Compounds with a core of 10 carbons generally formed via the mevalonate pathway from the combination of 3,3-dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate. They are cyclized and oxidized in a variety of ways. Due to the low molecular weight many of them exist in the form of essential oils (OILS, VOLATILE).
A somewhat heterogeneous class of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of alkyl or related groups (excluding methyl groups). EC 2.5.
Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes consisting of three isoprene units, forming a 15-carbon skeleton, which can be found in various plant essential oils and are known for their diverse chemical structures and biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties.
Beneficial microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) encapsulated in carrier material and applied to the environment for remediation and enhancement of agricultural productivity.
A plant genus in the family PINACEAE, order Pinales, class Pinopsida, division Coniferophyta. They are evergreen, pyramidal trees with whorled branches and thin, scaly bark. Each of the linear, spirally arranged leaves is jointed near the stem on a separate woody base.
A plant genus in the family PINACEAE, order Pinales, class Pinopsida, division Coniferophyta. Balm of Gilead is a common name more often referring to POPULUS and sometimes to COMMIPHORA.
Organic compounds that have a relatively high VAPOR PRESSURE at room temperature.
The only specie of the genus Ginkgo, family Ginkgoacea. It is the source of extracts of medicinal interest, especially Egb 761. Ginkgo may refer to the genus or species.
A genus of rubiaceous South American trees that yields the toxic CINCHONA ALKALOIDS from their bark; QUININE; QUINIDINE; chinconine, cinchonidine and others are used to treat MALARIA and CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIAS.
A phase transition from liquid state to gas state, which is affected by Raoult's law. It can be accomplished by fractional distillation.
Phosphoric or pyrophosphoric acid esters of polyisoprenoids.
BEETLES in the family Curculionidae and the largest family in the order COLEOPTERA. They have a markedly convex shape and many are considered pests.
Enzymes of the isomerase class that catalyze reactions in which a group can be regarded as eliminated from one part of a molecule, leaving a double bond, while remaining covalently attached to the molecule. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 5.5.
Oils which evaporate readily. The volatile oils occur in aromatic plants, to which they give odor and other characteristics. Most volatile oils consist of a mixture of two or more TERPENES or of a mixture of an eleoptene (the more volatile constituent of a volatile oil) with a stearopten (the more solid constituent). The synonym essential oils refers to the essence of a plant, as its perfume or scent, and not to its indispensability.
A product of hard secondary xylem composed of CELLULOSE, hemicellulose, and LIGNANS, that is under the bark of trees and shrubs. It is used in construction and as a source of CHARCOAL and many other products.
A plant genus of the family ASTERACEAE with strong-smelling foliage. It is a source of SANTONIN and other cytotoxic TERPENES.
DITERPENES with three LACTONES and a unique tert-butyl group, which are found in GINKGO plants along with BILOBALIDES.
Twenty-carbon compounds derived from MEVALONIC ACID or deoxyxylulose phosphate.
Six-carbon alicyclic hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds in the ring. The cyclohexadienes are not aromatic, in contrast to BENZOQUINONES which are sometimes called 2,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-diones.
A plant species of the genus OCIMUM, family LAMIACEAE. It is a condiment with carminative properties.
Changing an open-chain hydrocarbon to a closed ring. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Uptake of substances through the SKIN.
A colorless liquid extracted from oils of plants such as citronella, neroli, cyclamen, and tuberose. It is an intermediate step in the biological synthesis of cholesterol from mevalonic acid in vertebrates. It has a delicate odor and is used in perfumery. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
A clear, colorless, viscous organic solvent and diluent used in pharmaceutical preparations.
Common name for several daisy-like plants (MATRICARIA; TRIPLEUROSPERMUM; ANTHEMIS; CHAMAEMELUM) native to Europe and Western Asia, now naturalized in the United States and Australia.
A microanalytical technique combining mass spectrometry and gas chromatography for the qualitative as well as quantitative determinations of compounds.
A plant species of the genus ARTEMISIA, family ASTERACEAE. It is the source of the antimalarial artemisinin (ANTIMALARIALS).
A plant species of the family ACTINIDIACEAE, order Theales.
Enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of a carbon-carbon bond by means other than hydrolysis or oxidation. This subclass contains the DECARBOXYLASES, the ALDEHYDE-LYASES, and the OXO-ACID-LYASES. EC 4.1.
Cyclic esters of hydroxy carboxylic acids, containing a 1-oxacycloalkan-2-one structure. Large cyclic lactones of over a dozen atoms are MACROLIDES.
Flammable, amorphous, vegetable products of secretion or disintegration, usually formed in special cavities of plants. They are generally insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, ether, or volatile oils. They are fusible and have a conchoidal fracture. They are the oxidation or polymerization products of the terpenes, and are mixtures of aromatic acids and esters. Most are soft and sticky, but harden after exposure to cold. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed & Dorland, 28th ed)
Five-carbon saturated hydrocarbon group of the methane series. Include isomers and derivatives.
A plant genus of the family LILIACEAE. Members contain allergens, tuliposide A and tulipalin A.
Terpenes of five units of HEMITERPENES, formed from geranylfarnesyl pyrophosphate.
A plant genus of the family ROSACEAE. Members contain sanguiin.
Pentanoic acid, also known as valeric acid, is a carboxylic acid with a 5-carbon chain (C5H10O2), having a distinctive pungent and rancid odor, found in some animals' sweat, certain foods, and produced through wood fermentation.
The five-carbon building blocks of TERPENES that derive from MEVALONIC ACID or deoxyxylulose phosphate.
An enzyme that, in the pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis, catalyzes the condensation of isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallylpyrophosphate to yield pyrophosphate and geranylpyrophosphate. The enzyme then catalyzes the condensation of the latter compound with another molecule of isopentenyl pyrophosphate to yield pyrophosphate and farnesylpyrophosphate. EC 2.5.1.1.
A plant genus in the family ROSACEAE, order Rosales, subclass Rosidae. It is best known as a source of the edible fruit (apple) and is cultivated in temperate climates worldwide.
The above-ground plant without the roots.
Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.
A species of the Beta genus. Cultivars are used as a source of beets (root) or chard (leaves).
A group of alicyclic hydrocarbons with the general formula R-C5H9.
Concentrated pharmaceutical preparations of plants obtained by removing active constituents with a suitable solvent, which is evaporated away, and adjusting the residue to a prescribed standard.
A plant genus of the family SANTALACEAE which is the source of sandalwood oil.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons of the type Cn-H2n, indicated by the suffix -ene. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed, p408)
A four-carbon sugar that is found in algae, fungi, and lichens. It is twice as sweet as sucrose and can be used as a coronary vasodilator.
A plant genus of the family CUPRESSACEAE which should not be confused with other cedar and cypress trees of THUJA or CUPRESSUS genera.
Culture of an isolated organism free from any other associating or contaminating organisms.
A plant genus in the family PINACEAE, order Pinales, class Pinopsida, division Coniferophyta. They are evergreen trees mainly in temperate climates.
A chemical process for separating the components of a liquid mixture by boiling and collecting condensed vapors.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in plants.
Eighteen-carbon cyclopentyl polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID via an oxidative pathway analogous to the EICOSANOIDS in animals. Biosynthesis is inhibited by SALICYLATES. A key member, jasmonic acid of PLANTS, plays a similar role to ARACHIDONIC ACID in animals.
A plant genus of the family CUPRESSACEAE.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
Sets of enzymatic reactions occurring in organisms and that form biochemicals by making new covalent bonds.
Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)
Cell lines developed from disaggregated BALB/c mouse embryos. They are extremely sensitive to CONTACT INHIBITION, and highly susceptible to transformation by SV40 VIRUS and murine sarcoma virus (SARCOMA VIRUSES, MURINE).
'Ketones' are organic compounds with a specific structure, characterized by a carbonyl group (a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen atom) and two carbon atoms, formed as byproducts when the body breaks down fats for energy due to lack of glucose, often seen in diabetes and starvation states.
Six-carbon saturated hydrocarbon group of the methane series. Include isomers and derivatives. Various polyneuropathies are caused by hexane poisoning.
A group of 3-hydroxy-4-keto-FLAVONOIDS.
'Bicyclo compounds' in medicinal chemistry refer to organic molecules containing two fused rings, where each ring shares two common atoms, creating a topological structure that resembles two overlapping circles or bicycle tires.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms, forming the basis of classes such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons, which play a vital role in energy production and chemical synthesis.
An alcohol produced from mint oils or prepared synthetically.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid that contain two phosphate groups.
"Semicarbazones are compounds formed when semicarbazide reacts with an aldehyde or ketone, creating a bond that includes a hydrogen bond donor and acceptor, which can be useful in the identification and analysis of carbonyl groups in organic chemistry and medicinal research."
INSECTS of the order Coleoptera, containing over 350,000 species in 150 families. They possess hard bodies and their mouthparts are adapted for chewing.
The application of suitable drug dosage forms to the skin for either local or systemic effects.
The reproductive organs of plants.
Behavioral responses or sequences associated with eating including modes of feeding, rhythmic patterns of eating, and time intervals.
Any compound that contains a constituent sugar, in which the hydroxyl group attached to the first carbon is substituted by an alcoholic, phenolic, or other group. They are named specifically for the sugar contained, such as glucoside (glucose), pentoside (pentose), fructoside (fructose), etc. Upon hydrolysis, a sugar and nonsugar component (aglycone) are formed. (From Dorland, 28th ed; From Miall's Dictionary of Chemistry, 5th ed)
Oils derived from plants or plant products.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The facilitation of biochemical reactions with the aid of naturally occurring catalysts such as ENZYMES.
Alkyl compounds containing a hydroxyl group. They are classified according to relation of the carbon atom: primary alcohols, R-CH2OH; secondary alcohols, R2-CHOH; tertiary alcohols, R3-COH. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The selection of one food over another.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A class of enzymes that catalyze geometric or structural changes within a molecule to form a single product. The reactions do not involve a net change in the concentrations of compounds other than the substrate and the product.(from Dorland, 28th ed) EC 5.
Fractionation of a vaporized sample as a consequence of partition between a mobile gaseous phase and a stationary phase held in a column. Two types are gas-solid chromatography, where the fixed phase is a solid, and gas-liquid, in which the stationary phase is a nonvolatile liquid supported on an inert solid matrix.
Mevalonic acid is a crucial intermediate compound in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, which is a metabolic route that produces cholesterol, other steroids, and isoprenoids in cells.
Methodologies used for the isolation, identification, detection, and quantitation of chemical substances.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
A set of genes descended by duplication and variation from some ancestral gene. Such genes may be clustered together on the same chromosome or dispersed on different chromosomes. Examples of multigene families include those that encode the hemoglobins, immunoglobulins, histocompatibility antigens, actins, tubulins, keratins, collagens, heat shock proteins, salivary glue proteins, chorion proteins, cuticle proteins, yolk proteins, and phaseolins, as well as histones, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA genes. The latter three are examples of reiterated genes, where hundreds of identical genes are present in a tandem array. (King & Stanfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Triterpenes are a class of naturally occurring compounds consisting of six isoprene units arranged to form a 30-carbon skeleton, often found in plants and some animals, with various bioactivities including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and cytotoxic properties.
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
The fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a plant, enclosing the seed or seeds.
The volatile portions of substances perceptible by the sense of smell. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches.
The phenomenon whereby compounds whose molecules have the same number and kind of atoms and the same atomic arrangement, but differ in their spatial relationships. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Complex pharmaceutical substances, preparations, or matter derived from organisms usually obtained by biological methods or assay.
The unstable triatomic form of oxygen, O3. It is a powerful oxidant that is produced for various chemical and industrial uses. Its production is also catalyzed in the ATMOSPHERE by ULTRAVIOLET RAY irradiation of oxygen or other ozone precursors such as VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS and NITROGEN OXIDES. About 90% of the ozone in the atmosphere exists in the stratosphere (STRATOSPHERIC OZONE).
A plant species of the family FABACEAE widely cultivated for ANIMAL FEED.
Transferases are enzymes transferring a group, for example, the methyl group or a glycosyl group, from one compound (generally regarded as donor) to another compound (generally regarded as acceptor). The classification is based on the scheme "donor:acceptor group transferase". (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.
An analytical method used in determining the identity of a chemical based on its mass using mass analyzers/mass spectrometers.
Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. PLASTID GENOMES are used in phylogenetic studies.
A group of enzymes within the class EC 3.6.1.- that catalyze the hydrolysis of diphosphate bonds, chiefly in nucleoside di- and triphosphates. They may liberate either a mono- or diphosphate. EC 3.6.1.-.
A phylum of fungi which have cross-walls or septa in the mycelium. The perfect state is characterized by the formation of a saclike cell (ascus) containing ascospores. Most pathogenic fungi with a known perfect state belong to this phylum.
The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
Chromatography on thin layers of adsorbents rather than in columns. The adsorbent can be alumina, silica gel, silicates, charcoals, or cellulose. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Mutant strains of mice that produce little or no hair.
The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
The functional hereditary units of PLANTS.
A plant species of the family POACEAE. It is a tall grass grown for its EDIBLE GRAIN, corn, used as food and animal FODDER.
The facilitation of a chemical reaction by material (catalyst) that is not consumed by the reaction.
Chemistry dealing with the composition and preparation of agents having PHARMACOLOGIC ACTIONS or diagnostic use.
A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live parasitically as saprobes, including MUSHROOMS; YEASTS; smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi, commonly known as molds, refer to those that grow as multicellular colonies.
Derivatives of ACETIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxymethane structure.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.
The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A plant genus of the family POACEAE. The EDIBLE GRAIN, barley, is widely used as food.
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
Diseases of plants.
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in enzyme synthesis.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of kingdom Plantae (sensu lato), comprising the VIRIDIPLANTAE; RHODOPHYTA; and GLAUCOPHYTA; all of which acquired chloroplasts by direct endosymbiosis of CYANOBACTERIA. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (MERISTEMS); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absence of nervous and sensory systems; and an alternation of haploid and diploid generations.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
A plant genus of the family SOLANACEAE. Members contain NICOTINE and other biologically active chemicals; its dried leaves are used for SMOKING.
A class of compounds composed of repeating 5-carbon units of HEMITERPENES.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A superfamily of hundreds of closely related HEMEPROTEINS found throughout the phylogenetic spectrum, from animals, plants, fungi, to bacteria. They include numerous complex monooxygenases (MIXED FUNCTION OXYGENASES). In animals, these P-450 enzymes serve two major functions: (1) biosynthesis of steroids, fatty acids, and bile acids; (2) metabolism of endogenous and a wide variety of exogenous substrates, such as toxins and drugs (BIOTRANSFORMATION). They are classified, according to their sequence similarities rather than functions, into CYP gene families (>40% homology) and subfamilies (>59% homology). For example, enzymes from the CYP1, CYP2, and CYP3 gene families are responsible for most drug metabolism.
The region of an enzyme that interacts with its substrate to cause the enzymatic reaction.
The level of protein structure in which regular hydrogen-bond interactions within contiguous stretches of polypeptide chain give rise to alpha helices, beta strands (which align to form beta sheets) or other types of coils. This is the first folding level of protein conformation.
A genus of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. Most species are free-living in soil and water, but the major habitat for some is the diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of chemical processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
The first stomach of ruminants. It lies on the left side of the body, occupying the whole of the left side of the abdomen and even stretching across the median plane of the body to the right side. It is capacious, divided into an upper and a lower sac, each of which has a blind sac at its posterior extremity. The rumen is lined by mucous membrane containing no digestive glands, but mucus-secreting glands are present in large numbers. Coarse, partially chewed food is stored and churned in the rumen until the animal finds circumstances convenient for rumination. When this occurs, little balls of food are regurgitated through the esophagus into the mouth, and are subjected to a second more thorough mastication, swallowed, and passed on into other parts of the compound stomach. (From Black's Veterinary Dictionary, 17th ed)
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
A sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is similar across multiple species. A known set of conserved sequences is represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE. AMINO ACID MOTIFS are often composed of conserved sequences.
Foodstuff used especially for domestic and laboratory animals, or livestock.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
Intracellular fluid from the cytoplasm after removal of ORGANELLES and other insoluble cytoplasmic components.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.

