Viral Structural Proteins
Alphavirus
Virion
Gene Products, rev
Sindbis Virus
Virus Assembly
Molecular Sequence Data
rev Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Virus Replication
Amino Acid Sequence
Base Sequence
Viral Envelope Proteins
SARS Virus
Open Reading Frames
Cercopithecus aethiops
Retroviridae
Protein Biosynthesis
Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
Cricetinae
Gene Products, gag
Centrifugation, Density Gradient
Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel
Tritium
RNA, Messenger
HIV-1
Plasmids
Cloning, Molecular
Chick Embryo
HeLa Cells
Transcription, Genetic
Mutation
Cells, Cultured
Transfection
Rubella virus
Myoviridae
Viral Core Proteins
Parvoviridae
Arteritis Virus, Equine
Reoviridae
Microscopy, Electron
Densovirus
Glycoproteins
Spodoptera
Viral Nonstructural Proteins
Caveolin 1
Vero Cells
Inclusion Bodies, Viral
Nucleocapsid
Viral Vaccines
Nucleocapsid Proteins
Baculoviridae
Protein Precursors
Siphoviridae
Replicon
White spot syndrome virus 1
Viral Matrix Proteins
African Swine Fever Virus
Peptide Biosynthesis
Rauscher Virus
Neutralization Tests
Peptides
Sequence Analysis, DNA
Vaccinia virus
Caveolae
Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
Crystallins
Nucleopolyhedrovirus
Electrophoresis, Disc
Cross Reactions
Immune Sera
Coronaviridae
Fluorescent Antibody Technique
Yellow fever virus
Microscopy, Immunoelectron
Protein Processing, Post-Translational
Sequence Alignment
Amino Acids
Recombinant Fusion Proteins
Aphthovirus
Caveolins
Penaeidae
Genetic Vectors
Encephalitis Virus, Western Equine
Encephalitis Virus, Venezuelan Equine
Blotting, Western
Recombination, Genetic
Atadenovirus
Defective Viruses
Hepacivirus
Haplorhini
Polyomavirus
Vaccines, Synthetic
Viral Tail Proteins
Dengue Virus
beta-Crystallins
Rabbits
Cytoplasm
Bluetongue virus
Membrane Proteins
Iridoviridae
Porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus
Mamastrovirus
Helper Viruses
Capripoxvirus
Genes, rev
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus
alpha-Crystallins
Genes
Precipitin Tests
Luteoviridae
Lens, Crystalline
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne
Arterivirus
Mastadenovirus
Cell Nucleus
Skin Diseases, Genetic
Species Specificity
DNA Primers
Epitope Mapping
Nidovirales
Viral Plaque Assay
Gene Expression
Murine hepatitis virus
Granulovirus
Arboviruses
Hepatovirus
Protein Binding
Retroviridae Proteins
Sequence Homology, Nucleic Acid
Cryoelectron Microscopy
Leukemia Virus, Feline
Picornaviridae
Encephalomyelitis Virus, Avian
Infectious bursal disease virus
Microscopy, Electron, Transmission
Simian virus 40
Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus
Viral Hepatitis Vaccines
Cattle
Encephalitis Virus, Japanese
Decapoda (Crustacea)
Escherichia coli
Gene Products, rex
Encephalitis Virus, Eastern Equine
AKR murine leukemia virus
Caveolin 3
Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus
Ascoviridae
Pactamycin
gag Gene Products, Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Myelin P0 Protein
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Avian Sarcoma Viruses
Alphavirus Infections
Mice, Inbred BALB C
Rotavirus
DNA, Complementary
Proteins
EBV structural antigens, gp350 and gp85, as targets for ex vivo virus-specific CTL during acute infectious mononucleosis: potential use of gp350/gp85 CTL epitopes for vaccine design. (1/2581)
For many years, EBV vaccine development efforts have concentrated on the use of structural Ag, gp350, and have been directed toward Ab-mediated blocking virus attachment to the target cell. There is increasing evidence to suggest that the development of neutralizing Abs in vaccinated animals does not always correlate with protection; nevertheless, it has been postulated that gp350-specific T cell-mediated immune responses may have an effector role in protection. This hypothesis has largely remained untested. In the present study, we demonstrate that CTL from acute infectious mononucleosis patients display strong ex vivo reactivity against the EBV structural Ags, gp85 and gp350. Moreover, long-term follow up studies on infectious mononucleosis-recovered individuals showed that these individuals maintain gp350- and gp85-specific memory CTL, albeit at low levels, in the peripheral blood. These results strongly suggest that CTL specific for EBV structural proteins may play an important role in the control of EBV infection during acute infection. More importantly, we also show that prior immunization of HLA A2/Kb transgenic mice with gp350 and gp85 CTL epitopes induced a strong epitope-specific CTL response and afforded protection against gp85- or gp350-expressing vaccinia virus challenge. These results have important implications for future EBV vaccine design and provides evidence, for the first time, that CTL epitopes from EBV structural proteins may be used for establishing strong antiviral immunity against EBV infection. (+info)Adaptation of very virulent infectious bursal disease virus to chicken embryonic fibroblasts by site-directed mutagenesis of residues 279 and 284 of viral coat protein VP2. (2/2581)
The full-length RNA genomes of a chicken embryonic fibroblast (CEF)-nonpermissive, very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) (strain HK46) were amplified into cDNAs by reverse transcription-PCR. The full-length cDNAs were sequenced and subcloned into a eukaryotic expression vector, from which point mutations were introduced into the VP2 region by site-directed mutagenesis. The wild-type and mutated plasmids were transfected directly into CEFs to examine their ability to generate CEF-permissive recombinant viruses. Substitution of amino acid residues 279 (Asp-->Asn) and 284 (Ala-->Thr) of the VP2 protein yielded a recombinant virus which was able to be passaged in CEFs, whereas the wild-type cDNAs and an amino acid substitution at residue 330 (Ser-->Arg) of the VP2 protein alone did not yield viable virus. The results indicated that mutation of other viral proteins, including VP1, VP3, VP4, and VP5, was not required for CEF adaptation of the virus. The same approach may be used to produce CEF-adapted strains from newly evolved IBDVs or to manipulate the antigenicity of the virus. (+info)Activation of baculovirus very late promoters by interaction with very late factor 1. (3/2581)
Very late factor 1 (VLF-1) of Autographa californica multicapsid nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV) activates the transcription of two genes, polyhedrin (polh) and p10, during the final, occlusion-specific phase of infection. Using transient expression assays responsive to VLF-1, we identified linker scan mutations in the polh and p10 promoters which abolished or weakened the ability of the promoters to respond to stimulation by VLF-1. These mutations were located between the transcriptional and translational initiation sites, a region previously shown to be essential for the burst of expression during the very late phase. Addition of partially purified, epitope-tagged VLF-1 to DNA encompassing this "burst sequence" resulted in a shift in the gel electrophoretic mobility of the DNA, indicating that VLF-1 forms a complex with DNA. Addition of an antibody specific for the epitope tag of VLF-1 decreased the mobility of the DNA further, confirming the presence of VLF-1 in the complex. DNase I footprint assays revealed that VLF-1 partially purified from either insect cells or bacterial cells interacted with the burst sequences of both the polh and p10 very-late promoters. Linker scan mutations within the burst sequences severely impaired interaction between VLF-1 and the promoters. We propose that VLF-1 transactivates the polh and p10 promoters by interacting with the burst sequences. (+info)Critical relationship between glycosylation of recombinant lutropin receptor ectodomain and its secretion from baculovirus-infected insect cells. (4/2581)
The lutropin receptor ectodomain overexpressed under the control of the powerful polyhedrin promoter in baculovirus-infected Sf9 insect cells, is mainly found in an inactive, intracellularly-aggregated form. It is secreted in an active form under the control of the P10 promoter, a somewhat weaker and earlier promoter, at the price of a lower production. The apparent molecular masses of the two species encoded by the same cDNA are 48 kDa and 60-68 kDa, respectively. The relationship between the extent and type of glycosylation and the extracellular targeting for the recombinant lutropin receptor ectodomains was investigated precisely with endoglycosidases, lectins of various specificities, and a glycosylation inhibitor, and tested with monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies. The results indicate that the strong polyhedrin promoter probably overwhelms the processing capacity of the ER in Sf9 cells, so that only a high-mannose precursor is expressed in large amounts. Only a minute amount of protein is secreted, which has been processed by Sf9 exoglycosidases/glycosyltransferases and bears complex/hybrid oligosaccharides. The weaker P10 promoter allows secretion of a mature and active receptor ectodomain, bearing complex glycosylation. An important O-linked glycosylation is also added post-translationally on this species. In particular, beta-galactose and sialic acid residues were specifically detected in the secreted species, evidence of the induction of the corresponding glycosyltransferases or of their genes. These results suggest that Sf9 cells should eventually be engineered with chaperones and glycosyltransferases in order to improve the production of demanding glycoproteins such as the porcine lutropin ectodomain, so as to open the way to resolution of the three-dimensional structures of these receptors. (+info)Live-cell analysis of a green fluorescent protein-tagged herpes simplex virus infection. (5/2581)
Many stages of the herpes simplex virus maturation pathway have not yet been defined. In particular, little is known about the assembly of the virion tegument compartment and its subsequent incorporation into maturing virus particles. Here we describe the construction of a herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) recombinant in which we have replaced the gene encoding a major tegument protein, VP22, with a gene expressing a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-VP22 fusion protein (GFP-22). We show that this virus has growth properties identical to those of the parental virus and that newly synthesized GFP-22 is detectable in live cells as early as 3 h postinfection. Moreover, we show that GFP-22 is incorporated into the HSV-1 virion as efficiently as VP22, resulting in particles which are visible by fluorescence microscopy. Consequently, we have used time lapse confocal microscopy to monitor GFP-22 in live-cell infection, and we present time lapse animations of GFP-22 localization throughout the virus life cycle. These animations demonstrate that GFP-22 is present in a diffuse cytoplasmic location when it is initially expressed but evolves into particulate material which travels through an exclusively cytoplasmic pathway to the cell periphery. In this way, we have for the first time visualized the trafficking of a herpesvirus structural component within live, infected cells. (+info)Immunization with potato plants expressing VP60 protein protects against rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus. (6/2581)
The major structural protein VP60 of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) has been produced in transgenic potato plants under the control of a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter or a modified 35S promoter that included two copies of a strong transcriptional enhancer. Both types of promoters allowed the production of specific mRNAs and detectable levels of recombinant VP60, which were higher for the constructs carrying the modified 35S promoter. Rabbits immunized with leaf extracts from plants carrying this modified 35S promoter showed high anti-VP60 antibody titers and were fully protected against the hemorrhagic disease. (+info)Packaging cell lines for simian foamy virus type 1 vectors. (7/2581)
Foamy viruses are nonpathogenic retroviruses that offer several unique opportunities for gene transfer in various cell types from different species. We have previously demonstrated the utility of simian foamy virus type 1 (SFV-1) as a vector system by transient expression assay (M. Wu et al., J. Virol. 72:3451-3454, 1998). In this report, we describe the first stable packaging cell lines for foamy virus vectors based on SFV-1. We developed two packaging cell lines in which the helper DNA is placed under the control of either a constitutive cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate-early gene or inducible tetracycline promoter for expression. Although the constitutive packaging expressing cell line had a higher copy number of packaging DNA, the inducible packaging cell line produced four times more vector particles. This result suggested that the structural gene products in the constitutively expressing packaging cell line were expressed at a level that is not toxic to the cells, and thus vector production was reduced. The SFV-1 vector in the presence of vesicular stomatitis virus envelope protein G (VSV-G) produced an insignificant level of transduction, indicating that foamy viruses could not be pseudotyped with VSV-G to generate high-titer vectors. The availability of stable packaging cell lines represents a step toward the use of an SFV-1 vector delivery system that will allow scaled-up production of vector stocks for gene therapy. (+info)Stable alphavirus packaging cell lines for Sindbis virus and Semliki Forest virus-derived vectors. (8/2581)
Alphavirus vectors are being developed for possible human vaccine and gene therapy applications. We have sought to advance this field by devising DNA-based vectors and approaches for the production of recombinant vector particles. In this work, we generated a panel of alphavirus vector packaging cell lines (PCLs). These cell lines were stably transformed with expression cassettes that constitutively produced RNA transcripts encoding the Sindbis virus structural proteins under the regulation of their native subgenomic RNA promoter. As such, translation of the structural proteins was highly inducible and was detected only after synthesis of an authentic subgenomic mRNA by the vector-encoded replicase proteins. Efficient production of biologically active vector particles occurred after introduction of Sindbis virus vectors into the PCLs. In one configuration, the capsid and envelope glycoproteins were separated into distinct cassettes, resulting in vector packaging levels of 10(7) infectious units/ml, but reducing the generation of contaminating replication-competent virus below the limit of detection. Vector particle seed stocks could be amplified after low multiplicity of infection of PCLs, again without generating replication-competent virus, suggesting utility for production of large-scale vector preparations. Furthermore, both Sindbis virus-based and Semliki Forest virus-based vectors could be packaged with similar efficiency, indicating the possibility of developing a single PCL for use with multiple alphavirus-derived vectors. (+info)Viral structural proteins are the protein components that make up the viral particle or capsid, providing structure and stability to the virus. These proteins are encoded by the viral genome and are involved in the assembly of new virus particles during the replication cycle. They can be classified into different types based on their location and function, such as capsid proteins, matrix proteins, and envelope proteins. Capsid proteins form the protein shell that encapsulates the viral genome, while matrix proteins are located between the capsid and the envelope, and envelope proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds some viruses.
Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.
Alphaviruses are a genus of single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that belong to the family Togaviridae. They are enveloped viruses and have a icosahedral symmetry with a diameter of approximately 70 nanometers. Alphaviruses are transmitted to vertebrates by mosquitoes and other arthropods, and can cause a range of diseases in humans and animals, including arthritis, encephalitis, and rash.
Some examples of alphaviruses that can infect humans include Chikungunya virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Sindbis virus, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. These viruses are usually found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, and can cause outbreaks of disease in humans and animals.
Alphaviruses have a wide host range, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects. They replicate in the cytoplasm of infected cells and have a genome that encodes four non-structural proteins (nsP1 to nsP4) involved in viral replication, and five structural proteins (C, E3, E2, 6K, and E1) that form the virion.
Prevention and control of alphavirus infections rely on avoiding mosquito bites, using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and reducing mosquito breeding sites. There are no specific antiviral treatments available for alphavirus infections, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. Vaccines are available for some alphaviruses, such as Eastern equine encephalitis virus and Western equine encephalitis virus, but not for others, such as Chikungunya virus.
A virion is the complete, infectious form of a virus outside its host cell. It consists of the viral genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat called the capsid, which is often surrounded by a lipid membrane called the envelope. The envelope may contain viral proteins and glycoproteins that aid in attachment to and entry into host cells during infection. The term "virion" emphasizes the infectious nature of the virus particle, as opposed to non-infectious components like individual capsid proteins or naked viral genome.
A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.
A gene product is the biochemical material, such as a protein or RNA, that is produced by the expression of a gene. The term "gene products, rev" is not a standard medical or scientific term, and its meaning is not immediately clear without additional context. However, "rev" is sometimes used in molecular biology to denote reverse orientation or transcription, so "gene products, rev" might refer to RNA molecules that are produced when a gene is transcribed in the opposite direction from what is typically observed.
It's important to note that not all genes produce protein products; some genes code for RNAs that have regulatory or structural functions, while others produce both proteins and RNA molecules. The study of gene products and their functions is an important area of research in molecular biology and genetics, as it can provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of genetic diseases and other biological processes.
A capsid is the protein shell that encloses and protects the genetic material of a virus. It is composed of multiple copies of one or more proteins that are arranged in a specific structure, which can vary in shape and symmetry depending on the type of virus. The capsid plays a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including protecting the viral genome from host cell defenses, mediating attachment to and entry into host cells, and assisting with the assembly of new virus particles during replication.
Sindbis virus is an alphavirus that belongs to the Togaviridae family. It's named after the location where it was first isolated, in Sindbis, Egypt, in 1952. This virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes and can infect a wide range of animals, including birds and humans. In humans, Sindbis virus infection often causes a mild flu-like illness characterized by fever, rash, and joint pain. However, some people may develop more severe symptoms, such as neurological disorders, although this is relatively rare. There is no specific treatment for Sindbis virus infection, and management typically involves supportive care to alleviate symptoms.
Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.
Capsid proteins are the structural proteins that make up the capsid, which is the protective shell of a virus. The capsid encloses the viral genome and helps to protect it from degradation and detection by the host's immune system. Capsid proteins are typically arranged in a symmetrical pattern and can self-assemble into the capsid structure when exposed to the viral genome.
The specific arrangement and composition of capsid proteins vary between different types of viruses, and they play important roles in the virus's life cycle, including recognition and binding to host cells, entry into the cell, and release of the viral genome into the host cytoplasm. Capsid proteins can also serve as targets for antiviral therapies and vaccines.
A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.
Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.
Rev (Regulator of Expression of Virion) gene products of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) refer to the proteins encoded by the rev gene, which is one of the accessory genes of HIV. The rev protein plays a crucial role in the regulation of viral gene expression and replication.
During the early stages of HIV infection, the viral genome is transcribed into full-length RNA transcripts that serve as both messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein synthesis and genomic RNA for packaging into new virus particles. However, these full-length transcripts are unable to exit the nucleus and undergo translation due to their large size and the presence of intronic sequences.
The rev protein functions as a nuclear export factor that binds to specific Rev Response Elements (RRE) present within these full-length transcripts, allowing them to be transported out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm for translation and packaging. By regulating the nuclear export of viral RNA, rev ensures proper expression of viral genes required for virus replication and assembly.
Rev protein also plays a role in downregulating the production of early viral proteins, such as Tat and Nef, while promoting the expression of late viral proteins, like Env and Gag, which are necessary for virion assembly and release. This temporal regulation of gene expression is critical for efficient HIV replication and pathogenesis.
Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:
1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.
The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.
A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.
Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.
Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.
Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.
Semliki Forest Virus (SFV) is an alphavirus in the Togaviridae family, which is primarily transmitted to vertebrates through mosquito vectors. The virus was initially isolated from mosquitoes in the Semliki Forest of Uganda and has since been found in various parts of Africa and Asia. SFV infection in humans can cause a mild febrile illness characterized by fever, headache, muscle pain, and rash. However, it is more commonly known for causing severe disease in animals, particularly non-human primates and cattle, where it can lead to encephalitis or hemorrhagic fever. SFV has also been used as a model organism in laboratory studies of virus replication and pathogenesis.
