Analgesics, Opioid
Codeine
Hydromorphone
Pain Measurement
Acute Pain
Analgesia, Patient-Controlled
Morphine
Double-Blind Method
Naloxone
Nalbuphine
Ketorolac
Cytochrome P-450 CYP2D6
Pain
Stereoisomerism
Surgical Procedures, Minor
Anesthetics, Local
Miosis
Analgesics, Non-Narcotic
Premature Ejaculation
Acetaminophen
Doxepin
Renal Colic
Dipyrone
Therapeutic Equivalency
Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
Meperidine
Narcotics
Receptors, Opioid, mu
Anesthesia Recovery Period
Anesthesia, General
Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal
Buprenorphine
Muscle Hypertonia
Drug Overdose
Nerve Block
Respiratory Rate
Cyclohexanols
Drug Administration Schedule
Urinary Bladder, Overactive
Visceral Pain
Nortriptyline
Anesthetics, Combined
Yohimbine
Cross-Over Studies
Chemistry, Pharmaceutical
Drug Interactions
Iridoid Glycosides
Adjuvants, Anesthesia
Rats, Wistar
Analgesia, Epidural
Amitriptyline
Suppositories
Postoperative Care
Delayed-Action Preparations
Piroxicam
Ibuprofen
Neuralgia
Tomography Scanners, X-Ray Computed
Tooth, Impacted
Phantom Limb
Locus Coeruleus
Cytapheresis
Quinidine
Seizures
Hyperalgesia
Methadone
Intraoperative Care
Injections, Spinal
Amputation Stumps
Analysis of Variance
Facial Pain
Dosage Forms
Preoperative Care
Synaptosomes
Peptic Ulcer Perforation
Substance Abuse Detection
Depression, Chemical
Anesthetics, Inhalation
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
Treatment Outcome
Drug Therapy, Combination
Premedication
Deamino Arginine Vasopressin
Sciatic Nerve
Anesthetics, Dissociative
Tablets
Fentanyl
Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids
Hypnotics and Sedatives
Reserpine
Isoindoles
Naproxen
Diclofenac
Antidepressive Agents, Tricyclic
Hysterosalpingography
Ranidae
Nociception
Injections, Intraperitoneal
5-Hydroxytryptophan
Lidocaine
Administration, Rectal
Sural Nerve
Infusions, Intravenous
Nerve Compression Syndromes
Quinuclidinyl Benzilate
Chitosan
Psoas Muscles
Ketamine
Amides
Respiration
Pneumonia, Aspiration
Antidepressive Agents, Second-Generation
Injections, Intramuscular
Drug Compounding
Prospective Studies
Drug Combinations
Hernia, Inguinal
Preanesthetic Medication
Receptor, Muscarinic M1
Cholinergic Agents
Biotransformation
Acetic Acid
Placebos
Injections, Subcutaneous
Opiate Substitution Treatment
Peristalsis
Pain Management
Drug Administration Routes
Nausea
Chinchilla
Poisoning
Conscious Sedation
Adrenal Medulla
Serotonin
Amines
Chromatography, Gas
Anesthetics, Intravenous
Disease Models, Animal
Rats, Sprague-Dawley
Half-Life
Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists
Propofol
Least-Squares Analysis
Midazolam
Single-Blind Method
Biological Availability
Drug Evaluation
Urinary Bladder
Pilot Projects
Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-2
Glasgow Coma Scale
Hypercapnia
Muscarinic Antagonists
Osteoarthritis
Carbon Dioxide
Monitoring, Intraoperative
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
Antidepressive Agents
Receptors, Opioid
Random Allocation
Substance Withdrawal Syndrome
Raphe Nuclei
Reflex
Postoperative analgesia and vomiting, with special reference to day-case surgery: a systematic review. (1/258)
BACKGROUND: Day-case surgery is of great value to patients and the health service. It enables many more patients to be treated properly, and faster than before. Newer, less invasive, operative techniques will allow many more procedures to be carried out. There are many elements to successful day-case surgery. Two key components are the effectiveness of the control of pain after the operation, and the effectiveness of measures to minimise postoperative nausea and vomiting. OBJECTIVES: To enable those caring for patients undergoing day-case surgery to make the best choices for their patients and the health service, this review sought the highest quality evidence on: (1) the effectiveness of the control of pain after an operation; (2) the effectiveness of measures to minimise postoperative nausea and vomiting. METHODS: Full details of the search strategy are presented in the report. RESULTS - ANALGESIA: The systematic reviews of the literature explored whether different interventions work and, if they do work, how well they work. A number of conclusions can be drawn. RESULTS-ANALGESIA, INEFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS: There is good evidence that some interventions are ineffective. They include: (1) transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in acute postoperative pain; (2) the use of local injections of opioids at sites other than the knee joint; (3) the use of dihydrocodeine, 30 mg, in acute postoperative pain (it is no better than placebo). RESULTS-ANALGESIA, INTERVENTIONS OF DOUBTFUL VALUE: Some interventions may be effective but the size of the effect or the complication of undertaking them confers no measurable benefit over conventional methods. Such interventions include: (1) injecting morphine into the knee joint after surgery: there is a small analgesic benefit which may last for up to 24 hours but there is no clear evidence that the size of the benefit is of any clinical value; (2) manoeuvres to try and anticipate pain by using pre-emptive analgesia; these are no more effective than standard methods; (3) administering non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) by injection or per rectum in patients who can swallow; this appears to be no more effective than giving NSAIDs by mouth and, indeed, may do more harm than good; (4) administering codeine in single doses; this has poor analgesic efficacy. RESULTS-ANALGESIA, INTERVENTIONS OF PROVEN VALUE: These include a number of oral analgesics including (at standard doses): (1) dextropropoxyphene; (2) tramadol; (3) paracetamol; (4) ibuprofen; (5) diclofenac. Diclofenac and ibuprofen at standard doses give analgesia equivalent to that obtained with 10 mg of intramuscular morphine. Each will provide at least 50% pain relief from a single oral dose in patients with moderate or severe postoperative pain. Paracetamol and codeine combinations also appear to be highly effective, although there is little information on the standard doses used in the UK. The relative effectiveness of these analgesics is compared in an effectiveness 'ladder' which can inform prescribers making choices for individual patients, or planning day-case surgery. Dose-response relationships show that higher doses of ibuprofen may be particularly effective. Topical NSAIDs (applied to the skin) are effective in minor injuries and chronic pain but there is no obvious role for them in day-case surgery. RESULTS-POSTOPERATIVE NAUSEA AND VOMITING: The proportion of patients who may feel nauseated or vomit after surgery is very variable, despite similar operations and anaesthetic techniques. Systematic review can still lead to clear estimations of effectiveness of interventions. Whichever anti-emetic is used, the choice is often between prophylactic use (trying to prevent anyone vomiting) and treating those people who do feel nauseated or who may vomit. Systematic reviews of a number of different anti-emetics show clearly that none of the anti-emetics is sufficiently effective to be used for prophylaxis. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATE (+info)Tramadol or morphine administered during operation: a study of immediate postoperative effects after abdominal hysterectomy. (2/258)
Tramadol may cause awareness and EEG activation during anaesthesia. We compared tramadol with morphine, administered during wound-closure, surmising that tramadol may cause earlier awakening, more rapid recovery, less respiratory depression and equivalent pain relief. Forty patients received nitrous oxide-enflurane for abdominal surgery. At wound closure, patients received tramadol 3 mg kg-1 or morphine 0.2 mg kg-1 and end-tidal enflurane concentrations were maintained at 0.5 kPa until skin closure, whereupon anaesthesia was discontinued. Times to spontaneous respiration, awakening and orientation were similar in the two groups, as were blood-gas tensions, ventilatory frequency, pain scores and incidence of nausea. Half of each group required supplementary analgesia during their 90-min stay in the recovery room. P-deletion counts improved more rapidly in the tramadol group. This study confirms previous reports that tramadol did not antagonize the hypnotic effects of volatile anaesthetics. Tramadol, administered during operation, was as effective as morphine in providing postoperative analgesia while permitting more rapid psychomotor recovery. (+info)Tramadol allows reduction of naproxen dose among patients with naproxen-responsive osteoarthritis pain: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. (3/258)
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that in patients receiving naproxen for the pain of osteoarthritis (OA), the addition of tramadol will allow a reduction in the naproxen dosage without compromising pain relief. METHODS: This trial consisted of a 5-week open-label run-in and an 8-week double-blind phase. Patients with at least moderate pain (> or =40 mm on a 100-mm visual analog scale) of OA of the knee after a 1-week medication washout were treated with naproxen 500 mg/day for 1 week. Patients whose pain scores were reduced to <20 mm were discontinued. The remaining patients received naproxen 1,000 mg/day for 3 weeks. Tramadol 200 mg/day was added during the third week. Patients were then randomized in a double-blind manner to continue tramadol 200 mg/day or to begin placebo in addition to naproxen. Randomization was stratified based on response to naproxen 1,000 mg/day. During the double-blind phase, the naproxen dose was reduced by 250 mg every 2 weeks. The primary efficacy end point was the minimum effective naproxen dose (MEND). The MEND was defined as 250 mg above the naproxen daily dosage at which pain relief was no longer adequate. Patients discontinuing the double-blind phase of the study for reasons other than lack of efficacy were assigned a MEND equal to the last naproxen dose received. If the effect of treatment between the responder and nonresponder groups was statistically different, the difference in the MEND was assessed separately within the groups. RESULTS: Of 236 patients randomized (mean age 61 years; 147 females), 90 were stratified as naproxen responders and 146 as naproxen nonresponders. There was a significant difference (P = 0.040) in the treatment effect between the naproxen responders and nonresponders, thus demonstrating a difference in the way responders and nonresponders react to a decrease in naproxen dosage after the addition of tramadol. Among naproxen responders, the MEND was significantly lower in patients receiving tramadol (n = 36) than in patients receiving placebo (n = 54), 221 mg versus 407 mg, respectively (P = 0.021). For the naproxen nonresponders, the mean MEND was 419 mg in the tramadol group and 396 mg in the placebo group (P = 0.706). CONCLUSION: In patients with painful OA of the knee responding to naproxen 1,000 mg/day, the addition of tramadol 200 mg/day allows a significant reduction in the dosage of naproxen without compromising pain relief. (+info)Serum concentrations of tramadol enantiomers during patient-controlled analgesia. (4/258)