Retinal stimulates ATP hydrolysis by purified and reconstituted ABCR, the photoreceptor-specific ATP-binding cassette transporter responsible for Stargardt disease. (1/2230)

Many substrates for P-glycoprotein, an ABC transporter that mediates multidrug resistance in mammalian cells, have been shown to stimulate its ATPase activity in vitro. In the present study, we used this property as a criterion to search for natural and artificial substrates and/or allosteric regulators of ABCR, the rod photoreceptor-specific ABC transporter responsible for Stargardt disease, an early onset macular degeneration. ABCR was immunoaffinity purified to apparent homogeneity from bovine rod outer segments and reconstituted into liposomes. All-trans-retinal, a candidate ligand, stimulates the ATPase activity of ABCR 3-4-fold, with a half-maximal effect at 10-15 microM. 11-cis- and 13-cis-retinal show similar activity. All-trans-retinal stimulates the ATPase activity of ABCR with Michaelis-Menten behavior indicative of simple noncooperative binding that is associated with a rate-limiting enzyme-substrate intermediate in the pathway of ATP hydrolysis. Among 37 structurally diverse non-retinoid compounds, including nine previously characterized substrates or sensitizers of P-glycoprotein, only four show significant ATPase stimulation when tested at 20 microM. The dose-response curves of these four compounds are indicative of multiple binding sites and/or modes of interaction with ABCR. Two of these compounds, amiodarone and digitonin, can act synergistically with all-trans-retinal, implying that they interact with a site or sites on ABCR different from the one with which all-trans-retinal interacts. Unlike retinal, amiodarone appears to interact with both free and ATP-bound ABCR. Together with clinical observations on Stargardt disease and the localization of ABCR to rod outer segment disc membranes, these data suggest that retinoids, and most likely retinal, are the natural substrates for transport by ABCR in rod outer segments. These observations have significant implications for understanding the visual cycle and the pathogenesis of Stargardt disease and for the identification of compounds that could modify the natural history of Stargardt disease or other retinopathies associated with impaired ABCR function.  (+info)

Prevention and therapy of cancer by dietary monoterpenes. (2/2230)

Monoterpenes are nonnutritive dietary components found in the essential oils of citrus fruits and other plants. A number of these dietary monoterpenes have antitumor activity. For example, d-limonene, which comprises >90% of orange peel oil, has chemopreventive activity against rodent mammary, skin, liver, lung and forestomach cancers. Similarly, other dietary monoterpenes have chemopreventive activity against rat mammary, lung and forestomach cancers when fed during the initiation phase. In addition, perillyl alcohol has promotion phase chemopreventive activity against rat liver cancer, and geraniol has in vivo antitumor activity against murine leukemia cells. Perillyl alcohol and d-limonene also have chemotherapeutic activity against rodent mammary and pancreatic tumors. As a result, their cancer chemotherapeutic activities are under evaluation in Phase I clinical trials. Several mechanisms of action may account for the antitumor activities of monoterpenes. The blocking chemopreventive effects of limonene and other monoterpenes during the initiation phase of mammary carcinogenesis are likely due to the induction of Phase II carcinogen-metabolizing enzymes, resulting in carcinogen detoxification. The post-initiation phase, tumor suppressive chemopreventive activity of monoterpenes may be due to the induction of apoptosis and/or to inhibition of the post-translational isoprenylation of cell growth-regulating proteins. Chemotherapy of chemically induced mammary tumors with monoterpenes results in tumor redifferentiation concomitant with increased expression of the mannose-6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor and transforming growth factor beta1. Thus, monoterpenes would appear to act through multiple mechanisms in the chemoprevention and chemotherapy of cancer.  (+info)

Role of metabolic activation in the pathogenesis of chemically induced pulmonary disease: mechanism of action of the lung-toxic furan, 4-ipomeanol. (3/2230)

Many xenobiotics produce hepatic injury due to their metabolism in the liver to highly reactive electrophile intermediates which form covalent conjugates with nucleophilic cellular constituents. This presentation describes studies indicating that the production of chemically reactive metabolites by pulmonary metabolism of xenobiotics can also play a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of chemically induced lung disease.  (+info)

Disparate T cell requirements of two subsets of lupus-specific autoantibodies in pristane-treated mice. (4/2230)

Intraperitoneal injection of pristane induces a lupus-like disease in BALB/c and other non-autoimmune mice characterized by autoantibody production and the development of immune complex disease closely resembling lupus nephritis. Two subsets of autoantibodies are induced by pristane: IgG anti-DNA DNA and -chromatin autoantibodies are strongly IL-6-dependent, whereas IgG anti-nRNP/Sm and -Su antibodies are not. The present studies were carried out to examine the role of T cells in establishing this dichotomy between the production of anti-nRNP/Sm/Su versus anti-DNA/chromatin autoantibodies. Autoantibody production and renal disease were evaluated in athymic (nude) mice treated with pristane. BALB/c nu/nu mice spontaneously developed IgM and IgG anti-single-stranded (ss)DNA and -chromatin, but not anti-nRNP/Sm or -Su, autoantibodies. Pristane treatment increased the levels of IgG anti-chromatin antibodies in nu/nu mice, but did not induce production of anti-nRNP/Sm or -Su antibodies. In contrast, BALB/c nu/+ and +/+ control mice did not spontaneously produce autoantibodies, whereas anti-nRNP/Sm and -Su autoantibodies were induced by pristane in approx. 50% of nu/+ and +/+ mice and anti-DNA/chromatin antibodies at lower frequencies. Nude mice spontaneously developed mild renal lesions that were marginally affected by pristane, but were generally milder than the lesions developing in pristane-treated nu/+ and +/+ mice. The data provide further evidence that two distinct pathways with different cytokine and T cell requirements are involved in autoantibody formation in pristane-induced lupus. This dichotomy may be relevant to understanding differences in the regulation of anti-DNA versus anti-nRNP/Sm autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus, as well as the association of anti-DNA, but not anti-nRNP/Sm, with lupus nephritis.  (+info)

Apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest in human and murine tumor cells are initiated by isoprenoids. (5/2230)

Diverse classes of phytochemicals initiate biological responses that effectively lower cancer risk. One class of phytochemicals, broadly defined as pure and mixed isoprenoids, encompasses an estimated 22,000 individual components. A representative mixed isoprenoid, gamma-tocotrienol, suppresses the growth of murine B16(F10) melanoma cells, and with greater potency, the growth of human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) and human leukemic (HL-60) cells. beta-Ionone, a pure isoprenoid, suppresses the growth of B16 cells and with greater potency, the growth of MCF-7, HL-60 and human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells. Results obtained with diverse cell lines differing in ras and p53 status showed that the isoprenoid-mediated suppression of growth is independent of mutated ras and p53 functions. beta-Ionone suppressed the growth of human colon fibroblasts (CCD-18Co) but only when present at three-fold the concentration required to suppress the growth of Caco-2 cells. The isoprenoids initiated apoptosis and, concomitantly arrested cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Both suppress 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase activity. beta-Ionone and lovastatin interfered with the posttranslational processing of lamin B, an activity essential to assembly of daughter nuclei. This interference, we postulate, renders neosynthesized DNA available to the endonuclease activities leading to apoptotic cell death. Lovastatin-imposed mevalonate starvation suppressed the glycosylation and translocation of growth factor receptors to the cell surface. As a consequence, cells were arrested in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. This rationale may apply to the isoprenoid-mediated G1-phase arrest of tumor cells. The additive and potentially synergistic actions of these isoprenoids in the suppression of tumor cell proliferation and initiation of apoptosis coupled with the mass action of the diverse isoprenoid constituents of plant products may explain, in part, the impact of fruit, vegetable and grain consumption on cancer risk.  (+info)

Activation of the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway and induction of cytostasis and apoptosis in mammary carcinomas treated with the anticancer agent perillyl alcohol. (6/2230)

The mechanisms of action of the anticancer agent perillyl alcohol (POH), presently in Phase II clinical trials, were investigated in advanced rat mammary carcinomas. Gross and ultrastructural morphology of POH-mediated tumor regression indicated that apoptosis accounted for the marked reduction in the epithelial compartment. Characterization of cell growth and death indices revealed that apoptosis was induced within 48 h of chemotherapy, before the induction of cytostasis. RNA expression studies, based on a multiplexed-nuclease protection assay, demonstrated that cell cycle- and apoptosis-related genes were differentially expressed within 48 h of POH treatment; p21(Cip1/WAF1), bax, bad, and annexin I were induced; cyclin E and cyclin-dependent kinase 2 were repressed; and bcl-2 and p53 were unchanged. Next, a potential role for transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) signaling in POH-mediated carcinoma regression was explored. RNA expression studies, again based on a multiplexed-nuclease protection assay, showed that TGF-beta-related genes were induced and temporally regulated during POH treatment: (a) c-jun and c-fos were transiently induced within 12 h of chemotherapy; (b) TGF-beta1 was induced within 24 h of chemotherapy; (c) the mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor and the TGF-beta type I and II receptors were induced within 48 h of chemotherapy; and (d) smad3 was induced during active carcinoma regression. In situ protein expression studies, based on fluorescence-immunohistochemistry in concert with confocal microscopy, confirmed up-regulation and demonstrated colocalization of TGF-beta1, the mannose 6-phosphate/insulin-like growth factor II receptor, the TGF-beta type I and II receptors, and Smad2/Smad3 in epithelial cells. Nuclear localization of Smad2/Smad3 indicated that the TGF-beta signaling pathway was activated in regressing carcinomas. Subpopulations of Smad2/Smad3-positive and apoptotic nuclei colocalized, indicating a role for Smads in apoptosis. Thus, Smads may serve as a potential biomarker for anticancer activity. Importantly, none of the POH-mediated anticancer activities were observed in normal mammary gland.  (+info)

Stimulation of pregnant rat uterine contraction by the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixture aroclor 1242 may be mediated by arachidonic acid release through activation of phospholipase A2 enzymes. (7/2230)

The polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixture Aroclor 1242 (A1242) increases frequency of contractions of pregnant rat uteri, suggesting a possible mechanism for decreased gestational age and increased spontaneous abortion in women and animals exposed to PCBs. In the present study, we hypothesized that A1242-induced stimulation of uterine contraction is mediated by arachidonic acid released by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes. Isometric uterine contraction was measured in longitudinal uterine strips isolated from gestation day 10 rat. Pretreatment of uterine strips with the PLA2 inhibitor (E)-6-(bromomethylene)tetrahydro-3-(1-naphthalenyl)-2H-pyran-2-one (HELSS) or manoalide, or an inhibitor of the G protein of PLA2, isotetrandrine, completely prevented the increase of contractile frequency induced by 50 microM A1242. However, the phospholipase C inhibitors 2-nitro-4-carboxyphenyl-N,N-diphenylcarbamate (NCDC) and neomycin were unable to block stimulation of uterine contraction by A1242. In accordance, A1242 (100 microM) did not release inositol phosphates from myo-[3H]inositol-labeled myometrial cells, whereas myometrial cells prelabeled with [3H]arachidonic acid released arachidonic acid in a concentration- and time-dependent manner after exposure to A1242 (10-100 microM). A1242 significantly stimulated arachidonic acid release in the absence of extracellular calcium, although the release was attenuated. Analysis of the eicosanoids released by A1242 indicated that only 0.83% of released [3H]arachidonic acid was metabolized to eicosanoids and 99.07% remained as free arachidonate. Uterine contraction increased in strips exposed to exogenous arachidonic acid (1-100 microM). This study suggests that A1242 stimulates contraction in pregnant rat uterus by a mechanism involving PLA2-mediated arachidonic acid release, and that arachidonic acid, rather than eicosanoids, may mediate A1242 uterotonic action in the uterus.  (+info)

Metabolism of (R)-(+)-pulegone and (R)-(+)-menthofuran by human liver cytochrome P-450s: evidence for formation of a furan epoxide. (8/2230)

(R)-(+)-Pulegone, a monoterpene constituent of pennyroyal oil, is a hepatotoxin that has been used in folklore medicine as an abortifacient despite its potential lethal effects. Pulegone is metabolized by human liver cytochrome P-450s to menthofuran, a proximate hepatotoxic metabolite of pulegone. Expressed human liver cytochrome (CYP) P-450s (1A2, 2A6, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, and 3A4) were tested for their ability to catalyze the oxidations of pulegone and menthofuran. Expressed CYP2E1, CYP1A2, and CYP2C19 oxidized pulegone to menthofuran, with respective Km and Vmax values of 29 microM and 8.4 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP2E1, 94 microM and 2.4 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP1A2, and 31 microM and 1.5 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP2C19. The human liver P-450s involved in the metabolism of menthofuran are the same as pulegone except for the addition of CYP2A6. These P-450s were found to oxidize menthofuran to a newly identified metabolite, 2-hydroxymenthofuran, which is an intermediate in the formation of the known metabolites mintlactone and isomintlactone. Based on studies with 18O2 and H218O, 2-hydroxymenthofuran arises predominantly from a dihydrodiol formed from a furan epoxide. CYP2E1, CYP1A2, and CYP2C19 oxidized menthofuran with respective Km and Vmax values of 33 microM and 0.43 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP2E1, 57 microM and 0.29 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP1A2, and 62 microM and 0.26 nmol/min/nmol P-450 for CYP2C19.  (+info)

Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. They are major components of many essential oils found in plants, giving them their characteristic fragrances and flavors. Monoterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their structural features, such as acyclic (e.g., myrcene), monocyclic (e.g., limonene), and bicyclic (e.g., pinene) compounds. In the medical field, monoterpenes have been studied for their potential therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Alkyl and aryl transferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of alkyl or aryl groups from one molecule to another. These enzymes play a role in various biological processes, including the metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics, as well as the biosynthesis of certain natural compounds.

Alkyl transferases typically catalyze the transfer of methyl or ethyl groups, while aryl transferases transfer larger aromatic rings. These enzymes often use cofactors such as S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) or acetyl-CoA to donate the alkyl or aryl group to a recipient molecule.