An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.
A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.
Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.
Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.
Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.
Viral envelope proteins are structural proteins found in the envelope that surrounds many types of viruses. These proteins play a crucial role in the virus's life cycle, including attachment to host cells, fusion with the cell membrane, and entry into the host cell. They are typically made up of glycoproteins and are often responsible for eliciting an immune response in the host organism. The exact structure and function of viral envelope proteins vary between different types of viruses.
Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is a viral respiratory illness caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This virus is a member of the Coronaviridae family and is thought to be transmitted most readily through close person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.
The SARS outbreak began in southern China in 2002 and spread to several other countries before it was contained. The illness causes symptoms such as fever, chills, and body aches, which progress to a dry cough and sometimes pneumonia. Some people also report diarrhea. In severe cases, the illness can cause respiratory failure or death.
It's important to note that SARS is not currently a global health concern, as there have been no known cases since 2004. However, it remains a significant example of how quickly and widely a new infectious disease can spread in today's interconnected world.
An open reading frame (ORF) is a continuous stretch of DNA or RNA sequence that has the potential to be translated into a protein. It begins with a start codon (usually "ATG" in DNA, which corresponds to "AUG" in RNA) and ends with a stop codon ("TAA", "TAG", or "TGA" in DNA; "UAA", "UAG", or "UGA" in RNA). The sequence between these two points is called a coding sequence (CDS), which, when transcribed into mRNA and translated into amino acids, forms a polypeptide chain.
In eukaryotic cells, ORFs can be located in either protein-coding genes or non-coding regions of the genome. In prokaryotic cells, multiple ORFs may be present on a single strand of DNA, often organized into operons that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.
It's important to note that not all ORFs necessarily represent functional proteins; some may be pseudogenes or result from errors in genome annotation. Therefore, additional experimental evidence is typically required to confirm the expression and functionality of a given ORF.
'Cercopithecus aethiops' is the scientific name for the monkey species more commonly known as the green monkey. It belongs to the family Cercopithecidae and is native to western Africa. The green monkey is omnivorous, with a diet that includes fruits, nuts, seeds, insects, and small vertebrates. They are known for their distinctive greenish-brown fur and long tail. Green monkeys are also important animal models in biomedical research due to their susceptibility to certain diseases, such as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus), which is closely related to HIV.
Retroviridae is a family of viruses that includes human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other viruses that primarily use RNA as their genetic material. The name "retrovirus" comes from the fact that these viruses reverse transcribe their RNA genome into DNA, which then becomes integrated into the host cell's genome. This is a unique characteristic of retroviruses, as most other viruses use DNA as their genetic material.
Retroviruses can cause a variety of diseases in animals and humans, including cancer, neurological disorders, and immunodeficiency syndromes like AIDS. They have a lipid membrane envelope that contains glycoprotein spikes, which allow them to attach to and enter host cells. Once inside the host cell, the viral RNA is reverse transcribed into DNA by the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which is then integrated into the host genome by the enzyme integrase.
Retroviruses can remain dormant in the host genome for extended periods of time, and may be reactivated under certain conditions to produce new viral particles. This ability to integrate into the host genome has also made retroviruses useful tools in molecular biology, where they are used as vectors for gene therapy and other genetic manipulations.
An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.
Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.
Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.
It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.
Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.
Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.
There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.
In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.
Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.
Gene expression regulation, viral, refers to the processes that control the production of viral gene products, such as proteins and nucleic acids, during the viral life cycle. This can involve both viral and host cell factors that regulate transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translational modifications of viral genes.
Viral gene expression regulation is critical for the virus to replicate and produce progeny virions. Different types of viruses have evolved diverse mechanisms to regulate their gene expression, including the use of promoters, enhancers, transcription factors, RNA silencing, and epigenetic modifications. Understanding these regulatory processes can provide insights into viral pathogenesis and help in the development of antiviral therapies.
Cricetinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes hamsters, gerbils, and relatives. These small mammals are characterized by having short limbs, compact bodies, and cheek pouches for storing food. They are native to various parts of the world, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Some species are popular pets due to their small size, easy care, and friendly nature. In a medical context, understanding the biology and behavior of Cricetinae species can be important for individuals who keep them as pets or for researchers studying their physiology.
"Gene products, GAG" refer to the proteins that are produced by the GAG (Group-specific Antigen) gene found in retroviruses, such as HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). These proteins play a crucial role in the structure and function of the viral particle or virion.
The GAG gene encodes for a polyprotein that is cleaved by a protease into several individual proteins, including matrix (MA), capsid (CA), and nucleocapsid (NC) proteins. These proteins are involved in the formation of the viral core, which encloses the viral RNA genome and associated enzymes required for replication.
The MA protein is responsible for binding to the host cell membrane during viral entry, while the CA protein forms the capsid shell that surrounds the viral RNA and NC protein. The NC protein binds to the viral RNA and helps to package it into the virion during assembly. Overall, GAG gene products are essential for the life cycle of retroviruses and are important targets for antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected individuals.
Centrifugation, Density Gradient is a medical laboratory technique used to separate and purify different components of a mixture based on their size, density, and shape. This method involves the use of a centrifuge and a density gradient medium, such as sucrose or cesium chloride, to create a stable density gradient within a column or tube.
The sample is carefully layered onto the top of the gradient and then subjected to high-speed centrifugation. During centrifugation, the particles in the sample move through the gradient based on their size, density, and shape, with heavier particles migrating faster and further than lighter ones. This results in the separation of different components of the mixture into distinct bands or zones within the gradient.
This technique is commonly used to purify and concentrate various types of biological materials, such as viruses, organelles, ribosomes, and subcellular fractions, from complex mixtures. It allows for the isolation of pure and intact particles, which can then be collected and analyzed for further study or use in downstream applications.
In summary, Centrifugation, Density Gradient is a medical laboratory technique used to separate and purify different components of a mixture based on their size, density, and shape using a centrifuge and a density gradient medium.
Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.
In this process:
1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.
EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.
Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.
Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.
In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.
HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1) is a species of the retrovirus genus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected blood or blood products, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV-1 infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and weakening of the immune response over time. This results in the individual becoming susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers that ultimately cause death if left untreated. HIV-1 is the most prevalent form of HIV worldwide and has been identified as the causative agent of the global AIDS pandemic.
A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.
Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.
Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:
1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.
Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.
A chick embryo refers to the developing organism that arises from a fertilized chicken egg. It is often used as a model system in biological research, particularly during the stages of development when many of its organs and systems are forming and can be easily observed and manipulated. The study of chick embryos has contributed significantly to our understanding of various aspects of developmental biology, including gastrulation, neurulation, organogenesis, and pattern formation. Researchers may use various techniques to observe and manipulate the chick embryo, such as surgical alterations, cell labeling, and exposure to drugs or other agents.
HeLa cells are a type of immortalized cell line used in scientific research. They are derived from a cancer that developed in the cervical tissue of Henrietta Lacks, an African-American woman, in 1951. After her death, cells taken from her tumor were found to be capable of continuous division and growth in a laboratory setting, making them an invaluable resource for medical research.
HeLa cells have been used in a wide range of scientific studies, including research on cancer, viruses, genetics, and drug development. They were the first human cell line to be successfully cloned and are able to grow rapidly in culture, doubling their population every 20-24 hours. This has made them an essential tool for many areas of biomedical research.
It is important to note that while HeLa cells have been instrumental in numerous scientific breakthroughs, the story of their origin raises ethical questions about informed consent and the use of human tissue in research.
Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.
During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.
Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.
A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.
"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.
Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.
It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.
Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.
Rubella virus is the sole member of the genus Rubivirus, within the family Togaviridae. It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that causes the disease rubella (German measles) in humans. The virus is typically transmitted through respiratory droplets and has an incubation period of 12-23 days.
Rubella virus infection during pregnancy, particularly during the first trimester, can lead to serious birth defects known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in the developing fetus. The symptoms of CRS may include hearing impairment, eye abnormalities, heart defects, and developmental delays.
The virus was eradicated from the Americas in 2015 due to widespread vaccination programs. However, it still circulates in other parts of the world, and travelers can bring the virus back to regions where it has been eliminated. Therefore, maintaining high vaccination rates is crucial for preventing the spread of rubella and protecting vulnerable populations from CRS.
Myoviridae is a family of bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. Here is the medical definition of Myoviridae:
Myoviridae is a family of tailed bacteriophages characterized by a contractile sheath surrounding the tail structure. The members of this family have a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome, which is relatively large, ranging from 40 to over 200 kilobases in size. Myoviridae viruses typically infect Gram-negative bacteria and are known to cause lysis of the host cell upon replication. The family includes many well-known bacteriophages such as T4, T5, and λ phages, which have been extensively studied for their biological properties and potential applications in molecular biology and medicine.
It's worth noting that while Myoviridae viruses can be useful tools in scientific research, they are not used in clinical practice as therapeutic agents. However, there is ongoing research into the use of bacteriophages, including those from the family Myoviridae, for the treatment of bacterial infections that are resistant to antibiotics.
Viral core proteins are the structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or protein shell, enclosing and protecting the viral genome. These proteins play a crucial role in the assembly of the virion, assist in the infection process by helping to deliver the viral genome into the host cell, and may also have functions in regulating viral replication. The specific composition and structure of viral core proteins vary among different types of viruses.
Parvoviridae is a family of small, non-enveloped viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, including humans, animals, and birds. These viruses have a single-stranded DNA genome and replicate in the nucleus of infected cells. They are resistant to heat, acid, and organic solvents, making them difficult to inactivate.
The family Parvoviridae is divided into two subfamilies: Parvovirinae and Densovirinae. Parvovirinae infect vertebrates, while Densovirinae infect invertebrates. The subfamily Parvovirinae includes several genera that infect various hosts, such as humans, dogs, cats, and primates.
Parvovirus B19 is a well-known member of this family that causes a variety of clinical manifestations in humans, including fifth disease (slapped cheek syndrome), arthralgia, and occasionally more severe diseases in immunocompromised individuals or those with certain hematological disorders.
In animals, parvoviruses can cause serious diseases such as canine parvovirus infection in dogs and feline panleukopenia in cats, which can be fatal if left untreated.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but there seems to be a mistake in your question. "Arteritis Virus, Equine" is not a recognized medical term or virus in humans or animals. There is a condition called "Equine Viral Arteritis (EVA)," which is a viral disease that affects horses and other equine species. However, it does not affect humans.
Equine Viral Arteritis (EVA) is caused by the Equine Arteritis Virus (EAV). This virus primarily affects the respiratory system and can cause symptoms such as fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, and a runny nose in infected horses. In some cases, it may also lead to inflammation of the lining of blood vessels (vasculitis), which can result in abortion in pregnant mares or infertility in stallions.
It's essential to maintain proper biosecurity measures when dealing with horses, especially those that have been exposed to EVA, to prevent its spread and protect the health of other equine populations.
Reoviridae is a family of double-stranded RNA viruses that are non-enveloped and have a segmented genome. The name "Reoviridae" is derived from Respiratory Enteric Orphan virus, as these viruses were initially discovered in respiratory and enteric (gastrointestinal) samples but did not appear to cause any specific diseases.
The family Reoviridae includes several important human pathogens such as rotaviruses, which are a major cause of severe diarrhea in young children worldwide, and orthoreoviruses, which can cause respiratory and systemic infections in humans. Additionally, many Reoviridae viruses infect animals, including birds, mammals, fish, and insects, and can cause a variety of diseases.
Reoviridae virions are typically composed of multiple protein layers that encase the genomic RNA segments. The family is divided into two subfamilies, Sedoreovirinae and Spinareovirinae, based on structural features and genome organization. Reoviruses have a complex replication cycle that involves multiple steps, including attachment to host cells, uncoating of the viral particle, transcription of the genomic RNA, translation of viral proteins, packaging of new virions, and release from infected cells.
Bacteriophages, often simply called phages, are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. They consist of a protein coat, called the capsid, that encases the genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA. Bacteriophages are highly specific, meaning they only infect certain types of bacteria, and they reproduce by hijacking the bacterial cell's machinery to produce more viruses.
Once a phage infects a bacterium, it can either replicate its genetic material and create new phages (lytic cycle), or integrate its genetic material into the bacterial chromosome and replicate along with the bacterium (lysogenic cycle). In the lytic cycle, the newly formed phages are released by lysing, or breaking open, the bacterial cell.
Bacteriophages play a crucial role in shaping microbial communities and have been studied as potential alternatives to antibiotics for treating bacterial infections.
Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).
In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.
In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.
REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.
Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.
A densovirus is a type of single-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the family Parvoviridae and the subfamily Densovirinae. These viruses are known to infect insects, including crustaceans and arthropods, and are often associated with diseases in these hosts. They have a small, icosahedral capsid and a linear, ssDNA genome that is around 5-6 kilobases in length. Densoviruses are non-enveloped viruses, meaning they do not have a lipid membrane surrounding their capsid.
It's important to note that densoviruses are not known to infect humans or other mammals, and therefore are not considered a threat to human health.
Glycoproteins are complex proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. These glycans are linked to the protein through asparagine residues (N-linked) or serine/threonine residues (O-linked). Glycoproteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, cell-cell interactions, cell adhesion, and signal transduction. They are widely distributed in nature and can be found on the outer surface of cell membranes, in extracellular fluids, and as components of the extracellular matrix. The structure and composition of glycoproteins can vary significantly depending on their function and location within an organism.
"Spodoptera" is not a medical term, but a genus name in the insect family Noctuidae. It includes several species of moths commonly known as armyworms or cutworms due to their habit of consuming leaves and roots of various plants, causing significant damage to crops.
Some well-known species in this genus are Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm), Spodoptera litura (tobacco cutworm), and Spodoptera exigua (beet armyworm). These pests can be a concern for medical entomology when they transmit pathogens or cause allergic reactions. For instance, their frass (feces) and shed skins may trigger asthma symptoms in susceptible individuals. However, the insects themselves are not typically considered medical issues unless they directly affect human health.
Viral nonstructural proteins (NS) are viral proteins that are not part of the virion structure. They play various roles in the viral life cycle, such as replication of the viral genome, transcription, translation regulation, and modulation of the host cell environment to favor virus replication. These proteins are often produced in large quantities during infection and can manipulate or disrupt various cellular pathways to benefit the virus. They may also be involved in evasion of the host's immune response. The specific functions of viral nonstructural proteins vary depending on the type of virus.
Caveolin 1 is a protein that is a key component of caveolae, which are specialized invaginations of the plasma membrane found in many cell types. Caveolae play important roles in various cellular processes, including endocytosis, cholesterol homeostasis, and signal transduction.
Caveolin 1 is a structural protein that helps to form and maintain the shape of caveolae. It also plays a role in regulating the activity of various signaling molecules that are associated with caveolae, including G proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases, and Src family kinases.
Mutations in the gene that encodes caveolin 1 have been linked to several genetic disorders, including muscular dystrophy, cardiac arrhythmias, and cancer. Additionally, changes in the expression or localization of caveolin 1 have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases.
Vero cells are a line of cultured kidney epithelial cells that were isolated from an African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) in the 1960s. They are named after the location where they were initially developed, the Vervet Research Institute in Japan.
Vero cells have the ability to divide indefinitely under certain laboratory conditions and are often used in scientific research, including virology, as a host cell for viruses to replicate. This allows researchers to study the characteristics of various viruses, such as their growth patterns and interactions with host cells. Vero cells are also used in the production of some vaccines, including those for rabies, polio, and Japanese encephalitis.
It is important to note that while Vero cells have been widely used in research and vaccine production, they can still have variations between different cell lines due to factors like passage number or culture conditions. Therefore, it's essential to specify the exact source and condition of Vero cells when reporting experimental results.
Inclusion bodies, viral are typically described as intracellular inclusions that appear as a result of viral infections. These inclusion bodies consist of aggregates of virus-specific proteins, viral particles, or both, which accumulate inside the host cell's cytoplasm or nucleus during the replication cycle of certain viruses.
The presence of inclusion bodies can sometimes be observed through histological or cytological examination using various staining techniques. Different types of viruses may exhibit distinct morphologies and locations of these inclusion bodies, which can aid in the identification and diagnosis of specific viral infections. However, it is important to note that not all viral infections result in the formation of inclusion bodies, and their presence does not necessarily indicate active viral replication or infection.
A nucleocapsid is a protein structure that encloses the genetic material (nucleic acid) of certain viruses. It is composed of proteins encoded by the virus itself, which are synthesized inside the host cell and then assemble around the viral genome to form a stable complex.
The nucleocapsid plays an important role in the viral life cycle. It protects the viral genome from degradation by host enzymes and helps to facilitate the packaging of the genome into new virus particles during assembly. Additionally, the nucleocapsid can also play a role in the regulation of viral gene expression and replication.
In some viruses, such as coronaviruses, the nucleocapsid is encased within an envelope derived from the host cell membrane, while in others, it exists as a naked capsid. The structure and composition of the nucleocapsid can vary significantly between different virus families.
A viral vaccine is a biological preparation that introduces your body to a specific virus in a way that helps your immune system build up protection against the virus without causing the illness. Viral vaccines can be made from weakened or inactivated forms of the virus, or parts of the virus such as proteins or sugars. Once introduced to the body, the immune system recognizes the virus as foreign and produces an immune response, including the production of antibodies. These antibodies remain in the body and provide immunity against future infection with that specific virus.
Viral vaccines are important tools for preventing infectious diseases caused by viruses, such as influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis A and B, rabies, rotavirus, chickenpox, shingles, and some types of cancer. Vaccination programs have led to the control or elimination of many infectious diseases that were once common.
It's important to note that viral vaccines are not effective against bacterial infections, and separate vaccines must be developed for each type of virus. Additionally, because viruses can mutate over time, it is necessary to update some viral vaccines periodically to ensure continued protection.
Nucleocapsid proteins are structural proteins that are associated with the viral genome in many viruses. They play a crucial role in the formation and stability of the viral particle, also known as the virion. In particular, nucleocapsid proteins bind to the viral RNA or DNA genome and help to protect it from degradation by host cell enzymes. They also participate in the assembly and disassembly of the virion during the viral replication cycle.
In some viruses, such as coronaviruses, the nucleocapsid protein is also involved in regulating the transcription and replication of the viral genome. The nucleocapsid protein of SARS-CoV-2, for example, has been shown to interact with host cell proteins that are involved in the regulation of gene expression, which may contribute to the virus's ability to manipulate the host cell environment and evade the immune response.