AIMS: Tramadol, a centrally acting analgesic, is used as a racemate containing 50% of a (+)- and 50% of a (-)-enantiomer. This paper presents the pharmacokinetic results of postoperative patient-controlled analgesia using (+)-tramadol, (-)-tramadol or the racemate. METHODS: Ninety-eight patients recovering from major gynaecological surgery were treated in a randomised, double-blind study with (+)-tramadol, (-)-tramadol or the racemate. Following an i.v. bolus up to a maximum of 200 mg, patient-controlled analgesia with demand doses of 20 mg was made available for 24 h. Prior to each demand, the serum concentrations of the enantiomers of tramadol and its metabolite M1 were measured in 92 patients. RESULTS: The mean concentrations of tramadol during the postsurgery phase were 470+/-323 ng ml-1, 590+/-410 ng ml-1 and 771+/-451 ng ml-1 in the (+)-, racemate- and (-)-group, respectively ((+) vs (-), P<0.05); the mean concentrations of the metabolite M1 were 57+/-18 ng ml-1, 84+/-34 ng ml-1 and 96+/-41 ng ml-1 in the (+)-, racemate- and (-)-group, respectively ((+) vs (-) and (+) vs racemate, P<0.05). The mean concentrations of (+)-tramadol and (+)-M1 were lower in the racemate- than in the (+)-group (P<0.05), those of (-)-tramadol and (-)-M1 were lower in the racemate than in the (-)-group (P<0.05). In the racemate group, the mean serum concentrations of (+)-tramadol were higher than those of (-)-tramadol (P<0.05), whereas the mean serum concentrations of (-)-M1 were higher than those of (+)-M1 (P<0. 05). CONCLUSIONS: The therapeutic serum concentration of tramadol and M1 showed a great variability. The lowest mean concentrations were measured in the (+)-group and the highest in (-)-group. This is in agreement with the clinical finding that (+)-tramadol is a more potent analgesic than (-)-tramadol. (+info)Drug dependence and abuse potential of tramadol. (5/258)
AIM: To assess the drug dependence and abuse liability of tramadol. METHODS: Subjects of opiate addicts with history of tramadol abuse were 219. Physical dependence of tramadol was assessed using opiate withdrawal scale (OWS), psychic dependence was assessed by association test of Addiction Research Center Inventory-Chinese Version (ARCI-CV); the degrees of craving experienced for tramadol was self-reported on visual analogue scale (VAS). RESULTS: The scores of OWS of tramadol were 0.05-1.07; 3 scores on scales in particular being used the identify euphoric effects--MBG, sedative effects--PCAG, and psychotomimetic effects--LSD of ARCI were 7.3, 6.1, and 3.4, respectively (F = 38.1, P < 0.01); 57.1% of tramadol abuse subjects had craving for tramadol (chi 2 = 75.86, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Tramadol produced high abuse potential among opiate addicts. (+info)Effects of morphine and tramadol on somatic and visceral sensory function and gastrointestinal motility after abdominal surgery. (6/258)
BACKGROUND: Chronic nociceptive input induces sensitization and changes in regulatory reflexes in animal models. In humans, postoperative somatic and visceral sensitization and the secondary effects on reflex gut motility are unclear. METHODS: Somatic and visceral sensation and gastrointestinal motility were evaluated after abdominal hysterectomies in 50 patients who were randomized to receive double-blinded postoperative 48-h infusions of morphine or tramadol. Pain scores, rectal distension, skin electric sensation and pain tolerance thresholds, and gastrointestinal transit were assessed before and after operation, during and after analgesic infusions. RESULTS: Pain intensity scores decreased similarly with morphine and tramadol infusions (total doses, 66.8+/-20 mg and 732.4+/-152 mg [mean +/- SD], respectively). Skin pain tolerance thresholds in the incisional dermatome remained similar with morphine and tramadol throughout the study. During morphine infusions, pain tolerance thresholds on the shoulder increased (P<0.05) and then decreased after discontinuation on day 4 (P<0.02) compared with before operation. Rectal distension pain tolerance pressure thresholds increased after operation during morphine infusions (P<0.05). Similar but nonsignificant trends occurred with tramadol. Orocecal and colonic transit times increased after operation with both morphine and tramadol (P<0.005), but gastric emptying was prolonged only with morphine (P = 0.03). AU motility and sensory parameters had returned to preoperative levels by 1 month after operation. CONCLUSIONS: Pain control was equally effective with morphine and tramadol infusions. No somatic or visceral sensitization was evident during morphine and tramadol infusions, but pain tolerance thresholds as markers of antinociception were increased more during morphine infusions. The significant sensitization seen only after morphine discontinuation may be due to convergent visceral input. Gut motility was prolonged significantly by visceral surgery itself and also by morphine. (+info)Analgesia after intracranial surgery: a double-blind, prospective comparison of codeine and tramadol. (7/258)
We have compared codeine and tramadol in a prospective, double-blind study of postoperative analgesia in 75 patients after elective intracranial surgery. Twenty-five patients received codeine 60 mg, tramadol 50 mg or tramadol 75 mg i.m. Patients receiving codeine had significantly lower pain scores over the first 48 h after operation (P < 0.0001). Although there was no difference in visual analogue scale (VAS) scores between the three groups at 24 h, the codeine group had significantly lower scores at 48 h (P < 0.0001). The tramadol 75 mg group had significantly higher scores for both sedation and nausea and vomiting (P < 0.0001 for both scores). We conclude that codeine 60 mg i.m. provided better postoperative analgesia than tramadol after craniotomy and that tramadol 75 mg should be avoided because of its side effects of increased sedation and nausea and vomiting. (+info)Effects of tramadol on minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in rats. (8/258)
It has been suggested previously that tramadol increases central nervous system activity and 'lightens' anaesthesia with volatile agents. We assessed the effects of tramadol on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in 56 Wistar rats, instrumented chronically with an arterial and central venous catheter. The MAC of isoflurane was determined using the tail clamp method under three conditions: (1) after injection of saline (control); (2) after administration of tramadol 10 mg kg-1 i.v.; and (3) after administration of morphine 1 mg kg-1 i.v. The studies were repeated after treatment with the antagonists naloxone or yohimbine. Tramadol and morphine both reduced the MAC of isoflurane from mean 1.38 (SEM 0.05)% to 1.22 (0.06)% and 1.17 (0.06)%, respectively (P < 0.05). Concomitant administration of yohimbine did not abolish this reduction in MAC. In contrast, after pretreatment with naloxone, tramadol (1.47 (0.04)%) or morphine (1.38 (0.07)%) did not cause a reduction in the MAC of isoflurane compared with controls (1.39 (0.06)%). We conclude that tramadol and morphine reduced the MAC of isoflurane to a small but significant extent. For both drugs, this effect was related to their action at opioid receptors. (+info)Pain, Postoperative refers to the discomfort or pain experienced by a patient after undergoing surgery. It is a common and expected complication of surgery, and can range from mild to severe. Postoperative pain can be caused by a variety of factors, including tissue damage, inflammation, and nerve stimulation. It is typically managed with a combination of pain medications, such as opioids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and local anesthetics, as well as other treatments such as physical therapy, ice packs, and relaxation techniques. Proper management of postoperative pain is important for promoting healing, reducing the risk of complications, and improving the patient's overall comfort and quality of life.
Codeine is a semi-synthetic opioid medication that is used to relieve moderate to severe pain. It is a Schedule II controlled substance in the United States, meaning that it has a high potential for abuse and addiction. Codeine is often combined with other medications, such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or aspirin, to increase its effectiveness and reduce side effects. It is also sometimes used as a cough suppressant. Codeine is available in both prescription and over-the-counter forms, but its use is generally restricted to adults and children over the age of 12.
Hydromorphone is a synthetic opioid medication that is used to relieve moderate to severe pain. It is a semi-synthetic derivative of morphine and is similar in structure and effects to other opioids such as oxymorphone and oxycodone. Hydromorphone is available in both immediate-release and extended-release forms, and it is typically administered orally, intravenously, or intramuscularly. It is a powerful pain reliever and can be effective in managing chronic pain, postoperative pain, and pain associated with cancer. However, like all opioids, hydromorphone can be habit-forming and can lead to dependence and addiction if not used as directed. It is important to use hydromorphone under the supervision of a healthcare professional and to follow the recommended dosage and duration of use.
Acute pain is a type of pain that is sudden in onset, severe in intensity, and typically lasts for a short period of time. It is usually caused by a specific injury or trauma to the body, such as a cut, burn, or sprain. Acute pain is a normal response of the body to injury and is often necessary to alert the individual to the need for medical attention. It is usually treated with medication, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or opioids, and can be relieved with rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE). If left untreated, acute pain can lead to chronic pain, which is pain that persists for more than three months and is often more difficult to manage.
Morphine is a powerful opioid medication that is used to relieve severe pain. It is derived from the opium poppy and is one of the most potent naturally occurring opioids. Morphine works by binding to specific receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which can reduce the perception of pain and produce feelings of euphoria. It is often prescribed for patients who are experiencing severe pain, such as those with cancer or after surgery. Morphine can be administered in a variety of ways, including orally, intravenously, or through injection. It can also be used in combination with other medications to enhance its pain-relieving effects. However, morphine can also be highly addictive and can lead to dependence and withdrawal symptoms if used for an extended period of time. It is important for patients to use morphine only as directed by their healthcare provider and to avoid taking more than the recommended dose.
Naloxone is a medication used to reverse the effects of opioid overdose. It works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and body, blocking the effects of opioids and causing the person to breathe normally again. Naloxone is often administered as an injection, but it can also be administered nasally or intravenously. It is commonly used in emergency medical settings to treat opioid overdose, but it can also be used in non-emergency situations, such as in the management of chronic pain or opioid addiction.
Nalbuphine is a synthetic opioid analgesic medication that is used to relieve moderate to severe pain. It is a mixed agonist-antagonist opioid, meaning that it can both activate and block opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord. Nalbuphine is often used in the treatment of postoperative pain, as well as in the management of chronic pain conditions such as cancer pain and fibromyalgia. It is available in both injectable and oral forms. Nalbuphine can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, constipation, and respiratory depression. It can also cause withdrawal symptoms if abruptly discontinued after long-term use. As with all opioid medications, nalbuphine carries the risk of addiction and abuse, and should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider.