Examples of alkyl and aryl transferases include:

1. Methyltransferases: enzymes that transfer methyl groups from SAM to various acceptor molecules, such as DNA, RNA, proteins, and small molecules.
2. Histone methyltransferases: enzymes that methylate specific residues on histone proteins, which can affect chromatin structure and gene expression.
3. N-acyltransferases: enzymes that transfer acetyl or other acyl groups to amino groups in proteins or small molecules.
4. O-acyltransferases: enzymes that transfer acyl groups to hydroxyl groups in lipids, steroids, and other molecules.
5. Arylsulfatases: enzymes that remove sulfate groups from aromatic rings, releasing an alcohol and sulfate.
6. Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs): enzymes that transfer the tripeptide glutathione to electrophilic centers in xenobiotics and endogenous compounds, facilitating their detoxification and excretion.

Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units, hence the name "sesqui-" meaning "one and a half" in Latin. They are composed of 15 carbon atoms and have a wide range of chemical structures and biological activities. Sesquiterpenes can be found in various plants, fungi, and insects, and they play important roles in the defense mechanisms of these organisms. Some sesquiterpenes are also used in traditional medicine and have been studied for their potential therapeutic benefits.

Agricultural inoculants are biological products that contain beneficial microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, which are applied to seeds, soil, or plant surfaces to enhance plant growth, increase yield, and improve resistance to pests and diseases. These microorganisms form a mutually beneficial relationship with the plants, known as symbiosis, in which they help the plants absorb nutrients from the soil, fix nitrogen, and produce phytohormones that promote root growth and development.

Examples of agricultural inoculants include Rhizobia bacteria, which form nodules on the roots of leguminous plants and convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia that can be used by the plant; mycorrhizal fungi, which colonize plant roots and help them absorb water and nutrients from the soil; and Trichoderma fungi, which protect plants from pathogens and promote growth.

Agricultural inoculants are considered an environmentally friendly and sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers and pesticides, as they improve crop productivity while reducing the negative impacts on the environment and human health.

"Picea" is not a medical term. It is the genus name for a group of evergreen coniferous trees commonly known as spruces, which are part of the pine family (Pinaceae). These trees are native to the northern hemisphere and are widely distributed in North America, Europe, and Asia.

While spruce trees have some medicinal uses, such as extracts from the needles being used in traditional medicine for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, "Picea" itself is not a medical term or concept.

"Abies" is a genus of evergreen trees that are commonly known as firs. They belong to the family Pinaceae and are native to the northern hemisphere, primarily in North America, Europe, and Asia. These trees are characterized by their needle-like leaves, which are flat and shiny, and their conical-shaped crowns.

Firs have been used for various purposes throughout history, including timber production, Christmas tree farming, and ornamental landscaping. Some species of firs also have medicinal properties, such as the use of Abies balsamea (balsam fir) in traditional medicine to treat respiratory ailments and skin conditions. However, it's important to note that the medical use of firs should be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to adverse effects.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a low boiling point and easily evaporate at room temperature. They can be liquids or solids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and formaldehyde, which are found in many household products, including paints, paint strippers, and other solvents; cleaning supplies; pesticides; building materials and furnishings; office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper; and glues and adhesives.

VOCs can cause both short- and long-term health effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of VOCs can cause headaches, dizziness, visual disturbances, and memory problems. Long-term exposure can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Some VOCs are also suspected or known carcinogens.

It is important to properly use, store, and dispose of products that contain VOCs to minimize exposure. Increasing ventilation by opening windows and doors or using fans can also help reduce exposure to VOCs.

"Ginkgo biloba" is a specific species of tree, and its extract is commonly used in dietary supplements. According to the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH), Ginkgo biloba extract is derived from the dried leaves of the Ginkgo biloba tree and contains several components with antioxidant properties, including flavonoids and terpenoids.

Ginkgo biloba extract has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, and it is one of the most commonly used herbal supplements in Europe and the United States. It is often used for its potential benefits on memory, cognitive function, and mood, although the evidence supporting these uses is mixed. Some studies have suggested that Ginkgo biloba extract may help to improve symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia, as well as tinnitus (ringing in the ears), but more research is needed to confirm these effects.

It is important to note that Ginkgo biloba can interact with certain medications, including blood thinners, and may increase the risk of bleeding. As with any supplement or medication, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider before taking Ginkgo biloba extract to ensure safety and effectiveness.

Cinchona is a genus of tropical Cinchona trees or shrubs, native to western South America. The bark of these plants contains a variety of alkaloids, including quinine and cinchonine, which have been used historically in the treatment of malaria and other febrile illnesses.

In medical terminology, "Cinchona" can also refer to the dried bark of these trees or shrubs, which is used to prepare various medicinal preparations. The term may also be used more broadly to describe any medication that contains alkaloids derived from Cinchona plants, including synthetic derivatives such as chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine.

It's important to note that while Cinchona bark and its derivatives have been used for centuries in traditional medicine, their use is not without risks or side effects. In particular, high doses of quinine can be toxic and may cause a range of adverse reactions, including tinnitus, hearing loss, visual disturbances, and cardiac arrhythmias. As such, the use of Cinchona-derived medications should always be supervised by a qualified healthcare professional.

Volatilization, in the context of pharmacology and medicine, refers to the process by which a substance (usually a medication or drug) transforms into a vapor state at room temperature or upon heating. This change in physical state allows the substance to evaporate and be transferred into the air, potentially leading to inhalation exposure.

In some medical applications, volatilization is used intentionally, such as with essential oils for aromatherapy or topical treatments that utilize a vapor action. However, it can also pose concerns when volatile substances are unintentionally released into the air, potentially leading to indoor air quality issues or exposure risks.

It's important to note that in clinical settings, volatilization is not typically used as a route of administration for medications, as other methods such as oral, intravenous, or inhalation via nebulizers are more common and controlled.

Polyisoprenyl phosphates are a type of organic compound that play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of various essential biomolecules in cells. They are formed by the addition of isoprene units, which are five-carbon molecules with a branched structure, to a phosphate group.

In medical terms, polyisoprenyl phosphates are primarily known for their role as intermediates in the biosynthesis of dolichols and farnesylated proteins. Dolichols are long-chain isoprenoids that function as lipid carriers in the synthesis of glycoproteins, which are proteins that contain carbohydrate groups attached to them. Farnesylated proteins, on the other hand, are proteins that have been modified with a farnesyl group, which is a 15-carbon isoprenoid. This modification plays a role in the localization and function of certain proteins within the cell.

Abnormalities in the biosynthesis of polyisoprenyl phosphates and their downstream products have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and genetic syndromes. Therefore, understanding the biology and regulation of these compounds is an active area of research with potential therapeutic implications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "weevils" are not a medical term. They are small beetles, typically characterized by their elongated snouts. Some species are known to infest and damage crops such as grains, causing agricultural harm. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I'd be happy to help!

Intramolecular lyases are a type of enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of a molecule by removing a group of atoms from within the same molecule, creating a new chemical bond in the process. These enzymes specifically cleave a molecule through an intramolecular mechanism, meaning they act on a single substrate molecule. Intramolecular lyases are involved in various biological processes, such as DNA replication, repair, and recombination. They play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of genetic material by removing or adding specific groups of atoms to DNA or RNA molecules.

Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are a type of organic compound that are naturally produced in plants. They are called "volatile" because they evaporate quickly at room temperature due to their high vapor pressure. These oils are composed of complex mixtures of various compounds, including terpenes, terpenoids, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and alcohols. They are responsible for the characteristic aroma and flavor of many plants and are often used in perfumes, flavors, and aromatherapy. In a medical context, volatile oils may have therapeutic properties and be used in certain medications or treatments, but it's important to note that they can also cause adverse reactions if not used properly.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Wood" is not a medical term. It is a common name for various hard, fibrous tissues that make up the trunks and branches of trees and shrubs, as well as a term used for a wide range of items made from these materials. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Artemisia is a genus of plants in the Asteraceae family, also known as the daisy family. It includes several species that are commonly known as mugworts, wormwoods, and sagebrushes. Some Artemisia species have been used in traditional medicine for their medicinal properties. For example, Artemisia annua, or sweet wormwood, contains artemisinin, a compound that has been found to be effective against the malaria parasite. However, it's important to note that some Artemisia species can be toxic and should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional.

Ginkgolides are a group of unique sesquiterpene lactone compounds that are primarily found in the extract of the leaves of the Ginkgo biloba tree, which is one of the oldest living tree species in the world. These compounds are known for their potent antiplatelet and antioxidant properties, which have been studied extensively in various medical research fields, including neurology, cardiology, and pharmacology.

Ginkgolides are believed to work by inhibiting a specific type of receptor in the body called the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor, which plays a crucial role in inflammation, blood clotting, and other physiological processes. By blocking this receptor, ginkgolides can help prevent excessive blood clotting, reduce inflammation, and improve blood flow to various organs and tissues in the body.

Ginkgo biloba extract, which contains ginkgolides A, B, C, and J, is commonly used in complementary and alternative medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including cognitive decline, memory loss, tinnitus, and peripheral vascular diseases. However, it's important to note that the use of Ginkgo biloba extract and ginkgolides should be under the guidance of healthcare professionals due to potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

Diterpenes are a class of naturally occurring compounds that are composed of four isoprene units, which is a type of hydrocarbon. They are synthesized by a wide variety of plants and animals, and are found in many different types of organisms, including fungi, insects, and marine organisms.

Diterpenes have a variety of biological activities and are used in medicine for their therapeutic effects. Some diterpenes have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral properties, and are used to treat a range of conditions, including respiratory infections, skin disorders, and cancer.

Diterpenes can be further classified into different subgroups based on their chemical structure and biological activity. Some examples of diterpenes include the phytocannabinoids found in cannabis plants, such as THC and CBD, and the paclitaxel, a diterpene found in the bark of the Pacific yew tree that is used to treat cancer.

It's important to note that while some diterpenes have therapeutic potential, others may be toxic or have adverse effects, so it is essential to use them under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare professional.

Cyclohexenes are organic compounds that consist of a six-carbon ring (cyclohexane) with one double bond. The general chemical formula for cyclohexene is C6H10. The double bond can introduce various chemical properties and reactions to the compound, such as electrophilic addition reactions.

Cyclohexenes are used in the synthesis of other organic compounds, including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials. Some cyclohexene derivatives also occur naturally, for example, in essential oils and certain plant extracts. However, it is important to note that pure cyclohexene has a mild odor and is considered a hazardous substance, with potential health effects such as skin and eye irritation, respiratory issues, and potential long-term effects upon repeated exposure.

'Ocimum basilicum' is the scientific name for the herb commonly known as sweet basil. While it is not a medical term itself, basil has been used in various traditional medicinal practices for its supposed benefits. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support many of these claims. It is more widely recognized as a culinary herb and essential oil source.

Cyclization is a chemical process that involves forming a cyclic structure or ring-shaped molecule from a linear or open-chain compound. In the context of medicinal chemistry and drug design, cyclization reactions are often used to synthesize complex molecules, including drugs, by creating rings or fused ring systems within the molecule's structure.

Cyclization can occur through various mechanisms, such as intramolecular nucleophilic substitution, electrophilic addition, or radical reactions. The resulting cyclized compounds may exhibit different chemical and biological properties compared to their linear precursors, making them valuable targets for drug discovery and development.

In some cases, the cyclization process can lead to the formation of stereocenters within the molecule, which can impact its three-dimensional shape and how it interacts with biological targets. Therefore, controlling the stereochemistry during cyclization reactions is crucial in medicinal chemistry to optimize the desired biological activity.

Overall, cyclization plays a significant role in the design and synthesis of many pharmaceutical compounds, enabling the creation of complex structures that can interact specifically with biological targets for therapeutic purposes.

Skin absorption, also known as percutaneous absorption, refers to the process by which substances are taken up by the skin and pass into the systemic circulation. This occurs when a substance is applied topically to the skin and penetrates through the various layers of the epidermis and dermis until it reaches the capillaries, where it can be transported to other parts of the body.

The rate and extent of skin absorption depend on several factors, including the physicochemical properties of the substance (such as its molecular weight, lipophilicity, and charge), the concentration and formulation of the product, the site of application, and the integrity and condition of the skin.

Skin absorption is an important route of exposure for many chemicals, drugs, and cosmetic ingredients, and it can have both therapeutic and toxicological consequences. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms and factors that influence skin absorption is crucial for assessing the safety and efficacy of topical products and for developing strategies to enhance or reduce their absorption as needed.

Farnesol is a chemical compound classified as a sesquiterpene alcohol. It is produced by various plants and insects, including certain types of roses and citrus fruits, and plays a role in their natural defense mechanisms. Farnesol has a variety of uses in the perfume industry due to its pleasant, floral scent.

In addition to its natural occurrence, farnesol is also synthetically produced for use in various applications, including as a fragrance ingredient and as an antimicrobial agent in cosmetics and personal care products. It has been shown to have antibacterial and antifungal properties, making it useful for preventing the growth of microorganisms in these products.

Farnesol is not typically used as a medication or therapeutic agent in humans, but it may have potential uses in the treatment of certain medical conditions due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and safety profile in these contexts.

Propylene glycol is not a medical term, but rather a chemical compound. However, it does have various applications in the medical field. Medically, propylene glycol can be used as a:

1. Vehicle for intravenous (IV) medications: Propylene glycol helps dissolve drugs that are not water-soluble and allows them to be administered intravenously. It is used in the preparation of some IV medications, including certain antibiotics, antivirals, and chemotherapeutic agents.
2. Preservative: Propylene glycol acts as a preservative in various medical products, such as topical ointments, eye drops, and injectable solutions, to prevent bacterial growth and increase shelf life.
3. Humectant: In some medical devices and pharmaceutical formulations, propylene glycol is used as a humectant, which means it helps maintain moisture and prevent dryness in the skin or mucous membranes.

The chemical definition of propylene glycol (C3H8O2) is:

A colorless, nearly odorless, viscous liquid belonging to the alcohol family. It is a diol, meaning it contains two hydroxyl groups (-OH), and its molecular formula is C3H8O2. Propylene glycol is miscible with water and most organic solvents and has applications in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, food processing, cosmetics, and industrial manufacturing.

Chamomile is a common name for several daisy-like plants that belong to the family Asteraceae, and more specifically to the genus Matricaria or Chamaemelum. The two most commonly used varieties are Matricaria recutita, also known as German chamomile, and Chamaemelum nobile, or Roman chamomile.

Chamomile has been used traditionally for medicinal purposes due to its rich phytochemistry, which includes various terpenoids, flavonoids, and other compounds. The most well-known active constituents are the volatile oils (including alpha-bisabolol, chamazulene, and farnesene) and the flavonoid apigenin.

Chamomile is often used in herbal teas, essential oils, and various dietary supplements for its calming, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, spasmolytic, and mild sedative properties. Some of its applications include:

1. Treatment of anxiety and insomnia: Chamomile is known to help promote relaxation and sleep, making it a popular natural remedy for people suffering from anxiety or insomnia.
2. Digestive health: Chamomile has been used traditionally to treat various gastrointestinal disorders, such as indigestion, bloating, gastritis, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), due to its antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory effects on the digestive tract.
3. Skin conditions: Chamomile is often found in skincare products and topical treatments for its soothing, anti-inflammatory, and vulnerary properties, which can help alleviate skin irritations, rashes, and inflammation.
4. Menstrual discomfort: Chamomile's antispasmodic and analgesic effects may provide relief from menstrual cramps and pain.
5. Respiratory health: Chamomile has been used to treat respiratory conditions, such as coughs, colds, bronchitis, and asthma, due to its anti-inflammatory and expectorant properties.
6. Oral health: The antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of chamomile make it useful for maintaining oral hygiene and treating conditions like mouth ulcers, gum inflammation, and plaque buildup.