Overall, nucleocapsid proteins are important components of many viruses and are often targeted by antiviral therapies due to their essential role in the viral replication cycle.
Baculoviridae is a family of large, double-stranded DNA viruses that infect arthropods, particularly insects. The virions (virus particles) are enclosed in a rod-shaped or occlusion body called a polyhedron, which provides protection and stability in the environment. Baculoviruses have a wide host range within the order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Hymenoptera (sawflies, bees, wasps, and ants), and Diptera (flies). They are important pathogens in agriculture and forestry, causing significant damage to insect pests.
The Baculoviridae family is divided into four genera: Alphabaculovirus, Betabaculovirus, Gammabaculovirus, and Deltabaculovirus. The two most well-studied and economically important genera are Alphabaculovirus (nuclear polyhedrosis viruses or NPVs) and Betabaculovirus (granulosis viruses or GVs).
Baculoviruses have a biphasic replication cycle, consisting of a budded phase and an occluded phase. During the budded phase, the virus infects host cells and produces enveloped virions that can spread to other cells within the insect. In the occluded phase, large numbers of non-enveloped virions are produced and encapsidated in a protein matrix called a polyhedron. These polyhedra accumulate in the infected insect's tissues, providing protection from environmental degradation and facilitating transmission to new hosts through oral ingestion or other means.
Baculoviruses have been extensively studied as models for understanding viral replication, gene expression, and host-pathogen interactions. They also have potential applications in biotechnology and pest control, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy vectors, and environmentally friendly insecticides.
Protein precursors, also known as proproteins or prohormones, are inactive forms of proteins that undergo post-translational modification to become active. These modifications typically include cleavage of the precursor protein by specific enzymes, resulting in the release of the active protein. This process allows for the regulation and control of protein activity within the body. Protein precursors can be found in various biological processes, including the endocrine system where they serve as inactive hormones that can be converted into their active forms when needed.
Siphoviridae is a family of tailed bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. The members of this family are characterized by their long, non-contractile tails, which are typically around 100-1000 nanometers in length. The tail fibers at the end of the tail are used to recognize and attach to specific receptors on the surface of bacterial cells.
The Siphoviridae family includes many well-known bacteriophages, such as the lambda phage that infects Escherichia coli bacteria. The genetic material of Siphoviridae viruses is double-stranded DNA, which is packaged inside an icosahedral capsid (the protein shell of the virus).
It's worth noting that Siphoviridae is one of the five families in the order Caudovirales, which includes all tailed bacteriophages. The other four families are Myoviridae, Podoviridae, Herelleviridae, and Ackermannviridae.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "replicon" is not a term that has a widely accepted or specific medical definition. It is a term that is used in the field of molecular biology, where it refers to a segment of DNA that contains an origin of replication. The origin of replication is the site on the DNA molecule where the process of DNA replication is initiated. This concept is important in the fields of genetics and virology, but it is not a term that is commonly used in clinical medicine.
If you have any questions related to the medical field, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!
White Spot Syndrome Virus 1 (WSSV-1) is not typically recognized as a human or mammalian pathogen. It is primarily known to affect crustaceans, particularly penaeid shrimps. WSSV-1 is a large double-stranded DNA virus from the family Nimaviridae and genus Whispovirus. The virus is highly virulent and can cause rapid death in infected animals, resulting in significant economic losses in aquaculture industries.
The name "White Spot Syndrome Virus" refers to the characteristic white spots that appear on the exoskeleton of infected shrimps before their death. It's essential to clarify that WSSV-1 is not a human health concern, and its medical definition is primarily relevant in the context of veterinary medicine and aquaculture.
Viral matrix proteins are structural proteins that play a crucial role in the morphogenesis and life cycle of many viruses. They are often located between the viral envelope and the viral genome, serving as a scaffold for virus assembly and budding. These proteins also interact with other viral components, such as the viral genome, capsid proteins, and envelope proteins, to form an infectious virion. Additionally, matrix proteins can have regulatory functions, influencing viral transcription, replication, and host cell responses. The specific functions of viral matrix proteins vary among different virus families.
An epitope is a specific region on the surface of an antigen (a molecule that can trigger an immune response) that is recognized by an antibody, B-cell receptor, or T-cell receptor. It is also commonly referred to as an antigenic determinant. Epitopes are typically composed of linear amino acid sequences or conformational structures made up of discontinuous amino acids in the antigen. They play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to differentiate between self and non-self molecules, leading to the targeted destruction of foreign substances like viruses and bacteria. Understanding epitopes is essential for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.
African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the Asfarviridae family. It is the causative agent of African swine fever (ASF), a highly contagious and deadly disease in domestic pigs and wild boars. The virus can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated feed, or fomites (inanimate objects).
ASFV infects cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage and replicates in the cytoplasm of these cells. The virus causes a range of clinical signs, including fever, loss of appetite, hemorrhages, and death in severe cases. There is no effective vaccine or treatment available for ASF, and control measures rely on early detection, quarantine, and culling of infected animals to prevent the spread of the disease.
It's important to note that African swine fever virus is not a threat to human health, but it can have significant economic impacts on the pig industry due to high mortality rates in affected herds and trade restrictions imposed by countries to prevent the spread of the disease.
Peptide biosynthesis is the process by which cells synthesize peptides, short chains of amino acids. This process is mediated by enzymes called peptide synthetases, which catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between individual amino acids to create a longer chain. Peptide biosynthesis typically occurs through one of two pathways: ribosomal or non-ribosomal.
Ribosomal peptide biosynthesis involves the use of the cell's translational machinery, including the ribosome and transfer RNAs (tRNAs), to synthesize peptides from a messenger RNA (mRNA) template. This process is highly regulated and typically results in the production of small, linear peptides that are further modified by enzymes to create bioactive molecules such as hormones or neurotransmitters.
Non-ribosomal peptide biosynthesis (NRPS), on the other hand, is a more complex process that involves large multifunctional enzyme complexes called non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs). These enzymes are capable of synthesizing a wide variety of structurally diverse peptides, including cyclic and branched peptides, as well as those containing non-proteinogenic amino acids. NRPSs typically consist of multiple modules, each responsible for adding a single amino acid to the growing peptide chain. The modular nature of NRPS systems allows for great diversity in the types of peptides that can be synthesized, making them important sources of bioactive molecules with potential therapeutic applications.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but there seems to be no established medical definition or recognition of a "Rauscher Virus" in human or veterinary medicine. It is possible that you may have misspelled or misremembered the name of a specific virus or medical term. If you have more information or context about where this term was used, I'd be happy to help you further research the topic.
RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.
There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:
1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.
RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.
DNA viruses are a type of virus that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. These viruses replicate by using the host cell's machinery to synthesize new viral components, which are then assembled into new viruses and released from the host cell.
DNA viruses can be further classified based on the structure of their genomes and the way they replicate. For example, double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses have a genome made up of two strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses have a genome made up of a single strand of DNA.
Examples of DNA viruses include herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus, human papillomavirus, and adenoviruses. Some DNA viruses are associated with specific diseases, such as cancer (e.g., human papillomavirus) or neurological disorders (e.g., herpes simplex virus).
It's important to note that while DNA viruses contain DNA as their genetic material, RNA viruses contain RNA (ribonucleic acid) as their genetic material. Both DNA and RNA viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.
Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.
The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.
Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.
Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.
Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.
Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.
DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.
The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.
In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.
Vaccinia virus is a large, complex DNA virus that belongs to the Poxviridae family. It is the virus used in the production of the smallpox vaccine. The vaccinia virus is not identical to the variola virus, which causes smallpox, but it is closely related and provides cross-protection against smallpox infection.
The vaccinia virus has a unique replication cycle that occurs entirely in the cytoplasm of infected cells, rather than in the nucleus like many other DNA viruses. This allows the virus to evade host cell defenses and efficiently produce new virions. The virus causes the formation of pocks or lesions on the skin, which contain large numbers of virus particles that can be transmitted to others through close contact.
Vaccinia virus has also been used as a vector for the delivery of genes encoding therapeutic proteins, vaccines against other infectious diseases, and cancer therapies. However, the use of vaccinia virus as a vector is limited by its potential to cause adverse reactions in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems or certain skin conditions.
Caveolae are small, flask-shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane that are abundant in many cell types, including endothelial cells, adipocytes, and muscle cells. They are characterized by the presence of caveolin proteins, which play a crucial role in their formation and function.
Caveolae have been implicated in various cellular processes, such as endocytosis, signal transduction, cholesterol homeostasis, and mechanoprotection. They can also serve as platforms for the assembly of signaling complexes and the regulation of various enzymatic activities.
The invaginated structure of caveolae allows them to interact with extracellular molecules and intracellular proteins, facilitating the exchange of materials between the plasma membrane and the cytosol. Dysregulation of caveolae function has been linked to several diseases, including cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and neurological conditions.
Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Streptococcus Phages" is not a standard medical term. The term "Streptococcus" refers to a genus of gram-positive bacteria that can cause various infections in humans, such as strep throat and skin infections. A "phage," on the other hand, is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.
Therefore, if you are referring to bacteriophages that infect Streptococcus bacteria, then the term would be "Streptococcus phages" or more specifically, the name of the particular phage species that infect Streptococcus bacteria (e.g., Streptococcus phage C1, Streptococcus phage Φ29). However, it's important to note that there are many different types of bacteriophages that can infect various strains of Streptococcus bacteria, so the specific phage would need to be identified.
Crystallins are the major proteins found in the lens of the eye in vertebrates. They make up about 90% of the protein content in the lens and are responsible for maintaining the transparency and refractive properties of the lens, which are essential for clear vision. There are two main types of crystallins, alpha (α) and beta/gamma (β/γ), which are further divided into several subtypes. These proteins are highly stable and have a long half-life, which allows them to remain in the lens for an extended period of time. Mutations in crystallin genes have been associated with various eye disorders, including cataracts and certain types of glaucoma.
A nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) is a type of large, complex DNA virus that infects insects, particularly members of the order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). NPVs are characterized by their ability to produce multiple virions within a single polyhedral occlusion body, which provides protection for the virions in the environment and facilitates their transmission between hosts.
NPVs replicate in the nucleus of infected cells, where they induce the production of large quantities of viral proteins that ultimately lead to the lysis of the host cell. The virions are then released and can infect other cells or be transmitted to other insects. NPVs are important pathogens of many agricultural pests, and some species have been developed as biological control agents for use in integrated pest management programs.
Disc electrophoresis is a type of electrophoresis technique used to separate and analyze DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their size and electrical charge. In this method, the samples are placed in a gel matrix (usually agarose or polyacrylamide) and an electric field is applied. The smaller and/or more negatively charged molecules migrate faster through the gel and separate from larger and/or less charged molecules, creating a pattern of bands that can be visualized and analyzed.
The term "disc" refers to the characteristic disc-shaped pattern that is often seen in the separated protein bands when using this technique. This pattern is created by the interaction between the size, charge, and shape of the proteins, resulting in a distinct banding pattern that can be used for identification and analysis.
Disc electrophoresis is widely used in molecular biology and genetics research, as well as in diagnostic testing and forensic science.
Cross reactions, in the context of medical diagnostics and immunology, refer to a situation where an antibody or a immune response directed against one antigen also reacts with a different antigen due to similarities in their molecular structure. This can occur in allergy testing, where a person who is allergic to a particular substance may have a positive test result for a different but related substance because of cross-reactivity between them. For example, some individuals who are allergic to birch pollen may also have symptoms when eating certain fruits, such as apples, due to cross-reactive proteins present in both.
'Immune sera' refers to the serum fraction of blood that contains antibodies produced in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a vaccine or an infection. These antibodies are proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are secreted by B cells (a type of white blood cell) and can recognize and bind to specific antigens. Immune sera can be collected from an immunized individual and used as a source of passive immunity to protect against infection or disease. It is often used in research and diagnostic settings to identify or measure the presence of specific antigens or antibodies.
Coronaviridae is a family of enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses. They are named for the crown-like (corona) appearance of their surface proteins. Coronaviruses infect a wide range of animals, including mammals and birds, and can cause respiratory, gastrointestinal, and neurological diseases. Some coronaviruses, such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), can cause severe and potentially fatal illness in humans. The most recent example is SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19.
The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.
The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.
Yellow fever virus (YFV) is an single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family, genus Flavivirus. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, most commonly Aedes and Haemagogus species. The virus is named for the jaundice that can occur in some patients, giving their skin and eyes a yellowish color.
Yellow fever is endemic in tropical regions of Africa and South America, with outbreaks occurring when large numbers of people are infected. After an incubation period of 3 to 6 days, symptoms typically begin with fever, chills, headache, back pain, and muscle aches. In more severe cases, the infection can progress to cause bleeding, organ failure, and death.
Prevention measures include vaccination, mosquito control, and personal protective measures such as wearing long sleeves and using insect repellent in areas where yellow fever is endemic or outbreaks are occurring.
Archaeal viruses are viruses that infect and replicate within archaea, which are single-celled microorganisms without a nucleus. These viruses have unique characteristics that distinguish them from bacterial and eukaryotic viruses. They often possess distinct morphologies, such as icosahedral or filamentous shapes, and their genomes can be composed of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), or single-stranded RNA (ssRNA).
Archaeal viruses have evolved various strategies to hijack the host cell's machinery for replication, packaging, and release of new virus particles. Some archaeal viruses even encode their own proteins for transcription and translation, suggesting a more complex relationship with their hosts than previously thought. The study of archaeal viruses provides valuable insights into the evolution of viruses and their hosts and has implications for understanding the origins of life on Earth.
Immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) is a specialized type of electron microscopy that combines the principles of immunochemistry and electron microscopy to detect and localize specific antigens within cells or tissues at the ultrastructural level. This technique allows for the visualization and identification of specific proteins, viruses, or other antigenic structures with a high degree of resolution and specificity.
In IEM, samples are first fixed, embedded, and sectioned to prepare them for electron microscopy. The sections are then treated with specific antibodies that have been labeled with electron-dense markers, such as gold particles or ferritin. These labeled antibodies bind to the target antigens in the sample, allowing for their visualization under an electron microscope.
There are several different methods of IEM, including pre-embedding and post-embedding techniques. Pre-embedding involves labeling the antigens before embedding the sample in resin, while post-embedding involves labeling the antigens after embedding. Post-embedding techniques are generally more commonly used because they allow for better preservation of ultrastructure and higher resolution.
IEM is a valuable tool in many areas of research, including virology, bacteriology, immunology, and cell biology. It can be used to study the structure and function of viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms, as well as the distribution and localization of specific proteins and antigens within cells and tissues.
Post-translational protein processing refers to the modifications and changes that proteins undergo after their synthesis on ribosomes, which are complex molecular machines responsible for protein synthesis. These modifications occur through various biochemical processes and play a crucial role in determining the final structure, function, and stability of the protein.
The process begins with the translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into a linear polypeptide chain, which is then subjected to several post-translational modifications. These modifications can include:
1. Proteolytic cleavage: The removal of specific segments or domains from the polypeptide chain by proteases, resulting in the formation of mature, functional protein subunits.
2. Chemical modifications: Addition or modification of chemical groups to the side chains of amino acids, such as phosphorylation (addition of a phosphate group), glycosylation (addition of sugar moieties), methylation (addition of a methyl group), acetylation (addition of an acetyl group), and ubiquitination (addition of a ubiquitin protein).
3. Disulfide bond formation: The oxidation of specific cysteine residues within the polypeptide chain, leading to the formation of disulfide bonds between them. This process helps stabilize the three-dimensional structure of proteins, particularly in extracellular environments.
4. Folding and assembly: The acquisition of a specific three-dimensional conformation by the polypeptide chain, which is essential for its function. Chaperone proteins assist in this process to ensure proper folding and prevent aggregation.
5. Protein targeting: The directed transport of proteins to their appropriate cellular locations, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, or plasma membrane. This is often facilitated by specific signal sequences within the protein that are recognized and bound by transport machinery.
Collectively, these post-translational modifications contribute to the functional diversity of proteins in living organisms, allowing them to perform a wide range of cellular processes, including signaling, catalysis, regulation, and structural support.
In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.
Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They consist of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha carbon, which is bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group). The R group can be composed of various combinations of atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, which determine the unique properties of each amino acid.
There are 20 standard amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code and incorporated into proteins during translation. These include:
1. Alanine (Ala)
2. Arginine (Arg)
3. Asparagine (Asn)
4. Aspartic acid (Asp)
5. Cysteine (Cys)
6. Glutamine (Gln)
7. Glutamic acid (Glu)
8. Glycine (Gly)
9. Histidine (His)
10. Isoleucine (Ile)
11. Leucine (Leu)
12. Lysine (Lys)
13. Methionine (Met)
14. Phenylalanine (Phe)
15. Proline (Pro)
16. Serine (Ser)
17. Threonine (Thr)
18. Tryptophan (Trp)
19. Tyrosine (Tyr)
20. Valine (Val)
Additionally, there are several non-standard or modified amino acids that can be incorporated into proteins through post-translational modifications, such as hydroxylation, methylation, and phosphorylation. These modifications expand the functional diversity of proteins and play crucial roles in various cellular processes.
Amino acids are essential for numerous biological functions, including protein synthesis, enzyme catalysis, neurotransmitter production, energy metabolism, and immune response regulation. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the human body (non-essential), while others must be obtained through dietary sources (essential).
Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.
The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.
Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:
1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment
Aphthovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Picornaviridae, order Picornavirales. This genus includes several species of viruses that are primarily associated with causing oral and foot lesions in cloven-hoofed animals, such as cattle, sheep, and pigs. The most well-known member of this genus is foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), which causes a highly contagious and economically significant disease in livestock. Other species in the Aphthovirus genus include equine rhinitis A virus, bovine rhinitis virus, and porcine teschovirus. These viruses are typically transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their secretions and excretions, and they can cause a range of clinical signs including fever, loss of appetite, lameness, and lesions in the mouth and feet. There are currently no vaccines available for all serotypes of FMDV, and control measures typically involve quarantine, slaughter of infected animals, and strict biosecurity practices to prevent spread of the virus.
Caveolins are a group of proteins that are the main structural components of caveolae, which are small invaginations or "caves" found in the plasma membrane of many cell types. These proteins play important roles in various cellular processes such as endocytosis, cholesterol homeostasis, and signal transduction.