Ketorolac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used in the medical field to relieve pain and reduce inflammation. It is available in both oral and injectable forms and is often prescribed for conditions such as postoperative pain, dental pain, and rheumatoid arthritis. Ketorolac works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever. It is generally considered to be less effective than other NSAIDs for long-term use, and may cause side effects such as stomach pain, nausea, and headache.
Cytochrome P-450 CYP2D6 is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of many drugs and other substances in the human body. It is encoded by the CYP2D6 gene and is primarily found in the liver, although it is also present in other tissues such as the lungs, kidneys, and brain. CYP2D6 is responsible for the metabolism of a wide range of drugs, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, beta-blockers, and some cancer drugs. It does this by converting these drugs into more water-soluble compounds that can be easily excreted from the body. However, not everyone has the same level of CYP2D6 activity. Some people have a genetic variation that results in a reduced ability to metabolize certain drugs, while others have a genetic variation that results in an increased ability to do so. This can lead to differences in how these drugs are metabolized and can affect their effectiveness and potential side effects. In the medical field, understanding a patient's CYP2D6 status is important for optimizing drug therapy and minimizing the risk of adverse reactions. This is particularly important for patients who are taking multiple medications, as interactions between different drugs can be more pronounced in individuals with altered CYP2D6 activity.
In the medical field, pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. Pain is a complex phenomenon that involves both physical and emotional components, and it can be caused by a variety of factors, including injury, illness, inflammation, and nerve damage. Pain can be acute or chronic, and it can be localized to a specific area of the body or can affect the entire body. Acute pain is typically short-lived and is a normal response to injury or illness. Chronic pain, on the other hand, persists for more than three months and can be caused by a variety of factors, including nerve damage, inflammation, and psychological factors. In the medical field, pain is typically assessed using a pain scale, such as the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), which measures pain intensity on a scale of 0 to 10. Treatment for pain depends on the underlying cause and can include medications, physical therapy, and other interventions.
Oxycodone is a prescription opioid medication used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is a semi-synthetic opioid derived from the opium poppy and is similar in structure to other opioids such as morphine and heroin. Oxycodone works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which can result in pain relief, sedation, and euphoria. Oxycodone is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and extended-release tablets, and is typically prescribed for short-term use only. It can be habit-forming and can lead to dependence and addiction if used improperly or for an extended period of time. Oxycodone is also a controlled substance and is regulated by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in the United States.
Miosis is a medical term that refers to the constriction or narrowing of the pupil of the eye. The pupil is the black circular opening in the center of the iris, which controls the amount of light that enters the eye. Miosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including the use of certain medications, exposure to bright light, or a neurological disorder. It can also be a sign of an underlying medical condition, such as glaucoma, meningitis, or a head injury. In some cases, miosis may be treated with medication or surgery, depending on the underlying cause. If left untreated, miosis can lead to vision problems or even blindness. Therefore, it is important to seek medical attention if you experience any changes in the size or shape of your pupil.
Premature ejaculation (PE) is a common sexual dysfunction characterized by the inability to delay ejaculation during sexual intercourse for a desired amount of time. It is defined as ejaculation that occurs either before or within a minute of vaginal penetration, and is experienced as distressing or frustrating by the individual or their partner. PE can be classified into two types: primary and secondary. Primary PE is when the individual has had recurrent PE since the beginning of their sexual activity, while secondary PE is when the individual has experienced normal ejaculatory control in the past but has developed PE at some point in their sexual history. PE can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life, causing feelings of inadequacy, anxiety, and depression. Treatment options for PE include behavioral therapy, medication, and other interventions.
Acetaminophen, also known as paracetamol, is a medication commonly used to relieve pain and reduce fever. It is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause inflammation, pain, and fever. Acetaminophen is available over-the-counter (OTC) in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquids, and is also used in combination with other medications to treat conditions such as colds, flu, and headaches. It is generally considered safe when taken as directed, but high doses or prolonged use can lead to liver damage, which can be fatal. In the medical field, acetaminophen is often prescribed for patients with chronic pain, such as cancer pain or post-surgical pain, as well as for patients with fever or other symptoms associated with viral infections. It is also used as an analgesic during childbirth and as an antipyretic to reduce fever in children.
Bupivacaine is a local anesthetic medication that is commonly used in the medical field for spinal and epidural anesthesia. It is a type of amide local anesthetic that is derived from cocaine and is used to numb a specific area of the body, such as the lower back or limbs, during surgery or other medical procedures. Bupivacaine is available in various forms, including solutions, gels, and injections, and is typically administered by a healthcare professional. It is a powerful local anesthetic that can provide long-lasting pain relief, but it can also have side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and allergic reactions.
Doxepin is a tricyclic antidepressant medication that is primarily used to treat depression, anxiety, and insomnia. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and reduce anxiety. Doxepin is available in both oral tablet and liquid forms, and it is typically taken once or twice a day, depending on the specific condition being treated and the individual patient's needs. It may take several weeks of regular use before the full therapeutic effects of doxepin become apparent. In addition to its use in treating depression and anxiety, doxepin is also sometimes used to treat other conditions, such as chronic pain, migraines, and certain types of skin conditions. However, it is important to note that doxepin can have side effects, including drowsiness, dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and sexual dysfunction, among others. As with any medication, it is important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of doxepin with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.
Renal colic is a type of severe pain that occurs in the lower back or abdomen, usually on one side. It is caused by the sudden blockage of the ureter, which is the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. The blockage can be caused by a variety of factors, including kidney stones, tumors, or inflammation. Renal colic is a common medical emergency and can be very painful. It is usually treated with pain medication and sometimes with surgery to remove the blockage. In some cases, the blockage may resolve on its own without treatment. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of renal colic, as it can be a sign of a more serious underlying condition, such as a kidney stone or infection.
Dipyrone is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used to relieve pain, reduce fever, and decrease inflammation. It is also known by the brand name (Puxiexingtong) in China. Dipyrone works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever. It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and suppositories. Dipyrone is generally considered safe and effective when used as directed, but it can cause side effects such as stomach pain, nausea, and dizziness. It should not be used by people with certain medical conditions, such as liver or kidney disease, or by those who are allergic to aspirin or other NSAIDs.
Meperidine is a synthetic opioid medication that is used to relieve moderate to severe pain. It is also known by the brand name Demerol. Meperidine works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which can result in a decrease in pain perception and an increase in feelings of relaxation and sedation. Meperidine is available in both oral and injectable forms and is typically prescribed for short-term use only, as it can be habit-forming and can lead to dependence if used for an extended period of time. It is also important to note that meperidine can have a number of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, constipation, and respiratory depression. In recent years, the use of meperidine has declined due to concerns about its potential for abuse and addiction, as well as its potential for causing serious side effects. As a result, many healthcare providers are now using alternative pain management options, such as non-opioid medications or non-pharmacological treatments like physical therapy or acupuncture.
Receptors, Opioid, mu (OPRM1) are a type of protein found on the surface of nerve cells in the brain and throughout the body. These receptors are activated by opioid drugs, such as morphine, heroin, and oxycodone, as well as endogenous opioid peptides, such as endorphins and enkephalins. The mu-opioid receptors play a key role in the body's response to pain, as well as in regulating mood, reward, and stress. They are also involved in the development of addiction to opioid drugs. Mutations in the OPRM1 gene can affect the function of mu-opioid receptors and may be associated with altered responses to opioid drugs and an increased risk of addiction.
Buprenorphine is a synthetic opioid medication that is used to treat opioid addiction and withdrawal symptoms. It is a partial agonist at the mu-opioid receptor, meaning that it binds to the receptor and produces some of the effects of opioids, but not as strongly as full agonists like heroin or morphine. This makes buprenorphine a useful treatment for opioid addiction because it can help to reduce cravings and withdrawal symptoms while minimizing the risk of overdose and respiratory depression. Buprenorphine is available in a number of different forms, including tablets, films, and sublingual tablets that are placed under the tongue. It is typically used in combination with behavioral therapy and counseling to help individuals overcome their addiction to opioids. Buprenorphine can also be used to treat chronic pain, although it is not as effective as other opioids for this purpose.
Muscle hypertonia refers to an abnormally increased muscle tone or stiffness, which can result in difficulty with movement and range of motion. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including neurological disorders, muscle disorders, and certain medications. In some cases, muscle hypertonia may be a symptom of a more serious underlying condition, such as a stroke or multiple sclerosis. Treatment for muscle hypertonia depends on the underlying cause and may include physical therapy, medication, or surgery.
In the medical field, a drug overdose occurs when a person takes an excessive amount of a drug, either intentionally or unintentionally, resulting in harmful effects on the body. The severity of the overdose can vary depending on the type of drug, the amount taken, and the individual's health status. Drug overdoses can be classified into two categories: acute and chronic. An acute overdose occurs when a person takes a large amount of a drug in a short period of time, while a chronic overdose occurs when a person takes a drug consistently over a long period of time in excessive amounts. Symptoms of a drug overdose can include confusion, drowsiness, slow heart rate, shallow breathing, seizures, coma, and even death. Treatment for a drug overdose typically involves supportive care, such as administering oxygen, fluids, and medications to counteract the effects of the drug, as well as medical interventions to stabilize the patient's vital signs. Prevention of drug overdoses involves educating individuals about the risks associated with drug use, promoting safe and responsible drug use practices, and providing access to addiction treatment and support services.
Cyclohexanols are a group of organic compounds that contain a six-membered ring of carbon atoms with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to one of the carbon atoms. They are commonly used as solvents, intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals, and as starting materials for the production of pharmaceuticals and other chemicals. In the medical field, cyclohexanols are used as intermediates in the synthesis of various drugs, including analgesics, anti-inflammatory agents, and antibiotics. They are also used as solvents in the preparation of pharmaceuticals and as precursors for the synthesis of other organic compounds. Some specific examples of cyclohexanols used in the medical field include: - Cyclohexanol, which is used as a solvent in the preparation of various pharmaceuticals and as a starting material for the synthesis of other organic compounds. - 2-Cyclohexen-1-ol, which is used as a starting material for the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, including anti-inflammatory agents and analgesics. - 3-Cyclohexen-1-ol, which is used as a starting material for the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, including anti-inflammatory agents and analgesics. It is important to note that while cyclohexanols have some potential medical applications, they can also be toxic and may cause skin irritation, respiratory irritation, and other adverse effects if not used properly. Therefore, they should be handled with care and used only under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.
Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is a common complication that occurs after surgery. It is characterized by feelings of nausea (an unpleasant sensation in the stomach) and vomiting (throwing up) that can occur within hours of surgery. PONV can be caused by a variety of factors, including anesthesia, pain medication, and the stress of surgery. It can be a distressing and uncomfortable experience for patients, and in severe cases, it can lead to dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and other complications. Treatment for PONV typically involves medications to prevent or relieve nausea and vomiting, as well as supportive care to help patients manage their symptoms.
Urinary Bladder, Overactive, also known as Overactive Bladder (OAB), is a medical condition characterized by the involuntary contractions of the muscles of the urinary bladder, leading to frequent and urgent urination, often accompanied by a strong and sudden urge to urinate. This can result in leakage of urine, which can be embarrassing and affect a person's quality of life. OAB can be caused by a variety of factors, including age, genetics, certain medical conditions, and lifestyle factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption. It is a common condition, affecting millions of people worldwide, and can be treated with a variety of medications, behavioral therapies, and in some cases, surgery.
Visceral pain is a type of pain that originates from the internal organs, such as the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, bladder, and reproductive organs. Unlike somatic pain, which is felt in the muscles, bones, and skin, visceral pain is often described as a deep, dull ache or pressure that can be difficult to localize. Visceral pain can be acute or chronic, and it can be caused by a variety of conditions, including inflammation, infection, injury, or disease. Some common causes of visceral pain include gastritis, peptic ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease, kidney stones, and appendicitis. In the medical field, visceral pain is typically assessed and treated by a team of healthcare professionals, including primary care physicians, gastroenterologists, and surgeons. Treatment options may include medications to manage pain and inflammation, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery.
Nortriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant medication that is used to treat depression, anxiety, and other mental health conditions. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety. Nortriptyline is available in both oral and injectable forms and is typically prescribed by a psychiatrist or other mental health professional. It is important to note that nortriptyline can have side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, and constipation, and may interact with other medications.
Yohimbine is a chemical compound that is derived from the bark of the yohimbe tree (Pausinystalia johimbe). It has been used in traditional medicine for centuries to treat various conditions, including erectile dysfunction, depression, and weight loss. In the medical field, yohimbine is primarily used as a medication to treat erectile dysfunction. It works by blocking the action of an enzyme called alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, which can cause blood vessels to constrict and reduce blood flow to the penis. By blocking these receptors, yohimbine can help to increase blood flow to the penis and improve erectile function. Yohimbine is available as a prescription medication and is typically taken orally. It can cause side effects, including headache, nausea, dizziness, and increased heart rate. It is important to note that yohimbine can interact with other medications, including antidepressants and blood pressure medications, so it should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider.
Iridoid glycosides are a group of natural compounds found in many plants, particularly in the families Lamiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Rubiaceae. They are characterized by the presence of an iridoid nucleus, which is a six-membered ring structure containing a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. Iridoid glycosides have a variety of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-cancer properties. They are also known to have antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity. In the medical field, iridoid glycosides are used as active ingredients in traditional herbal remedies and as components of modern pharmaceuticals. They have been studied for their potential use in the treatment of a range of conditions, including respiratory infections, gastrointestinal disorders, and cancer. Some examples of iridoid glycosides that are used in medicine include aucubin, catalpol, geniposide, and glycyrrhizin.
Opioid-related disorders refer to a group of conditions that result from the use of opioids, which are a class of drugs that include heroin, prescription painkillers, and synthetic opioids like fentanyl. These disorders can range from mild to severe and can have a significant impact on a person's physical and mental health, as well as their social and occupational functioning. The three main types of opioid-related disorders are: 1. Opioid Use Disorder (OUD): This is a chronic condition characterized by a compulsive pattern of opioid use despite negative consequences. Symptoms of OUD can include cravings, withdrawal symptoms, and continued use despite physical or psychological problems. 2. Opioid Dependence: This is a more severe form of OUD that involves a physical dependence on opioids. Symptoms of opioid dependence can include withdrawal symptoms when the drug is stopped, tolerance to the drug, and a strong desire to continue using opioids. 3. Opioid Addiction: This is a chronic, relapsing brain disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite negative consequences. Addiction is considered a disease of the brain and can be difficult to treat. Other opioid-related disorders include overdose, which can be fatal, and co-occurring disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Treatment for opioid-related disorders typically involves a combination of medication, behavioral therapy, and support from healthcare professionals and loved ones.
Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant medication that is primarily used to treat depression, anxiety, and chronic pain. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and reduce pain. Amitriptyline is available in both immediate-release and extended-release forms, and it is typically taken orally. It can also be used to treat other conditions, such as insomnia, migraines, and irritable bowel syndrome. However, like all medications, amitriptyline can have side effects. Common side effects include dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, constipation, and weight gain. More serious side effects can include increased heart rate, high blood pressure, and serotonin syndrome, which is a potentially life-threatening condition that can occur when serotonin levels in the brain become too high. It is important to note that amitriptyline should only be taken under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as it can interact with other medications and may not be suitable for everyone.
Piroxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It is commonly prescribed for conditions such as arthritis, gout, and menstrual cramps. Piroxicam works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause inflammation and pain. It is available in tablet form and is usually taken once or twice a day. Like other NSAIDs, piroxicam can cause side effects such as stomach pain, nausea, and diarrhea. It can also increase the risk of bleeding and stroke, especially in older adults and those with certain medical conditions.
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It is available over-the-counter (OTC) in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquids, and is also available by prescription in higher strengths. Ibuprofen works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause inflammation, pain, and fever. It is effective in treating a variety of conditions, including headaches, menstrual cramps, toothaches, arthritis, and muscle pain. However, like all medications, ibuprofen can have side effects, including stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. It can also increase the risk of bleeding and stroke, especially in people who take high doses or who have certain medical conditions. Therefore, it is important to follow the recommended dosage and to talk to a healthcare provider before taking ibuprofen, especially if you have any underlying medical conditions or are taking other medications.
Neuralgia is a medical condition characterized by pain that is felt along the path of a nerve. It is caused by damage or irritation to the nerve, which can result in a variety of symptoms, including sharp, stabbing, or burning pain, numbness, tingling, and weakness. Neuralgia can affect any nerve in the body, but it is most commonly associated with the trigeminal nerve, which supplies sensation to the face. There are several different types of neuralgia, including trigeminal neuralgia, glossopharyngeal neuralgia, and postherpetic neuralgia. Treatment for neuralgia typically involves medications to manage pain and other symptoms, as well as lifestyle changes and physical therapy. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to treat the underlying cause of the neuralgia.
In the medical field, an "impacted tooth" refers to a tooth that is unable to fully emerge from the gums due to a lack of space or obstruction. This can occur in any of the three main types of teeth: incisors, canines, and molars. There are several reasons why a tooth may become impacted. One common cause is a lack of space in the jawbone, which can occur due to genetics or developmental issues. Other factors that can contribute to tooth impaction include cysts, tumors, or other abnormalities in the jawbone. Impacted teeth can cause a variety of problems, including pain, swelling, and infection. In some cases, an impacted tooth may also damage neighboring teeth or lead to gum disease. Treatment options for impacted teeth depend on the severity of the problem and may include extraction, orthodontic treatment, or surgery to remove the obstruction preventing the tooth from emerging.
A Phantom Limb is a sensation that a person experiences after the amputation of a limb. It is a feeling that the missing limb is still present and can be moved or felt. This sensation can be accompanied by pain, tingling, or itching in the area where the limb used to be. Phantom Limbs are a common experience among amputees and can be caused by a variety of factors, including the brain's attempt to fill in the sensory information that is no longer available from the missing limb. Treatment for Phantom Limbs may include physical therapy, medication, or psychological counseling.
Methyl ethers are organic compounds that contain a methyl group (CH3) attached to an oxygen atom. They are a type of ether, which is a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups. In the medical field, methyl ethers are used as anesthetic agents, particularly for induction of anesthesia. They are also used as solvents and as intermediates in the synthesis of other compounds. Some methyl ethers have been found to have potential medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. One example of a methyl ether used in medicine is methoxyflurane, which was once a common anesthetic but has been largely replaced by other agents due to its potential for toxicity and side effects. Other methyl ethers that have been studied for their potential medicinal properties include diisopropyl ether and tert-butyl methyl ether.
Quinidine is a medication that is used to treat certain types of abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia. It works by slowing down the electrical activity in the heart and restoring a normal heart rhythm. Quinidine is also used to treat malaria, a parasitic infection that is transmitted by mosquitoes. It works by interfering with the growth and reproduction of the parasites that cause malaria. Quinidine is available in tablet, liquid, and intravenous forms. It is usually taken by mouth, but it can also be given intravenously in severe cases. Quinidine can cause side effects, including nausea, vomiting, headache, and dizziness. It can also cause more serious side effects, such as low blood pressure, heart problems, and allergic reactions.
Seizures are abnormal electrical discharges in the brain that can cause a variety of symptoms, including convulsions, muscle spasms, loss of consciousness, and changes in behavior or sensation. Seizures can be caused by a variety of factors, including brain injury, infection, genetic disorders, and certain medications. They can be classified into different types based on their symptoms and the part of the brain affected. Treatment for seizures may include medications, surgery, or other interventions, depending on the underlying cause and severity of the seizures.
Hyperalgesia is a medical condition characterized by an increased sensitivity to pain. It is a type of pain that is caused by an overactive nervous system, which results in a heightened perception of pain in response to a normal or low-intensity stimulus. Hyperalgesia can be caused by a variety of factors, including injury, inflammation, nerve damage, and certain medical conditions such as fibromyalgia, chronic pain syndrome, and multiple sclerosis. It can also be a side effect of certain medications, such as opioids. Symptoms of hyperalgesia may include increased pain sensitivity, a heightened response to touch or pressure, and a reduced ability to tolerate pain. Treatment for hyperalgesia may involve a combination of medications, physical therapy, and other interventions aimed at reducing pain and improving quality of life.