It is important to note that while chamomile has many potential health benefits, it may cause allergic reactions in some individuals, particularly those with sensitivities to ragweed, chrysanthemums, or daisies. Additionally, chamomile should not be consumed in large quantities during pregnancy, as it may stimulate uterine contractions and potentially lead to premature labor. Always consult a healthcare professional before starting any new herbal remedy, especially if you have pre-existing medical conditions or are taking medications.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a powerful analytical technique that combines the separating power of gas chromatography with the identification capabilities of mass spectrometry. This method is used to separate, identify, and quantify different components in complex mixtures.

In GC-MS, the mixture is first vaporized and carried through a long, narrow column by an inert gas (carrier gas). The various components in the mixture interact differently with the stationary phase inside the column, leading to their separation based on their partition coefficients between the mobile and stationary phases. As each component elutes from the column, it is then introduced into the mass spectrometer for analysis.

The mass spectrometer ionizes the sample, breaks it down into smaller fragments, and measures the mass-to-charge ratio of these fragments. This information is used to generate a mass spectrum, which serves as a unique "fingerprint" for each compound. By comparing the generated mass spectra with reference libraries or known standards, analysts can identify and quantify the components present in the original mixture.

GC-MS has wide applications in various fields such as forensics, environmental analysis, drug testing, and research laboratories due to its high sensitivity, specificity, and ability to analyze volatile and semi-volatile compounds.

Artemisia annua, also known as sweet wormwood or annual mugwort, is a plant species in the daisy family (Asteraceae). It is native to temperate Asia but has been naturalized in many parts of the world. The plant can grow up to 2 meters tall and has narrow, aromatic leaves with small yellow or white flowers.

Artemisia annua has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, particularly in China where it is known as Qing Hao. It contains a compound called artemisinin, which has been found to have antimalarial properties. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are now widely used as first-line treatments for malaria caused by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite.

It is important to note that while artemisinin has been shown to be effective in treating malaria, it should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to drug resistance and other adverse effects. Additionally, Artemisia annua should not be used as a substitute for proven malarial treatments recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

'Actinidia' is a genus of woody climbing plants native to East Asia, commonly known as "kiwifruit" or "Chinese gooseberries." The most commercially important species in this genus is Actinidia deliciosa, which produces the familiar fuzzy green kiwifruit. Other species in the genus include Actinidia arguta (smooth skin kiwi or kiwi berry) and Actinidia chinensis (golden kiwi). These plants are known for their edible fruit, which contains high levels of vitamin C and other nutrients. In a medical context, 'Actinidia' may be mentioned in relation to the health benefits of consuming kiwifruit or its potential use in natural medicine.

Carbon-carbon lyases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds in a substrate, resulting in the formation of two molecules with a double bond between them. This reaction is typically accompanied by the release or addition of a cofactor such as water or a coenzyme.

These enzymes play important roles in various metabolic pathways, including the breakdown of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids. They are also involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, such as terpenoids and alkaloids.

Carbon-carbon lyases are classified under EC number 4.1.2. in the Enzyme Commission (EC) system. This classification includes a wide range of enzymes with different substrate specificities and reaction mechanisms. Examples of carbon-carbon lyases include decarboxylases, aldolases, and dehydratases.

It's worth noting that the term "lyase" refers to any enzyme that catalyzes the removal of a group of atoms from a molecule, leaving a double bond or a cycle, and it does not necessarily imply the formation of carbon-carbon bonds.

Lactones are not a medical term per se, but they are important in the field of pharmaceuticals and medicinal chemistry. Lactones are cyclic esters derived from hydroxy acids. They can be found naturally in various plants, fruits, and some insects. In medicine, lactones have been used in the synthesis of drugs, including certain antibiotics and antifungal agents. For instance, the penicillin family of antibiotics contains a beta-lactone ring in their structure, which is essential for their antibacterial activity.

In a medical context, "resins, plant" refer to the sticky, often aromatic substances produced by certain plants. These resins are typically composed of a mixture of volatile oils, terpenes, and rosin acids. They may be present in various parts of the plant, including leaves, stems, and roots, and are often found in specialized structures such as glands or ducts.

Plant resins have been used for centuries in traditional medicine and other applications. Some resins have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, or analgesic properties and have been used to treat a variety of ailments, including skin conditions, respiratory infections, and pain.

Examples of plant resins with medicinal uses include:

* Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) resin has been used in traditional medicine to treat inflammation, arthritis, and asthma.
* Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) resin has been used as an antiseptic, astringent, and anti-inflammatory agent.
* Pine resin has been used topically for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties.

It's important to note that while some plant resins have demonstrated medicinal benefits, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some resins can have adverse effects or interact with medications, and it's essential to ensure their safe and effective use.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pentanes" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a group of five-carbon alkane hydrocarbons, including n-pentane and iso-pentane. These substances can be used in medical settings as anesthetics or for medical research, but "Pentanes" itself does not have a specific medical definition.

Alstroemeria is a genus of flowering plants in the family Alstroemeriaceae, native to South America. These perennial plants are known for their showy and colorful flowers, which often have intricate patterns and designs. They are commonly cultivated as ornamental plants in gardens and parks due to their attractive blooms, and they are also used as cut flowers in floral arrangements.

In a medical context, Alstroemeria is not typically used as a treatment or therapy. However, like many plants, Alstroemeria contains various chemical compounds that may have potential medicinal properties. For example, some studies have suggested that extracts from the plant may have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial effects. However, more research is needed to determine whether these compounds are safe and effective for use in medical treatments.

It's worth noting that some species of Alstroemeria can be toxic if ingested, so they should not be consumed without consulting a healthcare professional. Additionally, people with allergies to members of the Amaryllidaceae family (which includes Alstroemeria) may experience allergic reactions when handling the plant.

Sesterterpenes are a class of naturally occurring compounds derived from five units of isoprene, consisting of 25 carbon atoms. They are characterized by a unique carbon skeleton and can be found in various plants, fungi, and marine organisms. Some sesterterpenes have been identified to possess biological activities, such as antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, they are not widely studied or used in medical contexts compared to other classes of terpenes.

"Sanguisorba" is a botanical term that refers to a genus of flowering plants in the Rosaceae family, also known as "great burnet" or "salad burnet." The name "Sanguisorba" comes from the Latin word "sanguis," meaning blood, and "sorbere," meaning to absorb, referring to its historical use in medicine for stopping bleeding.

While "Sanguisorba" itself is not a medical term, some of its species have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating wounds, diarrhea, and menstrual disorders. However, it's important to note that the scientific evidence supporting these uses is limited, and further research is needed before any definitive medical claims can be made.

If you are interested in using "Sanguisorba" or any of its species for medicinal purposes, it's recommended that you consult with a healthcare professional first to ensure safety and effectiveness.

I am sorry for any confusion, but "Pentanoic Acids" is not a recognized medical term or concept. Pentanoic acid, also known as valeric acid, is an organic compound with the formula CH3CH2CH2CH2CO2H. It is a fatty acid with five carbon atoms, and it may have some uses in industry, but it does not have specific relevance to medical definition or healthcare.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hemiterpenes" is not a recognized term in medical or biochemistry terminology. The term "terpene" does refer to a large class of naturally occurring organic hydrocarbons, which are synthesized in various plants and animals. They are built from repeating units of isoprene (a five-carbon molecule), and can be further classified into monoterpenes (two isoprene units), sesquiterpenes (three isoprene units), diterpenes (four isoprene units), and so on.

However, the prefix "hemi-" means "half," which doesn't have a clear application in this context. It's possible there may be a misunderstanding or a typo in your question. If you meant to ask about a specific type of compound or a concept related to terpenes, please provide more context so I can give a more accurate answer.

Dimethylallyltranstransferase (DMAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of various natural compounds, including terpenoids and alkaloids. These compounds have diverse functions in nature, ranging from serving as pigments and fragrances to acting as defense mechanisms against predators or pathogens.

The primary function of DMAT is to catalyze the head-to-tail condensation of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) with various diphosphate-bound prenyl substrates, forming prenylated products. This reaction represents the first committed step in the biosynthesis of many terpenoids and alkaloids.

The enzyme's catalytic mechanism involves the formation of a covalent bond between the pyrophosphate group of DMAPP and a conserved cysteine residue within the DMAT active site, followed by the transfer of the dimethylallyl moiety to the diphosphate-bound prenyl substrate.

DMAT is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. In humans, DMAT is involved in the biosynthesis of steroids, which are essential components of cell membranes and precursors to important hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones.

In summary, dimethylallyltranstransferase (DMAT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the condensation of dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) with various prenyl substrates, playing a critical role in the biosynthesis of diverse natural compounds, including terpenoids and alkaloids.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Malus" is not a medical term. It is a genus name in the plant kingdom, referring to the apple tree. If you have a different term or concept in mind, please provide it so I can give you an accurate definition or explanation.

Aerial parts of plants refer to the above-ground portions of a plant, including leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. These parts are often used in medicine, either in their entirety or as isolated extracts, to take advantage of their medicinal properties. The specific components of aerial parts that are used in medicine can vary depending on the plant species and the desired therapeutic effects. For example, the leaves of some plants may contain active compounds that have anti-inflammatory or analgesic properties, while the flowers of others may be rich in antioxidants or compounds with sedative effects. In general, aerial parts of plants are used in herbal medicine to treat a wide range of conditions, including respiratory, digestive, and nervous system disorders, as well as skin conditions and infections.

"Plant proteins" refer to the proteins that are derived from plant sources. These can include proteins from legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas, as well as proteins from grains like wheat, rice, and corn. Other sources of plant proteins include nuts, seeds, and vegetables.

Plant proteins are made up of individual amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. While animal-based proteins typically contain all of the essential amino acids that the body needs to function properly, many plant-based proteins may be lacking in one or more of these essential amino acids. However, by consuming a variety of plant-based foods throughout the day, it is possible to get all of the essential amino acids that the body needs from plant sources alone.

Plant proteins are often lower in calories and saturated fat than animal proteins, making them a popular choice for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as well as those looking to maintain a healthy weight or reduce their risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Additionally, plant proteins have been shown to have a number of health benefits, including improving gut health, reducing inflammation, and supporting muscle growth and repair.

'Beta vulgaris' is the scientific name for a group of plants that includes several common vegetables such as beets, chard, and sugar beets. This species is native to coastal regions of Europe, North Africa, and Asia.

Beets, also known as table beets or garden beets, are grown for their edible roots, which can be red, yellow, or striped. They have a sweet, earthy flavor and are often eaten raw, pickled, or cooked. Beet greens, the leaves of the plant, are also edible and have a mild flavor similar to spinach.

Chard, also known as Swiss chard, is grown for its large, colorful leaves that can be green, red, yellow, or white. The leaves and stems are both edible and have a slightly bitter taste. Chard is often used in salads, soups, and stir-fries.

Sugar beets are grown for their roots, which contain high levels of sucrose. They are used to produce granulated sugar, molasses, and other sweeteners. Sugar beets are not typically eaten as a vegetable, but the leaves can be consumed in the same way as chard.

In summary, 'Beta vulgaris' is a versatile species of plant that includes several popular vegetables, including beets, chard, and sugar beets.

Cyclopentanes are a class of hydrocarbons that contain a cycloalkane ring of five carbon atoms. The chemical formula for cyclopentane is C5H10. It is a volatile, flammable liquid that is used as a solvent and in the production of polymers. Cyclopentanes are also found naturally in petroleum and coal tar.

Cyclopentanes have a unique structure in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a pentagonal shape, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbon atoms and one or two hydrogen atoms. This structure gives cyclopentane its characteristic "bowl-shaped" geometry, which allows it to undergo various chemical reactions, such as ring-opening reactions, that can lead to the formation of other chemicals.

Cyclopentanes have a variety of industrial and commercial applications. For example, they are used in the production of plastics, resins, and synthetic rubbers. They also have potential uses in the development of new drugs and medical technologies, as their unique structure and reactivity make them useful building blocks for the synthesis of complex molecules.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

"Santalum" is a genus of plants, commonly known as sandalwood. The term itself does not have a specific medical definition, but certain species of Santalum are known for their medicinal properties. For instance:

- Santalum album, or East Indian sandalwood, has been used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and expectorant properties. The essential oil from this tree is also used in aromatherapy for its calming and relaxing effects.
- Santalum spicatum, or Australian sandalwood, has similar medicinal uses and is often used as a substitute for the more expensive East Indian sandalwood. Its essential oil is used topically for skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis due to its anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.

It's important to note that while these plants have traditional medicinal uses, further scientific research is needed to confirm their effectiveness and safety. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new treatment or therapy.

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond in their molecular structure. The general chemical formula for alkenes is CnH2n, where n represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.

The double bond in alkenes can undergo various reactions, such as addition reactions, where different types of molecules can add across the double bond to form new compounds. The relative position of the double bond in the carbon chain and the presence of substituents on the carbon atoms can affect the physical and chemical properties of alkenes.

Alkenes are important industrial chemicals and are used as starting materials for the synthesis of a wide range of products, including plastics, resins, fibers, and other chemicals. They are also found in nature, occurring in some plants and animals, and can be produced by certain types of bacteria through fermentation processes.

Erythritol is a type of sugar alcohol (a carbohydrate that is metabolized differently than other sugars) used as a sugar substitute in food and drinks. It has about 0.24 calories per gram and contains almost no carbohydrates or sugar, making it a popular choice for people with diabetes or those following low-carb diets. Erythritol is naturally found in some fruits and fermented foods, but most commercial erythritol is made from cornstarch. It has a sweet taste similar to sugar but contains fewer calories and does not raise blood sugar levels.

Chamaecyparis is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Cupressaceae. It includes several species commonly known as cypress or false cypress, which are native to eastern Asia and North America. These trees are characterized by their flattened sprays of scale-like leaves, small cones, and distinctive bark patterns. They are often grown as ornamental plants due to their attractive appearance and ability to thrive in a variety of climates.

There is no specific medical definition associated with Chamaecyparis, as it is not a term used in medicine. However, some compounds derived from these trees have been studied for their potential medicinal properties. For example, certain essential oils extracted from Chamaecyparis species have been found to have antimicrobial and insecticidal effects, although more research is needed to determine their safety and efficacy as treatments for human diseases.

An axenic culture is a type of laboratory culture that is free from any other living organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. This is achieved by using specific techniques to sterilize the growth medium and eliminate any contaminating microorganisms. Axenic cultures are often used in scientific research to study the pure effects of a single organism without the influence of other organisms. They are commonly used in fields such as microbiology, cell biology, and genetics.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Pinus" is not a medical term. It is the genus name for a group of plants commonly known as pine trees, which belong to the family Pinaceae in the kingdom Plantae. These evergreen coniferous resinous trees are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, with some species also found in the Southern Hemisphere.