There are three main caveolin isoforms: caveolin-1, caveolin-2, and caveolin-3. Caveolin-1 is the most well-studied and is expressed in many cell types, while caveolin-2 and caveolin-3 have more restricted expression patterns. Caveolin-1 and caveolin-2 are co-expressed in many cells and can form hetero-oligomers, while caveolin-3 primarily forms homo-oligomers.
Caveolins have a number of functional domains that allow them to interact with various proteins and lipids. For example, the C-terminal domain of caveolin-1 contains a binding site for cholesterol, which helps to regulate the formation and stability of caveolae. Additionally, the N-terminal domain of caveolin-1 contains a binding site for various signaling proteins, allowing it to act as a scaffolding protein that organizes signaling complexes within caveolae.
Mutations in caveolin genes have been associated with several human diseases, including muscular dystrophy, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.
Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.
The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.
Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.
I apologize for any confusion, but "Penaeidae" is not a medical term. It is actually the scientific name of a family of crustaceans, specifically marine decapods, commonly known as prawns or shrimps. If you have any questions about medical terminology or concepts, I would be happy to help with those instead.
A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.
The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.
Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.
Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.
Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.
Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) is a type of viral encephalitis that is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes. It is caused by the western equine encephalitis virus, which belongs to the family Togaviridae and the genus Alphavirus.
WEEV is most commonly found in North America, particularly in the western and central regions of the United States and Canada. The virus is maintained in a natural cycle between mosquitoes and birds, but it can also infect horses and humans.
In humans, WEEV infection can cause mild flu-like symptoms or more severe neurological manifestations such as encephalitis, meningitis, and seizures. The virus is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly Culex tarsalis.
The incubation period for WEEV is typically 4-10 days, after which symptoms may appear suddenly or gradually. Mild cases of WEEV may be asymptomatic or may cause fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. Severe cases may involve neck stiffness, disorientation, seizures, coma, and permanent neurological damage.
There is no specific treatment for WEEV, and management is primarily supportive. Prevention measures include the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and avoiding outdoor activities during peak mosquito hours. Public health authorities may also implement mosquito control measures to reduce the risk of transmission.
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus (VEEV) is a type of alphavirus that can cause encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) in horses and humans. It is primarily transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes, although it can also be spread through contact with contaminated food or water, or by aerosolization during laboratory work or in bioterrorism attacks.
VEEV infection can cause a range of symptoms in humans, from mild flu-like illness to severe encephalitis, which may result in permanent neurological damage or death. There are several subtypes of VEEV, some of which are more virulent than others. The virus is endemic in parts of Central and South America, but outbreaks can also occur in other regions, including the United States.
VEEV is considered a potential bioterrorism agent due to its ease of transmission through aerosolization and its high virulence. There are no specific treatments for VEEV infection, although supportive care can help manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites in endemic areas, using personal protective equipment during laboratory work with the virus, and implementing strict biocontainment procedures in research settings.
Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).
The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:
1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.
Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.
Genetic recombination is the process by which genetic material is exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA during meiosis, resulting in new combinations of genes on each chromosome. This exchange occurs during crossover, where segments of DNA are swapped between non-sister homologous chromatids, creating genetic diversity among the offspring. It is a crucial mechanism for generating genetic variability and facilitating evolutionary change within populations. Additionally, recombination also plays an essential role in DNA repair processes through mechanisms such as homologous recombinational repair (HRR) and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ).
Atadenovirus is a genus of viruses in the family *Parvoviridae*, which infect a wide range of animals including reptiles, birds, and mammals. These viruses are non-enveloped, meaning they do not have a lipid membrane, and have a single-stranded DNA genome. Atadenoviruses can cause various diseases in their hosts, depending on the specific species of the virus and the animal it infects. Some atadenoviruses have been associated with gastrointestinal illnesses, respiratory infections, and liver disease in animals. However, more research is needed to fully understand the impact of atadenovirus infections in various animal populations.
Defective viruses are viruses that have lost the ability to complete a full replication cycle and produce progeny virions independently. These viruses require the assistance of a helper virus, which provides the necessary functions for replication. Defective viruses can arise due to mutations, deletions, or other genetic changes that result in the loss of essential genes. They are often non-infectious and cannot cause disease on their own, but they may interfere with the replication of the helper virus and modulate the course of infection. Defective viruses can be found in various types of viruses, including retroviruses, bacteriophages, and DNA viruses.
Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.
HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.
In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.
Haplorhini is a term used in the field of primatology and physical anthropology to refer to a parvorder of simian primates, which includes humans, apes (both great and small), and Old World monkeys. The name "Haplorhini" comes from the Greek words "haploos," meaning single or simple, and "rhinos," meaning nose.
The defining characteristic of Haplorhini is the presence of a simple, dry nose, as opposed to the wet, fleshy noses found in other primates, such as New World monkeys and strepsirrhines (which include lemurs and lorises). The nostrils of haplorhines are located close together at the tip of the snout, and they lack the rhinarium or "wet nose" that is present in other primates.
Haplorhini is further divided into two infraorders: Simiiformes (which includes apes and Old World monkeys) and Tarsioidea (which includes tarsiers). These groups are distinguished by various anatomical and behavioral differences, such as the presence or absence of a tail, the structure of the hand and foot, and the degree of sociality.
Overall, Haplorhini is a group of primates that share a number of distinctive features related to their sensory systems, locomotion, and social behavior. Understanding the evolutionary history and diversity of this group is an important area of research in anthropology, biology, and psychology.
Polyomavirus is a type of double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the family Polyomaviridae. These viruses are small, non-enveloped viruses with an icosahedral symmetry. They have a relatively simple structure and contain a circular genome.
Polyomaviruses are known to infect a wide range of hosts, including humans, animals, and birds. In humans, polyomaviruses can cause asymptomatic infections or lead to the development of various diseases, depending on the age and immune status of the host.
There are several types of human polyomaviruses, including:
* JC virus (JCV) and BK virus (BKV), which can cause severe disease in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients. JCV is associated with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a rare but often fatal demyelinating disease of the central nervous system, while BKV can cause nephropathy and hemorrhagic cystitis.
* Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), which is associated with Merkel cell carcinoma, a rare but aggressive form of skin cancer.
* Trichodysplasia spinulosa-associated polyomavirus (TSV), which is associated with trichodysplasia spinulosa, a rare skin disorder that affects immunocompromised individuals.
Polyomaviruses are typically transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected bodily fluids. Once inside the host, they can establish latency in various tissues and organs, where they may remain dormant for long periods of time before reactivating under certain conditions, such as immunosuppression.
Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals. There are currently no vaccines available to prevent polyomavirus infections, although research is ongoing to develop effective vaccines against some of the more pathogenic human polyomaviruses.
Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "viral tail proteins" is not a widely recognized or established medical term. The term "tail proteins" is used in the context of certain viruses, particularly bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria), which have a tail-like structure that helps them attach to and inject their genetic material into host cells.
However, even within this context, there isn't a specific concept known as "viral tail proteins" that has a widely accepted medical definition. The proteins that make up the tail structure of bacteriophages have various functions and are referred to by different names based on their roles. These can include terms like "tail fiber proteins," "tail tube proteins," "tail terminator proteins," etc.
If you're looking for information about a specific protein or group of proteins related to viral tails, I would be happy to help further if you could provide more details.
Dengue virus (DENV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the genus Flavivirus in the family Flaviviridae. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female mosquitoes, mainly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus.
The DENV genome contains approximately 11,000 nucleotides and encodes three structural proteins (capsid, pre-membrane/membrane, and envelope) and seven non-structural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5). There are four distinct serotypes of DENV (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), each of which can cause dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral disease.
Infection with one serotype provides lifelong immunity against that particular serotype but only temporary and partial protection against the other three serotypes. Subsequent infections with different serotypes can increase the risk of developing severe dengue, such as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome, due to antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) and original antigenic sin phenomena.
DENV is a significant public health concern in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, with an estimated 390 million annual infections and approximately 100-400 million clinical cases. Preventive measures include vector control strategies to reduce mosquito populations and the development of effective vaccines against all four serotypes.
Podoviridae is a family of viruses in the order Caudovirales, which are tailed, double-stranded DNA viruses. The members of this family are characterized by their short, noncontractile tails. The virions (virus particles) of Podoviridae are typically icosahedral in shape and measure around 60 nanometers in diameter.
The host organisms of Podoviridae are primarily bacteria, making them bacteriophages or phages. They infect and replicate within the host bacterium, often leading to its lysis (breakdown) and release of new virions. The family Podoviridae is further divided into several genera, including T7-like viruses, N4-like viruses, and P22-like viruses, among others.
It's worth noting that while Podoviridae is a well-established family of bacteriophages, the field of virology is constantly evolving as new research and discoveries are made. Therefore, it's possible that the classification and definition of Podoviridae may change over time.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.
Beta-crystallins are proteins that make up a significant portion of the lens in our eyes. They are part of the crystallin family, which also includes alpha- and gamma-crystallins. These proteins are essential for maintaining the transparency and refractive properties of the eye's lens, allowing us to focus light onto the retina.
Beta-crystallins are organized into two subgroups: beta-A and beta-B. Each subgroup is made up of several different proteins called isoforms, which vary slightly in their amino acid sequences. These isoforms are produced by alternative splicing of the beta-crystallin genes during gene expression.
Mutations in the genes that encode beta-crystallins have been associated with various eye disorders, including cataracts and certain inherited forms of blindness. Cataracts are characterized by the clouding or opacification of the lens, which can lead to vision loss if not treated surgically. Inherited forms of blindness such as congenital nuclear cataracts and retinal degeneration have also been linked to mutations in beta-crystallin genes.
Overall, beta-crystallins play a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of our eyes, and their dysregulation can contribute to various eye disorders.
I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.
However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.
Cytoplasm is the material within a eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) that lies between the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane. It is composed of an aqueous solution called cytosol, in which various organelles such as mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles are suspended. Cytoplasm also contains a variety of dissolved nutrients, metabolites, ions, and enzymes that are involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, signaling, and transport. It is where most of the cell's metabolic activities take place, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure and function of the cell.
Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an infectious agent that causes Bluetongue disease, a non-contagious viral disease affecting sheep and other ruminants. It is a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family. The virus is transmitted by biting midges of the Culicoides species and can infect various animals such as sheep, cattle, goats, and wild ruminants.
The virus has a double-stranded RNA genome and consists of ten segments that encode seven structural and four non-structural proteins. The clinical signs of Bluetongue disease in sheep include fever, salivation, swelling of the head and neck, nasal discharge, and respiratory distress, which can be severe or fatal. In contrast, cattle usually show milder symptoms or are asymptomatic, although they can serve as reservoirs for the virus.
Bluetongue virus is an important veterinary pathogen that has a significant economic impact on the global sheep industry. The disease is prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, but has also spread to temperate areas due to climate change and the movement of infected animals. Prevention and control measures include vaccination, insect control, and restricting the movement of infected animals.
Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:
1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction
Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:
1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.
Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).
Virus cultivation, also known as virus isolation or viral culture, is a laboratory method used to propagate and detect viruses by introducing them to host cells and allowing them to replicate. This process helps in identifying the specific virus causing an infection and studying its characteristics, such as morphology, growth pattern, and sensitivity to antiviral agents.
The steps involved in virus cultivation typically include:
1. Collection of a clinical sample (e.g., throat swab, blood, sputum) from the patient.
2. Preparation of the sample by centrifugation or filtration to remove cellular debris and other contaminants.
3. Inoculation of the prepared sample into susceptible host cells, which can be primary cell cultures, continuous cell lines, or embryonated eggs, depending on the type of virus.
4. Incubation of the inoculated cells under appropriate conditions to allow viral replication.
5. Observation for cytopathic effects (CPE), which are changes in the host cells caused by viral replication, such as cell rounding, shrinkage, or lysis.
6. Confirmation of viral presence through additional tests, like immunofluorescence assays, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or electron microscopy.
Virus cultivation is a valuable tool in diagnostic virology, vaccine development, and research on viral pathogenesis and host-virus interactions. However, it requires specialized equipment, trained personnel, and biosafety measures due to the potential infectivity of the viruses being cultured.
Iridoviridae is a family of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, including insects, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The name "iridovirus" comes from the Greek word "iris," meaning rainbow, due to the characteristic iridescent coloration of infected insects' cuticles.
Iridoviruses are large, icosahedral virions with a diameter of approximately 120-300 nanometers. They have a complex internal structure, including a lipid membrane and several protein layers. The genome of iridoviruses is a circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that ranges in size from about 100 to 200 kilobases.
Iridoviruses can cause a variety of diseases in their hosts, including hemorrhagic septicemia, hepatopancreatic necrosis, and developmental abnormalities. Infection typically occurs through ingestion or injection of viral particles, and the virus replicates in the host's nuclei.
There are several genera within the family Iridoviridae, including Ranavirus, Lymphocystivirus, Megalocyivirus, and Iridovirus. Each genus has a specific host range and causes distinct clinical symptoms. For example, ranaviruses infect amphibians, reptiles, and fish, while lymphocystiviruses primarily infect teleost fish.
Iridoviruses are of interest to medical researchers because they have potential as biological control agents for pests and vectors of human diseases, such as mosquitoes and ticks. However, their use as biocontrol agents is still being studied, and there are concerns about the potential ecological impacts of releasing iridoviruses into the environment.
Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Arteriviridae family. It is the causative agent of Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS), also known as "blue ear disease" or "porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome."
The virus primarily affects pigs, causing a wide range of clinical signs including respiratory distress in young animals and reproductive failure in pregnant sows. The infection can lead to late-term abortions, stillbirths, premature deliveries, and weak or mummified fetuses. In growing pigs, PRRSV can cause pneumonia, which is often accompanied by secondary bacterial infections.
PRRSV has a tropism for cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage, and it replicates within these cells, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the development of the clinical signs associated with the disease. The virus is highly infectious and can spread rapidly in susceptible pig populations, making it a significant concern for the swine industry worldwide.
It's important to note that PRRSV has two distinct genotypes: Type 1 (European) and Type 2 (North American). Both types have a high degree of genetic diversity, which can make controlling the virus challenging. Vaccination is available for PRRSV, but it may not provide complete protection against all strains of the virus, and it may not prevent infection or shedding. Therefore, biosecurity measures, such as strict sanitation and animal movement controls, are critical to preventing the spread of this virus in pig populations.
Mamastrovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Astroviridae, which infect mammals. These non-enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses are responsible for gastroenteritis in various mammalian species, including humans. The name "mamastrovirus" is derived from "mammal astrovirus."
Human mastastroviruses (HAstV) are further divided into eight major serotypes (HAstV-1 to HAstV-8), with additional genotypes and variants identified. Infection usually occurs through the fecal-oral route, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and fever. While mastastrovirus infections are often self-limiting, they can cause severe dehydration and other complications, particularly in young children, immunocompromised individuals, and the elderly.
Research into mamastroviruses continues to advance our understanding of their epidemiology, pathogenesis, and potential therapeutic targets for treating astrovirus-induced gastroenteritis.
Helper viruses, also known as "auxiliary" or "satellite" viruses, are defective viruses that depend on the assistance of a second virus, called a helper virus, to complete their replication cycle. They lack certain genes that are essential for replication, and therefore require the helper virus to provide these functions.
Helper viruses are often found in cases of dual infection, where both the helper virus and the dependent virus infect the same cell. The helper virus provides the necessary enzymes and proteins for the helper virus to replicate, package its genome into new virions, and bud off from the host cell.
One example of a helper virus is the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can serve as a helper virus for hepatitis D virus (HDV) infection. HDV is a defective RNA virus that requires the HBV surface antigen to form an envelope around its nucleocapsid and be transmitted to other cells. In the absence of HBV, HDV cannot replicate or cause disease.
Understanding the role of helper viruses in viral infections is important for developing effective treatments and vaccines against viral diseases.
Capripoxvirus is a genus of viruses in the family Poxviridae, subfamily Chordopoxvirinae. This genus includes three species of poxviruses that primarily infect members of the Artiodactyla order (even-toed ungulates), such as sheep, goats, and cattle. The three species are:
1. Sheeppox virus (SPPV) - causes sheeppox in sheep and goatpox in goats
2. Goatpox virus (GTPV) - causes goatpox in goats and sometimes in sheep
3. Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) - causes lumpy skin disease in cattle
These viruses are large, complex, enveloped double-stranded DNA viruses with a linear genome of approximately 150 kilobases. They replicate in the cytoplasm of infected cells and can cause severe diseases in their respective hosts, characterized by fever, lesions on the skin and mucous membranes, and secondary bacterial infections. Vaccination is an important control strategy for capripoxviruses.
A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism. Genes are the basic units of inheritance, and they determine many of an individual's characteristics, such as eye color, hair color, and height.
In revised terminology, "genes" can be defined more specifically as a DNA sequence that codes for a functional RNA molecule or a protein. This includes both coding sequences (exons) and non-coding sequences (introns). The revised definition also acknowledges the role of regulatory elements, such as promoters and enhancers, which are DNA sequences that control the expression of genes.
Additionally, it is important to note that genes can exist in different forms, known as alleles, which can result in variations in traits among individuals. Some genes may also have multiple functions or be involved in complex genetic interactions, contributing to the complexity of genetics and inheritance.
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the family Picornaviridae and the genus Aphthovirus. It is the causative agent of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD), a highly contagious and severe viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, swine, sheep, goats, and buffalo. The virus can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, as well as through aerosolized particles in the air. FMDV has seven distinct serotypes (O, A, C, Asia 1, and South African Territories [SAT] 1, 2, and 3), and infection with one serotype does not provide cross-protection against other serotypes. The virus primarily targets the animal's epithelial tissues, causing lesions and blisters in and around the mouth, feet, and mammary glands. FMD is not a direct threat to human health but poses significant economic consequences for the global livestock industry due to its high infectivity and morbidity rates.
Alpha-crystallins are small heat shock proteins found in the lens of the eye. They are composed of two subunits, alpha-A and alpha-B, which can form homo- or hetero-oligomers. Alpha-crystallins have chaperone-like activity, helping to prevent protein aggregation and maintain transparency of the lens. Additionally, they play a role in maintaining the structural integrity of the lens and protecting it from oxidative stress. Mutations in alpha-crystallin genes have been associated with certain forms of cataracts and other eye diseases.
A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.
Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.
Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an alphavirus from the Togaviridae family that is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The name "Chikungunya" is derived from a Makonde word meaning "to become contorted," which describes the stooped posture developed as a result of severe arthralgia (joint pain) that is a primary symptom of infection with this virus.
