a cytokine that plays a central role in KS, were found in RFHVMm-viraemic animals. In viraemic animals, RFHVMm was found in tissues that are common sites for the development of AIDS-associated KS, especially the oral cavity. Together, these data suggest a common biology between RFHVMm infection of macaques and HHV-8 infection and pathogenesis in humans.  (+info)

Requirements for measles virus induction of RANTES chemokine in human astrocytoma-derived U373 cells. (4/1814)

Interferons and chemokines play a critical role in regulating the host response to viral infection. Measles virus, a member of the Paramyxoviridae family, induces RANTES expression by astrocytes. We have examined the mechanism of this induction in U373 cells derived from a human astrocytoma. RANTES was induced in a dose- and time-dependent manner by measles virus infection. Inhibition of receptor binding by the anti-CD46 antibody TRA-2.10 and of virus-membrane fusion by the tripeptide X-Phe-Phe-Gly reduced RANTES expression. Formalin-inactivated virus, which can bind but not fuse, and extensively UV-irradiated virus, which can bind and fuse, were both ineffective. Therefore, virus binding to the cellular receptor CD46 and subsequent membrane fusion were necessary, but not sufficient, to induce RANTES. UV irradiation of virus for less than 10 min proportionally inhibited viral transcription and RANTES expression. RANTES induction was decreased in infected cells treated with ribavirin, which inhibits measles virus transcription. However, RANTES mRNA was superinduced by measles virus in the presence of cycloheximide. These data suggest that partial transcription of the viral genome is sufficient and necessary for RANTES induction, whereas viral protein synthesis and replication are not required. This hypothesis was supported by the fact that RANTES was induced through transient expression of the measles virus nucleocapsid gene but not by measles genes encoding P or L proteins or by leader RNA in A549 cells. Thus, transcription of specific portions of measles virus RNA, such as the nucleocapsid gene, appears able to generate the specific signaling required to induce RANTES gene expression.  (+info)

Role for gamma interferon in control of herpes simplex virus type 1 reactivation. (5/1814)

Observation of chronic inflammatory cells and associated high-level gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production in ganglia during herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) latent infection in mice (E. M. Cantin, D. R. Hinton, J. Chen, and H. Openshaw, J. Virol. 69:4898-4905, 1995) prompted studies to determine a role of IFN-gamma in maintaining latency. Mice lacking IFN-gamma (GKO mice) or the IFN-gamma receptor (RGKO mice) were inoculated with HSV-1, and the course of the infection was compared with that in IFN-gamma-competent mice with the same genetic background (129/Sv//Ev mice). A time course study showed no significant difference in trigeminal ganglionic viral titers or the timing of establishment of latency. Spontaneous reactivation resulting in infectious virus in the ganglion did not occur during latency in any of the mice. However, 24 h after the application of hyperthermic stress to mice, HSV-1 antigens were detected in multiple neurons in the null mutant mice but in only a single neuron in the 129/Sv//Ev control mice. Mononuclear inflammatory cells clustered tightly around these reactivating neurons, and by 48 h, immunostaining was present in satellite cells as well. The incidence of hyperthermia-induced reactivation as determined by recovery of infectious virus from ganglia was significantly higher in the null mutant than in control mice: 11% in 129/Sv//Ev controls, 50% in GKO mice (P = 0.0002), and 33% in RGKO mice (P = 0.03). We concluded that IFN-gamma is not involved in the induction of reactivation but rather contributes to rapid suppression of HSV once it is reactivated.  (+info)

Management of human cytomegalovirus infection and disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. (6/1814)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection and disease remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality after bone marrow transplantation. HCMV disease, especially pneumonitis, may be treated with ganciclovir and immunoglobulin but even so the outcome is poor with mortality rates of 30-70%. It is therefore imperative to treat HCMV infection before it develops into disease. The aim of this article is to describe the main strategies used to prevent HCMV infection and to improve the survival after CMV disease in bone marrow transplant recipients. INFORMATION SOURCES: In the present review, we examined personal papers in this field and articles published in journals covered by the Science Citation Index and Medline. STATE OF THE ART: Major advances have been made in preventing HCMV infection and disease through two different approaches, both of which reduce HCMV induced morbidity and mortality: In pre-emptive therapy, patients are given ganciclovir when HCMV infection is first identified and this is continued 3-4 months after transplantation; in prophylactic therapy ganciclovir is given to all patients at risk of HCMV disease from engraftment up to 3-4 months post transplantation. Each strategy has advantages and disadvantages and there is no evidence for the superiority of one over the other since the overall survival is the same and the incidence of death from HCMV disease is similar. PERSPECTIVES: The use of more sensitive tests such as HCMV PCR or antigenemia may improve the outcome but probably will not eradicate all HCMV disease. Future possible strategies could include adoptive transfer of CD8+ HCMV-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes clones derived from the donor marrow or boosting donor or patient immunity using subunit anti-HCMV vaccines such as gB or pp65.  (+info)

Induction of prophages of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 with norfloxacin. (7/1814)

Norfloxacin (NFLX) caused induction of prophages VT1 and VT2 of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 at subinhibitory concentrations. In time course experiments, we observed the following sequential events: upon induction, the phage genomes underwent multiplication; the amount of stx genes increased; and subsequently, large quantities of toxins VT1 and VT2 were produced. Further studies showed that the molecular mechanism of prophage induction is closely related to the RecA system since the prophage VT2 was not induced with NFLX in a recA mutant strain.  (+info)

Long-lasting protection by live attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus in cynomolgus monkeys: no detection of reactivation after stimulation with a recall antigen. (8/1814)

The infection of cynomolgus monkeys with an attenuated simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) (C8) carrying a deletion in the nef gene results in a persistent infection associated with an extremely low viral burden in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The aim of this study was to determine (1) the breadth of the protection after repeated challenges of monkeys with SIV homologous strains of different pathogenicity, (2) the genotypic stability of the live virus vaccine, (3) whether the protection might depend on cellular resistance to superinfection, and (4) whether immunogenic stimuli such as recall antigens could reactivate the replication of the C8 virus. To address these goals, the monkeys were challenged at 40 weeks after C8 infection with 50 MID50 of cloned SIVmac251, BK28 grown on macaque cells. They were protected as indicated by several criteria, including virus isolation, anamnestic serological responses, and viral diagnostic PCR. At 92 weeks after the first challenge, unfractionated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from protected monkeys were susceptible to the in vitro infection with SIVmac32H, spl. At 143 weeks after C8 infection, the four protected monkeys were rechallenged with 50 MID50 of the pathogenic SIVmac32H, spl grown on macaque cells. Once again, they were protected. The C8 virus remained genotypically stable, and depletion of CD4(+) cells was not observed during approximately 3 years of follow-up. In contrast, it was found that the infection with SIVmac32H, spl induced CD4(+) cell depletion in three of three control monkeys. Of importance, stimulation with tetanus toxoid, although capable of inducing specific humoral and T cell proliferative responses, failed to induce a detectable reactivation of C8 virus.  (+info)

Viral activation, also known as viral reactivation or virus reactivation, refers to the process in which a latent or dormant virus becomes active and starts to replicate within a host cell. This can occur when the immune system is weakened or compromised, allowing the virus to evade the body's natural defenses and cause disease.

In some cases, viral activation can be triggered by certain environmental factors, such as stress, exposure to UV light, or infection with another virus. Once activated, the virus can cause symptoms similar to those seen during the initial infection, or it may lead to new symptoms depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response.

Examples of viruses that can remain dormant in the body and be reactivated include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It is important to note that not all viruses can be reactivated, and some may remain dormant in the body indefinitely without causing any harm.

Zingiberales is not a medical term, but a botanical term referring to a order of monocotyledonous plants, also known as the ginger order. It includes several families of plants that are important in medicine and related fields, including Zingiberaceae (the ginger family), Cannabaceae (the cannabis family), and Musaceae (the banana family). Plants in this order are characterized by having a unique type of flower structure and often produce aromatic compounds used in perfumes, flavorings, and traditional medicines.

Idoxuridine is an antiviral medication used primarily for the treatment of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections of the eye, such as keratitis or dendritic ulcers. It works by interfering with the DNA replication of the virus, thereby inhibiting its ability to multiply and spread.

Idoxuridine is available as an ophthalmic solution (eye drops) and is typically applied directly to the affected eye every 1-2 hours while awake, for up to 2 weeks. Common side effects include local irritation, stinging, or burning upon application. Prolonged use of idoxuridine may lead to bacterial resistance or corneal toxicity, so it is important to follow your healthcare provider's instructions carefully when using this medication.

It is essential to note that idoxuridine is not commonly used today due to the development of more effective and less toxic antiviral agents for HSV infections.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 4, Human" (Epstein-Barr Virus)

"Herpesvirus 4, Human," also known as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is a member of the Herpesviridae family and is one of the most common human viruses. It is primarily transmitted through saliva and is often referred to as the "kissing disease."

EBV is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which is characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, sore throat, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. The virus can also cause other diseases, including certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Once a person becomes infected with EBV, the virus remains in the body for the rest of their life, residing in certain white blood cells called B lymphocytes. In most people, the virus remains dormant and does not cause any further symptoms. However, in some individuals, the virus may reactivate, leading to recurrent or persistent symptoms.

EBV infection is diagnosed through various tests, including blood tests that detect antibodies against the virus or direct detection of the virus itself through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. There is no cure for EBV infection, and treatment is generally supportive, focusing on relieving symptoms and managing complications. Prevention measures include practicing good hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and not sharing personal items such as toothbrushes or drinking glasses.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.

There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:

1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.

RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.

The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.

Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.

The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:

1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.

Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.

Virus shedding refers to the release of virus particles by an infected individual, who can then transmit the virus to others through various means such as respiratory droplets, fecal matter, or bodily fluids. This occurs when the virus replicates inside the host's cells and is released into the surrounding environment, where it can infect other individuals. The duration of virus shedding varies depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response. It's important to note that some individuals may shed viruses even before they show symptoms, making infection control measures such as hand hygiene, mask-wearing, and social distancing crucial in preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.

SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.

The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.

Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.

A plant virus is not defined in medical terms, as viruses are typically considered within the context of living organisms and plants are not classified as such. However, I can provide a general virology definition for you:

Plant viruses are small infectious agents that consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat. They infect various plant species, causing a wide range of symptoms and diseases, which can result in significant economic losses in agriculture and horticulture. Plant viruses lack the ability to replicate outside a host cell, and they rely on the host's metabolic machinery for their reproduction. They can be transmitted through various means, such as insect vectors, seeds, or mechanical contact.

DNA viruses are a type of virus that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. These viruses replicate by using the host cell's machinery to synthesize new viral components, which are then assembled into new viruses and released from the host cell.

DNA viruses can be further classified based on the structure of their genomes and the way they replicate. For example, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses have a genome made up of two strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have a genome made up of a single strand of DNA.

Examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, human papillomavirus, and adenoviruses. Some DNA viruses are associated with specific diseases, such as cancer (e.g., human papillomavirus) or neurological disorders (e.g., herpes simplex virus).

It's important to note that while DNA viruses contain DNA as their genetic material, RNA viruses contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. Both DNA and RNA viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.

Sindbis virus is an alphavirus that belongs to the Togaviridae family. It's named after the location where it was first isolated, in Sindbis, Egypt, in 1952. This virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes and can infect a wide range of animals, including birds and humans. In humans, Sindbis virus infection often causes a mild flu-like illness characterized by fever, rash, and joint pain. However, some people may develop more severe symptoms, such as neurological disorders, although this is relatively rare. There is no specific treatment for Sindbis virus infection, and management typically involves supportive care to alleviate symptoms.

Measles virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the causative agent of measles, a highly contagious infectious disease characterized by fever, cough, runny nose, and a red, blotchy rash. The virus primarily infects the respiratory tract and then spreads throughout the body via the bloodstream.

The genome of the measles virus is approximately 16 kilobases in length and encodes for eight proteins: nucleocapsid (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), fusion protein (F), hemagglutinin (H), large protein (L), and two non-structural proteins, V and C. The H protein is responsible for binding to the host cell receptor CD150 (SLAM) and mediating viral entry, while the F protein facilitates fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.