If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to define or explain, please feel free to ask!

Distillation is a laboratory technique or industrial process in which a mixture is heated to produce a vapor, which is then condensed and collected as a purified liquid. In the medical context, distillation may refer to the process of extracting or purifying certain substances, such as essential oils from plants or alcohol for use in medicinal preparations. It is also used in the production of pharmaceuticals and chemical compounds. The process works by taking advantage of differences in volatility between components in a mixture: those with lower boiling points vaporize first and are condensed separately, allowing for their isolation.

Gene expression regulation in plants refers to the processes that control the production of proteins and RNA from the genes present in the plant's DNA. This regulation is crucial for normal growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli in plants. It can occur at various levels, including transcription (the first step in gene expression, where the DNA sequence is copied into RNA), RNA processing (such as alternative splicing, which generates different mRNA molecules from a single gene), translation (where the information in the mRNA is used to produce a protein), and post-translational modification (where proteins are chemically modified after they have been synthesized).

In plants, gene expression regulation can be influenced by various factors such as hormones, light, temperature, and stress. Plants use complex networks of transcription factors, chromatin remodeling complexes, and small RNAs to regulate gene expression in response to these signals. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression regulation in plants is important for basic research, as well as for developing crops with improved traits such as increased yield, stress tolerance, and disease resistance.

Oxylipins are a class of bioactive lipid molecules derived from the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). They play crucial roles in various physiological and pathophysiological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cellular signaling. Oxylipins can be further categorized based on their precursor PUFAs, such as arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and linoleic acid (LA). These oxylipins are involved in the regulation of vascular tone, platelet aggregation, neurotransmission, and pain perception. They exert their effects through various receptors and downstream signaling pathways, making them important targets for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and neurological conditions.

"Thuja" is a botanical term for a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, also known as arborvitae or western red cedar. It belongs to the family Cupressaceae. While it has some traditional medicinal uses, there isn't a widely accepted medical definition for "Thuja" in modern medicine.

Historically, preparations made from Thuja occidentalis (eastern white cedar) have been used in alternative and traditional medicine, such as homeopathy. The leaves and twigs are often used to make teas, tinctures, or essential oils. However, it's important to note that the use of Thuja for medicinal purposes can have potential side effects and toxicities, and its effectiveness is not always supported by scientific evidence. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new treatment.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

Biosynthetic pathways refer to the series of biochemical reactions that occur within cells and living organisms, leading to the production (synthesis) of complex molecules from simpler precursors. These pathways involve a sequence of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, where each reaction builds upon the product of the previous one, ultimately resulting in the formation of a specific biomolecule.

Examples of biosynthetic pathways include:

1. The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) - an essential metabolic pathway that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
2. Glycolysis - a process that breaks down glucose into pyruvate to generate ATP and NADH.
3. Gluconeogenesis - the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids.
4. Fatty acid synthesis - a process that produces fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA through a series of reduction reactions.
5. Amino acid synthesis - the production of various amino acids from simpler precursors, often involving intermediates in central metabolic pathways like the Krebs cycle or glycolysis.
6. Steroid biosynthesis - the formation of steroids from simple precursors such as cholesterol and its derivatives.
7. Terpenoid biosynthesis - the production of terpenes, terpenoids, and sterols from isoprene units (isopentenyl pyrophosphate).
8. Nucleotide synthesis - the generation of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA, through complex biochemical pathways involving various precursors and cofactors.

Understanding biosynthetic pathways is crucial for comprehending cellular metabolism, developing drugs that target specific metabolic processes, and engineering organisms with desired traits in synthetic biology and metabolic engineering applications.

I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.

Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.

BALB 3T3 cells are a type of cell line that is derived from mouse embryo fibroblasts. They are commonly used in scientific research, particularly in studies related to cell biology, toxicology, and cancer. BALB 3T3 cells are easy to grow and maintain in culture, making them a convenient tool for researchers.

The name "BALB 3T3" is derived from the strain of mouse (BALB/c) from which the cells were originally isolated, and the fact that they are transformed (immortalized) cells (the "3T" designation). These cells have been widely used in a variety of experiments, including studies on cell proliferation, differentiation, and gene expression. They have also been used to develop assays for measuring the cytotoxicity of chemicals and drugs.

It is important to note that while BALB 3T3 cells are useful for research purposes, they may not always accurately reflect the behavior of human cells or tissues. Therefore, findings from studies using these cells should be interpreted with caution and validated in more complex models when possible.

Ketones are organic compounds that contain a carbon atom bound to two oxygen atoms and a central carbon atom bonded to two additional carbon groups through single bonds. In the context of human physiology, ketones are primarily produced as byproducts when the body breaks down fat for energy in a process called ketosis.

Specifically, under conditions of low carbohydrate availability or prolonged fasting, the liver converts fatty acids into ketone bodies, which can then be used as an alternative fuel source for the brain and other organs. The three main types of ketones produced in the human body are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone.

Elevated levels of ketones in the blood, known as ketonemia, can occur in various medical conditions such as diabetes, starvation, alcoholism, and high-fat/low-carbohydrate diets. While moderate levels of ketosis are generally considered safe, severe ketosis can lead to a life-threatening condition called diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in people with diabetes.

Heptanes are a group of hydrocarbons that are composed of straight-chain or branched arrangements of six carbon atoms and are commonly found in gasoline. They are colorless liquids at room temperature with a characteristic odor. In a medical context, exposure to heptanes can occur through inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion, and can cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat. Chronic exposure has been linked to more serious health effects, including neurological damage and cancer. Proper handling and use of heptanes, as well as adequate ventilation, are important to minimize exposure and potential health risks.

Flavonols are a type of flavonoid, which is a class of plant and fungal metabolites. They are characterized by the presence of a 3-hydroxyflavone skeleton. Flavonols are found in a variety of plants and are known for their antioxidant properties. Some common dietary sources of flavonols include onions, kale, broccoli, apples, tea, and red wine. They have been studied for their potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Flavonols are also known to have anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and antimicrobial properties.

Bicyclic compounds are organic molecules that contain two rings in their structure, with at least two common atoms shared between the rings. These compounds can be found in various natural and synthetic substances, including some medications and bioactive molecules. The unique structure of bicyclic compounds can influence their chemical and physical properties, which may impact their biological activity or reactivity.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hydrocarbons" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. They are primarily used in industry as fuel, lubricants, and as raw materials for the production of plastics, fibers, and other chemicals.

However, in a broader scientific context, hydrocarbons can be relevant to medical discussions. For instance, in toxicology, exposure to certain types of hydrocarbons (like those found in gasoline or solvents) can lead to poisoning and related health issues. In environmental medicine, the pollution of air, water, and soil with hydrocarbons is a concern due to potential health effects.

But in general clinical medicine, 'hydrocarbons' wouldn't have a specific definition.

Menthol is a compound obtained from the crystals of the mint plant (Mentha arvensis). It is a white, crystalline substance that is solid at room temperature but becomes a clear, colorless, oily liquid when heated. Menthol has a cooling and soothing effect on mucous membranes, which makes it a common ingredient in over-the-counter products used to relieve symptoms of congestion, coughs, and sore throats. It is also used as a topical analgesic for its pain-relieving properties and as a flavoring agent in various products such as toothpaste, mouthwashes, and candies.

Diphosphates, also known as pyrophosphates, are chemical compounds that contain two phosphate groups joined together by an oxygen atom. The general formula for a diphosphate is P~PO3~2-, where ~ represents a bond. Diphosphates play important roles in various biological processes, such as energy metabolism and cell signaling. In the context of nutrition, diphosphates can be found in some foods, including milk and certain vegetables.

Semicarbazones are chemical compounds that result from the reaction between a carbonyl group (a functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O) and semicarbazide. Semicarbazide is a compound with the formula NH2-NH-CO-NH2.

In organic chemistry, the formation of semicarbazones is one method used to protect carbonyl groups during chemical synthesis. These compounds are also important in analytical chemistry as they can be used to identify and quantify aldehydes and ketones.

It's worth noting that while semicarbazones have significant uses in chemistry, they don't have a specific medical definition. However, certain semicarbazone derivatives have been explored for their potential medicinal properties, such as antimicrobial, antiviral, and antitumor activities. But these applications are still largely in the research phase and haven't yet resulted in widely used medical treatments or diagnoses.

"Beetles" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to insects belonging to the order Coleoptera, which is one of the largest orders in the class Insecta. Beetles are characterized by their hardened forewings, known as elytra, which protect their hind wings and body when not in use for flying.

There are many different species of beetles found all over the world, and some can have an impact on human health. For example, certain types of beetles, such as bed bugs and carpet beetles, can cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some people. Other beetles, like the Colorado potato beetle, can damage crops and lead to economic losses for farmers. However, it is important to note that most beetles are not harmful to humans and play an essential role in ecosystems as decomposers and pollinators.

"Cutaneous administration" is a route of administering medication or treatment through the skin. This can be done through various methods such as:

1. Topical application: This involves applying the medication directly to the skin in the form of creams, ointments, gels, lotions, patches, or solutions. The medication is absorbed into the skin and enters the systemic circulation slowly over a period of time. Topical medications are often used for local effects, such as treating eczema, psoriasis, or fungal infections.

2. Iontophoresis: This method uses a mild electrical current to help a medication penetrate deeper into the skin. A positive charge is applied to a medication with a negative charge, or vice versa, causing it to be attracted through the skin. Iontophoresis is often used for local pain management and treating conditions like hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).

3. Transdermal delivery systems: These are specialized patches that contain medication within them. The patch is applied to the skin, and as time passes, the medication is released through the skin and into the systemic circulation. This method allows for a steady, controlled release of medication over an extended period. Common examples include nicotine patches for smoking cessation and hormone replacement therapy patches.

Cutaneous administration offers several advantages, such as avoiding first-pass metabolism (which can reduce the effectiveness of oral medications), providing localized treatment, and allowing for self-administration in some cases. However, it may not be suitable for all types of medications or conditions, and potential side effects include skin irritation, allergic reactions, and systemic absorption leading to unwanted systemic effects.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "flowers" is not a term that has a medical definition. The term "flowers" is commonly used to refer to the reproductive structures of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are characterized by having both male and female reproductive organs or separate male and female flowers.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health conditions, I would be happy to try to help answer those for you!

Feeding behavior refers to the various actions and mechanisms involved in the intake of food and nutrition for the purpose of sustaining life, growth, and health. This complex process encompasses a coordinated series of activities, including:

1. Food selection: The identification, pursuit, and acquisition of appropriate food sources based on sensory cues (smell, taste, appearance) and individual preferences.
2. Preparation: The manipulation and processing of food to make it suitable for consumption, such as chewing, grinding, or chopping.
3. Ingestion: The act of transferring food from the oral cavity into the digestive system through swallowing.
4. Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food within the gastrointestinal tract to facilitate nutrient absorption and eliminate waste products.
5. Assimilation: The uptake and utilization of absorbed nutrients by cells and tissues for energy production, growth, repair, and maintenance.
6. Elimination: The removal of undigested material and waste products from the body through defecation.

Feeding behavior is regulated by a complex interplay between neural, hormonal, and psychological factors that help maintain energy balance and ensure adequate nutrient intake. Disruptions in feeding behavior can lead to various medical conditions, such as malnutrition, obesity, eating disorders, and gastrointestinal motility disorders.

Glycosides are organic compounds that consist of a glycone (a sugar component) linked to a non-sugar component, known as an aglycone, via a glycosidic bond. They can be found in various plants, microorganisms, and some animals. Depending on the nature of the aglycone, glycosides can be classified into different types, such as anthraquinone glycosides, cardiac glycosides, and saponin glycosides.

These compounds have diverse biological activities and pharmacological effects. For instance:

* Cardiac glycosides, like digoxin and digitoxin, are used in the treatment of heart failure and certain cardiac arrhythmias due to their positive inotropic (contractility-enhancing) and negative chronotropic (heart rate-slowing) effects on the heart.
* Saponin glycosides have potent detergent properties and can cause hemolysis (rupture of red blood cells). They are used in various industries, including cosmetics and food processing, and have potential applications in drug delivery systems.
* Some glycosides, like amygdalin found in apricot kernels and bitter almonds, can release cyanide upon hydrolysis, making them potentially toxic.

It is important to note that while some glycosides have therapeutic uses, others can be harmful or even lethal if ingested or otherwise introduced into the body in large quantities.

Medical definitions generally do not include plant oils as a specific term. However, in a biological or biochemical context, plant oils, also known as vegetable oils, are defined as lipid extracts derived from various parts of plants such as seeds, fruits, and leaves. They mainly consist of triglycerides, which are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids. The composition of fatty acids can vary between different plant sources, leading to a range of physical and chemical properties that make plant oils useful for various applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Some common examples of plant oils include olive oil, coconut oil, sunflower oil, and jojoba oil.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Biocatalysis is the use of living organisms or their components, such as enzymes, to accelerate chemical reactions. In other words, it is the process by which biological systems, including cells, tissues, and organs, catalyze chemical transformations. Biocatalysts, such as enzymes, can increase the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. They are highly specific and efficient, making them valuable tools in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, food and beverage, and biofuels.

In medicine, biocatalysis is used in the production of drugs, such as antibiotics and hormones, as well as in diagnostic tests. Enzymes are also used in medical treatments, such as enzyme replacement therapy for genetic disorders that affect enzyme function. Overall, biocatalysis plays a critical role in many areas of medicine and healthcare.

In chemistry, an alcohol is a broad term that refers to any organic compound characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a carbon atom. This means that alcohols are essentially hydrocarbons with a hydroxyl group. The simplest alcohol is methanol (CH3OH), and ethanol (C2H5OH), also known as ethyl alcohol, is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages.

In the context of medical definitions, alcohol primarily refers to ethanol, which has significant effects on the human body when consumed. Ethanol can act as a central nervous system depressant, leading to various physiological and psychological changes depending on the dose and frequency of consumption. Excessive or prolonged use of ethanol can result in various health issues, including addiction, liver disease, neurological damage, and increased risk of injuries due to impaired judgment and motor skills.

It is important to note that there are other types of alcohols (e.g., methanol, isopropyl alcohol) with different chemical structures and properties, but they are not typically consumed by humans and can be toxic or even lethal in high concentrations.

Food preferences are personal likes or dislikes towards certain types of food or drinks, which can be influenced by various factors such as cultural background, individual experiences, taste, texture, smell, appearance, and psychological factors. Food preferences can also be shaped by dietary habits, nutritional needs, health conditions, and medication requirements. They play a significant role in shaping an individual's dietary choices and overall eating behavior, which can have implications for their nutritional status, growth, development, and long-term health outcomes.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Isomerases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the interconversion of isomers of a single molecule. They do this by rearranging atoms within a molecule to form a new structural arrangement or isomer. Isomerases can act on various types of chemical bonds, including carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen bonds.