CHIKV infection typically causes a febrile illness, characterized by an abrupt onset of high fever, severe joint pain, muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue, and rash. While the symptoms are usually self-limiting and resolve within 10 days, some individuals may experience persistent or recurring joint pain for several months or even years after the initial infection.
There is no specific antiviral treatment available for Chikungunya virus infection, and management primarily focuses on relieving symptoms with rest, fluids, and over-the-counter pain relievers such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, staying in air-conditioned or screened rooms, and eliminating standing water where mosquitoes breed.
Chikungunya virus is found primarily in Africa, Asia, and the Indian subcontinent, but it has also caused outbreaks in Europe and the Americas due to the spread of its vectors, Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. The virus can cause large-scale epidemics, with millions of cases reported during outbreaks. There is currently no approved vaccine for Chikungunya virus infection.
A precipitin test is a type of immunodiagnostic test used to detect and measure the presence of specific antibodies or antigens in a patient's serum. The test is based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction, where the addition of an antigen to a solution containing its corresponding antibody results in the formation of an insoluble immune complex known as a precipitin.
In this test, a small amount of the patient's serum is added to a solution containing a known antigen or antibody. If the patient has antibodies or antigens that correspond to the added reagent, they will bind and form a visible precipitate. The size and density of the precipitate can be used to quantify the amount of antibody or antigen present in the sample.
Precipitin tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of various infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and allergies. They can also be used in forensic science to identify biological samples. However, they have largely been replaced by more modern immunological techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and radioimmunoassays (RIAs).
Luteoviridae is a family of positive-strand RNA viruses that primarily infect plants. The name "luteo" comes from Latin and means "yellow," which refers to the yellowing symptoms often caused by these viruses in infected plants. The virions are non-enveloped and icosahedral in shape, with a diameter of about 25-30 nanometers.
The genome of Luteoviridae viruses is monopartite and contains one molecule of linear, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA. The genome is encapsidated within the virion and protected by a capsid protein. The genome encodes several proteins, including a readthrough protein that functions as a movement protein, allowing the virus to move from cell to cell within the plant.
Luteoviridae viruses are transmitted by aphids in a persistent, circulative manner. Once an aphid ingests virus particles while feeding on an infected plant, the virus moves through the insect's body and accumulates in its salivary glands. When the aphid feeds on a healthy plant, it injects the virus into the plant tissue along with its saliva.
Some notable members of Luteoviridae include Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV), Cereal yellow dwarf virus (CYDV), and Potato leafroll virus (PLRV). These viruses can cause significant economic losses in agriculture, particularly in cereal crops and potatoes.
The crystalline lens is a biconvex transparent structure in the eye that helps to refract (bend) light rays and focus them onto the retina. It is located behind the iris and pupil and is suspended by small fibers called zonules that connect it to the ciliary body. The lens can change its shape to accommodate and focus on objects at different distances, a process known as accommodation. With age, the lens may become cloudy or opaque, leading to cataracts.
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffalo. The virus can also infect wild animals like deer and antelope. FMD is not a direct threat to human health but may have significant economic impacts due to restrictions on trade and movement of infected animals.
The disease is characterized by fever, blister-like sores (vesicles) in the mouth, on the tongue, lips, gums, teats, and between the hooves. The vesicles can rupture, causing painful erosions that make it difficult for affected animals to eat, drink, or walk. In severe cases, FMD can lead to death, particularly among young animals.
The causative agent of foot-and-mouth disease is the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), which belongs to the Picornaviridae family and Aphthovirus genus. There are seven serotypes of FMDV: O, A, C, Asia 1, and South African Territories (SAT) 1, SAT 2, and SAT 3. Infection with one serotype does not provide cross-protection against other serotypes.
Prevention and control measures for foot-and-mouth disease include vaccination, quarantine, movement restrictions, disinfection, and culling of infected animals in severe outbreaks. Rapid detection and response are crucial to prevent the spread of FMD within and between countries.
Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) viruses are a group of related viruses that are primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks. The main strains of TBE viruses include:
1. European tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-Eu): This strain is found mainly in Europe and causes the majority of human cases of TBE. It is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes ricinus.
2. Siberian tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-Sib): This strain is prevalent in Russia, Mongolia, and China, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes persulcatus.
3. Far Eastern tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV-FE): Also known as Russian spring-summer encephalitis (RSSE) virus, this strain is found in Russia, China, and Japan, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes persulcatus.
4. Louping ill virus (LIV): This strain is primarily found in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Portugal, and Spain, and is transmitted by the tick species Ixodes ricinus. It mainly affects sheep but can also infect humans.
5. Turkish sheep encephalitis virus (TSEV): This strain is found in Turkey and Greece and is primarily associated with ovine encephalitis, although it can occasionally cause human disease.
6. Negishi virus (NGS): This strain has been identified in Japan and Russia, but its role in human disease remains unclear.
TBE viruses are members of the Flaviviridae family and are closely related to other mosquito-borne flaviviruses such as West Nile virus, dengue virus, and Zika virus. The incubation period for TBE is usually 7-14 days after a tick bite, but it can range from 2 to 28 days. Symptoms of TBE include fever, headache, muscle pain, fatigue, and vomiting, followed by neurological symptoms such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) or encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). Severe cases can lead to long-term complications or even death. No specific antiviral treatment is available for TBE, and management typically involves supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding tick-infested areas, using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and promptly removing attached ticks. Vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure to TBE viruses.
Arterivirus is a type of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Arteriviridae. These viruses are named after their initial discovery in arteries and have since been found to infect a wide range of mammals, including pigs, horses, cats, and primates.
Arteriviruses can cause various diseases, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in pigs, equine arteritis virus (EAV) in horses, and simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV) in non-human primates. In humans, Arterivirus infection is rare, but some cases of human infection with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus have been reported.
Arteriviruses are characterized by their unique viral structure, including a distinctive "coronavirus-like" appearance due to the presence of club-shaped projections on their surface called peplomers. However, they differ from coronaviruses in several ways, such as genome organization and replication strategy.
Overall, Arterivirus is an important group of viruses that can cause significant economic losses in the livestock industry and pose a potential threat to human health.
A mastadenovirus is a type of virus that belongs to the family Adenoviridae and the genus Mastadenovirus. These viruses are known to infect mammals, including humans, and can cause a variety of diseases such as respiratory infections, conjunctivitis, and gastroenteritis.
Human mastadenoviruses are typically associated with mild illnesses, although some strains can cause more severe disease, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. The virus is usually transmitted through respiratory droplets or contact with contaminated surfaces.
Mastadenoviruses are non-enveloped viruses, which means they do not have a lipid membrane surrounding their protein capsid. They contain a double-stranded DNA genome that encodes for several proteins involved in the virus's replication and assembly. The virus replicates in the nucleus of infected cells and can cause cell lysis or transformation, leading to various clinical manifestations.
Overall, mastadenoviruses are a significant cause of human and animal diseases, and understanding their biology and epidemiology is essential for developing effective prevention and treatment strategies.
The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.
The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).
The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.
Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.
Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.
Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.
Genetic skin diseases are a group of disorders caused by mutations or alterations in the genetic material (DNA), which can be inherited from one or both parents. These mutations affect the structure, function, or development of the skin and can lead to various conditions with different symptoms, severity, and prognosis.
Some examples of genetic skin diseases include:
1. Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB): A group of disorders characterized by fragile skin and mucous membranes that blister and tear easily, leading to painful sores and wounds. There are several types of EB, each caused by mutations in different genes involved in anchoring the epidermis to the dermis.
2. Ichthyosis: A family of genetic disorders characterized by dry, thickened, scaly, or rough skin. The severity and symptoms can vary widely, depending on the specific type and underlying genetic cause.
3. Neurofibromatosis: A group of conditions caused by mutations in the NF1 gene, which regulates cell growth and division. The most common types, NF1 and NF2, are characterized by the development of benign tumors called neurofibromas on the skin and nerves, as well as other symptoms affecting various organs and systems.
4. Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC): A genetic disorder caused by mutations in the TSC1 or TSC2 genes, which control cell growth and division. TSC is characterized by the development of benign tumors in multiple organs, including the skin, brain, heart, kidneys, and lungs.
5. Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP): A rare genetic disorder caused by mutations in genes responsible for repairing DNA damage from ultraviolet (UV) radiation. People with XP are extremely sensitive to sunlight and have a high risk of developing skin cancer and other complications.
6. Incontinentia Pigmenti (IP): A genetic disorder that affects the development and growth of skin, hair, nails, teeth, and eyes. IP is caused by mutations in the IKBKG gene and primarily affects females.
7. Darier's Disease: An inherited skin disorder characterized by greasy, crusted, keratotic papules and plaques, usually located on the trunk, scalp, and seborrheic areas of the body. Darier's disease is caused by mutations in the ATP2A2 gene.
These are just a few examples of genetic skin disorders. There are many more, each with its unique set of symptoms, causes, and treatments. If you or someone you know has a genetic skin disorder, it is essential to consult with a dermatologist or other healthcare professional for proper diagnosis and treatment.
Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.
For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.
DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.
Arterivirus infections are viral diseases caused by members of the Arteriviridae family, which includes several species that can infect a variety of animals. The most well-known arterivirus is the equine arteritis virus (EAV), which causes equine arteritis in horses. Other examples include the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in pigs, and simian hemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV) in non-human primates.
Arterivirus infections typically cause respiratory or reproductive symptoms, depending on the specific virus and host species. For example, EAV can cause respiratory disease, abortion, and infertility in horses, while PRRSV primarily affects the reproductive system of pigs, causing abortions, stillbirths, and weak piglets.
Transmission of arteriviruses typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, such as respiratory droplets or semen. Some arteriviruses can also be transmitted vertically, from mother to offspring, during pregnancy or birth.
There are currently no specific treatments for arterivirus infections, and prevention efforts focus on biosecurity measures, such as quarantine and vaccination of susceptible animals.
Insect viruses, also known as entomoviruses, are viruses that specifically infect and replicate in insect hosts. These viruses can be found in various insect species, including those of medical and agricultural importance. Insect viruses can cause diseases in insect populations, leading to significant impacts on their growth, development, and survival. Some insect viruses have been studied as potential biological control agents for managing pest insects that affect crops or transmit diseases. Examples of insect viruses include Baculoviridae, Reoviridae, and Picornaviridae families.
Epitope mapping is a technique used in immunology to identify the specific portion or regions (called epitopes) on an antigen that are recognized and bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This process helps to understand the molecular basis of immune responses against various pathogens, allergens, or transplanted tissues.
Epitope mapping can be performed using different methods such as:
1. Peptide scanning: In this method, a series of overlapping peptides spanning the entire length of the antigen are synthesized and tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. The peptide that shows binding is considered to contain the epitope.
2. Site-directed mutagenesis: In this approach, specific amino acids within the antigen are altered, and the modified antigens are tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This helps in identifying the critical residues within the epitope.
3. X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy: These techniques provide detailed information about the three-dimensional structure of antigen-antibody complexes, allowing for accurate identification of epitopes at an atomic level.
The results from epitope mapping can be useful in various applications, including vaccine design, diagnostic test development, and understanding the basis of autoimmune diseases.
Nidovirales is an order of viruses that includes important pathogens such as coronaviruses and arteriviruses. These viruses are characterized by their large, complex genomes and the production of nested sets of subgenomic mRNAs during replication. They have a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome and are enveloped. The name "Nidovirales" is derived from the Latin word "nidus," meaning "nest," which refers to the nested set of subgenomic mRNAs produced during replication.
Coronaviruses, which include well-known human pathogens such as SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 (which causes COVID-19), primarily infect the respiratory tract and can cause a range of symptoms from mild cold-like illness to severe pneumonia.
Arteriviruses, on the other hand, mainly infect animals and are associated with diseases such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) in pigs and simian hemorrhagic fever in non-human primates.
It's important to note that Nidovirales have a high potential for cross-species transmission, which can lead to the emergence of new viruses with the ability to infect humans and cause disease.
A viral plaque assay is a laboratory technique used to measure the infectivity and concentration of viruses in a sample. This method involves infecting a monolayer of cells (usually in a petri dish or multi-well plate) with a known volume of a virus-containing sample, followed by overlaying the cells with a nutrient-agar medium to restrict viral spread and enable individual plaques to form.
After an incubation period that allows for viral replication and cell death, the cells are stained, and clear areas or "plaques" become visible in the monolayer. Each plaque represents a localized region of infected and lysed cells, caused by the progeny of a single infectious virus particle. The number of plaques is then counted, and the viral titer (infectious units per milliliter or PFU/mL) is calculated based on the dilution factor and volume of the original inoculum.
Viral plaque assays are essential for determining viral titers, assessing virus-host interactions, evaluating antiviral agents, and studying viral pathogenesis.
Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.
The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.
Murine hepatitis virus (MHV) is a type of coronavirus that primarily infects laboratory mice. It is not related to the human hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D, or E. MHV causes a range of diseases in mice, including hepatitis (liver inflammation), encephalomyelitis (inflammation of the brain and spinal cord), and enteritis (inflammation of the intestine). The virus is transmitted through fecal-oral route and respiratory droplets. It's widely used in research to understand the pathogenesis, immunity, and molecular biology of coronaviruses.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Granulovirus" is not a widely recognized medical or scientific term with a specific definition in the context of human health. The term "granulovirus" is used in the field of virology to refer to a type of virus that is characterized by the production of granular-shaped virions (infectious particles) during its replication cycle. This term is most commonly associated with certain types of baculoviruses, which are viruses that infect insects.
If you have any questions related to human health or a specific medical concern, I would be happy to try and help clarify those for you!
Arboviruses are a group of viruses that are primarily transmitted to humans and animals through the bites of infected arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. The term "arbovirus" is short for "arthropod-borne virus."
Arboviruses can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific virus and the individual host's immune response. Some common symptoms associated with arboviral infections include fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, rash, and fatigue. In severe cases, arboviral infections can lead to serious complications such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), or hemorrhagic fever (bleeding disorders).
There are hundreds of different arboviruses, and they are found in many parts of the world. Some of the most well-known arboviral diseases include dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika virus infection, West Nile virus infection, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis.
Prevention of arboviral infections typically involves avoiding mosquito bites and other arthropod vectors through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito feeding times. Public health efforts also focus on reducing vector populations through environmental management and the use of larvicides. Vaccines are available for some arboviral diseases, such as yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis.
Hepatovirus is a genus of viruses in the Picornaviridae family, and it's most notably represented by the Human Hepatitis A Virus (HAV). These viruses are non-enveloped, with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They primarily infect hepatocytes, causing liver inflammation and disease, such as hepatitis. Transmission of hepatoviruses typically occurs through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. The virus causes an acute infection that does not usually become chronic, and recovery is usually complete within a few weeks. Immunity after infection is solid and lifelong.
Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.
In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.
Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.
The proteome is the entire set of proteins produced or present in an organism, system, organ, or cell at a certain time under specific conditions. It is a dynamic collection of protein species that changes over time, responding to various internal and external stimuli such as disease, stress, or environmental factors. The study of the proteome, known as proteomics, involves the identification and quantification of these protein components and their post-translational modifications, providing valuable insights into biological processes, functional pathways, and disease mechanisms.
Retroviridae is a family of viruses that includes HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). Retroviridae proteins refer to the various structural and functional proteins that are encoded by the retroviral genome. These proteins can be categorized into three main groups:
1. Group-specific antigen (Gag) proteins: These proteins make up the viral matrix, capsid, and nucleocapsid. They are involved in the assembly of new virus particles.
2. Polymerase (Pol) proteins: These proteins include the reverse transcriptase, integrase, and protease enzymes. Reverse transcriptase is responsible for converting the viral RNA genome into DNA, which can then be integrated into the host cell's genome by the integrase enzyme. The protease enzyme is involved in processing the polyprotein precursors of Gag and Pol into their mature forms.
3. Envelope (Env) proteins: These proteins are responsible for the attachment and fusion of the virus to the host cell membrane. They are synthesized as a precursor protein, which is then cleaved by a host cell protease to form two distinct proteins - the surface unit (SU) and the transmembrane unit (TM). The SU protein contains the receptor-binding domain, while the TM protein forms the transmembrane anchor.
Retroviral proteins play crucial roles in various stages of the viral life cycle, including entry, reverse transcription, integration, transcription, translation, assembly, and release. Understanding the functions of these proteins is essential for developing effective antiretroviral therapies and vaccines against retroviral infections.
Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.
Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.
It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.
Cryo-electron microscopy (Cryo-EM) is a type of electron microscopy where the sample is studied at cryogenic temperatures, typically liquid nitrogen temperatures. This technique is used to investigate the structure and shape of biological molecules and complexes, viruses, and other nanoscale particles.
In Cryo-EM, the sample is rapidly frozen to preserve its natural structure and then imaged using a beam of electrons. The images are collected at different angles and then computationally combined to generate a 3D reconstruction of the sample. This technique allows researchers to visualize biological structures in their native environment with near-atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their function and behavior.
Cryo-EM has become an increasingly popular tool in structural biology due to its ability to image large and complex structures that are difficult or impossible to crystallize for X-ray crystallography. It has been used to determine the structures of many important biological molecules, including membrane proteins, ribosomes, viruses, and protein complexes involved in various cellular processes.
Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) is a retrovirus that primarily infects cats, causing a variety of diseases and disorders. It is the causative agent of feline leukemia, a name given to a syndrome characterized by a variety of symptoms such as lymphoma (cancer of the lymphatic system), anemia, immunosuppression, and reproductive disorders. FeLV is typically transmitted through close contact with infected cats, such as through saliva, nasal secretions, urine, and milk. It can also be spread through shared litter boxes and feeding dishes.
FeLV infects cells of the immune system, leading to a weakened immune response and making the cat more susceptible to other infections. The virus can also integrate its genetic material into the host's DNA, potentially causing cancerous changes in infected cells. FeLV is a significant health concern for cats, particularly those that are exposed to outdoor environments or come into contact with other cats. Vaccination and regular veterinary care can help protect cats from this virus.
Reoviridae infections refer to diseases caused by the Reoviridae family of viruses, which are non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA viruses. These viruses are widespread and can infect a variety of hosts, including humans, animals, and insects. The infection typically causes mild respiratory or gastrointestinal symptoms in humans, such as cough, runny nose, sore throat, and diarrhea. In some cases, Reoviridae infections may also lead to more severe diseases, such as meningitis or encephalitis, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. However, it's worth noting that many Reoviridae infections are asymptomatic and do not cause any noticeable illness.