Measles virus is transmitted through respiratory droplets and direct contact with infected individuals. The virus can remain airborne for up to two hours in a closed space, making it highly contagious. Measles is preventable through vaccination, which has led to significant reductions in the incidence of the disease worldwide.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the nervous system of mammals, including humans. It's caused by the rabies virus (RV), which belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Lyssavirus. The virus has a bullet-shaped appearance under an electron microscope and is encased in a lipid envelope.

The rabies virus primarily spreads through the saliva of infected animals, usually via bites. Once inside the body, it travels along nerve fibers to the brain, where it multiplies rapidly and causes inflammation (encephalitis). The infection can lead to symptoms such as anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, paralysis, coma, and ultimately death if left untreated.

Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear, but prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which includes vaccination and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin, can prevent the disease from developing when administered after an exposure to a potentially rabid animal. Pre-exposure vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure, such as veterinarians and travelers visiting rabies-endemic areas.

"Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the Influenza A virus that is often found in avian species (birds) and can occasionally infect humans. The "H5N1" refers to the specific proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) found on the surface of the virus. This subtype has caused serious infections in humans, with high mortality rates, especially in cases where people have had close contact with infected birds. It does not commonly spread from person to person, but there is concern that it could mutate and adapt to efficiently transmit between humans, which would potentially cause a pandemic.

"Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes respiratory illness and is known to circulate in humans and animals, including birds and pigs. The "H3N2" refers to the two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). In this subtype, the H protein is of the H3 variety and the N protein is of the N2 variety. This subtype has been responsible for several influenza epidemics and pandemics in humans, including the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic. It is one of the influenza viruses that are monitored closely by public health authorities due to its potential to cause significant illness and death, particularly in high-risk populations such as older adults, young children, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is an Flavivirus, which is a type of virus that is spread by mosquitoes. It was first discovered in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 and has since been found in many countries throughout the world. WNV can cause a mild to severe illness known as West Nile fever.

Most people who become infected with WNV do not develop any symptoms, but some may experience fever, headache, body aches, joint pain, vomiting, diarrhea, or a rash. In rare cases, the virus can cause serious neurological illnesses such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) or meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord). These severe forms of the disease can be fatal, especially in older adults and people with weakened immune systems.

WNV is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, but it can also be spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. There is no specific treatment for WNV, and most people recover on their own with rest and supportive care. However, hospitalization may be necessary in severe cases. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites by using insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito activity hours.

Respiratory Syncytial Viruses (RSV) are a common type of virus that cause respiratory infections, particularly in young children and older adults. They are responsible for inflammation and narrowing of the small airways in the lungs, leading to breathing difficulties and other symptoms associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia.

The term "syncytial" refers to the ability of these viruses to cause infected cells to merge and form large multinucleated cells called syncytia, which is a characteristic feature of RSV infections. The virus spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes, and it can also survive on surfaces for several hours, making transmission easy.

RSV infections are most common during the winter months and can cause mild to severe symptoms depending on factors such as age, overall health, and underlying medical conditions. While RSV is typically associated with respiratory illnesses in children, it can also cause significant disease in older adults and immunocompromised individuals. Currently, there is no vaccine available for RSV, but antiviral medications and supportive care are used to manage severe infections.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.

Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.

Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Vesiculovirus. It is the causative agent of vesicular stomatitis (VS), a viral disease that primarily affects horses and cattle, but can also infect other species including swine, sheep, goats, and humans.

The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their saliva, as well as through insect vectors such as black flies and sandflies. The incubation period for VS ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which infected animals develop fever, lethargy, and vesicular lesions in the mouth, nose, and feet. These lesions can be painful and may cause difficulty eating or walking.

In humans, VSIV infection is typically asymptomatic or causes mild flu-like symptoms such as fever, muscle aches, and headache. Occasionally, individuals may develop vesicular lesions on their skin or mucous membranes, particularly if they have had contact with infected animals.

Diagnosis of VSIV infection is typically made through virus isolation from lesion exudates or blood, as well as through serological testing. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at relieving symptoms, as there are no specific antiviral therapies available for VS. Prevention measures include vaccination of susceptible animals, vector control, and biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of infection between animals.

Virus latency, also known as viral latency, refers to a state of infection in which a virus remains dormant or inactive within a host cell for a period of time. During this phase, the virus does not replicate or cause any noticeable symptoms. However, under certain conditions such as stress, illness, or a weakened immune system, the virus can become reactivated and begin to produce new viruses, potentially leading to disease.

One well-known example of a virus that exhibits latency is the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox in children. After a person recovers from chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in the nervous system for years or even decades. In some cases, the virus can reactivate later in life, causing shingles, a painful rash that typically occurs on one side of the body.

Virus latency is an important concept in virology and infectious disease research, as it has implications for understanding the persistence of viral infections, developing treatments and vaccines, and predicting the risk of disease recurrence.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Hemagglutinin (HA) glycoproteins are surface proteins found on influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the virus's ability to infect and spread within host organisms.

The HAs are responsible for binding to sialic acid receptors on the host cell's surface, allowing the virus to attach and enter the cell. After endocytosis, the viral and endosomal membranes fuse, releasing the viral genome into the host cell's cytoplasm.

There are several subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified so far, with H1, H2, and H3 being common in human infections. The significant antigenic differences among these subtypes make them important targets for the development of influenza vaccines. However, due to their high mutation rate, new vaccine formulations are often required to match the circulating virus strains.

In summary, hemagglutinin glycoproteins on influenza viruses are essential for host cell recognition and entry, making them important targets for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of influenza infections.

Oncogenic viruses are a type of viruses that have the ability to cause cancer in host cells. They do this by integrating their genetic material into the DNA of the infected host cell, which can lead to the disruption of normal cellular functions and the activation of oncogenes (genes that have the potential to cause cancer). This can result in uncontrolled cell growth and division, ultimately leading to the formation of tumors. Examples of oncogenic viruses include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). It is important to note that only a small proportion of viral infections lead to cancer, and the majority of cancers are not caused by viruses.

Vero cells are a line of cultured kidney epithelial cells that were isolated from an African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) in the 1960s. They are named after the location where they were initially developed, the Vervet Research Institute in Japan.

Vero cells have the ability to divide indefinitely under certain laboratory conditions and are often used in scientific research, including virology, as a host cell for viruses to replicate. This allows researchers to study the characteristics of various viruses, such as their growth patterns and interactions with host cells. Vero cells are also used in the production of some vaccines, including those for rabies, polio, and Japanese encephalitis.

It is important to note that while Vero cells have been widely used in research and vaccine production, they can still have variations between different cell lines due to factors like passage number or culture conditions. Therefore, it's essential to specify the exact source and condition of Vero cells when reporting experimental results.

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) is a retrovirus that primarily infects African non-human primates and is the direct ancestor of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 2 (HIV-2). It is similar to HIV in its structure, replication strategy, and ability to cause an immunodeficiency disease in its host. SIV infection in its natural hosts is typically asymptomatic and non-lethal, but it can cause AIDS-like symptoms in other primate species. Research on SIV in its natural hosts has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis and potential strategies for prevention and treatment of AIDS.

'Cercopithecus aethiops' is the scientific name for the monkey species more commonly known as the green monkey. It belongs to the family Cercopithecidae and is native to western Africa. The green monkey is omnivorous, with a diet that includes fruits, nuts, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates. They are known for their distinctive greenish-brown fur and long tail. Green monkeys are also important animal models in biomedical research due to their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), which is closely related to HIV.

The Mumps virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family and Rubulavirus genus. It is the causative agent of mumps, an acute infectious disease characterized by painful swelling of the salivary glands, particularly the parotid glands.

The Mumps virus has a spherical or pleomorphic shape with a diameter of approximately 150-250 nanometers. It is surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane derived from the host cell, which contains viral glycoproteins that facilitate attachment and entry into host cells.

The M protein, located beneath the envelope, plays a crucial role in virus assembly and budding. The genome of the Mumps virus consists of eight genes encoding nine proteins, including two major structural proteins (nucleocapsid protein and matrix protein) and several non-structural proteins involved in viral replication and pathogenesis.

Transmission of the Mumps virus occurs through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected saliva. After infection, the incubation period ranges from 12 to 25 days, followed by a prodromal phase characterized by fever, headache, malaise, and muscle pain. The characteristic swelling of the parotid glands usually appears 1-3 days after the onset of symptoms.

Complications of mumps can include meningitis, encephalitis, orchitis, oophoritis, pancreatitis, and deafness. Prevention relies on vaccination with the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine, which is highly effective in preventing mumps and its complications.

Parainfluenza Virus 1, Human (HPIV-1) is a type of respiratory virus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Respirovirus. It is one of the four serotypes of human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs), which are important causes of acute respiratory infections in children, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly.

HPIV-1 primarily infects the upper respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as cough, runny nose, sore throat, and fever. However, it can also cause lower respiratory tract infections, including bronchitis, bronchiolitis, and pneumonia, particularly in young children and infants.

HPIV-1 is transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected individuals. The incubation period for HPIV-1 infection ranges from 2 to 7 days, after which symptoms can last for up to 10 days. There is no specific antiviral treatment available for HPIV-1 infections, and management typically involves supportive care such as hydration, fever reduction, and respiratory support if necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and practicing cough etiquette. Vaccines are not currently available for HPIV-1 infections, but research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against these viruses.

Mosaic viruses are a group of plant viruses that can cause mottled or mosaic patterns of discoloration on leaves, which is why they're named as such. These viruses infect a wide range of plants, including important crops like tobacco, tomatoes, and cucumbers. The infection can lead to various symptoms such as stunted growth, leaf deformation, reduced yield, or even plant death.

Mosaic viruses are typically spread by insects, such as aphids, that feed on the sap of infected plants and then transmit the virus to healthy plants. They can also be spread through contaminated seeds, tools, or contact with infected plant material. Once inside a plant, these viruses hijack the plant's cellular machinery to replicate themselves, causing damage to the host plant in the process.

It is important to note that mosaic viruses are not related to human or animal health; they only affect plants.

A virion is the complete, infectious form of a virus outside its host cell. It consists of the viral genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat called the capsid, which is often surrounded by a lipid membrane called the envelope. The envelope may contain viral proteins and glycoproteins that aid in attachment to and entry into host cells during infection. The term "virion" emphasizes the infectious nature of the virus particle, as opposed to non-infectious components like individual capsid proteins or naked viral genome.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the causative agent of hepatitis A, a viral infection that causes inflammation of the liver. It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family and Hepatovirus genus. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected person. After entering the body, HAV infects hepatocytes in the liver, leading to liver damage and associated symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and nausea. The immune system eventually clears the infection, providing lifelong immunity against future HAV infections. Preventive measures include vaccination and practicing good hygiene to prevent transmission.

Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) is an alphavirus in the Togaviridae family, which is primarily transmitted to vertebrates through mosquito vectors. The virus was initially isolated from mosquitoes in the Semliki Forest of Uganda and has since been found in various parts of Africa and Asia. SFV infection in humans can cause a mild febrile illness characterized by fever, headache, muscle pain, and rash. However, it is more commonly known for causing severe disease in animals, particularly non-human primates and cattle, where it can lead to encephalitis or hemorrhagic fever. SFV has also been used as a model organism in laboratory studies of virus replication and pathogenesis.

Avian sarcoma viruses (ASVs) are a group of retroviruses that primarily infect birds and cause various types of tumors, particularly sarcomas. These viruses contain an oncogene, which is a gene that has the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous ones. The oncogene in ASVs is often derived from cellular genes called proto-oncogenes, which are normally involved in regulating cell growth and division.

ASVs can be divided into two main types: non-defective and defective. Non-defective ASVs contain a complete set of viral genes that allow them to replicate independently, while defective ASVs lack some of the necessary viral genes and require assistance from other viruses to replicate.