There are several subclasses of isomerases, including:

1. Racemases and epimerases: These enzymes interconvert stereoisomers, which are molecules that have the same molecular formula but different spatial arrangements of their atoms in three-dimensional space.
2. Cis-trans isomerases: These enzymes interconvert cis and trans isomers, which differ in the arrangement of groups on opposite sides of a double bond.
3. Intramolecular oxidoreductases: These enzymes catalyze the transfer of electrons within a single molecule, resulting in the formation of different isomers.
4. Mutases: These enzymes catalyze the transfer of functional groups within a molecule, resulting in the formation of different isomers.
5. Tautomeres: These enzymes catalyze the interconversion of tautomers, which are isomeric forms of a molecule that differ in the location of a movable hydrogen atom and a double bond.

Isomerases play important roles in various biological processes, including metabolism, signaling, and regulation.

Chromatography, gas (GC) is a type of chromatographic technique used to separate, identify, and analyze volatile compounds or vapors. In this method, the sample mixture is vaporized and carried through a column packed with a stationary phase by an inert gas (carrier gas). The components of the mixture get separated based on their partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases due to differences in their adsorption/desorption rates or solubility.

The separated components elute at different times, depending on their interaction with the stationary phase, which can be detected and quantified by various detection systems like flame ionization detector (FID), thermal conductivity detector (TCD), electron capture detector (ECD), or mass spectrometer (MS). Gas chromatography is widely used in fields such as chemistry, biochemistry, environmental science, forensics, and food analysis.

Mevalonic acid is not a term that is typically used in medical definitions, but rather it is a biochemical concept. Mevalonic acid is a key intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway for cholesterol and other isoprenoids. It is formed from 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which is the target of cholesterol-lowering drugs known as statins.

In a medical context, mevalonic acid may be mentioned in relation to certain rare genetic disorders, such as mevalonate kinase deficiency (MKD) or hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever syndrome (HIDS), which are caused by mutations in the gene encoding mevalonate kinase, an enzyme involved in the metabolism of mevalonic acid. These conditions can cause recurrent fevers, rashes, joint pain, and other symptoms.

Analytical chemistry techniques are a collection of methods and tools used to identify and quantify the chemical composition of matter. These techniques can be used to analyze the presence and amount of various chemicals in a sample, including ions, molecules, and atoms. Some common analytical chemistry techniques include:

1. Spectroscopy: This technique uses the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter to identify and quantify chemical species. There are many different types of spectroscopy, including UV-Vis, infrared (IR), fluorescence, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
2. Chromatography: This technique separates the components of a mixture based on their physical or chemical properties, such as size, charge, or polarity. Common types of chromatography include gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), and thin-layer chromatography (TLC).
3. Mass spectrometry: This technique uses the mass-to-charge ratio of ions to identify and quantify chemical species. It can be used in combination with other techniques, such as GC or LC, to provide structural information about unknown compounds.
4. Electrochemical methods: These techniques use the movement of electrons to measure the concentration of chemical species. Examples include potentiometry, voltammetry, and amperometry.
5. Thermal analysis: This technique uses changes in the physical or chemical properties of a sample as it is heated or cooled to identify and quantify chemical species. Examples include differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).

These are just a few examples of the many analytical chemistry techniques that are available. Each technique has its own strengths and limitations, and the choice of which to use will depend on the specific needs of the analysis.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.

Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

A multigene family is a group of genetically related genes that share a common ancestry and have similar sequences or structures. These genes are arranged in clusters on a chromosome and often encode proteins with similar functions. They can arise through various mechanisms, including gene duplication, recombination, and transposition. Multigene families play crucial roles in many biological processes, such as development, immunity, and metabolism. Examples of multigene families include the globin genes involved in oxygen transport, the immune system's major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes, and the cytochrome P450 genes associated with drug metabolism.

Triterpenes are a type of natural compound that are composed of six isoprene units and have the molecular formula C30H48. They are synthesized through the mevalonate pathway in plants, fungi, and some insects, and can be found in a wide variety of natural sources, including fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants.

Triterpenes have diverse structures and biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and cytotoxic effects. Some triterpenes are also used in traditional medicine, such as glycyrrhizin from licorice root and betulinic acid from the bark of birch trees.

Triterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their carbon skeletons, including squalene, lanostane, dammarane, and ursane derivatives. Some triterpenes are also modified through various biochemical reactions to form saponins, steroids, and other compounds with important biological activities.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "fruit" is not a medical term per se. It is a common term used to describe the part of a plant that develops from the ovary after flowering and contains seeds. However, in a nutritional or dietary context, "fruits" are often referred to as foods that are typically sweet and juicy, and come from plants' flowers. They are rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals, making them an essential part of a healthy diet. But in a strict medical sense, there isn't a specific definition for "fruit."

In the context of medicine, "odors" refer to smells or scents that are produced by certain medical conditions, substances, or bodily functions. These odors can sometimes provide clues about underlying health issues. For example, sweet-smelling urine could indicate diabetes, while foul-smelling breath might suggest a dental problem or gastrointestinal issue. However, it's important to note that while odors can sometimes be indicative of certain medical conditions, they are not always reliable diagnostic tools and should be considered in conjunction with other symptoms and medical tests.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "trees" is not a medical term. It is a common term used in various fields, including biology, ecology, and dendrology, to refer to a woody perennial plant with a single stem or trunk that supports branches and leaves in most species.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, please provide more context so I can offer an accurate and helpful response.

Stereoisomerism is a type of isomerism (structural arrangement of atoms) in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but differ in the three-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space. This occurs when the molecule contains asymmetric carbon atoms or other rigid structures that prevent free rotation, leading to distinct spatial arrangements of groups of atoms around a central point. Stereoisomers can have different chemical and physical properties, such as optical activity, boiling points, and reactivities, due to differences in their shape and the way they interact with other molecules.

There are two main types of stereoisomerism: enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) and diastereomers (non-mirror-image isomers). Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other, but cannot be superimposed on one another. Diastereomers, on the other hand, are non-mirror-image stereoisomers that have different physical and chemical properties.

Stereoisomerism is an important concept in chemistry and biology, as it can affect the biological activity of molecules, such as drugs and natural products. For example, some enantiomers of a drug may be active, while others are inactive or even toxic. Therefore, understanding stereoisomerism is crucial for designing and synthesizing effective and safe drugs.

According to the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), biological products are "products that are made from or contain a living organism or its derivatives, such as vaccines, blood and blood components, cells, genes, tissues, and proteins." These products can be composed of sugars, proteins, nucleic acids, or complex combinations of these substances, and they can come from many sources, including humans, animals, microorganisms, or plants.

Biological products are often used to diagnose, prevent, or treat a wide range of medical conditions, and they can be administered in various ways, such as through injection, inhalation, or topical application. Because biological products are derived from living organisms, their manufacturing processes can be complex and must be tightly controlled to ensure the safety, purity, and potency of the final product.

It's important to note that biological products are not the same as drugs, which are chemically synthesized compounds. While drugs are designed to interact with specific targets in the body, such as enzymes or receptors, biological products can have more complex and varied mechanisms of action, making them potentially more difficult to characterize and regulate.

Ozone (O3) is not a substance that is typically considered a component of health or medicine in the context of human body or physiology. It's actually a form of oxygen, but with three atoms instead of two, making it unstable and reactive. Ozone is naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere, where it forms a protective layer in the stratosphere that absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.

However, ozone can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on human health depending on its location and concentration. At ground level or in indoor environments, ozone is considered an air pollutant that can irritate the respiratory system and aggravate asthma symptoms when inhaled at high concentrations. It's important to note that ozone should not be confused with oxygen (O2), which is essential for human life and breathing.

'Medicago sativa' is the scientific name for a plant species more commonly known as alfalfa. In a medical context, alfalfa is often considered a herbal supplement and its medicinal properties include being a source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It has been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of conditions such as kidney problems, asthma, arthritis, and high cholesterol levels. However, it's important to note that the effectiveness of alfalfa for these uses is not conclusively established by scientific research and its use may have potential risks or interactions with certain medications. Always consult a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

Transferases are a class of enzymes that facilitate the transfer of specific functional groups (like methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups) from one molecule (the donor) to another (the acceptor). This transfer of a chemical group can alter the physical or chemical properties of the acceptor molecule and is a crucial process in various metabolic pathways. Transferases play essential roles in numerous biological processes, such as biosynthesis, detoxification, and catabolism.

The classification of transferases is based on the type of functional group they transfer:

1. Methyltransferases - transfer a methyl group (-CH3)
2. Acetyltransferases - transfer an acetyl group (-COCH3)
3. Aminotransferases or Transaminases - transfer an amino group (-NH2 or -NHR, where R is a hydrogen atom or a carbon-containing group)
4. Glycosyltransferases - transfer a sugar moiety (a glycosyl group)
5. Phosphotransferases - transfer a phosphate group (-PO3H2)
6. Sulfotransferases - transfer a sulfo group (-SO3H)
7. Acyltransferases - transfer an acyl group (a fatty acid or similar molecule)

These enzymes are identified and named according to the systematic nomenclature of enzymes developed by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB). The naming convention includes the class of enzyme, the specific group being transferred, and the molecules involved in the transfer reaction. For example, the enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose is named "glucokinase."

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify the chemical components of a mixture or compound. It works by ionizing the sample, generating charged molecules or fragments, and then measuring their mass-to-charge ratio in a vacuum. The resulting mass spectrum provides information about the molecular weight and structure of the analytes, allowing for identification and characterization.

In simpler terms, mass spectrometry is a method used to determine what chemicals are present in a sample and in what quantities, by converting the chemicals into ions, measuring their masses, and generating a spectrum that shows the relative abundances of each ion type.

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. They are responsible for various cellular functions, including photosynthesis, storage of starch, lipids, and proteins, and the production of pigments that give plants their color. The most common types of plastids are chloroplasts (which contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis), chromoplasts (which contain pigments such as carotenoids and are responsible for the yellow, orange, and red colors of fruits and flowers), and leucoplasts (which do not contain pigments and serve mainly as storage organelles). Plastids have their own DNA and can replicate themselves within the cell.

Pyrophosphatases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis or cleavage of pyrophosphate (PPi) into two inorganic phosphate (Pi) molecules. This reaction is essential for many biochemical processes, such as energy metabolism and biosynthesis pathways, where pyrophosphate is generated as a byproduct. By removing the pyrophosphate, pyrophosphatases help drive these reactions forward and maintain the thermodynamic equilibrium.

There are several types of pyrophosphatases found in various organisms and cellular compartments, including:

1. Inorganic Pyrophosphatase (PPiase): This enzyme is widely distributed across all kingdoms of life and is responsible for hydrolyzing inorganic pyrophosphate into two phosphates. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the cellular energy balance by ensuring that the reverse reaction, the formation of pyrophosphate from two phosphates, does not occur spontaneously.
2. Nucleotide Pyrophosphatases: These enzymes hydrolyze the pyrophosphate bond in nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) and deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), converting them into nucleoside monophosphates (NMPs) or deoxynucleoside monophosphates (dNMPs). This reaction is important for regulating the levels of NTPs and dNTPs in cells, which are necessary for DNA and RNA synthesis.
3. ATPases and GTPases: These enzymes belong to a larger family of P-loop NTPases that use the energy released from pyrophosphate bond hydrolysis to perform mechanical work or transport ions across membranes. Examples include the F1F0-ATP synthase, which synthesizes ATP using a proton gradient, and various molecular motors like myosin, kinesin, and dynein, which move along cytoskeletal filaments.

Overall, pyrophosphatases are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating the levels of nucleotides and providing energy for various cellular processes.

Ascomycota is a phylum in the kingdom Fungi, also known as sac fungi. This group includes both unicellular and multicellular organisms, such as yeasts, mold species, and morel mushrooms. Ascomycetes are characterized by their reproductive structures called ascus, which contain typically eight haploid spores produced sexually through a process called ascogony. Some members of this phylum have significant ecological and economic importance, as they can be decomposers, mutualistic symbionts, or plant pathogens causing various diseases. Examples include the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea, and morel mushroom Morchella esculenta.

Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a type of chromatography used to separate, identify, and quantify the components of a mixture. In TLC, the sample is applied as a small spot onto a thin layer of adsorbent material, such as silica gel or alumina, which is coated on a flat, rigid support like a glass plate. The plate is then placed in a developing chamber containing a mobile phase, typically a mixture of solvents.

As the mobile phase moves up the plate by capillary action, it interacts with the stationary phase and the components of the sample. Different components of the mixture travel at different rates due to their varying interactions with the stationary and mobile phases, resulting in distinct spots on the plate. The distance each component travels can be measured and compared to known standards to identify and quantify the components of the mixture.

TLC is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective technique that is widely used in various fields, including forensics, pharmaceuticals, and research laboratories. It allows for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures with high resolution and sensitivity, making it an essential tool in many analytical applications.

"Hairless mice" is a term used to describe strains of laboratory mice that lack a functional fur coat. This condition is also known as "nude mice." The hairlessness in these mice is caused by a genetic mutation that results in the absence or underdevelopment of hair follicles and a weakened immune system.

Hairless mice are often used in scientific research because their impaired immune systems make them more susceptible to certain diseases, allowing researchers to study the progression and treatment of those conditions in a controlled environment. Additionally, their lack of fur makes it easier to observe and monitor skin conditions and wounds. These mice are also used as models for human diseases such as cancer, AIDS, and autoimmune disorders.

A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.

Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:

1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.

Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

A gene in plants, like in other organisms, is a hereditary unit that carries genetic information from one generation to the next. It is a segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism. Genes in plants determine various traits such as flower color, plant height, resistance to diseases, and many others. They are responsible for encoding proteins and RNA molecules that play crucial roles in the growth, development, and reproduction of plants. Plant genes can be manipulated through traditional breeding methods or genetic engineering techniques to improve crop yield, enhance disease resistance, and increase nutritional value.

'Zea mays' is the biological name for corn or maize, which is not typically considered a medical term. However, corn or maize can have medical relevance in certain contexts. For example, cornstarch is sometimes used as a diluent for medications and is also a component of some skin products. Corn oil may be found in topical ointments and creams. In addition, some people may have allergic reactions to corn or corn-derived products. But generally speaking, 'Zea mays' itself does not have a specific medical definition.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, thereby allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly and efficiently. This can be particularly important in biological systems, where enzymes act as catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions that are essential for life.

Pharmaceutical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the design, synthesis, and development of chemical entities used as medications. It involves the study of drugs' physical, chemical, and biological properties, as well as their interactions with living organisms. This field also encompasses understanding the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of drugs in the body, which are critical factors in drug design and development. Pharmaceutical chemists often work closely with biologists, medical professionals, and engineers to develop new medications and improve existing ones.

Fungi, in the context of medical definitions, are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Fungi can exist as unicellular organisms or as multicellular filamentous structures called hyphae. They are heterotrophs, which means they obtain their nutrients by decomposing organic matter or by living as parasites on other organisms. Some fungi can cause various diseases in humans, animals, and plants, known as mycoses. These infections range from superficial, localized skin infections to systemic, life-threatening invasive diseases.

Examples of fungal infections include athlete's foot (tinea pedis), ringworm (dermatophytosis), candidiasis (yeast infection), histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Fungal infections can be challenging to treat due to the limited number of antifungal drugs available and the potential for drug resistance.

Acetates, in a medical context, most commonly refer to compounds that contain the acetate group, which is an functional group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom (-COO-). An example of an acetate is sodium acetate (CH3COONa), which is a salt formed from acetic acid (CH3COOH) and is often used as a buffering agent in medical solutions.