Reoviridae viruses include several genera, such as Orthoreovirus, Rotavirus, Coltivirus, and Orbivirus, among others. Some of the most well-known human pathogens in this family include Rotaviruses, which are a leading cause of severe diarrheal disease in young children worldwide, and Orthoreoviruses, which can cause respiratory illnesses.
Treatment for Reoviridae infections is generally supportive, focusing on managing symptoms such as fever, dehydration, and pain. Antiviral medications are not typically used to treat these infections. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals, as well as vaccination against specific Reoviridae viruses, such as Rotavirus vaccines.
Picornaviridae is a family of small, single-stranded RNA viruses that are non-enveloped and have an icosahedral symmetry. The name "picornavirus" is derived from "pico," meaning small, and "RNA." These viruses are responsible for a variety of human and animal diseases, including the common cold, poliomyelitis, hepatitis A, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, and myocarditis. The genome of picornaviruses is around 7.5 to 8.5 kilobases in length and encodes a single polyprotein that is processed into structural and nonstructural proteins by viral proteases. Picornaviridae includes several important genera, such as Enterovirus, Rhinovirus, Hepatovirus, Cardiovirus, Aphthovirus, and Erbovirus.
Avian encephalomyelitis virus (AEV) is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Picornaviridae. It primarily affects birds, particularly young chickens, and causes a disease known as avian encephalomyelitis (AE). The virus is highly contagious and can cause significant economic losses in the poultry industry.
AEV infects the nervous system of birds, causing symptoms such as tremors, uncoordinated movements, paralysis, and sometimes death. The virus is spread through fecal-oral transmission and can persist in the environment for long periods, making it difficult to control.
While AEV does not infect humans or other mammals, it is closely related to viruses that can cause diseases in these species, such as Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV) and human enteroviruses. Therefore, studying AEV can provide insights into the biology and pathogenesis of these related viruses.
Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) is a highly contagious avian virus that primarily affects the bursa of Fabricius in young chickens, leading to an immunosuppressive disease known as Gumboro disease. The bursa of Fabricius is a vital organ for the development and maturation of B cells, which are crucial for the immune system's response to infections.
IBDV is a non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Birnaviridae family. It has two serotypes, with serotype 1 being responsible for the majority of outbreaks and being highly pathogenic, while serotype 2 is less virulent and causes mild or asymptomatic infections.
The virus targets and destroys the B cells in the bursa, leading to a weakened immune system that makes the affected chickens more susceptible to secondary bacterial and viral infections. The disease can cause significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to high mortality rates, decreased feed conversion efficiency, and reduced egg production.
Vaccination is an effective prevention strategy against IBDV, with both live and inactivated vaccines available for use in chickens. Good biosecurity measures, such as strict sanitation practices and limiting the movement of birds and people between farms, can also help prevent the spread of the virus.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a type of microscopy in which an electron beam is transmitted through a ultra-thin specimen, interacting with it as it passes through. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the specimen; the image is then magnified and visualized on a fluorescent screen or recorded on an electronic detector (or photographic film in older models).
TEM can provide high-resolution, high-magnification images that can reveal the internal structure of specimens including cells, viruses, and even molecules. It is widely used in biological and materials science research to investigate the ultrastructure of cells, tissues and materials. In medicine, TEM is used for diagnostic purposes in fields such as virology and bacteriology.
It's important to note that preparing a sample for TEM is a complex process, requiring specialized techniques to create thin (50-100 nm) specimens. These include cutting ultrathin sections of embedded samples using an ultramicrotome, staining with heavy metal salts, and positive staining or negative staining methods.
Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.
SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.
The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.
Vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Vesiculovirus. It is the causative agent of vesicular stomatitis (VS), a viral disease that primarily affects horses and cattle, but can also infect other species including swine, sheep, goats, and humans.
The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their saliva, as well as through insect vectors such as black flies and sandflies. The incubation period for VS ranges from 2 to 8 days, after which infected animals develop fever, lethargy, and vesicular lesions in the mouth, nose, and feet. These lesions can be painful and may cause difficulty eating or walking.
In humans, VSIV infection is typically asymptomatic or causes mild flu-like symptoms such as fever, muscle aches, and headache. Occasionally, individuals may develop vesicular lesions on their skin or mucous membranes, particularly if they have had contact with infected animals.
Diagnosis of VSIV infection is typically made through virus isolation from lesion exudates or blood, as well as through serological testing. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at relieving symptoms, as there are no specific antiviral therapies available for VS. Prevention measures include vaccination of susceptible animals, vector control, and biosecurity measures to prevent the spread of infection between animals.
Nucleoproteins are complexes formed by the association of proteins with nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). These complexes play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as packaging and protecting genetic material, regulating gene expression, and replication and repair of DNA. In these complexes, proteins interact with nucleic acids through electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and other non-covalent interactions, leading to the formation of stable structures that help maintain the integrity and function of the genetic material. Some well-known examples of nucleoproteins include histones, which are involved in DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells, and reverse transcriptase, an enzyme found in retroviruses that transcribes RNA into DNA.
Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.
The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.
It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.
"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.
Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) is a type of flavivirus that is the causative agent of Japanese encephalitis, a mosquito-borne viral infection of the brain. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Culex species mosquitoes, particularly Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex gelidus.
JEV is endemic in many parts of Asia, including China, Japan, Korea, India, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is estimated to cause around 68,000 clinical cases and 13,000-20,000 deaths each year. The virus is maintained in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes and vertebrate hosts, primarily pigs and wading birds.
Most JEV infections are asymptomatic or result in mild symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle aches. However, in some cases, the infection can progress to severe encephalitis, which is characterized by inflammation of the brain, leading to neurological symptoms such as seizures, tremors, paralysis, and coma. The case fatality rate for Japanese encephalitis is estimated to be 20-30%, and around half of those who survive have significant long-term neurological sequelae.
Prevention of JEV infection includes the use of insect repellent, wearing protective clothing, and avoiding outdoor activities during peak mosquito feeding times. Vaccination is also an effective means of preventing Japanese encephalitis, and vaccines are available for travelers to endemic areas as well as for residents of those areas.
'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.
While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.
E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.
I'm happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight mistake in your question. "Gene products" is a general term that refers to the molecules produced by genes, including both RNA and proteins. On the other hand, "rex" is often used as an abbreviation for "regulated expression," which can be a part of a gene's name indicating its regulatory properties.
If you are referring to a specific genetic element or molecule named "rex," I would need more context or information to provide an accurate medical definition. Nonetheless, I hope this initial explanation helps! If you have further questions or need clarification, please let me know.
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Togaviridae and the genus Alphavirus. It is the causative agent of Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), a rare but serious viral disease that can affect humans, horses, and some bird species.
EEEV is primarily transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly those belonging to the Culiseta and Coquillettidia genera. The virus is maintained in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes and wild birds, primarily passerine birds. Horses and humans are considered dead-end hosts, meaning they do not develop high enough levels of viremia to infect feeding mosquitoes and perpetuate the transmission cycle.
EEE is most commonly found in the eastern and Gulf Coast states of the United States, as well as in parts of Canada, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. The disease can cause severe neurological symptoms, including inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), meningitis, and neuritis. In severe cases, EEE can lead to seizures, coma, and death. There is no specific treatment for EEE, and prevention efforts focus on reducing mosquito populations and avoiding mosquito bites.
I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Moths" are not a medical term, but rather they are a group of insects closely related to butterflies. They belong to the order Lepidoptera and are characterized by their scales covering their wings and body. If you have any questions about moths or if you meant to ask something else, please let me know!
The AKR murine leukemia virus (AKR MLV) is a type of retrovirus that naturally infects mice of the AKR strain. It is a member of the gammaretrovirus genus and is closely related to other murine leukemia viruses (MLVs).
AKR MLV is transmitted horizontally through close contact with infected animals, as well as vertically from mother to offspring. The virus primarily infects hematopoietic cells, including lymphocytes and macrophages, and can cause a variety of diseases, most notably leukemia and lymphoma.
The AKR MLV genome contains three main structural genes: gag, pol, and env, which encode the viral matrix, capsid, nucleocapsid, reverse transcriptase, integrase, and envelope proteins, respectively. Additionally, the virus carries accessory genes, such as rex and sor, that play a role in regulating viral gene expression and replication.
AKR MLV has been extensively studied as a model system for retrovirus biology and pathogenesis, and its study has contributed significantly to our understanding of the mechanisms of retroviral infection, replication, and disease.
Caveolin 3 is a protein that is primarily expressed in muscle cells, including cardiac and skeletal muscles. It is the principal structural component of caveolae, which are small invaginations of the plasma membrane that function as specialized microdomains involved in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, cholesterol homeostasis, and endocytosis.
Caveolin 3 plays a critical role in muscle physiology by regulating several signaling pathways that are important for muscle function, including the nitric oxide signaling pathway. Mutations in the gene encoding caveolin 3 have been associated with various inherited muscle disorders, such as limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 1C (LGMD1C), rippling muscle disease (RMD), and distal myopathies. These genetic conditions are characterized by progressive muscle weakness, wasting, and degeneration.
Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is a viral disease that primarily affects young salmonid fish, such as salmon and trout. The IPN virus, also known as Salmonid alphavirus (SAV), is the causative agent of this disease. It is an enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Alphaflexiviridae and genus Alphavirus.
The IPN virus primarily targets the exocrine pancreas, leading to severe necrosis (tissue death) in infected fish. The infection can also spread to other organs, including the liver, kidney, and heart. Infected fish may exhibit various clinical signs such as lethargy, loss of appetite, darkening of the skin, abnormal swimming behavior, and exophthalmia (bulging eyes).
The IPN virus is highly contagious and can be transmitted horizontally through direct contact with infected fish or their bodily fluids. It can also be vertically transmitted from infected broodstock to their offspring. The disease can have significant economic impacts on the aquaculture industry, leading to high mortality rates in affected fish populations.
Prevention and control measures for IPN include vaccination of broodstock and fry, biosecurity practices, and quarantine procedures. There is no specific treatment for IPN, and antibiotics are generally not effective against viral infections. Supportive care, such as providing optimal water quality and nutrition, can help affected fish recover from the disease.
An Aviadenovirus is a type of virus that belongs to the family *Adenoviridae* and the genus *Aviadenovirus*. These viruses primarily infect avian species, such as birds, and can cause a variety of diseases. The genome of an Aviadenovirus is double-stranded DNA. Some species of Aviadenoviruses have been known to cause respiratory and reproductive problems in poultry, leading to significant economic losses in the poultry industry. It's important to note that Aviadenoviruses are not known to infect or cause disease in humans.
Ascoviridae is a family of large, double-stranded DNA viruses that infect and replicate in the cells of lepidopteran insects (moths and butterflies). The name "ascovirus" comes from the characteristic inclusion bodies, called ascus, that these viruses form within the infected host cells. Ascoviruses are unique among animal viruses because they have a complex life cycle involving both sexual and asexual reproduction. They are transmitted horizontally between hosts through the ingestion of virus-infected insect eggs or larvae, and can also be vertically transmitted from infected female moths to their offspring. Ascoviruses cause diseases that can lead to significant mortality in insect populations, particularly in agricultural settings where they can impact pest control efforts. However, due to their narrow host range and complex life cycle, ascoviruses are not considered a threat to human or animal health.
Pactamycin is an antitumor antibiotic that is produced by the bacterium Streptomyces pactum. It works by inhibiting protein synthesis in cells, which can ultimately lead to cell death. Pactamycin has been studied for its potential use in treating various types of cancer, although it is not currently approved for clinical use in humans.
In addition to its antitumor activity, pactamycin has also been found to have antibacterial and antiviral properties. However, its use as a therapeutic agent is limited by its toxicity, which can cause side effects such as hearing loss, kidney damage, and bone marrow suppression.
It's important to note that pactamycin is primarily used in research settings to study its mechanisms of action and potential therapeutic uses. It should only be handled by trained professionals in a controlled laboratory environment.
A "gag gene product" in the context of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) refers to the proteins produced by the viral gag gene. The gag gene is one of the nine genes found in the HIV genome and it plays a crucial role in the viral replication cycle.
The gag gene encodes for the group-specific antigen (GAG) proteins, which are structural components of the virus. These proteins include matrix (MA), capsid (CA), and nucleocapsid (NC) proteins, as well as several smaller peptides. Together, these GAG proteins form the viral core, which encapsulates the viral RNA genome and enzymes necessary for replication.
The matrix protein is responsible for forming a layer underneath the viral envelope, while the capsid protein forms the inner shell of the viral core. The nucleocapsid protein binds to the viral RNA genome and protects it from degradation by host cell enzymes. Overall, the gag gene products are essential for the assembly and infectivity of HIV particles.
Myelin P0 protein, also known as P0 or MPZ (myelin protein zero), is a major structural component of the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system. The myelin sheath is a multilayered membrane that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers to increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission.
P0 protein is a transmembrane glycoprotein, which means it spans the lipid bilayer of the myelin membrane and has sugar molecules (glycans) attached to it. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the compact structure of the myelin sheath by forming homodimers that interact with each other through their extracellular domains, creating tight junctions between the apposing layers of the myelin membrane.
P0 protein also contributes to the stability and integrity of the myelin sheath by interacting with other myelin proteins, such as connexin 32 and peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22). Mutations in the MPZ gene can lead to various peripheral neuropathies, including Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1B and Dejerine-Sottas syndrome.
An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.
In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.
ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.
Avian sarcoma viruses (ASVs) are a group of retroviruses that primarily infect birds and cause various types of tumors, particularly sarcomas. These viruses contain an oncogene, which is a gene that has the ability to transform normal cells into cancerous ones. The oncogene in ASVs is often derived from cellular genes called proto-oncogenes, which are normally involved in regulating cell growth and division.
ASVs can be divided into two main types: non-defective and defective. Non-defective ASVs contain a complete set of viral genes that allow them to replicate independently, while defective ASVs lack some of the necessary viral genes and require assistance from other viruses to replicate.
One well-known example of an avian sarcoma virus is the Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), which was first discovered in chickens by Peyton Rous in 1910. RSV causes a highly malignant form of sarcoma in chickens and has been extensively studied as a model system for cancer research. The oncogene in RSV is called v-src, which is derived from the normal cellular gene c-src.
Avian sarcoma viruses have contributed significantly to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer development and have provided valuable insights into the role of oncogenes in tumorigenesis.
Alphavirus infections refer to a group of diseases caused by viruses belonging to the Alphavirus genus of the Togaviridae family. These viruses are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, and can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response.
Some of the more common alphaviruses that cause human disease include:
* Chikungunya virus (CHIKV): This virus is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes and can cause a fever, rash, and severe joint pain. While most people recover from CHIKV infection within a few weeks, some may experience long-term joint pain and inflammation.
* Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV): This virus is transmitted by mosquitoes that feed on both birds and mammals, including humans. EEEV can cause severe neurological symptoms such as fever, headache, seizures, and coma. It has a high mortality rate of up to 30-50% in infected individuals.
* Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV): This virus is also transmitted by mosquitoes that feed on both birds and mammals. WEEV can cause mild flu-like symptoms or more severe neurological symptoms such as fever, headache, and seizures. It has a lower mortality rate than EEEV but can still cause significant illness.
* Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV): This virus is transmitted by mosquitoes that feed on horses and other mammals, including humans. VEEV can cause mild flu-like symptoms or more severe neurological symptoms such as fever, headache, and seizures. It is considered a potential bioterrorism agent due to its ability to cause severe illness and death in large populations.
There are no specific treatments for alphavirus infections other than supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito hours. Public health efforts also focus on reducing mosquito populations through environmental controls such as eliminating standing water and using insecticides.
BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.
BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.
One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.
BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.
Rotavirus is a genus of double-stranded RNA virus in the Reoviridae family, which is a leading cause of severe diarrhea and gastroenteritis in young children and infants worldwide. The virus infects and damages the cells lining the small intestine, resulting in symptoms such as vomiting, watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever.
Rotavirus is highly contagious and can be spread through contact with infected individuals or contaminated surfaces, food, or water. The virus is typically transmitted via the fecal-oral route, meaning that it enters the body through the mouth after coming into contact with contaminated hands, objects, or food.
Rotavirus infections are often self-limiting and resolve within a few days to a week, but severe cases can lead to dehydration, hospitalization, and even death, particularly in developing countries where access to medical care and rehydration therapy may be limited. Fortunately, there are effective vaccines available that can prevent rotavirus infection and reduce the severity of symptoms in those who do become infected.
Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.
Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.
Proteins are complex, large molecules that play critical roles in the body's functions. They are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, and they play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, immune response, and cellular signaling. Proteins can be classified into different types based on their structure and function, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural proteins. They are found in various foods, especially animal-derived products like meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like beans, nuts, and grains.