One well-known example of an avian sarcoma virus is the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which was first discovered in chickens by Peyton Rous in 1910. RSV causes a highly malignant form of sarcoma in chickens and has been extensively studied as a model system for cancer research. The oncogene in RSV is called v-src, which is derived from the normal cellular gene c-src.

Avian sarcoma viruses have contributed significantly to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer development and have provided valuable insights into the role of oncogenes in tumorigenesis.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

A viral plaque assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the infectivity and concentration of viruses in a sample. This method involves infecting a monolayer of cells (usually in a petri dish or multi-well plate) with a known volume of a virus-containing sample, followed by overlaying the cells with a nutrient-agar medium to restrict viral spread and enable individual plaques to form.

After an incubation period that allows for viral replication and cell death, the cells are stained, and clear areas or "plaques" become visible in the monolayer. Each plaque represents a localized region of infected and lysed cells, caused by the progeny of a single infectious virus particle. The number of plaques is then counted, and the viral titer (infectious units per milliliter or PFU/mL) is calculated based on the dilution factor and volume of the original inoculum.

Viral plaque assays are essential for determining viral titers, assessing virus-host interactions, evaluating antiviral agents, and studying viral pathogenesis.

A viral attachment, in the context of virology, refers to the initial step in the infection process of a host cell by a virus. This involves the binding or adsorption of the viral particle to specific receptors on the surface of the host cell. The viral attachment proteins, often located on the viral envelope or capsid, recognize and interact with these receptors, leading to a close association between the virus and the host cell. This interaction is highly specific, as different viruses may target various cell types based on their unique receptor-binding preferences. Following attachment, the virus can enter the host cell and initiate the replication cycle, ultimately leading to the production of new viral particles and potential disease manifestations.

BK virus, also known as BK polyomavirus, is a type of virus that belongs to the Polyomaviridae family. It is named after the initials of a patient in whom the virus was first isolated. The BK virus is a common infection in humans and is typically acquired during childhood. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the body, often found in the urinary tract and kidneys.

In immunocompetent individuals, the virus usually does not cause any significant problems. However, in people with weakened immune systems, such as those who have undergone organ transplantation or have HIV/AIDS, BK virus can lead to severe complications. One of the most common manifestations of BK virus infection in immunocompromised individuals is hemorrhagic cystitis, a condition characterized by inflammation and bleeding in the bladder. In transplant recipients, BK virus can also cause nephropathy, leading to kidney damage or even failure.

There is no specific treatment for BK virus infection, but antiviral medications may be used to help control the virus's replication in some cases. Maintaining a strong immune system and monitoring viral load through regular testing are essential strategies for managing BK virus infections in immunocompromised individuals.

A tumor virus infection is a condition in which a person's cells become cancerous or transformed due to the integration and disruption of normal cellular functions by a viral pathogen. These viruses are also known as oncoviruses, and they can cause tumors or cancer by altering the host cell's genetic material, promoting uncontrolled cell growth and division, evading immune surveillance, and inhibiting apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Examples of tumor viruses include:

1. DNA tumor viruses: These are double-stranded DNA viruses that can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV).
2. RNA tumor viruses: Also known as retroviruses, these single-stranded RNA viruses can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Tumor virus infections are responsible for approximately 15-20% of all cancer cases worldwide, making them a significant public health concern. Prevention strategies, such as vaccination against HPV and HBV, have been shown to reduce the incidence of associated cancers.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Viruses, Unclassified" is not a recognized medical or scientific category. Generally, viruses are classified based on various characteristics such as genome structure, mode of replication, host range, and symptoms they cause. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) is the organization responsible for the formal classification of viruses.

If you have any specific questions about certain unclassified viral entities or phenomena, I'd be happy to help if I can! Please provide more context so I can give a more accurate and helpful response.

The JC (John Cunningham) virus, also known as human polyomavirus 2 (HPyV-2), is a type of double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the Polyomaviridae family. It is named after the initials of the patient in whom it was first identified.

JC virus is a ubiquitous virus, meaning that it is commonly found in the general population worldwide. Most people get infected with JC virus during childhood and do not experience any symptoms. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the kidneys and other organs of the body.

However, in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who have undergone organ transplantation, JC virus can reactivate and cause a serious brain infection called progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). PML is a rare but often fatal disease that affects the white matter of the brain, causing cognitive decline, weakness, and paralysis.

There is currently no cure for PML, and treatment is focused on managing the underlying immune deficiency and controlling the symptoms of the disease.

Avian leukosis virus (ALV) is a type of retrovirus that primarily affects chickens and other birds. It is responsible for a group of diseases known as avian leukosis, which includes various types of tumors and immunosuppressive conditions. The virus is transmitted horizontally through the shedder's dander, feathers, and vertical transmission through infected eggs.

There are several subgroups of ALV (A, B, C, D, E, and J), each with different host ranges and pathogenicity. Some strains can cause rapid death in young chickens, while others may take years to develop clinical signs. The most common form of the disease is neoplastic, characterized by the development of various types of tumors such as lymphomas, myelomas, and sarcomas.

Avian leukosis virus infection can have significant economic impacts on the poultry industry due to decreased growth rates, increased mortality, and condemnation of infected birds at processing. Control measures include eradication programs, biosecurity practices, vaccination, and breeding for genetic resistance.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which are the causative agents of flu in humans and animals. These viruses are enveloped, meaning they have a lipid membrane derived from the host cell, and have a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome. The genome is segmented, meaning it consists of several separate pieces of RNA, which allows for genetic reassortment or "shuffling" when two different strains infect the same cell, leading to the emergence of new strains.

The viral envelope contains two major glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The HA protein is responsible for binding to host cells and facilitating entry into the cell, while NA helps release newly formed virus particles from infected cells by cleaving sialic acid residues on the host cell surface.

Orthomyxoviruses are known to cause respiratory infections in humans and animals, with influenza A viruses being the most virulent and capable of causing pandemics. Influenza B viruses typically cause less severe illness and are primarily found in humans, while influenza C viruses generally cause mild upper respiratory symptoms and are also mainly restricted to humans.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an infectious agent that causes Bluetongue disease, a non-contagious viral disease affecting sheep and other ruminants. It is a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family. The virus is transmitted by biting midges of the Culicoides species and can infect various animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, and wild ruminants.

The virus has a double-stranded RNA genome and consists of ten segments that encode seven structural and four non-structural proteins. The clinical signs of Bluetongue disease in sheep include fever, salivation, swelling of the head and neck, nasal discharge, and respiratory distress, which can be severe or fatal. In contrast, cattle usually show milder symptoms or are asymptomatic, although they can serve as reservoirs for the virus.

Bluetongue virus is an important veterinary pathogen that has a significant economic impact on the global sheep industry. The disease is prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, but has also spread to temperate areas due to climate change and the movement of infected animals. Prevention and control measures include vaccination, insect control, and restricting the movement of infected animals.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans. Orthomyxoviridae infections are typically characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, and fatigue.

Influenza A and B viruses can cause seasonal epidemics of respiratory illness that occur mainly during the winter months in temperate climates. Influenza A viruses can also cause pandemics, which are global outbreaks of disease that occur when a new strain of the virus emerges to which there is little or no immunity in the human population.

Influenza C viruses are less common and typically cause milder illness than influenza A and B viruses. They do not cause epidemics and are not usually included in seasonal flu vaccines.

Orthomyxoviridae infections can be prevented through vaccination, good respiratory hygiene (such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing), hand washing, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to treat influenza A and B infections, particularly for people at high risk of complications, such as older adults, young children, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Gene expression regulation, viral, refers to the processes that control the production of viral gene products, such as proteins and nucleic acids, during the viral life cycle. This can involve both viral and host cell factors that regulate transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translational modifications of viral genes.

Viral gene expression regulation is critical for the virus to replicate and produce progeny virions. Different types of viruses have evolved diverse mechanisms to regulate their gene expression, including the use of promoters, enhancers, transcription factors, RNA silencing, and epigenetic modifications. Understanding these regulatory processes can provide insights into viral pathogenesis and help in the development of antiviral therapies.

Sendai virus, also known as murine parainfluenza virus or pneumonia virus of mice, is a species of paramyxovirus that primarily infects rodents. It is an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus with a nonsegmented genome. The virus is named after the city of Sendai in Japan where it was first isolated in 1952.

Sendai virus is highly contagious and can cause respiratory illness in mice, rats, and other small rodents. It replicates in the respiratory epithelium, leading to inflammation and necrosis of the airways. The virus can also suppress the host's immune response, making infected animals more susceptible to secondary bacterial infections.

In laboratory settings, Sendai virus is sometimes used as a tool for studying viral pathogenesis, immunology, and gene therapy. It has been used as a vector for delivering genes into mammalian cells, including human cells, due to its ability to efficiently infect and transduce a wide range of cell types.

It's important to note that Sendai virus is not known to infect humans or cause disease in humans, and it is not considered a significant public health concern.

The Moloney murine leukemia virus (Mo-MLV) is a type of retrovirus, specifically a gammaretrovirus, that is commonly found in mice. It was first discovered and isolated by John Moloney in 1960. Mo-MLV is known to cause various types of cancerous conditions, particularly leukemia, in susceptible mouse strains.

Mo-MLV has a single-stranded RNA genome that is reverse transcribed into double-stranded DNA upon infection of the host cell. This viral DNA then integrates into the host's genome and utilizes the host's cellular machinery to produce new virus particles. The Mo-MLV genome encodes for several viral proteins, including gag (group-specific antigen), pol (polymerase), and env (envelope) proteins, which are essential for the replication cycle of the virus.

Mo-MLV is widely used in laboratory research as a model retrovirus to study various aspects of viral replication, gene therapy, and oncogenesis. It has also been engineered as a vector for gene delivery applications due to its ability to efficiently integrate into the host genome and deliver large DNA sequences. However, it is important to note that Mo-MLV and other retroviruses have the potential to cause insertional mutagenesis, which can lead to unintended genetic alterations and adverse effects in some cases.

Virus integration, in the context of molecular biology and virology, refers to the insertion of viral genetic material into the host cell's genome. This process is most commonly associated with retroviruses, such as HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), which have an enzyme called reverse transcriptase that converts their RNA genome into DNA. This DNA can then integrate into the host's chromosomal DNA, becoming a permanent part of the host's genetic material.

This integration is a crucial step in the retroviral life cycle, allowing the virus to persist within the host cell and evade detection by the immune system. It also means that the viral genome can be passed on to daughter cells when the host cell divides.

However, it's important to note that not all viruses integrate their genetic material into the host's genome. Some viruses, like influenza, exist as separate entities within the host cell and do not become part of the host's DNA.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

A capsid is the protein shell that encloses and protects the genetic material of a virus. It is composed of multiple copies of one or more proteins that are arranged in a specific structure, which can vary in shape and symmetry depending on the type of virus. The capsid plays a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including protecting the viral genome from host cell defenses, mediating attachment to and entry into host cells, and assisting with the assembly of new virus particles during replication.

Yellow fever virus (YFV) is an single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family, genus Flavivirus. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, most commonly Aedes and Haemagogus species. The virus is named for the jaundice that can occur in some patients, giving their skin and eyes a yellowish color.

Yellow fever is endemic in tropical regions of Africa and South America, with outbreaks occurring when large numbers of people are infected. After an incubation period of 3 to 6 days, symptoms typically begin with fever, chills, headache, back pain, and muscle aches. In more severe cases, the infection can progress to cause bleeding, organ failure, and death.

Prevention measures include vaccination, mosquito control, and personal protective measures such as wearing long sleeves and using insect repellent in areas where yellow fever is endemic or outbreaks are occurring.