Methadone is a synthetic opioid medication that is used to treat opioid addiction and withdrawal symptoms. It is a long-acting opioid that works by binding to the same receptors in the brain as other opioids, such as heroin and morphine, but with a longer duration of action. Methadone is typically administered orally, either as a liquid or a tablet, and is usually taken once or twice a day. Methadone is often used as part of a comprehensive treatment program for opioid addiction, which may also include counseling, behavioral therapy, and other medications. It can help to reduce cravings for opioids, prevent withdrawal symptoms, and reduce the risk of relapse. However, methadone can also be addictive and can cause side effects, such as drowsiness, nausea, and respiratory depression. It is important for individuals taking methadone to be monitored closely by a healthcare provider to ensure safe and effective use.
Facial pain is a medical condition characterized by discomfort or pain in the face, head, or neck. It can be acute or chronic and can be caused by a variety of factors, including injury, infection, inflammation, or nerve damage. There are several types of facial pain, including: 1. Migraine: A type of headache that is often accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound. 2. Trigeminal neuralgia: A condition that causes intense, stabbing pain in the face, often triggered by simple activities such as chewing or talking. 3. Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMD): A condition that affects the joint that connects the jaw to the skull, causing pain, stiffness, and difficulty chewing. 4. Cluster headache: A type of headache that occurs in clusters, typically lasting several weeks or months, and is accompanied by symptoms such as redness and watering of the eye. 5. Atypical facial pain: A condition characterized by chronic, non-throbbing pain in the face that is not caused by a specific underlying condition. Treatment for facial pain depends on the underlying cause and can include medications, physical therapy, nerve blocks, and surgery. It is important to seek medical attention if you are experiencing facial pain, as it can be a sign of a more serious underlying condition.
Peptic Ulcer Perforation (PUP) is a medical emergency that occurs when a peptic ulcer in the stomach or duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) perforates, or breaks through, the wall of the stomach or duodenum. This can cause a leak of digestive juices and contents into the abdominal cavity, leading to a severe infection and potentially life-threatening complications. PUP is a complication of peptic ulcers, which are ulcers that form in the lining of the stomach or duodenum due to chronic inflammation caused by the bacteria Helicobacter pylori or the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin and ibuprofen. Other risk factors for PUP include smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and stress. Symptoms of PUP may include severe abdominal pain, tenderness, nausea, vomiting, and fever. If left untreated, PUP can lead to sepsis, peritonitis (infection of the abdominal lining), and even death. Treatment for PUP typically involves emergency surgery to repair the perforation and remove any infected tissue. Antibiotics may also be prescribed to treat any bacterial infection. After surgery, patients may need to stay in the hospital for several days to recover and receive intravenous fluids and medications to manage pain and prevent infection.
Deamino Arginine Vasopressin (DAVP) is a synthetic hormone that is similar to the naturally occurring hormone vasopressin. Vasopressin is produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland in response to dehydration or low blood pressure. It acts on the kidneys to increase water reabsorption and on blood vessels to constrict, which helps to raise blood pressure. DAVP is used in the medical field to treat a variety of conditions, including diabetes insipidus, which is a condition in which the body is unable to produce enough vasopressin, and to control high blood pressure in people with certain heart conditions. It is also used to treat low blood pressure (hypotension) that occurs during surgery or other medical procedures. DAVP is typically administered by injection, either intravenously or subcutaneously (under the skin). It is important to note that DAVP can have side effects, including headache, dizziness, and increased heart rate. It should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.
Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid pain medication that is approximately 100 times more potent than morphine. It is used to treat severe pain, such as that caused by cancer or after surgery. Fentanyl is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, lozenges, patches, and injections. It is also sometimes used in combination with other medications, such as hydromorphone or oxycodone, to increase their effectiveness. Fentanyl can be highly addictive and can cause respiratory depression, which can be life-threatening. It is important to use fentanyl only under the guidance of a healthcare professional and to follow their instructions carefully.
Cyclohexanecarboxylic acids are a class of organic compounds that contain a six-membered ring of carbon atoms with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) attached to one of the carbon atoms. They are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as intermediates in the synthesis of various drugs and as starting materials for the preparation of other organic compounds. In the medical field, cyclohexanecarboxylic acids and their derivatives have been studied for their potential therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-cancer activities. However, more research is needed to fully understand their potential medical applications.
Reserpine is a natural alkaloid that was originally isolated from the plant Rauvolfia serpentina, also known as the Indian snakeroot. It is a potent antagonist of the sympathetic nervous system, which means it blocks the effects of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's "fight or flight" response. In the medical field, reserpine is primarily used as a medication to treat high blood pressure. It works by reducing the production of norepinephrine in the body, which can help lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke. Reserpine is also sometimes used to treat anxiety, depression, and other conditions that are thought to be related to imbalances in the sympathetic nervous system. Reserpine can cause a number of side effects, including dizziness, weakness, fatigue, and dry mouth. It can also cause more serious side effects, such as low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, and depression. As with any medication, it is important to talk to your doctor about the potential risks and benefits of taking reserpine, and to follow their instructions carefully.
In the medical field, isoindoles are a class of organic compounds that are derived from the parent compound indole. They are characterized by a six-membered aromatic ring with two nitrogen atoms and a double bond between them. Isoindoles have a variety of biological activities and are found in many natural products, including alkaloids, antibiotics, and other bioactive compounds. Some isoindoles have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, including as anti-inflammatory agents, anti-cancer agents, and as inhibitors of various enzymes and receptors. In addition to their biological activities, isoindoles have also been used as research tools to study the structure-activity relationships of various compounds and to develop new drugs and other chemical compounds.
Naproxen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It is commonly used to treat conditions such as arthritis, menstrual cramps, and headaches. Naproxen works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever. It is available in both over-the-counter and prescription forms, and can be taken orally or applied topically. Common side effects of naproxen include stomach pain, nausea, and dizziness. It is important to follow the recommended dosage and to speak with a healthcare provider if you experience any adverse effects while taking naproxen.
Potassium compounds are chemical compounds that contain potassium, which is an essential mineral for the proper functioning of the human body. In the medical field, potassium compounds are often used to treat potassium deficiencies or imbalances, which can occur due to a variety of factors such as malnutrition, diarrhea, or certain medications. Potassium compounds are available in various forms, including potassium chloride, potassium citrate, and potassium gluconate. These compounds can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the specific condition being treated and the severity of the potassium deficiency. In addition to treating potassium deficiencies, potassium compounds may also be used to manage certain medical conditions, such as hypertension, heart disease, and kidney disease. However, it is important to note that potassium compounds can have side effects and may interact with other medications, so they should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.
Diclofenac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that is commonly used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It works by blocking the production of prostaglandins, which are chemicals that cause pain, inflammation, and fever. Diclofenac is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, suppositories, creams, and injections. It is often prescribed for conditions such as arthritis, menstrual cramps, headaches, and toothaches. However, it can also be used for other conditions, such as gout, muscle pain, and back pain. While diclofenac is generally considered safe and effective, it can cause side effects, such as stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In rare cases, it can also cause more serious side effects, such as stomach ulcers, bleeding, and allergic reactions. Therefore, it is important to follow the instructions of your healthcare provider and to report any side effects immediately.
5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is a naturally occurring amino acid that is a precursor to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Serotonin plays a role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, and other bodily functions. In the medical field, 5-HTP is sometimes used as a dietary supplement to increase levels of serotonin in the brain. It is believed to be effective in treating conditions such as depression, anxiety, and insomnia. However, the use of 5-HTP as a supplement is not regulated by the FDA, and its safety and efficacy have not been extensively studied. 5-HTP is also used in the treatment of conditions such as fibromyalgia, restless leg syndrome, and migraine headaches. It is typically taken in pill form, and the recommended dosage varies depending on the condition being treated. As with any supplement, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider before taking 5-HTP to ensure that it is safe and appropriate for your individual needs.
Lidocaine is a local anesthetic medication that is commonly used to numb a specific area of the body during medical procedures or surgeries. It works by blocking the transmission of pain signals from the nerves to the brain. Lidocaine is available in various forms, including topical creams, gels, ointments, and injections. It is also used to treat certain types of abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrial fibrillation, and to relieve symptoms of neuropathy, a condition in which the nerves are damaged or diseased. Lidocaine is generally considered safe when used as directed, but it can cause side effects such as dizziness, nausea, and allergic reactions in some people.
Nerve compression syndromes are a group of conditions that occur when a nerve is compressed or pinched, leading to pain, numbness, weakness, or other symptoms. These conditions can affect any nerve in the body, but are most commonly seen in the neck, back, and extremities. There are several types of nerve compression syndromes, including carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, radial tunnel syndrome, tarsal tunnel syndrome, and sciatica. These conditions can be caused by a variety of factors, including repetitive motions, poor posture, injury, or underlying medical conditions such as arthritis or diabetes. Treatment for nerve compression syndromes typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the compression, such as through physical therapy, medication, or surgery. In some cases, lifestyle changes such as improving posture or modifying work habits may also be recommended to prevent further compression of the affected nerve.
Quinuclidinyl Benzilate is a chemical compound that is used as a chemical weapon. It is a nerve agent that works by blocking the transmission of nerve impulses, leading to muscle paralysis and respiratory failure. It is classified as a Schedule 1 substance under the Chemical Weapons Convention and is illegal to possess or use. In the medical field, it is not used for any therapeutic purpose and exposure to it can be extremely dangerous and potentially lethal.
Chitosan is a natural polysaccharide derived from chitin, which is a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans such as shrimp and crab. Chitosan has been used in various medical applications due to its unique properties, including its ability to absorb and retain water, its biocompatibility, and its ability to modulate immune responses. In the medical field, chitosan is used in a variety of ways, including as a wound dressing, a drug delivery system, and a biofilm inhibitor. As a wound dressing, chitosan can help to promote healing by providing a moist environment that promotes cell growth and reduces inflammation. As a drug delivery system, chitosan can be used to encapsulate drugs and release them slowly over time, improving their effectiveness and reducing side effects. As a biofilm inhibitor, chitosan can help to prevent the formation of bacterial biofilms, which can be difficult to treat and can lead to chronic infections. Chitosan has also been studied for its potential use in cancer therapy, as it has been shown to have anti-tumor properties and can help to enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapy drugs. Additionally, chitosan has been used in the development of medical devices, such as catheters and implants, due to its ability to reduce inflammation and promote tissue integration.