Viral structural protein
Major capsid protein VP1
Ff phages
Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1
Vesicular exanthema of swine virus
Lagovirus
Vesivirus
Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus
Minor capsid proteins VP2 and VP3
Alphavirus
Exon shuffling
HBcAg
Viral matrix protein
Viral protein
Hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2
Camelpox
P24 capsid protein
Zaire ebolavirus
Asparagus virus 1
Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 2
Circovirus
Virus-like particle
Betaarterivirus suid 1
Influenza virus nucleoprotein
Respiratory syncytial virus G protein
Alice S. Huang
Introduction to viruses
Rev (HIV)
Measles hemagglutinin
Tick-borne encephalitis virus
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Replication19
- Jointly virus-induced compartmentalization from the web host translational equipment represents a technique for infections to spatiotemporally few viral proteins synthesis with viral replication and set up. (biongenex.com)
- These viruses stimulate canonical cap-dependent initiation of translation by promoting eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 subunit F (eIF4F) assembly while simultaneously stimulating the dephosphorylation of eIF2α to avoid suppression Timosaponin b-II of protein translation (7 8 Alternatively two DNA viruses that replicate in the cytosol poxviruses and asfarviruses have been suggested to promote viral translation by recruiting host translational factors to the sites of viral replication (9 -11). (biongenex.com)
- Non-structural proteins (NSP) are produced during viral replication. (ncl.edu.tw)
- The rSA11/NSP3-CoV2/S viruses produced smaller plaques and lower viral titers in cell culture than the wildtype, perhaps because the RNA elongation time required for transcription of the segment 7 dsRNAs is increased during the replication of the virus, or the longer translation time to synthesize proteins encoded from these RNAs. (news-medical.net)
- Non-structural proteins are involved in the transcription and replication of the virus. (medsci.org)
- Emerging evidence demonstrates that some mono-ARTs function as PAMP receptors and modify both host and viral proteins relevant for viral replication. (fsu.edu)
- This prevents poly-protein processing and viral replication. (fsu.edu)
- In HHV-1 and HHV-2 oral infections, viral replication within the oral epithelium may cause lysis of epithelial cells, with vesicle formation. (medscape.com)
- Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) nonstructural protein 3A plays important roles in virus replication, virulence, and host range. (asm.org)
- Replication of picornaviruses occurs associated to cell endomembranes that are recruited during viral infection ( 25 ). (asm.org)
- in poliovirus (PV), the interaction between the RNA replication complex and intracellular membranes appears to be accomplished by proteins 3A and 2C, which have membrane-binding properties ( 11 , 60 ). (asm.org)
- On the other hand, 3AB presumably anchors 3B in intracellular membranes originated de novo during the early steps of RNA replication, where uridylylated 3B primes the synthesis of nascent viral RNAs ( 2 , 37 , 68 , 69 ). (asm.org)
- The SARS-CoV-2 virus is able to camouflage itself to promote viral replication, as revealed by structural details of proteins on the surface of the virus. (scienceboard.net)
- The expression of these proteins and replication of the viral genome all takes place in the cytoplasm of the host cells . (genetherapynet.com)
- Some of these proteins may play roles within the infected cell during VIRUS REPLICATION or act in regulation of virus replication or VIRUS ASSEMBLY. (bvsalud.org)
- Enhanced replication of rubella virus (RuV) and replicons by de novo synthesized viral structural proteins has been previously described. (cdc.gov)
- It is not clear whether the CP in the virus particles, i.e., the exogenous CP, modulate viral genome replication. (cdc.gov)
- In this study, we found that exogenous RuV CP also enhanced viral genome replication, either when used to package replicons or when mixed with RNA during transfection. (cdc.gov)
- These results suggest that the exogenous RuV CP increases efficiency of early viral genome replication by modulating the stage(s) prior to and/or at the initiation of negative-strand RNA synthesis, possibly through a general mechanism such as protecting viral RNA. (cdc.gov)
Infection19
- Maintaining an appropriate balance in the amounts of each of these structural proteins produced during viral infection appears to be critical for normal phage T4 morphogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
- In group A rotaviruses, the segment 7 of the genome encodes NSP3, which is a translation enhancer of viral positive-sense RNAs, expressed moderately in cells following infection. (news-medical.net)
- reported even intra-host viral evolution among the patients after infection, which might be related to its virulence, transmissibility, and/or evolution due to immune response 10 . (nature.com)
- Its activation leads to the production of interferons: a group of cytokines important in overcoming viral infection. (helsinki.fi)
- During influenza A virus infection, this function is performed by viral non-structural protein 1 (NS1). (helsinki.fi)
- The second function is to play a role in nuclear localization of the viral genome at the very start of cell infection. (proteopedia.org)
- Structural and functional studies of receptor/ligand interactions relevant to human health and disease in immunity, infection, and neurobiology. (stanford.edu)
- The viral protein-host protein interaction inhibits the pig's immune response which gives the virus an advantage and leads to a chronic infection of the pig. (usda.gov)
- Antibodies to the HIV-1 major group-specific antigen (GAG) protein p24, and its precursor p55, are the earliest detected after infection by Western blot and tend to decrease or become undetectable with onset or progression of clinical symptoms (4-9). (cdc.gov)
- [ 5 , 6 ] In a localized primary infection, the virus penetrates the mucosal epithelium and invades the cells of the basal layer, where the viral DNA inserts into the host DNA. (medscape.com)
- The immunosensor was successfully applied in the detection and quantification of PB1-F2 in infected mouse lungs and cell lines, providing temporal expression profiles of PB1-F2 during viral infection. (omicsonline.org)
- Three more articles focus on the structural studies of key regulatory viral proteins to deepen our understanding in the infection cycles of the tick-borne encephalitis flavivirus (Rey et al. (esrf.fr)
- Thus, it is urgent to develop therapeutic strategies to face the SARS-CoV-2 viral infection at the severe stage. (medsci.org)
- To be able to present knowledge to assist reply this query, we, subsequently, investigated the consequences of endurance coaching on the degrees of host proteins concerned in SARS-CoV-2 an infection in mice. (aidstar-one.com)
- The presence of ACE-2 in varied tissues might allow viral an infection. (aidstar-one.com)
- Furthermore, the use of whole alphaviruses for gene therapy is of limited efficacy both because several internal alphaviral proteins are involved in the induction of apoptosis upon infection and also because the alphaviral capsid mediates only the transient introduction of mRNA into host cells. (genetherapynet.com)
- Virus infection is initiated by the interaction between S protein and host cell surface receptors. (newvita.com)
- genic models are inadequate for number of activated CD8-positive T LMP1 was strongly expressed in the understanding the cancer etiology in cells increased considerably in the lymphoma tissues but was hardly the context of natural viral infection. (who.int)
- Additionally, there are many nongenetic causes of dilated cardiomyopathy, including viral infection and chronic alcohol abuse. (medlineplus.gov)
Nucleocapsid8
- They may include nucleocapsid core proteins (gag proteins), enzymes packaged within the virus particle (pol proteins), and membrane components (env proteins). (drugbank.com)
- Retroviral structural proteins also appear to have originated from cell proteins, with clear homologies with matrix, capsid, and nucleocapsid proteins. (virology.ws)
- Capsid protein p24 forms the conical core that encapsulates the genomic RNA-nucleocapsid complex in the virion. (proteopedia.org)
- Nucleocapsid protein p7 encapsulates and protects viral dimeric unspliced (genomic) RNA. (proteopedia.org)
- The replicated RNA strand is held within a nucleocapsid formed from 12-kDa protein blocks. (getjar.com)
- Coronaviruses have at least four major structural proteins, including spikes (S), membranes (M), envelopes (E), and nucleocapsid (N) proteins. (medsci.org)
- 1 , 2 , 3 The viral envelope of coronaviruses is composed of four major viral structural protein components: spike (S) protein, membrane (M) protein, nucleocapsid (N), and the envelope (E) protein. (ispe.org)
- The architecture of virions is composed of nucleic acid and nucleocapsid protein to form the helical nucleocapsid. (newvita.com)
Capsid protein3
- Human papillomavirus type 16 L1 capsid protein antigen is contained in Gardasil, or a recombinant Human Papillomavirus Quadrivalent (Types 6, 11, 16, and 18) vaccine for intramuscular injection. (drugbank.com)
- The core is constituted by capsid protein hexamer subunits. (proteopedia.org)
- Since capsid protein structure and DNA have different scattering profiles, with DNA having a short-range hexagonally ordered structure, we can observe the scattering peak for the packaged DNA in viral capsid. (lu.se)
Virion5
- During assembly of the bacteriophage (phage) T4 virion, the structural proteins encoded by the phage genes interact with each other in a characteristic sequence. (wikipedia.org)
- Phage T4 encoded proteins that determine virion structure include major structural components, minor structural components and non-structural proteins that catalyze specific steps in the morphogenesis sequence. (wikipedia.org)
- An analysis of the sequence an structure of major virion proteins has identified likely ancestors in cellular proteins. (virology.ws)
- It binds in the cytoplasm the human BAF protein which prevent autointegration of the viral genome, and might be included in virions at the ration of zero to 3 BAF dimer per virion. (proteopedia.org)
- The S protein is a type 1 transmembrane glycoprotein that is expressed on the surface of coronaviruses (CoV) and is responsible for receptor binding and virion entry into the cells. (ispe.org)
Membrane14
- This includes the S1 N-terminal domain (NTD) or the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and the S2 fusion domains that mediate viral-membrane fusion following virus-host cell attachment at the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. (news-medical.net)
- Matrix protein p17 has two main functions: in infected cell, it targets Gag and Gag-pol polyproteins to the plasma membrane via a multipartite membrane-binding signal, that includes its myristoylated N-terminus. (proteopedia.org)
- Underneath the membrane lies the viral capsid - the proteins enclosing the viral genetic material. (getjar.com)
- and the E protein is a minor constituent of virions and is an integral membrane protein. (ispe.org)
- The three-dimensional structure of the membrane-bound form of the major coat protein of Pf1 bacteriophage was determined in phospholipid bilayers using orientation restraints derived from both solid-state and solution NMR experiments. (rcsb.org)
- In contrast to previous structures determined solely in detergent micelles, the structure in bilayers contains information about the spatial arrangement of the protein within the membrane, and thus provides insights to the bacteriophage assembly process from membrane-inserted to bacteriophage-associated protein. (rcsb.org)
- Comparisons between the membrane-bound form of the coat protein and the previously determined structural form found in filamentous bacteriophage particles demonstrate that it undergoes a significant structural rearrangement during the membrane-mediated virus assembly process. (rcsb.org)
- Lipid envelope which is studded with structural protein including the membrane (M) glycoprotein, the envelope (E) protein, and the spike (S) glycoprotein [ 11 ]. (newvita.com)
- The S protein would be cleaved by the cellular serine proteases TMPRSS2 into S1 and S2 subunits, which are responsible for receptor recognition and membrane fusion [ 12 , 13 ]. (newvita.com)
- Alix is associated with the ESCRT system, which is involved in endosomal sorting of membrane proteins. (eu.org)
- The ESCRT system is involved in the selective trafficking of membrane proteins to the lysosome by incorporating the membrane proteins into multivesicular bodies (MVBs). (eu.org)
- Some viruses have evolved strategies to hijack this process, which enables them to use ESCRT for the budding of viral particles from the host cell membrane. (eu.org)
- Short peptide sequences within viral Gag proteins (encoding the structural proteins of the virus) are required for the separation of the virus from the host cell membrane. (eu.org)
- Enveloped delivery modalities use viral envelope proteins, which determine tropism and induce membrane fusion. (bvsalud.org)
Encodes four structural1
- The viral genome encodes four structural capsid proteins (VP1 to VP4) and seven nonstructural (NS) proteins, the leader Lb/ab protease, and proteins encoded in the P2 (2B and 2C) and P3 (3A, 3B, 3C, and 3D) regions ( 9 ). (asm.org)
Genes8
- It seems likely that viral structural proteins originated from cellular genes. (virology.ws)
- The unique synonymous mutations detected in the E and Non-structural 2a genes of Usutu-BONN strains may suggest an adaptive evolution. (cdc.gov)
- In turn the expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) is induced, allowing the host to react swiftly to viral infections. (fsu.edu)
- ISGs include several genes encoding ARTs, enzymes that catalyze ADP-ribosylation of proteins and nucleic acids using NAD + as cofactor. (fsu.edu)
- Alphaviral envelope pseudotypes of retroviruses or lentiviruses are able to integrate the genes that they carry into the expansive range of potential host cells that are recognized and infected by the alphaviral envelope proteins E2 and E1. (genetherapynet.com)
- The stable integration of viral genes is mediated by the retroviral interiors of these vectors. (genetherapynet.com)
- Inoculation with a high dose strains of LMP1 transgenic mice vide a powerful tool in mechanistic of EBV caused a B-cell lymphopro- were established that express LMP1 studies on the role of individual viral liferative disorder in these mice, under the control of the immunoglob- genes in cancer. (who.int)
- These genes provide instructions for making proteins that are found in cardiac muscle cells called cardiomyocytes. (medlineplus.gov)
Nonstructural protein3
- Viral nonstructural protein Viral+Structural+Proteins at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Ito N, Mossel EC, Narayanan K, et al. (wikipedia.org)
- In this study, we show that PRRSV nonstructural protein 1alpha (nsp1alpha), a protein made by the virus, will alter how the pig's immune system functions. (usda.gov)
- In this study, we show that porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) nonstructural protein 1alpha (nsp1alpha) escapes innate immunity and also promotes virus proliferation by modulating nuclear to cytoplasmic translocation and distribution ratio of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor associated factors (TRAF) interacting protein (TRAIP). (usda.gov)
Core proteins1
- The core proteins of alphaviruses (think Semliki Forest virus) has structural similarity with chymotrypsin-like serine proteases. (virology.ws)
Nucleic5
- We have previously discussed the idea that viruses originated from selfish genetic elements such as plasmids and transposons when these nucleic acids acquired structural proteins (see A plasmid on the road to becoming a virus ). (virology.ws)
- Missing from these hypothesis is how nucleic acids became virus particles - that is, how they acquired structural proteins. (virology.ws)
- Is it possible to understand the molecular structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids in enough detail to make accurate predictions about structure and function? (stanford.edu)
- An examination of the nucleic acid sequence alignment of 48 full-length rubella virus genomes revealed that the 5' terminus of the genome is more conserved than the commonly used detection windows for rubella virus RNA located in the E1 protein coding region, suggesting that the 5' terminus could be a target for improving detection of all rubella virus genotypes. (cdc.gov)
- Module A contained serum samples spiked with cultured dengue virus (DENV) or chikungunya virus (CHIKV) for the detection of nucleic acid and DENV non-structural protein 1 (NS1) antigen. (who.int)
Antibodies6
- In contrast, antibodies to the envelope (ENV) precursor protein gp160 and the final ENV proteins (gp120 and gp41) can be detected in specimens from virtually all HIV-infected persons regardless of clinical stage (4-9). (cdc.gov)
- Although the overall sensitivity and specificity of the Western blot for detection of antibodies to the various viral proteins are high, there has been substantial debate regarding the interpretive criteria. (cdc.gov)
- A stabilized prefusion spike protein licensed by Oragenics has generated neutralizing antibodies in mice during immunization against SARS-CoV-2, according. (scienceboard.net)
- Our major goal is to understand the interaction and neutralization of foreign antigens by the immune system through high-resolution x-ray structural studies of antibodies, Variable Lymphocyte Rectors (VLRs) and antigens in the humoral system, T-cell receptor complexes with MHC class I and class II in the cellular system, and through pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs, in the innate immune system. (scripps.edu)
- We have also determined structures of almost all of the rare, broadly neutralizing antibodies against the HIV-1 envelope proteins, gp120 and gp41, in order to elucidate the sites of vulnerability that can be used for HIV-1 vaccine design. (scripps.edu)
- To achieve high modularity and programmable cell type specificity, we develop multiple strategies to recruit or immobilize antibodies on the viral envelope, including a chimeric antibody binding protein and a SNAP-tag enabling the use of antibodies or other proteins as targeting molecules. (bvsalud.org)
PARTICLES6
- Viral proteins that are components of the mature assembled VIRUS PARTICLES. (drugbank.com)
- Many cell proteins have jelly role motifs, and some form 60-subunit virus-like particles in cells. (virology.ws)
- At some point these genetic elements acquired structural proteins from the cells and became bona fide virus particles. (virology.ws)
- Also cleaves Nef and Vif, probably concomitantly with viral structural proteins on maturation of virus particles (By similarity). (proteopedia.org)
- The recruitment of Alix is used to direct further members of ESCRT to the viral budding site, assembling the budding complex, which mediates the release of viral particles from the host cell. (eu.org)
- Proteins encoded by a VIRAL GENOME that are not structural components of VIRUS PARTICLES. (bvsalud.org)
Proteases2
- 2003). The 12.5 kb CSFV genome contains a single open reading frame that encodes a 3898-amino acid polyprotein and ultimately yields 11 to 12 final cleavage products (NH2-N^pro-C-E^rns-E1-E2-p7-NS2-NS3-NS4A-NS4B-NS5A-NS5B-COOH) through co- and post-translational processing of the polyprotein by cellular and viral proteases (Rice, 1996). (usda.gov)
- The viral particle is composed of a protein capsid that contains a positive-sense RNA molecule of about 8,500 nucleotides that is infectious and encodes a single polyprotein, which is processed in infected cells by cis - and trans -acting viral proteases ( 55 ) to yield different polypeptide precursors and the mature viral proteins ( 9 , 62 ). (asm.org)
Gp120 and gp411
- Over 250 crystal structures of monoclonal Fab fragments and complexes with a variety of antigens, such as peptides, steroids, cocaine, and proteins, including HIV-1, gp120 and gp41, have led to significant insights into antibody-antigen recognition, virus neutralization, and vaccine design for HIV-1. (scripps.edu)
Peptides2
- Replacements L38E and L41E, involving charge acquisition at residues predicted to contribute to the hydrophobic interface, reduced the dimerization signal in the protein ligation assay and prevented the detection of dimer/multimer species in both transiently expressed 3A proteins and in synthetic peptides reproducing the N terminus of 3A. (asm.org)
- This information was then compared with analogous information for other protein groups, such as proteins from bacteria, fungi, viruses, and cell-penetrating peptides from the UniProt database, and a set of intrinsically disordered proteins. (eurekaselect.com)
Vectors3
- A set of viral vectors was thus generated, all of which contained SARS-CoV-2 coding sequences for the spike S1 subunit, the NTD, the RBD, extended RBD, and the S2 core region that contains its fusion domain. (news-medical.net)
- Crucially, some viral vectors (i.e., viruses specifically used to deliver genetic material into cells) have the potential to circumvent the blood-brain- (BBB) and blood-spinal cord barriers (BSCB) when intravenously injected. (frontiersin.org)
- Alphaviruses are of interest to gene therapy researchers, in particular the Ross River virus, Sindbis virus, Semliki Forest virus, and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus have all been used to develop viral vectors for gene delivery. (genetherapynet.com)
Viruses16
- Viruses require the host translational apparatus to synthesize viral proteins. (biongenex.com)
- IMPORTANCE Viruses absence biosynthetic features and rely upon the web host for proteins synthesis. (biongenex.com)
- This dependence needs viruses to progress systems to coerce the web host translational equipment into synthesizing viral protein when confronted with ongoing cellular tension replies that suppress global proteins synthesis. (biongenex.com)
- As a consequence all viruses must subvert cell-mediated suppression of translation to effectively maintain viral protein synthesis (3). (biongenex.com)