Simplexvirus is a genus of viruses in the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae. This genus contains two species: Human alphaherpesvirus 1 (also known as HSV-1 or herpes simplex virus type 1) and Human alphaherpesvirus 2 (also known as HSV-2 or herpes simplex virus type 2). These viruses are responsible for causing various medical conditions, most commonly oral and genital herpes. They are characterized by their ability to establish lifelong latency in the nervous system and reactivate periodically to cause recurrent symptoms.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is not typically considered in the context of medical definitions, as it's primarily known for its impact on plants rather than humans or animals. However, I will provide the botanical definition for your interest.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects a wide range of plants, including tobacco, tomatoes, cucumbers, and many ornamental plants. The virus is named after its initial discovery in tobacco plants, which exhibit symptoms such as mosaic patterns of light and dark green on the leaves, leaf curling, and stunted growth. TMV is highly contagious and can be spread through mechanical means, such as touching infected plants or using contaminated tools. It's also one of the most well-studied viruses due to its impact on agriculture and its historical significance in early virology research.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) infections refer to the clinical illnesses caused by the Respiratory Syncytial Virus. RSV is a highly contagious virus that spreads through respiratory droplets, contact with infected surfaces, or direct contact with infected people. It primarily infects the respiratory tract, causing inflammation and damage to the cells lining the airways.

RSV infections can lead to a range of respiratory illnesses, from mild, cold-like symptoms to more severe conditions such as bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lungs) and pneumonia (infection of the lung tissue). The severity of the infection tends to depend on factors like age, overall health status, and presence of underlying medical conditions.

In infants and young children, RSV is a leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia, often resulting in hospitalization. In older adults, people with weakened immune systems, and those with chronic heart or lung conditions, RSV infections can also be severe and potentially life-threatening.

Symptoms of RSV infection may include runny nose, cough, sneezing, fever, wheezing, and difficulty breathing. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and providing supportive care, although hospitalization and more aggressive interventions may be necessary in severe cases or for high-risk individuals. Preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing masks, and avoiding close contact with infected individuals can help reduce the spread of RSV.

Myxoma virus (MYXV) is a member of the Poxviridae family, specifically in the Leporipoxvirus genus. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that naturally infects European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and causes a fatal disease called myxomatosis. The virus is transmitted through insect vectors such as mosquitoes and fleas, and it replicates in the cytoplasm of infected cells.

Myxoma virus has been studied extensively as a model organism for viral pathogenesis and host-pathogen interactions. It has also been explored as a potential oncolytic virus for cancer therapy due to its ability to selectively infect and kill certain types of cancer cells while leaving normal cells unharmed. However, it is important to note that the use of Myxoma virus in humans is still experimental and requires further research and development before it can be considered safe and effective for therapeutic purposes.

Virus inactivation is the process of reducing or eliminating the infectivity of a virus, making it no longer capable of replicating and causing infection. This can be achieved through various physical or chemical methods such as heat, radiation, chemicals (like disinfectants), or enzymes that damage the viral genome or disrupt the viral particle's structure.

It is important to note that virus inactivation does not necessarily mean complete destruction of the viral particles; it only implies that they are no longer infectious. The effectiveness of virus inactivation depends on factors such as the type and concentration of the virus, the inactivation method used, and the duration of exposure to the inactivating agent.

Virus inactivation is crucial in various settings, including healthcare, laboratory research, water treatment, food processing, and waste disposal, to prevent the spread of viral infections and ensure safety.

Cowpox virus is a species of the Orthopoxvirus genus, which belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that primarily infects cows and occasionally other animals such as cats, dogs, and humans. The virus causes a mild disease in its natural host, cattle, characterized by the development of pustular lesions on the udder or teats.

In humans, cowpox virus infection can cause a localized skin infection, typically following contact with an infected animal or contaminated fomites. The infection is usually self-limiting and resolves within 1-2 weeks without specific treatment. However, in rare cases, the virus may spread to other parts of the body and cause more severe symptoms.

Historically, cowpox virus has played a significant role in medical research as it was used by Edward Jenner in 1796 to develop the first successful vaccine against smallpox. The similarity between the two viruses allowed for cross-protection, providing immunity to smallpox without exposing individuals to the more deadly disease. Smallpox has since been eradicated globally, and vaccination with cowpox virus is no longer necessary. However, understanding the biology of cowpox virus remains important due to its potential use as a model organism for studying poxvirus infections and developing countermeasures against related viruses.

A Cytopathic Effect (CPE) is a visible change in the cell or group of cells due to infection by a pathogen, such as a virus. When the cytopathic effect is caused specifically by a viral infection, it is referred to as a "Viral Cytopathic Effect" (VCPE).

The VCPE can include various changes in the cell's morphology, size, and structure, such as rounding, shrinkage, multinucleation, inclusion bodies, and formation of syncytia (multinucleated giant cells). These changes are often used to identify and characterize viruses in laboratory settings.

The VCPE is typically observed under a microscope after the virus has infected cell cultures, and it can help researchers determine the type of virus, the degree of infection, and the effectiveness of antiviral treatments. The severity and timing of the VCPE can vary depending on the specific virus and the type of cells that are infected.

Variola virus is the causative agent of smallpox, a highly contagious and deadly disease that was eradicated in 1980 due to a successful global vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization (WHO). The virus belongs to the family Poxviridae and genus Orthopoxvirus. It is a large, enveloped, double-stranded DNA virus with a complex structure that includes a lipoprotein membrane and an outer protein layer called the lateral body.

The Variola virus has two main clinical forms: variola major and variola minor. Variola major is more severe and deadly, with a mortality rate of up to 30%, while variola minor is less severe and has a lower mortality rate. The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected individuals or contaminated objects, such as clothing or bedding.

Smallpox was once a major public health threat worldwide, causing millions of deaths and severe illnesses. However, since its eradication, Variola virus has been kept in secure laboratories for research purposes only. The virus is considered a potential bioterrorism agent, and efforts are being made to develop new vaccines and antiviral treatments to protect against possible future outbreaks.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) is a highly contagious virus that causes infections in the respiratory system. In humans, it primarily affects the nose, throat, lungs, and bronchioles (the airways leading to the lungs). It is a major cause of lower respiratory tract infections and bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lung) in young children, but can also infect older children and adults.

Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (hRSV) belongs to the family Pneumoviridae and is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus. The viral envelope contains two glycoproteins: the G protein, which facilitates attachment to host cells, and the F protein, which mediates fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.

Infection with hRSV typically occurs through direct contact with respiratory droplets from an infected person or contaminated surfaces. The incubation period ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which symptoms such as runny nose, cough, sneezing, fever, and wheezing may appear. In severe cases, particularly in infants, young children, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems, hRSV can cause pneumonia or bronchiolitis, leading to hospitalization and, in rare cases, death.

Currently, there is no approved vaccine for hRSV; however, passive immunization with palivizumab, a monoclonal antibody, is available for high-risk infants to prevent severe lower respiratory tract disease caused by hRSV. Supportive care and prevention of complications are the mainstays of treatment for hRSV infections.

Lassa virus is an arenavirus that causes Lassa fever, a type of hemorrhagic fever. It is primarily transmitted to humans through contact with infected rodents or their urine and droppings. The virus can also be spread through person-to-person transmission via direct contact with the blood, urine, feces, or other bodily fluids of an infected person.

The virus was first discovered in 1969 in the town of Lassa in Nigeria, hence its name. It is endemic to West Africa and is a significant public health concern in countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Nigeria. The symptoms of Lassa fever can range from mild to severe and may include fever, sore throat, muscle pain, chest pain, and vomiting. In severe cases, the virus can cause bleeding, organ failure, and death.

Prevention measures for Lassa fever include avoiding contact with rodents, storing food in rodent-proof containers, and practicing good hygiene. There is no vaccine available to prevent Lassa fever, but ribavirin, an antiviral drug, has been shown to be effective in treating the disease if administered early in the course of illness.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an alphavirus from the Togaviridae family that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The name "Chikungunya" is derived from a Makonde word meaning "to become contorted," which describes the stooped posture developed as a result of severe arthralgia (joint pain) that is a primary symptom of infection with this virus.

CHIKV infection typically causes a febrile illness, characterized by an abrupt onset of high fever, severe joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue, and rash. While the symptoms are usually self-limiting and resolve within 10 days, some individuals may experience persistent or recurring joint pain for several months or even years after the initial infection.

There is no specific antiviral treatment available for Chikungunya virus infection, and management primarily focuses on relieving symptoms with rest, fluids, and over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, staying in air-conditioned or screened rooms, and eliminating standing water where mosquitoes breed.

Chikungunya virus is found primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, but it has also caused outbreaks in Europe and the Americas due to the spread of its vectors, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The virus can cause large-scale epidemics, with millions of cases reported during outbreaks. There is currently no approved vaccine for Chikungunya virus infection.

Per the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Norovirus is a highly contagious virus that often causes vomiting and diarrhea. It is a common cause of gastroenteritis, which is an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. This infection is often referred to as the "stomach flu," although it is not related to the influenza virus.

Norovirus spreads easily from person to person, through contaminated food or water, or by touching contaminated surfaces. Symptoms usually develop 12 to 48 hours after exposure and include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, fever, and headache.

The Norwalk virus is named after Norwalk, Ohio, where an outbreak of the illness occurred in 1968. It was first identified during an investigation into an outbreak of gastroenteritis among school children. The virus was later renamed norovirus in 2002 to reflect its broader range of hosts and clinical manifestations.

It's important to note that while Norwalk virus is a common cause of viral gastroenteritis, there are many other viruses, bacteria, and parasites that can also cause similar symptoms. If you suspect you have norovirus or any other foodborne illness, it's important to seek medical attention and avoid preparing food for others until your symptoms have resolved.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

Encephalitis viruses are a group of viruses that can cause encephalitis, which is an inflammation of the brain. Some of the most common encephalitis viruses include:

1. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 and 2: These viruses are best known for causing cold sores and genital herpes, but they can also cause encephalitis, particularly in newborns and individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV): This virus causes chickenpox and shingles, and it can also lead to encephalitis, especially in people who have had chickenpox.
3. Enteroviruses: These viruses are often responsible for summertime meningitis outbreaks and can occasionally cause encephalitis.
4. Arboviruses: These viruses are transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes, ticks, or other insects. Examples include West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, and Western equine encephalitis virus.
5. Rabies virus: This virus is transmitted through the bite of an infected animal and can cause encephalitis in its later stages.
6. Measles virus: Although rare in developed countries due to vaccination, measles can still cause encephalitis as a complication of the infection.
7. Mumps virus: Like measles, mumps is preventable through vaccination, but it can also lead to encephalitis as a rare complication.
8. Cytomegalovirus (CMV): This virus is a member of the herpesvirus family and can cause encephalitis in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients.
9. La Crosse virus: This arbovirus is primarily transmitted through the bites of infected eastern treehole mosquitoes and mainly affects children.
10. Powassan virus: Another arbovirus, Powassan virus is transmitted through the bites of infected black-legged ticks (also known as deer ticks) and can cause severe encephalitis.

It's important to note that many of these viruses are preventable through vaccination or by avoiding exposure to infected animals or mosquitoes. If you suspect you may have been exposed to one of these viruses, consult a healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.

DNA virus infections refer to diseases or conditions caused by the invasion and replication of DNA viruses in a host organism. DNA viruses are a type of virus that uses DNA as their genetic material. They can cause a variety of diseases, ranging from relatively mild illnesses to severe or life-threatening conditions.

Some examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and adenoviruses. These viruses can cause a range of diseases, including cold sores, genital herpes, chickenpox, shingles, cervical cancer, liver cancer, and respiratory infections.

DNA virus infections typically occur when the virus enters the body through a break in the skin or mucous membranes, such as those found in the eyes, nose, mouth, or genitals. Once inside the body, the virus infects cells and uses their machinery to replicate itself, often causing damage to the host cells in the process.

The symptoms of DNA virus infections can vary widely depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Treatment may include antiviral medications, which can help to reduce the severity and duration of symptoms, as well as prevent the spread of the virus to others. In some cases, vaccines may be available to prevent DNA virus infections.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Virus Physiological Phenomena" is not a widely recognized or established medical term or concept. It seems to be a combination of two concepts: "virus" and "physiological phenomena."

1. A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses can cause many different types of illnesses, from the common cold to more serious diseases like HIV/AIDS or hepatitis.

2. Physiological phenomena refer to the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including cells, tissues, and organs.