Ketamine is a medication that is primarily used as an anesthetic for surgical procedures and to treat severe pain. It is a synthetic drug that belongs to a class of medications called dissociative anesthetics, which work by altering the patient's perception of reality and creating a dissociative state. Ketamine is also sometimes used off-label for other medical conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and chronic pain. It is administered intravenously or intramuscularly and can produce a range of effects, including sedation, analgesia, and dissociation. While ketamine can be effective for certain medical conditions, it can also have side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hallucinations, and changes in blood pressure and heart rate. It is important for healthcare providers to carefully monitor patients who receive ketamine and to adjust the dosage as needed to minimize the risk of adverse effects.
In the medical field, amides are a class of organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom bonded to two carbon atoms. They are commonly used as drugs and are often referred to as "amide derivatives." One example of an amide derivative used in medicine is acetaminophen, which is commonly sold under the brand name Tylenol. It is used to relieve pain and reduce fever. Another example is aspirin, which is also an amide derivative and is used to relieve pain, reduce fever, and thin the blood. Amides can also be used as local anesthetics, such as lidocaine, which is used to numb the skin and nerves during medical procedures. They can also be used as muscle relaxants, such as succinylcholine, which is used to relax muscles during surgery. Overall, amides play an important role in medicine as they have a wide range of therapeutic applications and are often used to treat various medical conditions.
Pneumonia, aspiration is a type of pneumonia that occurs when bacteria, viruses, or other foreign substances are inhaled into the lungs and cause an infection. Aspiration pneumonia occurs when a person inhales food, liquid, or other substances into their lungs, which can lead to the growth of bacteria or other microorganisms in the lungs. This can cause inflammation and damage to the lung tissue, leading to symptoms such as coughing, fever, chest pain, and difficulty breathing. Aspiration pneumonia is more common in people who have difficulty swallowing or who have conditions that affect their ability to protect their airway, such as stroke or dementia. Treatment for aspiration pneumonia typically involves antibiotics to treat the infection and supportive care to help the person breathe more easily.
Inguinal hernia is a medical condition in which a part of an organ or tissue, such as the intestines or bladder, pushes through a weak spot in the abdominal wall and into the inguinal canal, which is a passage in the groin area. This can cause a bulge or swelling in the groin, which may be painful or uncomfortable. Inguinal hernias are more common in men than in women and are often caused by straining during bowel movements or lifting heavy objects. Treatment for inguinal hernias may include surgery to repair the weakened abdominal wall and prevent the hernia from recurring.
The Muscarinic M1 receptor is a type of protein receptor found in the cells of various organs and tissues in the body. It is a subtype of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor family, which is activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. The M1 receptor is primarily located in the central nervous system, where it plays a role in regulating various functions such as cognition, mood, and movement. It is also found in the heart, smooth muscle, and glands, where it regulates processes such as heart rate, muscle contraction, and glandular secretion. Activation of the M1 receptor can produce a range of effects, depending on the tissue and organ in which it is located. For example, activation of the M1 receptor in the heart can cause the heart to beat faster and stronger, while activation in the smooth muscle of the airways can cause bronchodilation, or widening of the airways. In the medical field, the M1 receptor is an important target for the development of drugs used to treat a variety of conditions, including asthma, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.
Tramadol is a centrally acting synthetic opioid analgesic medication used to treat moderate to severe pain. It is a Schedule IV controlled substance in the United States, meaning it has a low potential for abuse and dependence compared to other opioids. Tramadol works by binding to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which reduces the perception of pain and increases pain tolerance. It is often prescribed for conditions such as chronic pain, postoperative pain, and pain associated with cancer. Tramadol can also cause side effects such as nausea, dizziness, constipation, and respiratory depression, and it should be used with caution in patients with liver or kidney disease, respiratory problems, or a history of substance abuse.
Acetic acid is a weak organic acid that is commonly used in the medical field for various purposes. It is a colorless liquid with a characteristic sour smell and is the main component of vinegar. In the medical field, acetic acid is used as a disinfectant and antiseptic. It is effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It is commonly used to clean and disinfect medical equipment, such as scalpels, needles, and syringes, to prevent the spread of infection. Acetic acid is also used in the treatment of certain medical conditions. For example, it is used in the treatment of warts and other skin growths. It is applied topically to the affected area and can cause the wart to peel off over time. In addition, acetic acid is used in the production of certain medications, such as aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It is also used in the production of some types of plastics and other industrial products. Overall, acetic acid is a versatile compound with many uses in the medical field, including as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and medication ingredient.
Nausea is a common sensation of uneasiness or discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It can be a symptom of various medical conditions, including gastrointestinal disorders, infections, pregnancy, and certain medications. In the medical field, nausea is often evaluated and treated by a healthcare provider to determine the underlying cause and provide appropriate treatment.
In the medical field, poisoning refers to the harmful effects that occur when a person is exposed to a toxic substance, either intentionally or unintentionally. Poisoning can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact with a toxic substance. The effects of poisoning can vary widely depending on the type and amount of the toxic substance, as well as the individual's age, health status, and other factors. Symptoms of poisoning can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, headache, dizziness, confusion, seizures, and even coma or death in severe cases. Treatment for poisoning depends on the type and severity of the exposure. In some cases, supportive care such as fluid replacement, oxygen therapy, or medication to manage symptoms may be necessary. In more severe cases, hospitalization and specialized treatment may be required. Prevention of poisoning is the best approach, and this can involve measures such as proper storage and labeling of toxic substances, avoiding exposure to hazardous materials, and educating individuals about the risks associated with certain substances.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter, a chemical messenger that transmits signals between nerve cells in the brain and throughout the body. It plays a crucial role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, and other bodily functions. In the medical field, serotonin is often studied in relation to mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Low levels of serotonin have been linked to these conditions, and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are often prescribed to increase serotonin levels in the brain and improve symptoms. Serotonin is also involved in the regulation of pain perception, blood pressure, and other bodily functions. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been implicated in a variety of medical conditions, including migraines, fibromyalgia, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
In the medical field, amines are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom bonded to one or more carbon atoms. They are often used as drugs, either as medications or as intermediates in the synthesis of other drugs. Amines can be classified into several categories based on their chemical structure and properties. Some common types of amines include primary amines, secondary amines, and tertiary amines. Primary amines have one nitrogen atom bonded to one hydrogen atom and two carbon atoms. Examples of primary amines include histamine, which is involved in allergic reactions, and dopamine, which plays a role in the regulation of movement and mood. Secondary amines have one nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom. Examples of secondary amines include epinephrine, which is used to treat severe allergic reactions and asthma, and norepinephrine, which is involved in the regulation of blood pressure and heart rate. Tertiary amines have one nitrogen atom bonded to three carbon atoms. Examples of tertiary amines include trimethoprim, which is used to treat bacterial infections, and procainamide, which is used to treat certain types of heart arrhythmias. Amines can also be classified based on their physical properties, such as their solubility in water and their ability to form salts with acids. Some amines are water-soluble and can be used as electrolytes in intravenous solutions, while others are insoluble and are used as local anesthetics.
In the medical field, "Disease Models, Animal" refers to the use of animals to study and understand human diseases. These models are created by introducing a disease or condition into an animal, either naturally or through experimental manipulation, in order to study its progression, symptoms, and potential treatments. Animal models are used in medical research because they allow scientists to study diseases in a controlled environment and to test potential treatments before they are tested in humans. They can also provide insights into the underlying mechanisms of a disease and help to identify new therapeutic targets. There are many different types of animal models used in medical research, including mice, rats, rabbits, dogs, and monkeys. Each type of animal has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of model depends on the specific disease being studied and the research question being addressed.
Piperidines are a class of organic compounds that contain a six-membered ring with nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 4. They are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry as a building block for the synthesis of a wide range of drugs, including analgesics, anti-inflammatory agents, and antihistamines. Piperidines are also found in natural products, such as alkaloids, and have been used in traditional medicine for their various therapeutic effects. In the medical field, piperidines are often used as a starting point for the development of new drugs, as they can be easily modified to produce a wide range of pharmacological activities.
Propofol is a medication that is commonly used in the medical field for anesthesia. It is a short-acting sedative-hypnotic drug that is administered intravenously to induce and maintain general anesthesia. Propofol works by binding to specific receptors in the brain, which leads to a loss of consciousness and muscle relaxation. It is often used in combination with other anesthetic drugs and is also used to manage pain and anxiety in intensive care units and during medical procedures. Propofol is a powerful drug and can cause serious side effects if not administered properly, so it is typically only used by trained medical professionals in a controlled setting.
Midazolam is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called benzodiazepines. It is primarily used as a sedative, anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), and muscle relaxant. It is also used to treat seizures, including those that occur as part of a procedure to control bleeding in the brain. Midazolam is available in both oral and injectable forms, and it can be given as a single dose or as part of a continuous infusion. It works by enhancing the effects of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which helps to calm the brain and reduce anxiety and muscle tension. Midazolam is commonly used in medical settings for a variety of procedures, including dental procedures, endoscopy, and surgery. It is also used to treat agitation and aggression in people with certain mental health conditions, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. However, midazolam can be habit-forming and can cause side effects, including drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, and memory impairment. It can also cause respiratory depression, which can be life-threatening if not properly monitored. Therefore, it is typically only used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.
Receptors, Adrenergic, alpha-2 are a type of protein found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to and respond to a class of hormones called catecholamines, including adrenaline and noradrenaline. These receptors are part of the body's autonomic nervous system and play a role in regulating a variety of physiological processes, including blood pressure, heart rate, and inflammation. Activation of alpha-2 receptors can cause a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure, as well as a decrease in inflammation and pain. They are found in many different tissues throughout the body, including the brain, heart, and blood vessels.
Morphine dependence is a condition in which a person becomes physically and/or psychologically dependent on the opioid pain medication morphine. This means that the person requires increasing amounts of the drug to achieve the same level of pain relief, and may experience withdrawal symptoms when the drug is stopped or reduced. Symptoms of morphine withdrawal can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle aches, and anxiety. Treatment for morphine dependence typically involves a combination of medication-assisted therapy and behavioral therapy to help the person manage their withdrawal symptoms and learn new coping strategies to avoid relapse.