Acetates can also refer to a group of medications that contain acetate as an active ingredient, such as magnesium acetate, which is used as a laxative, or calcium acetate, which is used to treat high levels of phosphate in the blood.

In addition, acetates can also refer to a process called acetylation, which is the addition of an acetyl group (-COCH3) to a molecule. This process can be important in the metabolism and regulation of various substances within the body.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which an organism converts carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids using enzymes. In the absence of oxygen, certain bacteria, yeasts, and fungi convert sugars into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and various end products, such as alcohol, lactic acid, or acetic acid. This process is commonly used in food production, such as in making bread, wine, and beer, as well as in industrial applications for the production of biofuels and chemicals.

X-ray crystallography is a technique used in structural biology to determine the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal and diffracts, or spreads out, into a pattern of spots called reflections. The intensity and angle of each reflection are measured and used to create an electron density map, which reveals the position and type of atoms in the crystal. This information can be used to determine the molecular structure of a compound, including its shape, size, and chemical bonds. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of biological macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hordeum" is not a medical term. It is actually the genus name for barley in botany. If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to explain, please let me know!

Molecular conformation, also known as spatial arrangement or configuration, refers to the specific three-dimensional shape and orientation of atoms that make up a molecule. It describes the precise manner in which bonds between atoms are arranged around a molecular framework, taking into account factors such as bond lengths, bond angles, and torsional angles.

Conformational isomers, or conformers, are different spatial arrangements of the same molecule that can interconvert without breaking chemical bonds. These isomers may have varying energies, stability, and reactivity, which can significantly impact a molecule's biological activity and function. Understanding molecular conformation is crucial in fields such as drug design, where small changes in conformation can lead to substantial differences in how a drug interacts with its target.

A plant disease is a disorder that affects the normal growth and development of plants, caused by pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or nematodes, as well as environmental factors like nutrient deficiencies, extreme temperatures, or physical damage. These diseases can cause various symptoms, including discoloration, wilting, stunted growth, necrosis, and reduced yield or productivity, which can have significant economic and ecological impacts.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

Gene expression regulation, enzymologic refers to the biochemical processes and mechanisms that control the transcription and translation of specific genes into functional proteins or enzymes. This regulation is achieved through various enzymatic activities that can either activate or repress gene expression at different levels, such as chromatin remodeling, transcription factor activation, mRNA processing, and protein degradation.

Enzymologic regulation of gene expression involves the action of specific enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions involved in these processes. For example, histone-modifying enzymes can alter the structure of chromatin to make genes more or less accessible for transcription, while RNA polymerase and its associated factors are responsible for transcribing DNA into mRNA. Additionally, various enzymes are involved in post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA, such as splicing, capping, and tailing, which can affect the stability and translation of the transcript.

Overall, the enzymologic regulation of gene expression is a complex and dynamic process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment and maintain proper physiological function.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

I apologize for any confusion, but "plants" is not a term that has a medical definition. The term "plants" refers to a large and diverse group of organisms that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, which is the process of converting sunlight into chemical energy. Plants are typically characterized by having cells with cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll, and the ability to synthesize their own food through photosynthesis.

In a medical or biological context, you might be thinking of "plant-based" or "phytomedicine," which refer to the use of plants or plant extracts as a form of medicine or treatment. Phytomedicines have been used for thousands of years in many traditional systems of medicine, and some plant-derived compounds have been found to have therapeutic benefits in modern medicine as well. However, "plants" itself does not have a medical definition.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

Tobacco is not a medical term, but it refers to the leaves of the plant Nicotiana tabacum that are dried and fermented before being used in a variety of ways. Medically speaking, tobacco is often referred to in the context of its health effects. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "tobacco" can also refer to any product prepared from the leaf of the tobacco plant for smoking, sucking, chewing or snuffing.

Tobacco use is a major risk factor for a number of diseases, including cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung disease, and various other medical conditions. The smoke produced by burning tobacco contains thousands of chemicals, many of which are toxic and can cause serious health problems. Nicotine, one of the primary active constituents in tobacco, is highly addictive and can lead to dependence.

Terpenes are a large and diverse class of organic compounds produced by a variety of plants, including cannabis. They are responsible for the distinctive aromas and flavors found in different strains of cannabis. Terpenes have been found to have various therapeutic benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial properties. Some terpenes may also enhance the psychoactive effects of THC, the main psychoactive compound in cannabis. It's important to note that more research is needed to fully understand the potential medical benefits and risks associated with terpenes.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

The Cytochrome P-450 (CYP450) enzyme system is a group of enzymes found primarily in the liver, but also in other organs such as the intestines, lungs, and skin. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism and biotransformation of various substances, including drugs, environmental toxins, and endogenous compounds like hormones and fatty acids.

The name "Cytochrome P-450" refers to the unique property of these enzymes to bind to carbon monoxide (CO) and form a complex that absorbs light at a wavelength of 450 nm, which can be detected spectrophotometrically.

The CYP450 enzyme system is involved in Phase I metabolism of xenobiotics, where it catalyzes oxidation reactions such as hydroxylation, dealkylation, and epoxidation. These reactions introduce functional groups into the substrate molecule, which can then undergo further modifications by other enzymes during Phase II metabolism.

There are several families and subfamilies of CYP450 enzymes, each with distinct substrate specificities and functions. Some of the most important CYP450 enzymes include:

1. CYP3A4: This is the most abundant CYP450 enzyme in the human liver and is involved in the metabolism of approximately 50% of all drugs. It also metabolizes various endogenous compounds like steroids, bile acids, and vitamin D.
2. CYP2D6: This enzyme is responsible for the metabolism of many psychotropic drugs, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and beta-blockers. It also metabolizes some endogenous compounds like dopamine and serotonin.
3. CYP2C9: This enzyme plays a significant role in the metabolism of warfarin, phenytoin, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
4. CYP2C19: This enzyme is involved in the metabolism of proton pump inhibitors, antidepressants, and clopidogrel.
5. CYP2E1: This enzyme metabolizes various xenobiotics like alcohol, acetaminophen, and carbon tetrachloride, as well as some endogenous compounds like fatty acids and prostaglandins.

Genetic polymorphisms in CYP450 enzymes can significantly affect drug metabolism and response, leading to interindividual variability in drug efficacy and toxicity. Understanding the role of CYP450 enzymes in drug metabolism is crucial for optimizing pharmacotherapy and minimizing adverse effects.

A catalytic domain is a portion or region within a protein that contains the active site, where the chemical reactions necessary for the protein's function are carried out. This domain is responsible for the catalysis of biological reactions, hence the name "catalytic domain." The catalytic domain is often composed of specific amino acid residues that come together to form the active site, creating a unique three-dimensional structure that enables the protein to perform its specific function.

In enzymes, for example, the catalytic domain contains the residues that bind and convert substrates into products through chemical reactions. In receptors, the catalytic domain may be involved in signal transduction or other regulatory functions. Understanding the structure and function of catalytic domains is crucial to understanding the mechanisms of protein function and can provide valuable insights for drug design and therapeutic interventions.

Secondary protein structure refers to the local spatial arrangement of amino acid chains in a protein, typically described as regular repeating patterns held together by hydrogen bonds. The two most common types of secondary structures are the alpha-helix (α-helix) and the beta-pleated sheet (β-sheet). In an α-helix, the polypeptide chain twists around itself in a helical shape, with each backbone atom forming a hydrogen bond with the fourth amino acid residue along the chain. This forms a rigid rod-like structure that is resistant to bending or twisting forces. In β-sheets, adjacent segments of the polypeptide chain run parallel or antiparallel to each other and are connected by hydrogen bonds, forming a pleated sheet-like arrangement. These secondary structures provide the foundation for the formation of tertiary and quaternary protein structures, which determine the overall three-dimensional shape and function of the protein.

"Mycobacterium" is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their complex cell walls containing large amounts of lipids. This genus includes several species that are significant in human and animal health, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy. Other species of Mycobacterium can cause various diseases in humans, including skin and soft tissue infections, lung infections, and disseminated disease in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria are often resistant to common disinfectants and antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

A chemical model is a simplified representation or description of a chemical system, based on the laws of chemistry and physics. It is used to explain and predict the behavior of chemicals and chemical reactions. Chemical models can take many forms, including mathematical equations, diagrams, and computer simulations. They are often used in research, education, and industry to understand complex chemical processes and develop new products and technologies.

For example, a chemical model might be used to describe the way that atoms and molecules interact in a particular reaction, or to predict the properties of a new material. Chemical models can also be used to study the behavior of chemicals at the molecular level, such as how they bind to each other or how they are affected by changes in temperature or pressure.

It is important to note that chemical models are simplifications of reality and may not always accurately represent every aspect of a chemical system. They should be used with caution and validated against experimental data whenever possible.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

The rumen is the largest compartment of the stomach in ruminant animals, such as cows, goats, and sheep. It is a specialized fermentation chamber where microbes break down tough plant material into nutrients that the animal can absorb and use for energy and growth. The rumen contains billions of microorganisms, including bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, which help to break down cellulose and other complex carbohydrates in the plant material through fermentation.

The rumen is characterized by its large size, muscular walls, and the presence of a thick mat of partially digested food and microbes called the rumen mat or cud. The animal regurgitates the rumen contents periodically to chew it again, which helps to break down the plant material further and mix it with saliva, creating a more favorable environment for fermentation.

The rumen plays an essential role in the digestion and nutrition of ruminant animals, allowing them to thrive on a diet of low-quality plant material that would be difficult for other animals to digest.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

A conserved sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to a pattern of nucleotides (in DNA or RNA) or amino acids (in proteins) that has remained relatively unchanged over evolutionary time. These sequences are often functionally important and are highly conserved across different species, indicating strong selection pressure against changes in these regions.

In the case of protein-coding genes, the corresponding amino acid sequence is deduced from the DNA sequence through the genetic code. Conserved sequences in proteins may indicate structurally or functionally important regions, such as active sites or binding sites, that are critical for the protein's activity. Similarly, conserved non-coding sequences in DNA may represent regulatory elements that control gene expression.

Identifying conserved sequences can be useful for inferring evolutionary relationships between species and for predicting the function of unknown genes or proteins.

Animal feed refers to any substance or mixture of substances, whether processed, unprocessed, or partially processed, which is intended to be used as food for animals, including fish, without further processing. It includes ingredients such as grains, hay, straw, oilseed meals, and by-products from the milling, processing, and manufacturing industries. Animal feed can be in the form of pellets, crumbles, mash, or other forms, and is used to provide nutrients such as energy, protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals to support the growth, reproduction, and maintenance of animals. It's important to note that animal feed must be safe, nutritious, and properly labeled to ensure the health and well-being of the animals that consume it.

Gene expression profiling is a laboratory technique used to measure the activity (expression) of thousands of genes at once. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to identify which genes are turned on or off in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions, such as during health, disease, development, or in response to various treatments.

The process typically involves isolating RNA from the cells or tissues of interest, converting it into complementary DNA (cDNA), and then using microarray or high-throughput sequencing technologies to determine which genes are expressed and at what levels. The resulting data can be used to identify patterns of gene expression that are associated with specific biological states or processes, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of diseases and potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

In recent years, gene expression profiling has become an essential tool in various fields, including cancer research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, where it is used to identify biomarkers of disease, predict patient outcomes, and guide treatment decisions.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Cytosol refers to the liquid portion of the cytoplasm found within a eukaryotic cell, excluding the organelles and structures suspended in it. It is the site of various metabolic activities and contains a variety of ions, small molecules, and enzymes. The cytosol is where many biochemical reactions take place, including glycolysis, protein synthesis, and the regulation of cellular pH. It is also where some organelles, such as ribosomes and vesicles, are located. In contrast to the cytosol, the term "cytoplasm" refers to the entire contents of a cell, including both the cytosol and the organelles suspended within it.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