- I want to explore in more detail the idea that the structural proteins of viruses likely originated from cell proteins ( link to paper ). (virology.ws)
- The matrix Z proteins of arenaviruses are related to cellular RING domain proteins, and the matrix proteins of some negative strand RNA viruses are related to cellular cyclophilin. (virology.ws)
- There are many more examples, providing support for the hypothesis that viruses evolved on multiple instances by recruiting different cell proteins. (virology.ws)
- Given this information on the origin of viral capsid proteins, we can modify the three hypotheses for the origin of viruses into one. (virology.ws)
- Now, the question if of course - is it of viral origin or is it a cellular protein co-opted by viruses? (virology.ws)
- Nevertheless, while Q44R led to recovery of viruses that maintained the mutation, Q44D resulted in selection of infective viruses with substitution D44E with acidic charge but with structural features similar to those of the parental virus, suggesting that Q44 is involved in functions other than 3A dimerization. (asm.org)
- The proposed mechanism for maintenance of protein synthesis in the face of double-stranded RNA accumulation is different from that described for viruses examined to date. (scienceopen.com)
- Objective: The objective of the present study was to search for the regularities of the proteins expressed by these five viruses, at residues level, and obtain a "bioinformatic fingerprint" to select them. (eurekaselect.com)
- Conclusion: We propose that the "PIM ® profile" of characterization of proteins might be useful for the identification of proteins expressed by arthropod-borne viruses transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. (eurekaselect.com)
- In viruses, the LYPxL motif comprises a viral late assembly domain (L-domain). (eu.org)
- The importance of the LYPxL motif in viral budding varies among different viruses, depending on the presence of other L-domains. (eu.org)
- In contrast, other viruses such as HIV-1 possess more complex L-domains that can include two other ESCRT related motifs PTAP and PPxY that also contribute to efficient viral budding ( Bieniasz,2006 ). (eu.org)
Antigen3
- The sensitivity and specificity of the indirect ELISA using baculovirus expressed 3AB protein as the antigen were 62.4% and 86.8-91.7%, respectively. (ncl.edu.tw)
- The sensitivity and specificity of the double-sandwich blocking ELISA using E. coli expressed 3AB protein as the antigen were 94% and 98-100%, respectively. (ncl.edu.tw)
- However, in a recent study, the protein with a mobility of 160 kilodaltons (kd) present in commercially available Western blots and in viral lysate antigen preparations was identified as a multimer of the gp41 protein (10,11). (cdc.gov)
Fingerprint1
- Once the "fingerprint" of each group of arboviruses was obtained, these "fingerprints" were searched among the 559228 "reviewed" proteins from the UniProt database. (eurekaselect.com)
Residues3
- At the center of protein-protein interactions are the binding surfaces, or interfacial residues which form contacts between binding partners and stabilize protein complexes. (biomedcentral.com)
- The currently available implementation for this method initially defines interfacial residues using atomic details, and then uses positions of the Cα atoms for structural alignment and scoring, and includes a sequence-order dependent version [ 10 ] and a sequence-order independent version [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
- A molecular model of the FMDV 3A protein, derived from the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure of the poliovirus 3A protein, predicted a hydrophobic interface spanning residues 25 to 44 as the main determinant for 3A dimerization. (asm.org)
Glycoprotein1
- The herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) glycoprotein N (gN/UL49.5) is a type I transmembrane protein conserved throughout the herpesvirus family. (mdpi.com)
Gene9
- It could concentrate the factors needed for translation of viral mRNAs close to the sites of viral transcription potentially linking the two processes and increasing the efficiency of gene expression as occurs in prokaryotes (12). (biongenex.com)
- Protein-protein interactions play important functional roles in almost all biological activities, including, but not restricted to, signal transduction, gene regulation, catalytic enzymatic activities and structural roles [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
- The recombinant rotavirus containing a cassette of foreign genetic material encoding the NSP3 ORF, a translational element responsible for translating this inserted gene, and the gene encoding the spike protein . (news-medical.net)
- Evidence from the systematic gene-level mutational and protein profile analyses revealed a large number of amino acid (aa) substitutions (n = 744), demonstrating the viral proteins heterogeneous. (nature.com)
- The most important pathway in influenza virus detection is a retinoic acid-inducible gene I pathway, which recognizes the 5'-triphosphate in viral RNA. (helsinki.fi)
- First, a full-length functional ZIKV cDNA clone was engineered as a bacterial artificial chromosome, with each reporter gene under the cap-independent translational control of a cardiovirus-derived internal ribosome entry site inserted downstream of the single open reading frame of the viral genome. (mdpi.com)
- The carboxyl-terminal 64 aa of gamma(1)34.5 protein are homologous to the corresponding domain of MyD116, the murine growth arrest and DNA damage gene 34 (GADD34) protein and the two domains are functionally interchangeable in infected cells. (scienceopen.com)
- The TTN gene provides instructions for making a protein called titin, which is found in the sarcomeres of many types of muscle cells, including cardiomyocytes. (medlineplus.gov)
- The TTN gene mutations that cause familial dilated cardiomyopathy result in the production of an abnormally short titin protein. (medlineplus.gov)
Polyprotein2
- In this strain, 1 putative cleavage site of the viral polyprotein responsible for processing of structural proteins was changed. (cdc.gov)
- Moreover, nucleotide (nt) deletion analysis found twelve deletion sites throughout the genome other than previously reported deletions at coding sequence of the ORF8 (open reading frame), spike, and ORF7a proteins, specifically in polyprotein ORF1ab (n = 9), ORF10 (n = 1), and 3´-UTR (n = 2). (nature.com)
Capsids1
- The pseudorabies virus (PRV) Us9 protein plays a central role in targeting viral capsids and glycoproteins to axons of dissociated sympathetic neurons. (princeton.edu)
Spike2
- These encoded sequences for the non-structural protein NSP3 and some parts of the viral spike. (news-medical.net)
- Conformational changes of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein -- the target of many vaccines and therapies -- may have features that help the virus hide from. (scienceboard.net)
Receptor2
- 13 , 14 However, the amino acid perfectly maintains the stability of the mutual structural conformation of the virus S-protein and the ACE2 receptor in a holistic manner. (medsci.org)
- Intrinsic brain RAS is an enzyme-neuropeptide system having functional components (angiotensinogen, peptidases, angiotensin, and specific receptor proteins) with important biological and neurobiological activities in the brain. (hindawi.com)
Cellular and viral1
- With the advent of next generation sequencing, our understanding of the genetic diversity of cellular and viral life has expanded exponentially. (lu.se)
Synthesis6
- Nevertheless synthesis of viral proteins was considered to take place in the cytosol. (biongenex.com)
- Viral protein synthesis could then also occur in close proximity to the sites of virus assembly providing an efficient mechanism to recruit. (biongenex.com)
- The gamma(1)34.5 protein of herpes simplex virus 1 complexes with protein phosphatase 1alpha to dephosphorylate the alpha subunit of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 and preclude the shutoff of protein synthesis by double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase. (scienceopen.com)
- In human cells infected with herpes simplex virus 1 the double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR) is activated but phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF-2) and total shutoff of protein synthesis is observed only in cells infected with gamma(1)z34.5- mutants. (scienceopen.com)
- These results indicate that in infected cells, gamma(1)34.5 interacts with and redirects phosphatase to dephosphorylate eIF-2alpha to enable continued protein synthesis despite the presence of activated PKR. (scienceopen.com)
- We demonstrated that CP does not affect the translation efficiency from genomic (gRNA) or subgenomic RNA (sgRNA), the intracellular distribution of the non-structural proteins (NSP), or sgRNA synthesis. (cdc.gov)
Protease2
- The viral core protein retains protease activity, needed for cleavage from a protein precursor. (virology.ws)
- The viral non-structural protein 3, which encodes a mono-ADP-ribosylhydrolase, antagonizes cellular mono-ADP-ribosylation and reactivates the protease. (fsu.edu)
Complexes5
- Furthermore we discover the fact that reovirus nonstructural proteins σNS affiliates with Timosaponin b-II 43S preinitiation complexes on the manufacturer margins suggesting a job for σNS in translation. (biongenex.com)
- A few methods that exist for such comparative studies have focused on structural models determined at atomic resolution, and may miss out interesting patterns present in large macromolecular complexes that are typically solved by low-resolution techniques. (biomedcentral.com)
- The latter is useful for revealing potential biological relationships between different complexes, and a suitable method to directly compare protein-protein interfaces across randomly selected protein complexes and to quantitatively assess their pairwise similarities is highly desirable. (biomedcentral.com)
- The Jardetzky Laboratory is studying the structures and mechanisms of macromolecular complexes important in viral pathogenesis, allergic hypersensitivities and the regulation of cellular growth and differentiation, with an interest in uncovering novel conceptual approaches to intervening in disease processes. (stanford.edu)
- LU-Fold specialises in high-throughput prediction of protein complexes to predict novel protein-protein interactions. (lu.se)
Patients with viral2
- patients with viral loads greater than 30,000/mL are 18.5 times more likely to die of AIDS than those with undetectable viral loads. (medscape.com)
- 5 SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from the airway epithelial cells of patients with viral pneumonia in Wuhan. (medsci.org)
Novel coronavirus1
- An international collaboration between the UCL School of Pharmacy, the Lund Protein Production Platform (LP3) and ESS, through its DEMAX platform, have performed biophysical and structural studies of three non-structural proteins from the novel coronavirus, SARS CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. (lu.se)
Major structural1
- Table 1 lists the major structural proteins coded for by the HIV genome. (cdc.gov)
Molecules3
- We use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to determine structures of biological molecules, and integrate our structural understanding into further mechanistic and functional studies. (stanford.edu)
- Two articles provide structural insights into the catalytic properties of RNA molecules (Höbartner et al. (esrf.fr)
- Studies on other pattern recognition receptors, include peptidoglycan recognition protein (PGRP), TREM-1, Toll-like receptors (TLR) have revealed how unique pathogen-associated molecules are recognized by the immune system. (scripps.edu)
Serine1
- Enrichment of nsp1alpha-induced cytoplasmic TRAIP in turn leads to excessive K48 ubiquitination and degradation of serine/threonine-protein kinase (TBK1), thereby antagonizing TBK1-IRF3-IFN signaling. (usda.gov)
Virulence1
- 5 Minor differences in CoV S protein structure and function correlates with striking changes in CoV tropism (ability to infect different cell types) and virulence. (ispe.org)
Accessory proteins1
- Examples include the SARS coronavirus 3a and 7a accessory proteins. (wikipedia.org)
Characterization2
- Characterization and classification of protein-protein interactions would allow us to organize information in protein-protein interaction networks, to make predictions on their function, as well as to facilitate drug design targeted at interfering with those disease-associated protein-protein interactions. (biomedcentral.com)
- To address this issue we have developed a viral system through a detailed characterization of mycobacteriophage L5, a temperate phage that infects both fast‐ and slow‐growing mycobacteria. (pitt.edu)
Antigens3
- Three hundred twenty-two cases of cervical dysplasia (mild, moderate, and severe) and carcinoma in situ (CIS) were examined for the presence of papillomavirus structural antigens with a peroxidase-antiperoxidase method on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. (johnshopkins.edu)
- In the remaining 10 cases of severe dysplasia and CIS associated with the presence of papillomavirus antigens, cells containing papillomavirus structural proteins were present in areas of moderated dysplasia immediately adjacent to the high-grade lesions in seven instances and in areas of mild or moderate dysplasia not directly in contact with the high-grade lesions in three. (johnshopkins.edu)
- They could therefore be used to vaccinate against viral, bacterial, protozoan, and tumor antigens . (genetherapynet.com)
Anti-viral2
- 2009). In addition, IFN regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) is deregulated by directly interacting with CSFV N^pro, thus inhibiting the production of IFN-alpha and decreasing the anti-viral cellular response (Fiebach et al. (usda.gov)
- Their fundamental role in anti-viral responses has been unveiled in patients with NK cell deficiencies suffering from severe Herpesvirus infections. (frontiersin.org)
Particle2
- These do not include the proteins encoded in the VIRAL GENOME that are produced in infected cells but which are not packaged in the mature virus particle,i.e. the so called non-structural proteins (VIRAL NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEINS). (drugbank.com)
- The inactivated vaccines consist of purified viral particle without or with only minor contaminants of NSP and thus induce antibody mainly against structural proteins of virus. (ncl.edu.tw)
Similarity1
- Furthermore, we illustrate potential application of our method to recognize interesting biological relationships masked by apparent lack of structural similarity. (biomedcentral.com)
Pathogenesis1
- NS proteins are involved in crucial aspects of the viral cycle and pathogenesis, such as rearrangements of intracellular membranes required for endomembrane recruitment and the lysis of host cells ( 1 , 12 , 14 , 18 , 73 ). (asm.org)
Single-stranded1
- Likewise the viral single-stranded RNA binding proteins σNS localized towards the manufacturer margins and got a tubulovesicular staining design that extended a brief distance Timosaponin b-II through the margins from the factories and colocalized with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) markers. (biongenex.com)
Pathways1
- Many proteins in these pathways are deregulated in cancer, and we are developing targeted chemical probes to modulate their activity in cells and organisms. (stanford.edu)
Infections4
- This lifelong challenge has contributed to the development of numerous evasion mechanisms by Herpesviruses, many of which devoted to elude NK cell surveillance from viral reactivations rather than primary infections. (frontiersin.org)
- Members of the human herpesvirus (HHV) and human papillomavirus (HPV) families cause the most common primary viral infections of the oral cavity. (medscape.com)
- Nonetheless, many other viral infections can affect the oral cavity in humans, either as localized or systemic infections. (medscape.com)
- See Cutaneous Manifestations of HIV Disease and Cutaneous Manifestations of Hepatitis C for information on these viral infections. (medscape.com)
Genetic2
- Initial phylogenomic analysis of three super-clades (S, V, and G) isolated from the outbreaks of distinct geographic locations (China, USA and Europe) within SARS-CoV-2 showed little evidence of local/regional adaptation, suggesting instead that viral evolution is mainly driven by genetic drift and founder events 7 . (nature.com)
- These ubiquitous microbial genetic elements are composed of a protein toxin inhibited by an antitoxin. (lu.se)
Functional4
- Structural comparison of protein-protein interfaces provides valuable insights into the functional relationship between proteins, which may not solely arise from shared evolutionary origin. (biomedcentral.com)
- developed I2I-SiteEngine [ 12 ] to compare the physicochemical properties of the functional groups forming protein-protein interfaces, which uses an algorithm similar to pharmacophore mapping. (biomedcentral.com)
- The expression of NSP3 along with one or more fluorescent tags allows the expression of a foreign protein, while NSP3 remains a functional, stable dimerizing product. (news-medical.net)
- I also directed the Joint Center for Structural Genomics (2000-2016) that pioneers new high throughput methodologies and technologies for protein production, structure determination and functional analysis in order to investigate the Expanding Protein Universe and the human gut microbiome and other high-value targets in the regulation of stem cells and T cells. (scripps.edu)
Roles1
- The remaining proteins play various roles within cardiomyocytes to ensure their proper functioning. (medlineplus.gov)
Virions1
- L-domains, located in viral Gag proteins, are required for the release of virions from the host cell. (eu.org)
Coronavirus3
- The blockage of interplay between angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and S protein is taken into account an important goal for anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) medication. (aidstar-one.com)
- RÉSUMÉ Une analyse documentaire des informations publiques disponibles a été entreprise afin de passer en revue les connaissances et les lacunes actuelles sur le coronavirus du syndrome respiratoire du Moyen-Orient (MERS-CoV), notamment sur son origine, la transmission, les mesures de lutte efficaces et la prise en charge. (who.int)
- Middle East respiratory syndrome CoV often presents as a lower respira- is a viral illness caused by a novel hu- tory tract disease associated with fever, man coronavirus. (who.int)
UniProt1
- Results: In total, 1736 proteins were identified from the 559228 "reviewed" proteins from the UniProt database, with similar "PIM ® profile" to the 29 mutated proteins that express the five groups of arboviruses. (eurekaselect.com)
ACE21
- A full-length ACE2 protein may very well be a possible drug to dam early entry of SARS-CoV-2 into host cells. (aidstar-one.com)
Terminus1
- Structural proteins are all encoded by the 3' terminus of the viral genome. (medsci.org)
Virus12
- A viral structural protein is a viral protein that is a structural component of the mature virus. (wikipedia.org)
- The virus contains a roughly 30 kilobase positive-sense RNA genome encoding 4 structural and 16 non-structural viral proteins. (health.mil)
- Reverse transcriptase/ribonuclease H (RT) is a multifunctional enzyme that converts the viral RNA genome into dsDNA in the cytoplasm, shortly after virus entry into the cell. (proteopedia.org)
- Zika virus is enveloped by the viral coat. (getjar.com)
- These structural proteins encapsulate the virus. (getjar.com)
- This alteration is to the advantage of the virus and works by nsp1alpha interacting with specific proteins in the pig that normally upregulate the pig's immune response. (usda.gov)
- The majority of the drug companies designed vaccines and therapies that targeted the S protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. (ispe.org)
- The detection and evaluation of concentration of influenza virus proteins in biological samples is critical in a broad range of medical and biological investigations regarding the concern over potential outbreaks of virulent influenza strains in animals and humans. (omicsonline.org)
- In lungs of infected mice, the influenza virus structural nucleoprotein NP was detected in parallel using a specific anti-NP antibody. (omicsonline.org)
- This parallel detection of PB1-F2 and NP suggests that applied sensor chip technology may be amenable to an arrow immunosensor for simultaneous detection of all known influenza virus proteins in infected tissues and cells. (omicsonline.org)
- Algunas de estas proteínas pueden desempeñar funciones dentro de las células infectadas durante la REPLICACIÓN VIRAL o actuar en la regulación de dicha replicación o del ENSAMBLAJE DE VIRUS. (bvsalud.org)
- Despite the structure of packaged viral DNA being central for ejection and consequentially infectivity of the virus, the detailed understanding of the packing structure of DNA inside the viral capsid. (lu.se)
Host6
- However, the ongoing rapid transmission and global spread of SARS-CoV-2 have raised critical questions about the evolution and adaptation of the viral population driven by mutations, deletions and/or recombination as it spreads across the world encountering diverse host immune systems and various counter-measures 6 . (nature.com)
- This study proposes a novel mechanism by which PRRSV utilizes host proteins to regulate innate immunity. (usda.gov)
- Herpesviruses however, generate a complicated balance with the host immune system through their latency cycle moving between immune control and viral reactivation. (frontiersin.org)
- Taken collectively, endurance coaching altered the degrees of host proteins concerned in SARS-CoV-2 cell entry in an organ-dependent method. (aidstar-one.com)
- Angiotensin changing enzyme 2 (ACE-2) performs a key position in viral entry into host cells. (aidstar-one.com)
- Mammalian host protein Syntenin has the LYPxL motif. (eu.org)
Sequences1
- The extra sequences at the N-termini of viral jelly roll capsid proteins, involved in recognizing the viral genome, likely evolved after the capture of these proteins from cells. (virology.ws)