Hypercapnia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally high level of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood. The normal range of CO2 levels in the blood is between 35 and 45 millimeters of mercury (mmHg), but in hypercapnia, the level can be much higher, typically above 45 mmHg. Hypercapnia can occur due to various medical conditions, including respiratory disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung infections, and sleep apnea. It can also occur due to metabolic disorders such as lactic acidosis, kidney failure, and some types of cancer. Symptoms of hypercapnia can include shortness of breath, confusion, headache, dizziness, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness. Treatment for hypercapnia depends on the underlying cause and may include oxygen therapy, respiratory support, and medications to reduce CO2 levels in the blood.
Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease that occurs when the cartilage that cushions the ends of bones in a joint breaks down, leading to inflammation and pain. Over time, the bones may rub against each other, causing damage to the joint and reducing its range of motion. Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis and can affect any joint in the body, but it most commonly affects the knees, hips, spine, and hands. Risk factors for osteoarthritis include age, obesity, injury, and certain medical conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Treatment options for osteoarthritis may include medication, physical therapy, lifestyle changes, and in severe cases, joint replacement surgery.
In the medical field, carbon dioxide (CO2) is a gas that is produced as a byproduct of cellular respiration and is exhaled by the body. It is also used in medical applications such as carbon dioxide insufflation during colonoscopy and laparoscopic surgery, and as a component of medical gases used in anesthesia and respiratory therapy. High levels of CO2 in the blood (hypercapnia) can be a sign of respiratory or metabolic disorders, while low levels (hypocapnia) can be caused by respiratory failure or metabolic alkalosis.
Receptors, Opioid are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to opioid drugs, such as morphine, heroin, and oxycodone. These receptors are part of the body's natural pain-relieving system and are involved in regulating pain, mood, and reward. When opioid drugs bind to these receptors, they can produce a range of effects, including pain relief, sedation, and euphoria. However, long-term use of opioid drugs can lead to dependence and addiction, as the body becomes accustomed to the presence of the drug and requires more of it to achieve the same effect.
Substance Withdrawal Syndrome is a group of physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a substance that they have been dependent on. These symptoms can be severe and can cause significant distress and discomfort. Substance withdrawal syndrome can occur when a person stops using alcohol, opioids, benzodiazepines, stimulants, or other addictive substances. The symptoms of substance withdrawal syndrome can vary depending on the substance that was being used and the length and severity of the addiction. Treatment for substance withdrawal syndrome typically involves medical supervision and the use of medications to manage the symptoms and prevent complications.
Intraoperative complications refer to any unexpected events or problems that occur during a surgical procedure. These complications can range from minor issues, such as bleeding or infection, to more serious problems, such as organ damage or death. Intraoperative complications can be caused by a variety of factors, including surgical errors, anesthesia errors, or underlying medical conditions of the patient. It is important for surgeons and other medical professionals to be aware of the potential for intraoperative complications and to take steps to prevent them whenever possible. If a complication does occur, it is important to address it promptly and appropriately to minimize the risk of further harm to the patient.
A stomach ulcer is a sore or open wound in the lining of the stomach or duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is caused by a combination of factors, including the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, excessive production of stomach acid, and the use of certain medications, such as aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Stomach ulcers can cause a range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. In some cases, ulcers can lead to more serious complications, such as bleeding, perforation, and the formation of a stomach abscess. Treatment for stomach ulcers typically involves a combination of medications, such as antibiotics to kill H. pylori bacteria, acid-suppressing drugs to reduce stomach acid production, and pain relievers. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair a perforated ulcer or remove a large abscess.
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in the central nervous system. It is a non-protein amino acid that is synthesized from glutamate in the brain and spinal cord. GABA acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning that it reduces the activity of neurons and helps to calm and relax the brain. In the medical field, GABA is often used as a treatment for anxiety disorders, insomnia, and epilepsy. It is available as a dietary supplement and can also be prescribed by a doctor in the form of medication. GABA supplements are believed to help reduce feelings of anxiety and promote relaxation by increasing the levels of GABA in the brain. However, more research is needed to fully understand the effects of GABA on the human body and to determine the most effective ways to use it as a treatment.
Chloride channels are ion channels that selectively allow chloride ions to pass through cell membranes. They play a crucial role in regulating the movement of chloride ions across cell membranes, which is important for many physiological processes, including the regulation of fluid balance, the transmission of nerve impulses, and the secretion and absorption of fluids in various organs and tissues. There are several types of chloride channels, including cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channels, which are involved in the regulation of fluid balance in the lungs and other organs, and volume-regulated chloride channels, which are involved in the regulation of cell volume and the movement of fluids across cell membranes. Disruptions in the function of chloride channels can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene that affect the function of CFTR channels in the lungs and other organs. Other conditions that may be associated with disruptions in chloride channel function include epilepsy, ataxia, and certain types of hearing loss.
Receptors, Muscarinic are a type of cell surface receptors that are activated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. They are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, lungs, digestive system, and central nervous system. There are five subtypes of muscarinic receptors, designated M1 through M5, each with different properties and functions. Activation of muscarinic receptors can produce a wide range of effects, including contraction of smooth muscle, stimulation of glandular secretion, and modulation of neurotransmitter release. In the medical field, muscarinic receptors are important targets for the treatment of various conditions, including asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and certain types of heart disease. Drugs that interact with muscarinic receptors are often referred to as muscarinic agonists or antagonists, depending on whether they stimulate or block the activity of the receptors.
Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and hormone that plays a crucial role in the body's "fight or flight" response. It is produced by the adrenal glands and is also found in certain neurons in the brain and spinal cord. In the medical field, norepinephrine is often used as a medication to treat low blood pressure, shock, and heart failure. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to raise blood pressure and improve blood flow to vital organs. Norepinephrine is also used to treat certain types of depression, as it can help to increase feelings of alertness and energy. However, it is important to note that norepinephrine can have side effects, including rapid heartbeat, high blood pressure, and anxiety, and should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional.
Substance-related disorders are a group of mental health conditions that are caused by the use of drugs or alcohol. These disorders can range from mild to severe and can have a significant impact on a person's life. Substance-related disorders are diagnosed when a person's use of drugs or alcohol causes problems in their daily life, such as problems at work or school, problems with relationships, or legal problems. Substance-related disorders can also lead to physical health problems, such as liver damage or heart disease. Treatment for substance-related disorders typically involves a combination of behavioral therapy and medication.
Sodium chloride, also known as table salt, is a chemical compound composed of sodium and chlorine ions. It is a white, odorless, and crystalline solid that is commonly used as a seasoning and preservative in food. In the medical field, sodium chloride is used as a medication to treat a variety of conditions, including dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and certain types of heart failure. It is also used as a contrast agent in diagnostic imaging procedures such as X-rays and CT scans. Sodium chloride is available in various forms, including oral solutions, intravenous solutions, and topical ointments. It is important to note that excessive consumption of sodium chloride can lead to high blood pressure and other health problems, so it is important to use it only as directed by a healthcare professional.
Indoles are a class of organic compounds that contain a six-membered aromatic ring with a nitrogen atom at one of the corners of the ring. They are commonly found in a variety of natural products, including some plants, bacteria, and fungi. In the medical field, indoles have been studied for their potential therapeutic effects, particularly in the treatment of cancer. Some indoles have been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-bacterial properties, and are being investigated as potential drugs for the treatment of various diseases.
Inflammation is a complex biological response of the body to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a protective mechanism that helps to eliminate the cause of injury, remove damaged tissue, and initiate the healing process. Inflammation involves the activation of immune cells, such as white blood cells, and the release of chemical mediators, such as cytokines and prostaglandins. This leads to the characteristic signs and symptoms of inflammation, including redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. Inflammation can be acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is a short-term response that lasts for a few days to a few weeks and is usually beneficial. Chronic inflammation, on the other hand, is a prolonged response that lasts for months or years and can be harmful if it persists. Chronic inflammation is associated with many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune disorders.