If you're looking for information about how viruses affect physiological processes in the body, I would be happy to help provide some general information on that topic! However, it would be best to consult a specific medical text or expert for more detailed or specialized knowledge.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 1, Human" (also known as Human Herpesvirus 1 or HHV-1):

Herpesvirus 1, Human is a type of herpesvirus that primarily causes infection in humans. It is also commonly referred to as human herpesvirus 1 (HHV-1) or oral herpes. This virus is highly contagious and can be transmitted through direct contact with infected saliva, skin, or mucous membranes.

After initial infection, the virus typically remains dormant in the body's nerve cells and may reactivate later, causing recurrent symptoms. The most common manifestation of HHV-1 infection is oral herpes, characterized by cold sores or fever blisters around the mouth and lips. In some cases, HHV-1 can also cause other conditions such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and keratitis (inflammation of the eye's cornea).

There is no cure for HHV-1 infection, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the severity and frequency of recurrent outbreaks.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infections, also known as infectious mononucleosis or "mono," is a viral infection that most commonly affects adolescents and young adults. The virus is transmitted through saliva and other bodily fluids, and can cause a variety of symptoms including fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, and skin rash.

EBV is a member of the herpesvirus family and establishes lifelong latency in infected individuals. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the body and can reactivate later in life, causing symptoms such as fatigue and swollen lymph nodes. In some cases, EBV infection has been associated with the development of certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

The diagnosis of EBV infections is typically made based on a combination of clinical symptoms and laboratory tests, such as blood tests that detect the presence of EBV antibodies or viral DNA. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at alleviating symptoms, as there is no specific antiviral therapy for EBV infections.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