Tramadol
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Misuse of Drugs Act 1971
Serotonin syndrome
Osteoarthritis
Derealization
Robert Florence
Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
Frankie Boyle
Opioid-induced hyperalgesia
Hamilton's Pharmacopeia
List of investigational antidepressants
Adrenergic storm
Peripheral neuropathy
Axomadol
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Fibromyalgia
Antiarthritics
Postorgasmic illness syndrome
Pain management in children
Opioid
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Christopher Paul Hasson
Isakin Drabbad
Outcomes Research Consortium
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MESH TREE NUMBER CHANGES - 2008 MeSH
MESH TREE NUMBER CHANGES - 2008 MeSH
MESH TREE NUMBER CHANGES - 2008 MeSH
MESH TREE NUMBER CHANGES - 2008 MeSH
Opioids5
- As with other opioids, the expansion of worldwide availability of tramadol has resulted in an increase in abuse and diversion. (medscape.com)
- Tramadol was originally thought to have a lower risk of constipation, respiratory depression, overdose, and addiction compared with other opioids, but CYP metabolic polymorphisms that will be described later in this review contribute to interesting phenotypic differences in the analgesic and side effect profile. (medscape.com)
- The editorialists say that hypoglycemia adds to mounting concerns about tramadol - a weak opioid - that counter the widely held perception that it is a safer alternative to full opioids. (medscape.com)
- Noting that conventional full opioid agonists have risks that are more predictable than those of tramadol, they conclude: "If we replace conventional opioids with tramadol, as some guidelines have suggested, we may be left with more unintended consequences of the opioid epidemic to worry about. (medscape.com)
- From 2015 to 2016, the death rate of synthetic opioids other than methadone, which includes drugs such as tramadol and fentanyl, increased by 100 percent. (cdc.gov)
Codeine4
- In contrast, codeine and tramadol are prodrugs: codeine is metabolized into morphine, and the active metabolite of tramadol is O -desmethyltramadol (M1). (medscape.com)
- From the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink, the researchers identified 28,110 new users of tramadol and 305,924 patients newly prescribed codeine for noncancer pain between 1998 and 2012. (medscape.com)
- The 334,034 patients prescribed tramadol or codeine were matched to 11,019 controls. (medscape.com)
- Compared with codeine, tramadol use was associated with an increased risk for hospitalization for hypoglycemia, which was particularly elevated in the first 30 days of use. (medscape.com)
Serotonin4
- Abrupt cessation of tramadol increases the risk for both opioid and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor withdrawal syndromes. (medscape.com)
- Tramadol is a centrally acting synthetic opioid medication with monoaminergic actions similar to serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). (medscape.com)
- The risk factors for serious adverse effects of tramadol, including serotonin syndrome and decreased seizure threshold, will also be discussed. (medscape.com)
- Tramadol is a centrally acting analgesic with weak opioid agonist properties, which also has monoaminergic activity, exerted via inhibition of neuronal uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine . (bvsalud.org)
Centers1
- The importance of the CYP metabolism has led to the adoption of computer clinical decision support with pharmacogenomics tools guiding tramadol treatment in major medical centers. (medscape.com)
Morphine3
- This study aims to identify the prevalence of prescription errors of injectable solution morphine and tramadol solution of patients aged 60 years or more, hospitalized in the Adult Hospitalization Unit of the University Hospital (HU) Canoas. (bvsalud.org)
- We used 496 prescriptions containing the drugs morphine solution for injection and tramadol solution for injection. (bvsalud.org)
- Of the 496 prescriptions evaluated, 130 (26.21%) medication prescription errors were found, 49 errors involving morphine and 81 involving tramadol. (bvsalud.org)
Rats3
- The xerogenic potency and mechanism of action of tramadol inhibition of salivary secretion in rats. (bvsalud.org)
- The effects of intravenous administration (+/-)- tramadol were studied in rats on the flow of saliva in response to a peripheral cholinergic stimulus or to reflex activation involving the relay of impulses in the central nervous system . (bvsalud.org)
- They note that animal studies support a physiologic mechanism of such an adverse effect, reporting that tramadol directly reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis and enhances peripheral glucose utilization in diabetic rats. (medscape.com)
Potency1
- The opioid analgesic potency of a given dose of tramadol is influenced by an individual's CYP genetics, with poor metabolizers experiencing little conversion to the active M1 opioid metabolite and individuals with a high metabolic profile, or ultra-metabolizers, experiencing the greatest opioid analgesic effects. (medscape.com)
Pathways1
- Thus, tramadol exerts its principal xerogenic effect by activating inhibitory pathways in the central nervous system and has no anticholinergic effect on the salivary glands at dosages that may be clinically relevant. (bvsalud.org)
Mechanism1
- Currently it was examined by which principal mechanism tramadol induces oral dryness . (bvsalud.org)
Ultram1
- Did you use Tramadol like Ultram or Ultracet since your baby was born? (cdc.gov)
Pain8
- While taking tramadol, discuss with your health care provider your pain treatment goals, length of treatment, and other ways to manage your pain. (medlineplus.gov)
- Tramadol should never be used to treat pain in children younger than 12 years of age or to relieve pain after surgery to remove the tonsils and/or adenoids in children younger than 18 years of age. (medlineplus.gov)
- Tramadol is a unique analgesic medication, available in variety of formulations, with both monoaminergic reuptake inhibitory and opioid receptor agonist activity increasingly prescribed worldwide as an alternative for high-affinity opioid medication in the treatment of acute and chronic pain. (medscape.com)
- Tramadol has been well studied for the treatment of multiple types of chronic moderate to moderately severe pain conditions. (medscape.com)
- Two Cochrane meta-analyses evaluating tramadol concluded that it is efficacious in neuropathic pain [ 1 ] and pain related to osteoarthritis. (medscape.com)
- In addition to the treatment of pain, there is evidence to support the off-label use of tramadol as on-demand treatment for premature ejaculation (PE). (medscape.com)
- Tramadol, as well as a similar dual-action analgesic, tapentadol, produce analgesia by affecting the nociceptive process and boosting the central modulation of pain. (medscape.com)
- Use of tramadol for chronic pain or in the perioperative period requires an awareness of its unique pharmacology and special attention to the CYP450 polymorphism status, as well as an understanding of drug-drug interactions, to ensure adequate pain relief and avoidance of adverse drug effects. (medscape.com)
Perception1
- The increased prescribing of tramadol most likely reflects aggressive marketing coupled with the perception that it is a safe analgesic not prone to abuse. (medscape.com)
Treatment2
- Tramadol may cause serious or life-threatening breathing problems, especially during the first 24 to 72 hours of your treatment and any time your dose is increased. (medlineplus.gov)
- Starting treatment with the opioid analgesic tramadol is associated with an increased risk for hypoglycemia requiring hospitalization, a new study suggests. (medscape.com)
Risk3
- There is a greater risk that you will overuse tramadol if you have or have ever had any of these conditions. (medlineplus.gov)
- Tramadol should also not be used in used in children 12 to 18 years of age who are obese or who have a neuromuscular disease (disease that affects the nerves that control voluntary muscles), a lung disease, or obstructive sleep apnea (condition in which the airway becomes blocked or narrow and breathing stops for short periods during sleep) as these conditions may increase their risk of breathing problems. (medlineplus.gov)
- The researchers report that these analyses "associated tramadol use with a more than 3-fold increased risk of hospitalization for hypoglycemia. (medscape.com)
Increase1
- Furthermore, the tramadol -induced increase of the acetylcholine -evoked secretion occurred at a glandular level and depended most likely on a release of noradrenaline from glandular nerve terminals. (bvsalud.org)
Administration1
- The administration alpha- and beta-adrenoceptor antagonists resulted in almost identical acetylcholine -evoked responses as in the absence of tramadol . (bvsalud.org)
Oral1
- Tramadol was first developed in Germany in the late 1970s, and various formulations such as drops, sustained and extended-release preparations for oral use, suppositories for rectal use, and intramuscular, IV, and subcutaneous solutions have since been launched in more than 100 countries worldwide. (medscape.com)
Patients1
- Writers of an accompanying editorial note: "Because hypoglycemia can be life threatening, clinicians should remain vigilant for this potential complication of tramadol use, in patients taking the drug as directed, as well as those who abuse it. (medscape.com)
Found1
- The use of tramadol increased more than eight-fold during the study period, they found. (medscape.com)
Injectable solution1
- This study aims to identify the prevalence of prescription errors of injectable solution morphine and tramadol solution of patients aged 60 years or more, hospitalized in the Adult Hospitalization Unit of the University Hospital (HU) Canoas. (bvsalud.org)
Analgesic6
- Tramadol is a centrally acting synthetic opioid analgesic. (nih.gov)
- These mechanisms may contribute independently to the overall analgesic profile of tramadol. (nih.gov)
- Tramadol is an opioid analgesic used for the therapy of mild-to-moderate pain. (nih.gov)
- Tramadol produces dual-analgesic effects. (nih.gov)
- Tramadol is used worldwide and is included as an analgesic in the WHO guidelines for cancer pain relief. (nih.gov)
- Tramadol is a centrally acting analgesic with weak opioid agonist properties, which also has monoaminergic activity, exerted via inhibition of neuronal uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine . (bvsalud.org)
Analgesics2
Acute liver f1
- Tramadol overdose can cause acute liver failure. (nih.gov)
Plasma concentration2
- This study showed that a multiple-units SR formulation (capsule) produced smoother tramadol plasma concentration profiles than a single-unit SR formulation (tablet), whilst maintaining equivalent systemic drug availability. (medscape.com)
- The mean peak plasma concentration of racemic tramadol and M1 after administration of two tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablets occurs at approximately two and three hours, respectively, post-dose. (nih.gov)
Drugs1
- We used 496 prescriptions containing the drugs morphine solution for injection and tramadol solution for injection. (bvsalud.org)
Capsule1
- Cite this: Tramadol SR Formulations: Pharmacokinetic Comparison of a Multiple-Units Dose (Capsule) versus a Single-Unit Dose (Tablet) - Medscape - Jul 01, 2005. (medscape.com)
Tablets7
- These findings are consistent with in vitro dissolution profiles, as they show that capsules release tramadol in a more gradual manner than tablets. (medscape.com)
- Tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablets contains acetaminophen and tramadol HCl. (nih.gov)
- Each tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablets, USP intended for oral administration contains tramadol hydrochloride, 37.5 mg and acetaminophen, 325 mg. (nih.gov)
- Upon multiple oral dosing to steady state, however, the bioavailability of tramadol and metabolite M1 was lower for the combination tablets compared to tramadol administered alone. (nih.gov)
- Following single- or multiple-dose administration of tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablets, no significant change in acetaminophen pharmacokinetics was observed when compared to acetaminophen given alone. (nih.gov)
- The absolute bioavailability of tramadol from tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablets has not been determined. (nih.gov)
- Tramadol hydrochloride has a mean absolute bioavailability of approximately 75% following administration of a single 100 mg oral dose of tramadol hydrochloride tablets. (nih.gov)
Clinically2
- Pharmacologic doses of tramadol has not been associated with cases of clinically apparent drug induced liver disease. (nih.gov)
- Thus, tramadol exerts its principal xerogenic effect by activating inhibitory pathways in the central nervous system and has no anticholinergic effect on the salivary glands at dosages that may be clinically relevant. (bvsalud.org)
Absorption1
- Tramadol has a slower absorption and longer half-life when compared to acetaminophen. (nih.gov)
Tablet2
- The pharmacokinetics of plasma tramadol and acetaminophen following oral administration of one tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablet are shown in Table 1. (nih.gov)
- A single-dose pharmacokinetic study of tramadol hydrochloride and acetaminophen tablet in volunteers showed no drug interactions between tramadol and acetaminophen. (nih.gov)
Adverse1
- Tramadol is generally well tolerated and the most common adverse events are nausea , dizziness , drowsiness, sweating , vomiting and dry mouth . (bvsalud.org)
Children3
- When tramadol was used in children, serious and life-threatening breathing problems such as slow or difficulty breathing and deaths were reported. (medlineplus.gov)
- Tramadol should also not be used in used in children 12 to 18 years of age who are obese or who have a neuromuscular disease (disease that affects the nerves that control voluntary muscles), a lung disease, or obstructive sleep apnea (condition in which the airway becomes blocked or narrow and breathing stops for short periods during sleep) as these conditions may increase their risk of breathing problems. (medlineplus.gov)
- FDA is strengthening drug labels for codeine and tramadol to protect children and nursing babies. (nih.gov)
Release1
- Furthermore, the tramadol -induced increase of the acetylcholine -evoked secretion occurred at a glandular level and depended most likely on a release of noradrenaline from glandular nerve terminals. (bvsalud.org)
Forms1
- Tramadol is administered as a racemate and both the [-] and [+] forms of both tramadol and M1 are detected in the circulation. (nih.gov)
Greater1
- There is a greater risk that you will overuse tramadol if you have or have ever had any of these conditions. (medlineplus.gov)