Hu J, Ye H, Wang S, Wang J, Han D (2021). "Prophage Activation in the Intestine: Insights Into Functions and Possible ... A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a DNA virus or an RNA virus, respectively. The vast majority of viruses ... Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range. The viruses ... Quote: "Virus: virus (s.n. II), gen. sing. viri, nom. pl. vira, gen. pl. vīrorum (to be distinguished from virorum, of men)." ...
2011) - Effects of viruses (Wang X. et al. ) Causes of DNA hypomethylation: - The effect of mutated K-ras on long non-coding ... 2013) - Activation of DNA methylases (Kwon JJ. et al. 2018) - Changes in isocitrate dehydrogenase (Christensen BC. et al. ... 2020 ), which should ensure the functioning of DNA methylases - The effect of mutated K-Ras through the activation of the myc- ... ODC axis, the mTor complex, with the consequence of the synthesis of polyamines, the activation of which, figuratively speaking ...
... these lead to enhanced replication and virus production. Often, lytic activation leads to cell death. Clinically, lytic ... Although the branching order of the herpes viruses has not yet been resolved, because herpes viruses and their hosts tend to ... "Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021. John ... The avian infectious laryngotracheitis virus is phylogenetically distant from these two viruses and serves to underline ...
"Paramyxovirus Sendai virus V protein counteracts innate virus clearance through IRF-3 activation, but not via interferon, in ... Sendai virus was also used as a backbone for vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV). This virus (HRSV), is a major ... The virus genome has high similarity with human parainfluenza virus 1 (HPIV-1) and the two viruses share common antigenic ... It was suggested that the mice used to passage the virus were infected with the mouse virus. Thus, mouse virus was later ...
Garriga, D; Navarro, A; Querol-Audí, J; Abaitua, F; Rodríguez, J. F.; Verdaguer, N (2007). "Activation mechanism of a ... Drosophila X virus. In: ICTVdB-The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Büchen-Osmond, C. (Ed), Columbia University, New York, ... Drosophila X virus (DXV) belongs to the Birnaviridae family of viruses. Birnaviridae currently consists of three genera. The ... In addition, the Espirito Santo virus (ESV) is defined as a sister species to DXV. This particular virus, ESV, was observed in ...
"Intrahepatic Expression of Collagen and Fibroblast Activation Protein (FAP) in Hepatitis C Virus Infection". Dipeptidyl ... Fibroblast activation protein alpha (FAP-alpha) also known as prolyl endopeptidase FAP is an enzyme that in humans is encoded ... Bae S, Park CW, Son HK, Ju HK, Paik D, Jeon CJ, Koh GY, Kim J, Kim H (September 2008). "Fibroblast activation protein alpha ... "Entrez Gene: fibroblast activation protein, alpha". Garin-Chesa P, Old LJ, Rettig WJ (September 1990). "Cell surface ...
"Vaccinia Virus Entry Is Followed by Core Activation and Proteasome-Mediated Release of the Immunomodulatory Effector VH1 from ... Over 100 of these genes are conserved in other viruses from the poxvirus family, such as Variola virus and Vaccinia virus. The ... Additionally, the virus can spread to other skin areas of one's body through itching or rubbing the virus. It can also be ... Other commonly known viruses that reside in the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae are variola virus (cause of smallpox) and monkeypox ...
Deaths from re-activation of latent Nipah virus have been reported. Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in Malaysia, ... The Nipah virus (NiV) is a type of RNA virus in the genus Henipavirus, which normally circulates among fruit bats of the genus ... A Nipah virus infection is a viral infection caused by the Nipah virus. Symptoms from infection vary from none to fever, cough ... How the Nipah virus spreads Fruit bats are the natural reservoirs of Nipah virus During acute and convalescent stages of the ...
Additionally, NF-κB activation was suppressed in HeLa cells after incubation with NBD wild type peptides. Moreover, to better ... Human T-cell leukemia virus type I Tax interacts directly with IkappaB kinase gamma". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274 ... A drug called NEMO Binding Domain (NBD) has been designed to inhibit activation of NF-κB. NBD is a peptide that acts by binding ... Deng L, Wang C, Spencer E, Yang L, Braun A, You J, Slaughter C, Pickart C, Chen ZJ (October 2000). "Activation of the IkappaB ...
"Asparagine endopeptidase controls anti-influenza virus immune responses through TLR7 activation". PLOS Pathogens. 8 (8): ... Activation begins at pH 4.5. The chemical structure at this point shows that breaks which occurs at pH 4.5 can be healed under ... Antigen presenting is a key role in activation of immune system. It has been discovered that AEP plays role in this critical ... Enzyme is also important in processing of influenza virus and immune response using TLR7. AEP plays a critical role in TLR ...
Hurley EA, Thorley-Lawson DA (December 1988). "B cell activation and the establishment of Epstein-Barr virus latency". The ... van der Stappen JW, Williams AC, Maciewicz RA, Paraskeva C (August 1996). "Activation of cathepsin B, secreted by a colorectal ...
Clausamines D-G inhibit early antigen activation of the Epstein-Barr virus. Leaf extracts have a mild effect on HIV-1 and HIV-2 ...
October 2009). "Activation of MDA5 requires higher-order RNA structures generated during virus infection". Journal of Virology ... Luthra P, Sun D, Silverman RH, He B (February 2011). "Activation of IFN-β expression by a viral mRNA through RNase L and MDA5 ... This can lead to activation of MDA5, an RNA helicase involved in the production of interferons. RNase L is present in very ... 2-5 A molecules then bind to RNase L, promoting its activation by dimerization. In its activated form RNase L cleaves all RNA ...
The activation of autophagy and ER stress during infection enhances virus reproduction. Attempts to provide detailed summaries ... February 2014). "Activation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells by dengue virus infection depotentiates balapiravir". Journal ... Dengue virus (DENV) is the cause of dengue fever. It is a mosquito-borne, single positive-stranded RNA virus of the family ... The NS2B3 protease complex inhibits (by cleaving) protein MITA which allows the IRF3 activation. Dengue virus is transmitted by ...
... it is also now accepted that the HDV ribozyme can use a metal ion to assist in activation of the 2′-hydroxyl for attack on the ... The hepatitis delta virus (HDV) ribozyme is a non-coding RNA found in the hepatitis delta virus that is necessary for viral ... In addition to the sense (genomic version), all HDV viruses also have an antigenomic version of the HDV ribozyme. This version ... Page for Hepatitis delta virus ribozyme at Rfam Subviral RNA database entry for HDV ribozyme (Articles to be expanded from May ...
"Studying G protein-coupled receptor activation using split-tobacco etch virus assays". Analytical Biochemistry. 412 (2): 141-52 ... on the functional reconstitution of two previously inactive fragments derived from the NIa protease of the tobacco etch virus ( ...
"Env length and N-linked glycosylation following transmission of human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 subtype B viruses". ... "Tubular cell HIV-1 gp120 expression induces caspase 8 activation and apoptosis". Ren Fail. 31 (4): 303-12. doi:10.1080/ ... gp120 can also easily be shed from the surface of the virus and captured by T cells due to its loose binding with gp41. A ... Gp120 is essential for virus entry into cells as it plays a vital role in attachment to specific cell surface receptors. These ...
"Mutational definition of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Rev activation domain". Journal of Virology. 65 (8): 4248-54. ... Meyer BE, Meinkoth JL, Malim MH (April 1996). "Nuclear transport of human immunodeficiency virus type 1, visna virus, and ... Fischer U, Huber J, Boelens WC, Mattaj IW, Lührmann R (August 1995). "The HIV-1 Rev activation domain is a nuclear export ... Cochrane A, Kramer R, Ruben S, Levine J, Rosen CA (July 1989). "The human immunodeficiency virus rev protein is a nuclear ...
October 2009). "Activation of MDA5 requires higher-order RNA structures generated during virus infection". Journal of Virology ... the genomic RNA of dsRNA viruses as well as replicative intermediates of both positive and negative sense RNA viruses. MDA5 has ... For many viruses, effective MDA5-mediated antiviral responses are dependent on functionally active LGP2. The signaling cascades ... November 2006). "Activation of Ras/Raf protects cells from melanoma differentiation-associated gene-5-induced apoptosis". Cell ...
In: W. Hardy, Jr., M. Essex, and A.J. McClelland, eds., Feline Leukemia Virus, Elsevier North-Holland Inc., NY, pps. 335-344 ( ... New Scientist 1703:51-54 (1990). Rosenberg, Z.F. and Fauci A.S. Activation of latent HIV infection. J. NIH Res. 2:41-45 (1990 ... In: W. Hardy, Jr., M. Essex, and A.J. McClelland, eds., Feline Leukemia Virus, Elsevier North-Holland Inc., NY, pps. 355-359 ( ... In: W. Hardy, Jr., M. Essex, and A.J. McClelland, eds., Feline Leukemia Virus, Elsevier North-Holland Inc., NY, pps 345-352 ( ...
It activates on the third day of each month; the first known activation happened on February 3, 2006. On activation, the virus ... The virus visits a tracking Web page each time it infects a computer. Over 300,000 unique IPs visited that site, suggesting ... The virus removes antivirus programs from remote computers before attempting to infect them. When first installed, it copies ... It is not known how many of them remained infected long enough to trigger the virus's payload. Description of Blackworm from ...
Diwan P, Lacasse JJ, Schang LM (2004). "Roscovitine inhibits activation of promoters in herpes simplex virus type 1 genomes ... Seciclib causes egg activation by inhibiting protein kinases which results in the inactivation of the maturation promoting ... It causes the death of cells infected with HIV and preventing the replication of herpes simplex virus. Seliciclib has been ... Egg activation usually involves calcium oscillations however this does not happen with seliciclib. ...
Originally, HERV-K was observed by low-stringency hybridization with probes for the mammary tumor virus of the mouse and A ... Also the association of HERV-K activation with carcinogenesis is especially interesting. Human endogenous retrovirus K ... HERV-K is called, phylogenetically, a supergroup of viruses. It is the only group that reported to contain human-specific ... Human endogenous retrovirus K (HERV-K) or Human teratocarcinoma-derived virus (HDTV) is a family of human endogenous ...
"Transcriptional Activation of the Integrated Chromatin-Associated Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional Activation of the Integrated Chromatin-Associated Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional Activation of the Integrated Chromatin-Associated Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional activation of the integrated chromatin-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional activation of the integrated chromatin-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional activation of the integrated chromatin-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
"Transcriptional activation of the integrated chromatin-associated human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter". Mol. Cell. ...
In contrast, activation of IRF3 and ISRE signaling upon stimulation with TRIFΔRIP, cGAS/STING or RIG-I-CARD remained unaltered ... In this work, we have revealed that early viral protein UBCv1, the only known conjugating enzyme encoded by a virus, modulates ... Transient overexpression of UBCv1 impaired activation of NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors induced by several agonists of ... is an acute and persistent swine virus with a high economic burden that encodes multiple genes to evade host immune response. ...
Infection and activation of monocytes by Marburg and Ebola viruses. J Virol. 2001;75:11025-33. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar ... Macrophage Activation Marker Soluble CD163 Associated with Fatal and Severe Ebola Virus Disease in Humans1 Anita K. McElroy. , ... Human Ebola virus infection results in substantial immune activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112:4719-24. DOIPubMed ... Kreuels B, Wichmann D, Emmerich P, Schmidt-Chanasit J, de Heer G, Kluge S, et al. A case of severe Ebola virus infection ...
National planning assists in determining the actions that should be taken in the upcoming weeks, months, and years to prevent, detect, and respond to risks and threats. These actions can be identified through comprehensive tools such as all-hazards National Action Plans for Health Security (NAPHS), disease-specific plans, contingency plans, and other sources. ...
Apart from its role in trans-activation, Vmw65 is a major constituent of the virion. Its possible significance in virus ... DNA sequence of the herpes simplex virus type 1 gene whose product is responsible for transcriptional activation of immediate ... Previous work has shown that transcriptional activation of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) immediate early genes is ... DNA sequence of the herpes simplex virus type 1 gene whose product is responsible for transcriptional activation of immediate ...
"Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events." Proceedings of the National ... "Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events." Proceedings of the National ... Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events.. Publication , Journal Article ... Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events. Proceedings of the National ...
"Virus Activation" by people in this website by year, and whether "Virus Activation" was a major or minor topic of these ... "Virus Activation" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject ... Below are the most recent publications written about "Virus Activation" by people in Profiles. ... Below are MeSH descriptors whose meaning is more general than "Virus Activation". ...
The terminal components of the complement system result in lysis of virus-infected cells, tumor cells, and some gram-negative ... C-reactive protein (CRP, not shown) leads to classic pathway activation analogous to lectin pathway activation by MBL and ... C-reactive protein (CRP, not shown) leads to classic pathway activation analogous to lectin pathway activation by MBL and ... Sialic acid blocks activation by favoring the binding of factor H to C3b, which is then inactivated by factor I. [1] ...
The following research paper is significant as it shows that electromagnetic fields can activate viruses in human cells: https ... Virus Activation Via Electromagnetic Field. The following research paper is significant as it shows that electromagnetic fields ... What does it mean to "activate" a virus?. Keep in mind that a virus is not alive. It is just a string of RNA/DNA surrounded by ... Exposure to a 50 Hz electromagnetic field induces activation of the Epstein-Barr virus genome in latently infected human ...
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We also examine how DC-OV interaction affects DC recruitment, OV delivery, and anti-tumor immunity activation. Understanding ... Many reports thus far have studied oncolytic viruses (OVs), viruses that preferentially target and kill cancer cells, for their ... vaccinia virus [160], Newcastle disease virus [161], measles virus [162], poliovirus [163], HSV [164], coxsackievirus [165], ... CDC42 Use in Viral Cell Entry Processes by RNA Viruses. Next Article in Special Issue. Newcastle Disease Virus: Potential ...
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The non-coding RNA EBER2 of the Epstein-Barr virus M81 strain potentiates virus lytic replication in B cells by generating a ... Thus, M81 induced chronic inflammation in its target cells and this resulted in increased virus production. These observations ... induces potent spontaneous virus production in infected B cells. We found that the M81 non-coding Epstein-Barr-encoded RNA ... provide a mechanistic molecular link between M81 virus replication-a central viral function and a cancer risk factor-and the ...
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... only partially mimicked the effect of PACAP on virus activation. Taken together, PACAP induced HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 ... only partially mimicked the effect of PACAP on virus activation. Taken together, PACAP induced HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 ... only partially mimicked the effect of PACAP on virus activation. Taken together, PACAP induced HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 ... only partially mimicked the effect of PACAP on virus activation. Taken together, PACAP induced HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 ...
However, despite studies that have referred to activation of neutrophils in DENV infections, the exact roles of neutrophils ... In vitro incubation of NETs with DENV-2 virus significantly decreased DENV infectivity. Interestingly, increased levels of NET ... this confirmed in vivo neutrophil activation during DENV infection. Spontaneous decondensation of nuclei, an early event of ... The involvement of the immune system in the protection and pathology of natural dengue virus (DENV) has been extensively ...
... of a small molecule Tat-trans-activation-responsive RNA antagonist that potently inhibits human immunodeficiency virus-1 ... TR87 was also shown to specifically disrupt Tat-TAR binding in vitro and inhibit Tat-mediated transcriptional activation in ... Dive into the research topics of Discovery of a small molecule Tat-trans-activation-responsive RNA antagonist that potently ... TR87 was also shown to specifically disrupt Tat-TAR binding in vitro and inhibit Tat-mediated transcriptional activation in ...
Combined NKT cell activation and influenza virus vaccination boosts memory CTL generation and protective immunity. Proceedings ... Combined NKT cell activation and influenza virus vaccination boosts memory CTL generation and protective immunity. In: ... Combined NKT cell activation and influenza virus vaccination boosts memory CTL generation and protective immunity. / ... Combined NKT cell activation and influenza virus vaccination boosts memory CTL generation and protective immunity. ...
Respiratory syncytial virus replication induces Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) activation in human dendritic cells. Access ...
RESULTS: CD45+ activation (inflammation) occurred early in the forebrain and preceded cerebellar and spinal cord inflammation. ... Since inflammation can reduce neurogenesis, we tested whether Theilers murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces ... Hematopoietic cell activation in the subventricular zone after Theilers virus infection. Goings GE., Greisman A., James RE., ... RESULTS: CD45+ activation (inflammation) occurred early in the forebrain and preceded cerebellar and spinal cord inflammation. ...
A Mechanism for the Activation of the Influenza Virus Transcriptase Serna Martin I., Hengrung N., Renner M., Sharps J., ...
Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome by Virus-like Particles of Human Polyomaviruses in Macrophages. *Asta Lučiūnaitė ... Similar activation pattern was observed in primary human macrophages treated with VLPs. Single cell RNAseq analysis of THP-1 ... Inhibitors of cathepsins and K + efflux decreased IL-1β levels and cell death indicating a complex inflammasome activation ... of paramyxoviruses and spherical virus-like particles (VLPs) of human polyomaviruses. The effects of viral proteins on cell ...
Several viruses are capable of regulating monocyte activation and maturation leading to either immune hyperactivation or ... Virus-Specific RNA Specified by the Group I and IV Temperature-Sensitive Mutants of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Intervirology ( ... Over the last decade, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), an oncolytic virus, has demonstrated oncolytic (cancer-killing) ... 1 log TCID50 and the highly susceptible group having virus titer ,1 log TCID50. We hypothesized that virus replication in ...
A VACV lacking the C4L gene (vΔC4) showed no significant differences from wild-type virus in growth kinetics or spread in cell ... C4 represents the ninth VACV protein to inhibit NF-κB activation and remarkably, in every case examined, loss of each protein ... dependent promoter demonstrated that C4 inhibits NF-κB activation at, or downstream of, the inhibitor of kappa kinase (IKK) ... strain Western Reserve protein C4 has been characterized and its function and contribution to virus virulence assessed. ...
... and dengue virus infections. This study aimed to evaluate the contribution of the patient-specific immune microenvironment to ... Immune activation alters cellular and humoral responses to yellow fever 17D vaccine J Clin Invest. 2014 Jul;124(7):3147-58. doi ... Interestingly, activation of CD8+ T cells and B cells as well as proinflammatory monocytes at baseline negatively correlated ...
Tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 stimulate the human immunodeficiency virus enhancer by activation of the nuclear ... Mycobacterium tuberculosis enhances human immunodeficiency virus-1 replication by transcriptional activation at the long ... Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and M. tuberculosis are two intracellular pathogens that interact at the population ... A trial of three regimens to prevent tuberculosis in Ugandan adults infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J ...
Antibody Dependent Natural Killer Cell Activation by Antibodies to Internal Influenza Virus Proteins ... What Lies Beneath: Antibody Dependent Natural Killer Cell Activation by Antibodies to Internal Influenza Virus Proteins. ... We studied NP and M1-specific ADCC activity using biochemical, NK cell activation and killing assays with plasma from healthy ... Natural symptomatic and experimental influenza infections resulted in a rise in antibody dependent NK cell activation post- ...
Molluscum contagiosum and herpes simplex in maasai pastoralists; refeeding activation of virus infection following famine? ... Molluscum contagiosum and herpes simplex in maasai pastoralists; refeeding activation of virus infection following famine?. In ... Molluscum contagiosum and herpes simplex in maasai pastoralists; refeeding activation of virus infection following famine? / ... Molluscum contagiosum and herpes simplex in maasai pastoralists; refeeding activation of virus infection following famine?. ...
title = "Influenza B virus triggering macrophage activation syndrome in an infant",. abstract = "Macrophage activation syndrome ... Influenza B virus triggering macrophage activation syndrome in an infant. / Jayashree, K.; Rao, Suchetha; Kamath, Nutan. In: ... Jayashree, K., Rao, S., & Kamath, N. (2017). Influenza B virus triggering macrophage activation syndrome in an infant. Indian ... Influenza B virus triggering macrophage activation syndrome in an infant. Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine. 2017 Nov 1; ...
  • Human fatal zaire ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and with massive lymphocyte apoptosis. (cdc.gov)
  • Markedly elevated levels of interferon (IFN)-gamma, IFN-alpha, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha associated with fatal Ebola virus infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Dowd JB , Palermo T , Brite J , McDade TW , Aiello A . Seroprevalence of Epstein-Barr virus infection in U.S. children ages 6-19, 2003-2010. (cdc.gov)
  • Neutrophil Activation and Early Features of NET Formation Are Associated With Dengue Virus Infection in Human. (ox.ac.uk)
  • this confirmed in vivo neutrophil activation during DENV infection. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Hematopoietic cell activation in the subventricular zone after Theiler's virus infection. (ox.ac.uk)
  • VSV infection triggered rapid differentiation of blood monocytes into immature dendritic cells as well as their apoptosis, which depended on caspase 3/7 activation. (karger.com)
  • A VACV lacking the C4L gene (vΔC4) showed no significant differences from wild-type virus in growth kinetics or spread in cell culture, but had reduced virulence in a murine intranasal model of infection. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Furthermore, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from vΔC4-infected mice had increased cell numbers at day 5 post-infection, which correlated with reduced lung virus titres from this time onward. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Natural symptomatic and experimental influenza infections resulted in a rise in antibody dependent NK cell activation post-infection to the hemagglutinin of the infecting strain, but changes in NK cell activation to M1 and NP were variable. (edu.au)
  • Although antibody dependent killing of target cells infected with vaccinia viruses expressing internal influenza proteins was not detected, opsonising antibodies to NP and M1 likely contribute to an antiviral microenvironment by stimulating innate immune cells to secrete cytokines early in infection. (edu.au)
  • refeeding activation of virus infection following famine? (umn.edu)
  • Activation of p38 MAPK (but not of JNK) was demonstrated in mouse fibroblasts in response to infection with encephalomyocarditis virus (ECMV), a picornavirus that replicates through a dsRNA intermediate. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Some viruses, including those that cause HIV/AIDS, HPV infection, and viral hepatitis, evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • Upregulation of PD-1 and its ligands PD-L1 and PD-L2 is observed during acute virus infection and after infection with persistent viruses including important human pathogens such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV). (frontiersin.org)
  • In addition to the samples from the 55 pediatric patients, people less than 21 years of age, who had laboratory-confirmed Ebola virus disease, we selected samples from 50 adult patients, more than 21 years of age, who had laboratory-confirmed infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a serious, potentially life-threatening viral infection caused by a previously unrecognized virus from the Coronaviridae family, the SARS-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). (medscape.com)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection results from 1 of 2 similar retroviruses (HIV-1 and HIV-2) that destroy CD4+ lymphocytes and impair cell-mediated immunity, increasing risk of certain infections and cancers. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection in Infants and Children Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is caused by the retrovirus HIV-1 (and less commonly by the related retrovirus HIV-2). (msdmanuals.com)
  • These results suggest that tat could play a role in human immunodeficiency virus replication essentially similar to that proposed for the trans-acting nuclear gene products described for several other virus species. (duke.edu)
  • These observations provide a mechanistic molecular link between M81 virus replication-a central viral function and a cancer risk factor-and the production of a chemokine involved in inflammation and carcinogenesis. (nature.com)
  • Spontaneous lytic replication and epitheliotropism define an Epstein-Barr virus strain found in carcinomas. (nature.com)
  • One such target is the interaction between Tat, an HIV-1 regulatory protein essential for viral replication, and trans-activation-responsive (TAR) RNA. (elsevierpure.com)
  • TR87 was also shown to specifically disrupt Tat-TAR binding in vitro and inhibit Tat-mediated transcriptional activation in vitro and in vivo, providing a strong correlation between its activities and inhibition of HIV-1 replication. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We also show that a nanobody (a single-domain antibody) that interferes with FluPol A dimerization inhibits the synthesis of vRNA and, consequently, inhibits virus replication in infected cells. (nature.com)
  • Fig. 4: Nb8205, which binds FluPol A at the dimer interface, inhibits cRNA to vRNA replication and virus growth. (nature.com)
  • Retroviruses are enveloped RNA viruses defined by their mechanism of replication via reverse transcription to produce DNA copies that integrate into the host cell's genome. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Antigenic and genetic characteristics of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. (cdc.gov)
  • The curve depicts the excess pneumonia and influenza deaths that were recorded in 122 cities during periods when influenza viruses were in circulation, 1998-2000. (cdc.gov)
  • Dive into the research topics of 'Hantaan virus nucleocapsid protein binds to importin α proteins and inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced activation of nuclear factor kappa B'. Together they form a unique fingerprint. (mssm.edu)
  • The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. (wakehealth.edu)
  • This pathway is activated by viruses, fungi, bacteria, parasites, cobra venom, immunoglobulin A, and polysaccharides and forms an important part of the defense mechanism independent of the immune response. (medscape.com)
  • Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most virus species have virions too small to be seen with an optical microscope and are one-hundredth the size of most bacteria. (wikipedia.org)
  • The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids-pieces of DNA that can move between cells-while others may have evolved from bacteria. (wikipedia.org)
  • Children with SCID lack virtually all immune protection from bacteria, viruses, and fungi. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Exposure to a 50 Hz electromagnetic field induces activation of the Epstein-Barr virus genome in latently infected human lymphoid cells. (healthkeys.uk)
  • The Epstein-Barr virus M81 strain, isolated from a nasopharyngeal carcinoma, induces potent spontaneous virus production in infected B cells. (nature.com)
  • This report is the first to demonstrate that PACAP induces HSV-1 activation from a quiescent state and that this in vitro cell model is useful for studying early inductive events that lead to virus production from quiescence. (uky.edu)
  • Since inflammation can reduce neurogenesis, we tested whether Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) induces inflammation and reduces neurogenesis in the SVZ. (ox.ac.uk)
  • abstract = "Hantaviruses such as Hantaan virus (HTNV) and Andes virus cause two human diseases, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, respectively. (mssm.edu)
  • Macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) is a potentially fatal complication caused by excessive activation and expansion of macrophages and T lymphocytes. (manipal.edu)
  • Jayashree, K , Rao, S & Kamath, N 2017, ' Influenza B virus triggering macrophage activation syndrome in an infant ', Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine , vol. 21, no. 11, pp. 802-803. (manipal.edu)
  • Systemic delivery is a major goal in the field of oncolytic viruses. (karger.com)
  • In this work, we have revealed that early viral protein UBCv1, the only known conjugating enzyme encoded by a virus, modulates innate immune and inflammatory signaling. (mdpi.com)
  • Previous work has shown that transcriptional activation of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) immediate early genes is mediated by a protein species (Vmw65) present in the tegument of infecting virions. (gla.ac.uk)
  • C-reactive protein (CRP, not shown) leads to classic pathway activation analogous to lectin pathway activation by MBL and ficolins. (medscape.com)
  • Lerner, M. R., Andrews, N. C., Miller, G. & Steitz, J. A. Two small RNAs encoded by Epstein-Barr virus and complexed with protein are precipitated by antibodies from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. (nature.com)
  • Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a naturally occurring peptide found in the central nervous system that plays a role in somatosensory processing and activation of protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC). (uky.edu)
  • Vaccinia virus (VACV) strain Western Reserve protein C4 has been characterized and its function and contribution to virus virulence assessed. (ox.ac.uk)
  • C4 represents the ninth VACV protein to inhibit NF-κB activation and remarkably, in every case examined, loss of each protein individually caused an alteration in virus virulence, despite the presence of other NF-κB inhibitors. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The cross-talk between the hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) and B7-H1 in hepatocarcinoma (HCC) is unclear. (nih.gov)
  • We report here that the nucleocapsid (N) protein of HTNV was able to inhibit TNF-α-induced activation of NF-κB, as measured by a reporter assay, and the activation of endogenous p65, an NF-κB subunit. (mssm.edu)
  • In contrast, activation of both MKK4 and JNK by dsRNA was greatly reduced in cells lacking RNase L (or lacking both RNase L and PKR) but was restored in these cells when introduction of dsRNA was followed by inhibition of ongoing protein synthesis or transcription. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These results are consistent with the notion that the role of RNase L and PKR in the activation of MKK4 and JNK is the elimination, via inhibition of protein synthesis, of a labile negative regulator(s) of the signaling to JNK acting upstream of SEK1/MKK4. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We propose that p38 MAPK is a general participant in dsRNA-triggered cellular responses, whereas the activation of JNK might be restricted to cells with reduced rates of protein synthesis. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Previous work has implicated that the core protein of hepatitis C virus (HCV) may play a modulatory effect on NF-κB activation induced by TNF-α. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • However, it is unclear how HCV core protein modulates TNF-α-induced NK-κB activation. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • Here we show that overexpression of HCV core protein potentiates NF-κB activation induced by TNF-α. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • Expression of dominant negative form of TRAF2 inhibits the synergistic effects of HCV core protein on NF-κB activation, suggesting that HCV core protein potentiates NF-κB activation through TRAF2. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • Moreover, we demonstrate that HCV core protein potentiates TRAF2-mediated NF-κB activation via IKKβ. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • In addition, HCV core protein associates with TNF-R1-TRADD-TRAF2 signaling complex, resulting in synergistically activation of NF-κB induced by TNF-α. (ewha.ac.kr)
  • Once that happens, mast cells set into motion a series of inflammatory reactions, including the activation of immune cells and the release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a), a pro inflammatory protein or cytokine. (lymedisease.org)
  • Cytokine and chemokine expression in humans infected with Sudan Ebola virus. (cdc.gov)
  • Researchers at University of California, San Diego, suggest that the ancestors of modern humans may have caught herpes virus from chimpanzees before going their separate ways on the evolution path. (medindia.net)
  • According to the study, the ancestors of modern humans were infected by the Herpes Simplex Virus-1 from chimpanzees more than 6 million years ago, before the evolutionary split, while Herpes Simplex Virus-2, which causes genital warts, jumped from chimpanzees to Homo erectus 1.6 million years ago, long before the rise of early modern humans. (medindia.net)
  • The results help us to better understand how these viruses evolved and found their way into humans. (medindia.net)
  • Understanding where our viruses come from will help guide us in preventing future viruses from making the jump into humans", lead researcher Joel Wertheim said. (medindia.net)
  • Emergence of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans. (cdc.gov)
  • HIV-1 originated in Central Africa in the first half of the 20th century, when a closely related chimpanzee virus first infected humans. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Dalrymple, M.A. , McGeoch, D.J. , Davison, A.J. and Preston, C.M. (1985) DNA sequence of the herpes simplex virus type 1 gene whose product is responsible for transcriptional activation of immediate early promoters. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Functional assays using a firefly luciferase reporter plasmid under the control of a nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-dependent promoter demonstrated that C4 inhibits NF-κB activation at, or downstream of, the inhibitor of kappa kinase (IKK) complex. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Observations of infections with and illness due to parainfluenza, mumps and respiratory syncytial viruses and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. (cdc.gov)
  • Hospitalizations associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States, 1993-2008. (cdc.gov)
  • Population-based surveillance for hospitalizations associated with respiratory syncytial virus, influenza virus, and parainfluenza viruses among young children. (cdc.gov)
  • This study provides new insights into interaction of viral proteins with innate immune cells and suggests that structural properties of oligomeric proteins may define cell activation pathways. (sciety.org)
  • Interestingly, increased P53 activation and apoptosis are induced not only in cells expressing high levels of viral antigens but also in cells showing low or undetectable levels of the same proteins. (pasteur.fr)
  • We find that modulation of autophagy using this recombinant SINV negatively regulated production of infectious viruses . (bvsalud.org)
  • A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. (wikipedia.org)
  • A meaning of 'agent that causes infectious disease' is first recorded in 1728, long before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. (wikipedia.org)
  • UVK Ultra Virus Killer Crack v11.5.3.0 & Activation Key 2022 Free Download UVK Ultra Virus Killer Crack is a tool that contains malware. (propckey.com)
  • African swine fever virus (ASFV) is an acute and persistent swine virus with a high economic burden that encodes multiple genes to evade host immune response. (mdpi.com)
  • The involvement of the immune system in the protection and pathology of natural dengue virus (DENV) has been extensively studied. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We show here that giving α-GalCer with an inactivated influenza A virus has the paradoxical effect of diminishing acute CTL immunity via natural killer T (NKT) cell-dependent expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), an important mediator of immune suppression, while at the same time promoting the survival of long-lived memory CTL populations capable of boosting protection against heterologous influenza A virus challenge. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Less well appreciated is the fact that the PD-1/PD-L1 axis also regulates antiviral immune responses and is therefore modulated by a number of viruses. (frontiersin.org)
  • Under stress, the melanocytes display signals that lead to immune system activation," explained Lain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This activation leads to the recruitment of immune cells that help protect the skin against whatever causes stress. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • These vitiligo treatments focus on the immune system activation," explained Lain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • They work to decrease [immune cell] activation and recruitment. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Transient overexpression of UBCv1 impaired activation of NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors induced by several agonists of these pathways. (mdpi.com)
  • Activation of the complement pathways. (medscape.com)
  • Taken together, PACAP induced HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 cells involves the PKA and possibly cAMP-independent pathways. (uky.edu)
  • Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) accumulates in virus-infected mammalian cells and signals the activation of host defense pathways of the interferon system. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Human THP-1 cell line was used to prepare macrophages which were treated with filamentous nucleocapsid-like particles (NLPs) of paramyxoviruses and spherical virus-like particles (VLPs) of human polyomaviruses. (sciety.org)
  • Similar activation pattern was observed in primary human macrophages treated with VLPs. (sciety.org)
  • In vitro incubation of NETs with DENV-2 virus significantly decreased DENV infectivity. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The sensitivity of this approach is critically dependent on optimal in vitro MBC activation. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Our studies identify BPL-inactivated viral particles as a valuable tool for selective, T cell-independent activation of virus-specific MBCs in vitro. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Defining the parameters that modulate vaccine responses in African populations will be imperative to design effective vaccines for protection against HIV, malaria, tuberculosis, and dengue virus infections. (nih.gov)
  • However, despite studies that have referred to activation of neutrophils in DENV infections, the exact roles of neutrophils remain elusive. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We propose that refeeding may be an important mechanism for activation of certain viral infections previously suppressed by famine. (umn.edu)
  • The Ebolavirus genus includes 5 different viruses that result in different case-fatality rates: Ebola virus, Sudan virus, and Bundibugyo virus cause fatal infections, but neither Tai Forest virus nor Reston virus has been associated with human fatalities. (cdc.gov)
  • For example, nosocomial Ebola virus disease infections mostly occur in adults working on hospital wards, and children are not usually caregivers for Ebola virus disease patients. (cdc.gov)
  • A homologue to Vmw65 was detected in the genome of varicella-zoster virus, another human herpesvirus. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Researchers from Lund Stem Cell Center highlight the importance of controlling viral elements that reside in the genome and how their activation during development may contribute t. (lu.se)
  • Kaspersky Anti-Virus Crack is the backbone of your PC's internet security system, delivering essential, real-time protection from the latest malware. (procrackserial.com)
  • The app goes beyond standard virus protection to secure you against potentially hazardous malware such as spyware, rootkits, security exploits, and ransomware. (procrackserial.com)
  • Kaspersky Anti-Virus uses intelligent scanning and minor, frequent updates to deliver real-time, efficient protection from the latest malware threats across the Internet. (procrackserial.com)
  • Kaspersky Anti-Virus License Key runs upon cloud-based technology to continuously update the database from all its users globally, thus assuring up-to-day virus signatures and promptly reacting to new breeds of threatening viruses and malware before the actual damage is about to take place. (procrackserial.com)
  • Kaspersky Anti-Virus also includes a self-defence mechanism that blocks files acting weird, helpful in preventing attacks from potential malware that the database hasn't yet recognized. (procrackserial.com)
  • Imagine stopping spam, phishing attacks, malware and viruses with no hardware , no software , no contracts and no maintance . (mxguarddog.com)
  • We employ the latest technologies in spam protection, anti-virus, anti-malware, anti-phishing and encryption to ensure your email is safe and spam free. (mxguarddog.com)
  • Single cell RNAseq analysis of THP-1 cells revealed several cell activation states characterized by high expression of inflammation-related genes. (sciety.org)
  • We found that the strongest similarity between all these conditions is the activation of common P53 downstream genes. (pasteur.fr)
  • We're happy to present our most recent publication 'Activation of neuronal genes via LINE-1 elements upon global DNA demethylation in human neural progenitors' published on July 18. (lu.se)
  • The study of viruses is known as virology, a subspeciality of microbiology. (wikipedia.org)
  • Interestingly, activation of CD8+ T cells and B cells as well as proinflammatory monocytes at baseline negatively correlated with YF-17D-neutralizing antibody titers after vaccination. (nih.gov)
  • Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in primate models: evidence that hemorrhage is not a direct effect of virus-induced cytolysis of endothelial cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Another published paper shows that mobile phone radiation can also activate Epstein-Bar virus in human lymph cells. (healthkeys.uk)
  • Thus, M81 induced chronic inflammation in its target cells and this resulted in increased virus production. (nature.com)
  • Because activation of PKA or PKC results in reactivation of HSV-1 from latently infected embryonic neuronal cells, PACAP was used to evaluate HSV-1 activation from quiescently infected (QIF)-PC12 cells. (uky.edu)
  • The variety of host cells that a virus can infect is called its host range: this is narrow for viruses specialized to infect only a few species, or broad for viruses capable of infecting many. (wikipedia.org)
  • Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved. (wikipedia.org)
  • Extending our studies to the herpes simplex virus (HSV) system, we demonstrated that HSV-specific MBCs cultured with BPL-inactivated HSV were selectively activated to IgG secretion in the absence of T cells. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These results indicate that P53 activation is an early and specific event in ZIKV-infected cells, which could result from cell-autonomous and/or non-cell-autonomous mechanisms. (pasteur.fr)
  • Mast cell activation syndromes (MCAS) - the inappropriate release of mast cell mediators including: histamine, interleukins, prostaglandins, cytokines, chemokines, and heparin (There are more than 200 chemical mediators associated with mast cells. (lymedisease.org)
  • The presence of neurotransmitter receptors in microglia illustrates their functional connection to neurons and this receptor activation could cause microglial cells to perform different activation phenotypes ( Pocock and Kettenmann, 2007 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • These include cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T cells), whose functions include destroying cells infected by viruses. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The ZAP70 gene is also involved in the activation of helper T cells (CD4+ T cells). (medlineplus.gov)
  • This provides an invaluable source of information for paleovirologists to trace back ancient viruses that existed as far back as millions of years ago. (wikipedia.org)
  • An ELISPOT assay to enumerate influenza-specific IgG ASCs was used as the readout for MBC activation. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The authors conclude that the effects of BaP metabolites on virus mediated interferon induction extends the existing assay methods for identifying biologically reactive mutagenic carcinogens. (cdc.gov)
  • Martines RB , Ng DL , Greer PW , Rollin PE , Zaki SR . Tissue and cellular tropism, pathology and pathogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • Inflammatory responses in Ebola virus-infected patients. (cdc.gov)
  • van der Ven AJ , Netea MG , van der Meer JW , de Mast Q . Ebola virus disease has features of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis syndrome. (cdc.gov)
  • Outbreaks of Ebola virus disease occur sporadically in sub-Saharan Africa and are associated with exceptionally high case-fatality rates. (cdc.gov)
  • Pediatric patients have been underrepresented in Ebola virus disease studies because total numbers of affected children in any given Ebola virus disease outbreak, whether associated with Ebola virus or Sudan virus or Bundibugyo virus are usually low because of outbreak dynamics and societal structure. (cdc.gov)
  • The relatively large number of pediatric cases in this outbreak enabled closer investigation of factors associated with increased survival of pediatric patients with Ebola virus disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Samples collected during the Gulu outbreak have been invaluable for advancing understanding of Ebola virus disease pathophysiology. (cdc.gov)
  • During the 2000-2001 Gulu Ebola virus disease outbreak, an international response team, including representatives from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or CDC, provided clinical and technical assistance. (cdc.gov)
  • Epidemiological evidence from the current outbreak of Zika virus (ZIKV) and recent studies in animal models indicate a strong causal link between ZIKV and microcephaly. (pasteur.fr)
  • Select the Virus outbreak section. (kaspersky.com)
  • In the right pane, click the Configure policies to activate when a virus outbreak event occurs link. (kaspersky.com)
  • In the hierarchy of administration groups and their policies, click the name of a policy or policies that are activated when a virus outbreak is detected. (kaspersky.com)
  • The selected policies are added to the list of policies that are activated when a virus outbreak is detected. (kaspersky.com)
  • The selected policies are activated at the virus outbreak, independent whether they are active or inactive. (kaspersky.com)
  • If a policy has been activated on the Virus outbreak event, you can return to the previous policy only by using the manual mode. (kaspersky.com)
  • China's leadership initially covered up the outbreak and allowed millions of people to leave Wuhan even though many carried the virus with them. (project-syndicate.org)
  • Here, using crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy, we determine the structures of FluPol A from human influenza A/NT/60/1968 (H3N2) and avian influenza A/duck/Fujian/01/2002 (H5N1) viruses at a resolution of 3.0-4.3 Å, in the presence or absence of a cRNA or vRNA template. (nature.com)
  • The evolutionary dynamics of human influenza B virus. (cdc.gov)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Trans-activation of human immunodeficiency virus gene expression is mediated by nuclear events. (duke.edu)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus encodes a gene product termed tat that is able to activate viral gene expression when present in trans. (duke.edu)
  • In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity in a way analogous to sexual reproduction. (wikipedia.org)
  • COVID-19 is a disease caused by a virus named SARS-CoV-2 and was discovered in December 2019 in Wuhan, China. (cdc.gov)
  • RESULTS: CD45+ activation (inflammation) occurred early in the forebrain and preceded cerebellar and spinal cord inflammation. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Filamentous NLPs did not induce inflammation markers while spherical VLPs mediated inflammatory response followed by NLRP3 inflammasome activation. (sciety.org)
  • PCR and compared the results with a standard curve generated from stock virus of known titer. (cdc.gov)
  • Titers for Toxoplasmosis and HIV were negative, and she had a low Epstein-Barr virus titer. (medscape.com)
  • Rota PA, Wallis TR, Harmon MW, Rota JS, Kendal AP, Nerome K. Cocirculation of two distinct evolutionary lineages of influenza type B virus since 1983. (cdc.gov)
  • The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms to more complex structures. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, optimal influenza-specific MBC activation was T cell-independent when MBCs were simply cultured with β-propiolactone (BPL)-inactivated influenza virus particles (BPL-flu). (elsevierpure.com)
  • The optogenetic activation of hippocampal astrocytes can be viewed as a novel therapeutic avenue for addressing Alzheimer's disease. (medindia.net)
  • The studies utilized the Ao/PR/8/34-influenza and Sendai-parainfluenza virus strains incubated with Rhesus-monkey kidney and human Chang conjunctival cell lines. (cdc.gov)
  • Binding of factor H to C3b increases its inactivation by factor I. Properdin stabilizes it, preventing its inactivation by factors H and I. The alternate pathway does not result in a truly nonspecific activation of complement because it requires specific types of compounds for activation. (medscape.com)
  • C1q can also be activated by mycoplasmal organisms, RNA viruses, bacterial endotoxins, and cell membranes of some organelles without the presence of antibody. (medscape.com)
  • What the researchers mean by "activate" is to cause the virus to be excreted, or expressed, by the living cell. (healthkeys.uk)
  • Controversially - and I would say, effectively - it is argued that a virus is similar to a solvent that is excreted by the cell to remove debris and toxins. (healthkeys.uk)
  • Our studies demonstrate that physiologically relevant concentrations of PACAP38 and PACAP27 induce HSV-1 activation from QIF-PC12 cell cultures in a dose-dependent fashion. (uky.edu)
  • Virus release was evaluated in a murine cell line (L929). (karger.com)
  • Inhibitors of cathepsins and K + efflux decreased IL-1β levels and cell death indicating a complex inflammasome activation process. (sciety.org)
  • We studied NP and M1-specific ADCC activity using biochemical, NK cell activation and killing assays with plasma from healthy and influenza-infected subjects. (edu.au)
  • Multiple viruses have developed evasion strategies to circumvent the host cell inflammatory process, with one of the most prevalent being the disruption of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation. (mssm.edu)
  • When infected, a host cell is often forced to rapidly produce thousands of copies of the original virus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Viruses are considered by some biologists to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection, although they lack the key characteristics, such as cell structure, that are generally considered necessary criteria for defining life. (wikipedia.org)
  • Culture of influenza-specific MBCs with influenza-infected splenocytes was effective for MBC activation, but T cell-associated factors were required for optimal LDA sensitivity and clonal expansion of activated MBCs. (elsevierpure.com)
  • This can be a sign of mast cell activation syndrome, a newly recognized condition that is one of several mast cell activation diseases often abbreviated "MCAD. (lymedisease.org)
  • It wasn't until 1988 that the first papers of "disorders of mast cell activation" were published, and nearly another 20 years later, in 2007, before the first case reports of mast cell activation syndrome came out. (lymedisease.org)
  • Kikuchi-Fujimoto Disease: An Exuberant Localized T Cell Activation Arrested By Histiocytes? (medscape.com)
  • Cite this: Kikuchi-Fujimoto Disease: An Exuberant Localized T Cell Activation Arrested By Histiocytes? (medscape.com)
  • Correa H. Kikuchi-Fujimoto Disease: An Exuberant Localized T Cell Activation Arrested By Histiocytes? (medscape.com)
  • The phenol , diols, and 6- substituted BaP derivatives showed significant inhibition of viral interferon induction in the presence of S9 activation only. (cdc.gov)
  • Quinone metabolites had little effect on interferon induction, although S9 activation caused a slight increase in inhibition. (cdc.gov)
  • Sindbis virus is suppressed in the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti by ATG-6/Beclin-1 mediated activation of autophagy. (bvsalud.org)
  • To address this gap, we use a genetic approach to activate macroautophagy / autophagy in the yellow fever mosquito ( Aedes aegypti ), infected with a recombinant Sindbis virus (SINV) expressing an autophagy activator. (bvsalud.org)
  • Current influenza A virus vaccines do not generate significant immunity against serologically distinct influenza A virus subtypes and would thus be ineffective in the face of a pandemic caused by a novel variant emerging from, say, a wildlife reservoir. (elsevierpure.com)