The terpene alpha-pinene is a major component of the common solvent, turpentine. The term terpene was coined in 1866 by the ... A few terpenes are linked "tail to tail", and larger branched terpenes may be linked "tail to mid". Strictly speaking all ... The one terpene that has major applications is natural rubber (i.e., polyisoprene). The possibility that other terpenes could ... Terpenes at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Pope, Frank George (1911). "Terpenes" . In ...
... N terminal domain Terpene synthase C terminal domain This disambiguation page lists articles associated with ... Terpene synthases include: β-farnesene synthase (3R,6E)-nerolidol synthase (-)-α-pinene synthase (E)-β-ocimene synthase These ... the title Terpene synthase. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended ...
Terpene synthase C terminal domain Chen F, Tholl D, Bohlmann J, Pichersky E (2011). "The family of terpene synthases in plants ... In molecular biology, this protein domain belongs to the terpene synthase family (TPS). Its role is to synthesize terpenes, ... Terpenes synthases have a role in producing important molecules in metabolism, these molecules are part of a large group called ... Sequences containing this protein domain belong to the terpene synthase family. It has been suggested that this gene family be ...
Terpene synthase N terminal domain Starks CM, Back K, Chappell J, Noel JP (1997). "Structural basis for cyclic terpene ... In molecular biology, this protein domain belongs to the terpene synthase family (TPS). Its role is to synthesize terpenes, ... Terpenes synthases have a role in producing important molecules in metabolism, these molecules are part of a large group called ... Sequences containing this protein domain belong to the terpene synthase family. It has been suggested that this gene family be ...
Eggersdorfer, Manfred (15 June 2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi: ...
Simonsen, J.; Barton, D. H. R. (1952). The Terpenes. Vol. 111. Cambridge University Press, London. Büchi, G.; Macleod, W. D. ( ... Büchi, G.; Erickson, R. E.; Wakabyashi, N. (1961). "Terpenes. XVI. Constitution of Patchouli Alcohol and Absolute Configuration ...
Of the several terpenes extracted from Humulus lupulus (hops), the largest monoterpenes fraction is β-myrcene. One study of the ... "Myrcene Terpene for Extracts, vape and concentrates". ElevationTerpenes. Retrieved 2020-12-03. Baser, K. H. C.; Demirci, B.; ... Interestingly, photo-oxidation of myrcene has been shown to rearrange the molecule into a novel terpene known as "hashishene" ... M. Eggersdorfer (2005). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007. ...
Breitmaier, Eberhand (2007). Terpenes. Wiley-VCH. p. 44. ISBN 978-3-527-60910-9. Retrieved 12 September 2010. Lorenzen, K.; ...
Cuminum cyminum Melaleuca alternifolia Cannabis Origanum syriacum Coriandrum sativum M. Eggersdorfer (2005). "Terpenes". ...
... is a set of isomeric terpenes. Existing as chiral cis and trans isomers, they arise from the hydrogenation of pinene. ... Eggersdorfer, Manfred (2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/ ...
Wiart, Christopher (2014). "Terpenes". Lead Compounds from Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Neurodegenerative Diseases. ... Thymol is one of many terpenes found in plants. Medicinal plants demand intensive management. Different species each require ... doi:10.1016/C2011-0-09611-4. ISBN 978-0-12-398373-2. Tchen, T. T. (1965). "The Biosynthesis of Steroids, Terpenes and ... Polyphenols include phytoestrogens (top and middle), mimics of animal estrogen (bottom). Terpenes and terpenoids of many kinds ...
Eggersdorfer, Manfred (2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/ ... "In-vitro inhibition of human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by Salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil and constituent terpenes ...
"Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a26_205. ISBN 3-527-30673- ...
Buchi, G.; MacLeod, William D.; Padilla, J. (1964-10-01). "Terpenes. XIX.1 Synthesis of Patchouli Alcohol2". Journal of the ... Büchi, G.; Erickson, R. E.; Wakabayashi, Nobel (1961-02-01). "Terpenes. XVI.1,2 Constitution of Patchouli Alcohol and Absolute ... Patchoulene oxide (1) could be accessed from terpene patchoulol (52) through a series of acid-catalyzed carbocation ... This epoxide can be obtained in two steps from the terpene patchoulol and also from borneol. The reaction sequence is also ...
... is a collection of bicyclic terpenoid derived from the terpene pinene, but containing a tertiary alcohol. Both cis ... Eggersdorfer, Manfred (2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/ ...
Gingerol sequiphellandrene Herout, Vlastimil; Benesova, Vera; Pliva, Josef (1953). "Terpenes. XLI. Sesquiterpenes of ginger oil ...
Record in the GESTIS Substance Database of the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health M. Eggersdorfer (2005). "Terpenes ...
M. Eggersdorfer (2005). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007. ...
Eggersdorfer, Manfred (2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/ ...
Eggersdorfer, Manfred (2000). "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/ ... Linalool (/lɪˈnæloʊɒl, laɪ-, -loʊoʊl, -ˈluːl/) refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many ... March 2019). "Analysis of Terpenes in Cannabis sativa L. Using GC/MS: Method Development, Validation, and Application". Planta ... "The biochemical and molecular basis for the divergent patterns in the biosynthesis of terpenes and phenylpropenes in the ...
As for other terpenes, it is insoluble in water, flammable, colorless, and has a pungent smell. It is a minor constituent of ... "Terpenes". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a26_205. Pino, Jorge A.; ...
Simonsen, John Lionel (1957). The Terpenes. University Press. p. 383. v t e (Articles without InChI source, Articles without ...
Rom terpenes. Orchid scents Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the ... Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or ... For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be inexpensively synthesized from terpenes. ...
Wallach, O. (1912). "Zur Kenntnis der Terpene und der Ätherischen Öle" [Regarding Terpenes and Essential Oils]. Liebigs Ann. ... Nelson, E. K. (1947). "Chapter 5: Oxides: Ascaridole". The Terpenes. Vol. 2. CUP Archive. pp. 446-452. Pape, M. (1975). " ...
De Carvalho, C. C. C. R.; Da Fonseca, M. M. R. (2006). "Carvone: Why and how should one bother to produce this terpene". Food ... Simonsen, J. L. (1953). The Terpenes. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 394-408. ...
Weitkamp, A. W. (1959). "I. The Action of Sulfur on Terpenes. The Limonene Sulfides". Journal of the American Chemical Society ... Simonsen, J. L. (1947). The Terpenes. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. OCLC 477048261.[page needed] Pakdel, H. ( ... ISBN 0-582-06009-5. Booth, Judith K.; Page, Jonathan E.; Bohlmann, Jörg (29 March 2017). Hamberger, Björn (ed.). "Terpene ...
Suchý, M.; Herout, V.; Šorm, F. (1960). "On terpenes. CVI. On hydrogenation products of cynaropicrin, the bitter principle of ...
... is an organic compound of the terpene class, one of two isomers of pinene. It is an alkene and it contains a reactive ... α-Pinene is one of the many terpenes and terpenoids found in cannabis plants. These compounds are also present in significant ... It is widely theorized by scientists and cannabis experts alike that these terpenes and terpenoids contribute significantly to ... Simonsen, J. L. (1957). The Terpenes. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 105-191. PDR for Herbal ...
"The Effects of Pressure on Supercritical Extraction". Terpenes and Testing. January 2019. Retrieved 2019-07-11. Levy, David A ...
Majority of terpenes found in cannabis are hydrocarbons, which are a direct product of terpene synthase (TPS) enzymes. The ... Terpenes are a key component in chemotaxonomical classification of cannabis strains as terpene composition is a phenotypic ... Because terpenes and terpenoids are biologically active molecules, it is possible variations in terpenes may elicit different ... The lack of exact standards makes it sometimes difficult for scientists to classify new terpenes. Terpene profiles are subject ...
The terpene alpha-pinene is a major component of the common solvent, turpentine. The term terpene was coined in 1866 by the ... A few terpenes are linked "tail to tail", and larger branched terpenes may be linked "tail to mid". Strictly speaking all ... The one terpene that has major applications is natural rubber (i.e., polyisoprene). The possibility that other terpenes could ... Terpenes at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Pope, Frank George (1911). "Terpenes" . In ...
If you asked a botanist what are terpenes they would tell you they are the essential oils of plants. Most people use the term ... Terpenes have been mentioned with much more frequency among cannabis consumers over the last couple of years. ... Terpene Effects. There are hundreds of terpenes. Each terpene has a unique scent and many have been studied for their unique ... Now, most people use the term when referring to cannabis terpenes.. What is a Terpene?. The word terpene is searched about five ...
Terpenes may be found in cleaning products, rubefacients, aromatherapy, and various topical preparations. ... Terpenes are natural products derived from plants that have medicinal properties and biological activity. ... The best-known terpene compounds are camphor oil and turpentine. [3] The antineoplastic agent paclitaxel is a terpene derived ... Terpenes are natural products derived from plants that have medicinal properties and biological activity. Terpenes may be found ...
Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances. Edited by: Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel. ISBN 978-1-83881-916-3, ... 3. Terpene Compounds of New Tunisian Extra-Virgin Olive Oil: Effect of Ripening Stage By Bechir Baccouri and Imene Rajhi ... 8. Effects of Terpenes and Terpenoids of Natural Occurrence in Essential Oils on Vascular Smooth Muscle and on Systemic Blood ... Terpenes belong to the diverse class of chemical constituents isolated from materials found in nature. They play a very ...
Here we report the first discovery of an epistatic network of residues that controls the onset of terpene cyclization in ... a pair of terpene synthases that produce cyclic or linear terpenes, respectively. A library of ~27,000 enzymes is generated by ... The emergence of terpene cyclization was critical to the evolutionary expansion of chemical diversity yet remains unexplored. ... Here we report the first discovery of an epistatic network of residues that controls the onset of terpene cyclization in ...
PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- ABSTRAX, a leader in the study and production of botanically-derived and cannabis-inspired terpenes, ... These terpene blends are compliant with the strictest state regulations by using naturally and botanically derived terpenes and ... Now consumers have the ability to enjoy a botanical terpene blend that tastes and smells like cannabis terpenes, without the ... The terpene industry is a rapidly growing segment of the global flavor and fragrance market, which is expected to grow to $35 ...
The flavorful terpene oils in cannabis could be just as important as the THC for getting you high. ... In general terms, terpenes - both terpene oils and terpenoids - are strong smelling oils produced by a vast multitude of plants ... Many of the terpenes found in pot have alleged medical effects, from the anti-inflammatory effects of β-myrcene to D-linalools ... Medicine aside, terpenes are thought to have a major role to play in the cannabis experience as well. Its thought that the ...
The Role of Terpenes in Cannabis. Enter terpenes, the key to unlocking the vast potential and diversity of cannabis. They craft ... Prominent Terpenes in Cannabis. While over 200 terpenes have been identified in cannabis, some stand out due to their ... The Therapeutic Potential of Terpenes. Beyond their aromatic allure, terpenes are gaining attention for their potential ... Some terpenes possess properties that can be anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, or analgesic, while others might enhance mood, ...
Cannabidiol, or CBD as its frequently called, is an incredibly appealing chemical. Its the reason lots of individuals have begun transforming their
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Learn about Trinity Terpenes including who they are, their products, and where you can find them. ... That niche was terpenes. Terpenes spoke to us. Terpenes are everywhere and yet nobody was talking about it, and its what ... Trinity Terpenes makes premium terpene infused Cannabis products in California. TerpClouds - Cannabis Derived Terpene Infused ... TerpBites - Cannabis Derived Terpene Infused Gummies. ~~~~~~~. GOING FROM LAB TO WEED. Trinity Terpenes started in 2016. The ...
Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in plants, and they have more of an impact on the quality of your weed than you might ... To roll it all up, terpenes matter a lot! Unless you plan on plugging your nose while you smoke, vape, or dab, terpenes are ... Citrus fruits and aromatic herbs are, of course, both high in terpenes, but their types of terpenes are what cause them to ... There are countless variations of terpene types (also known as the terpene profile or terp profile) in any given marijuana ...
All the data presented in our study show that the terpene-rich A. cherimola ethanolic leaf extract exhibits an anti- ... The pro-apoptotic effect of a Terpene-rich Annona cherimola leaf extract on leukemic cell lines BMC Complement Altern Med. 2019 ... Conclusion: All the data presented in our study show that the terpene-rich A. cherimola ethanolic leaf extract exhibits an anti ... These effects may be attributed to the presence of terpenes which constitute a large component of the leafy extract, as ...
Cannabidiol, or CBD as its regularly called, is an incredibly appealing chemical. Its the factor lots of individuals have actually begun changing their
The most widely represented class of hydrocarbons in EOs is the terpenes. ... The most widely represented class of hydrocarbons in essential oils is the terpenes. The basic unit of every variety of terpene ...
Lab Report for Loxa Beauty CBD Muscle Gel + Clementine Terpene - 100ml - 1000mg
Papiez, M. R., Potosnak, M. J., Goliff, W. S. (2006). The Impacts of Reactive Terpene Emissions From Plants on the Air Quality ... The Impacts of Reactive Terpene Emissions From Plants on the Air Quality of Las Vegas, Nevada. Mar 4, 2022 ...
Get details and read the latest customer reviews about Pink RNTZ Sauce Terpene Profile by ABSTRAX TECH on Leafly. ... and formulate our own cannabis terpene profiles. Every other terpene company is relying on third-party labs to perform ... Note: Native Series Terpenes must be stored in a refrigerator to preserve the wonderful sensitive aroma of cannabis. If it is ... Other terpene companies might as well be formulating in the dark.. Every single one of Abstraxs products, from our Native ...
Nine cannabis terpene synthases (CsTPS) were identified in subfamilies TPS-a and TPS-b. Functional characterization identified ... Transcripts associated with terpene biosynthesis are highly expressed in trichomes compared to non-resin producing tissues. ... Knowledge of the CsTPS gene family may offer opportunities for selection and improvement of terpene profiles of interest in ... Transcriptome analysis of trichomes of the cannabis hemp variety Finola revealed sequences of all stages of terpene ...
The Fumagillin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Aspergillus fumigatus Encodes a Cryptic Terpene Cyclase Involved in the Formation ... Title : The Fumagillin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Aspergillus fumigatus Encodes a Cryptic Terpene Cyclase Involved in the ... "The Fumagillin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Aspergillus fumigatus Encodes a Cryptic Terpene Cyclase Involved in the Formation ... "The Fumagillin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster in Aspergillus fumigatus Encodes a Cryptic Terpene Cyclase Involved in the Formation ...
Terpene Tournament II Hosted By The Café Rack . Event starts on Tuesday, 6 June 2023 and happening at Cafe Rack, Emeryville, CA ...
Superior terpene extracts are isolated via ultrasonic extraction. Learn all about the ultrasonic equipment and its easy ... Ultrasonic terpene extraction has been proven to give high yields of terpene caryophyllene oxide, e.g. from cannabis and hops. ... Ultrasonic terpene extraction stands out as a green extraction method, that allows to accelerate the terpene extraction ... Caryophyllene oxide is a terpene found in cannabis, hops, pepper, basil and rosemary. As an active compound, extracted terpene ...
The Top 5 Terpenes: A Very Subjective List. *Myrcene. We have to start with this one because its the most abundant terpene in ... Do terpenes make you high?. Do they get you high? Terpenes wont make you feel high in the traditional sense. Still, some are ... What is the most popular terpene?. These are some of the most popular terpenes you will find in cannabis:. *Pinene. One of the ... What are terpene flavors?. Secreted in the same glands that produce cannabinoids like THC and CBD, terpenes are aromatic oils ...
A Sativa Gummies of sativa terpenes that are said to give consumers a boost and a great feeling of energizing their day. Each ... Sativa Gummies - A Sweet Blend of Sativa Terpenes. November 3, 2023November 3, 2023, armandhammeressearmandhammeresse, 0 ... Sativa Gummies - A Sweet Blend of Sativa Terpenes About Leslie. Leslie Lee is an expert in decoration at ARM & HAMMER ... A Sativa Gummies of sativa terpenes that are said to give consumers a boost and a great feeling of energizing their day. Each ...
Decrease quantity for Pawtanical Full Spectrum Hemp Terpene Oil 30ml - 2150ml Increase quantity for Pawtanical Full Spectrum ...
Betty C. R. Zhu, Gregg Henderson, Huixin Fei, Xiao Ying, Roger A. Laine; Terpene-lnduced Morphological Changes to Exoskeleton ... Subject: Terpene-lnduced Morphological Changes to Exoskeleton of Formosan Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): ... Terpene-lnduced Morphological Changes to Exoskeleton of Formosan Subterranean Termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae): Toxic ... Recipient(s) will receive an email with a link to Terpene-lnduced Morphological Changes to Exoskeleton of Formosan ...
True Terpenes - Jack available in the following sizes: 15mL, and 30mL. ...
Peach Mango Watermelon terpenes combine the juicy flavors of peach and mango with the sweet, summery taste of watermelon. Its ... Our Solvent Free Terpene Blends are derived from high quality, individual isolated terpenes. These organic terpenes are ... This terpene blend contains natural aromatic materials such as esters, aldehydes, and ketones, in addition to terpenes. These ... Extract Consultants line of terpene blends and terpene flavors are specifically designed to work directly with oil based ...
Strawberry Kush Orange County CBD Terpenes Disposable Vape is portable and packed with 600mg of broad-spectrum CBD, for a tasty ... CBD Terpenes Strawberry Kush 600mg. Ingredients: Broad Spectrum Hemp Derived Cannabidiol (CBD) 600mg per 1ml, Natural Terpenes ... Orange County CBD Strawberry Haze CBD Terpenes Vape Pen 1ml. This Orange County CBD disposable vape is a Sativa-dominant, ... A blend of organic terpenes is used in the creation of Strawberry Kush. The components which are extracted together with the ...
Cannabis-derived terpenes are prefered by many consumers, but these products may not be ideal for companies looking to scale up ... Cannabis-derived terpenes vs botanical. There are two camps when it comes to terpenes found in cannabis products like vape ... Terpene sourcing for cannabis products. Stiiizy is one cannabis company that uses cannabis-derived terpenes in its vape pods. ... So which terpenes are better?. Though botanical terpenes are touted as scalable and reliable, the diehard cannabis-derived fans ...
  • The most prevalent terpene found in cannabis is myrcene. (hightimes.com)
  • These terpene blends are compliant with the strictest state regulations by using naturally and botanically derived terpenes and aroma compounds that are also natively found in cannabis. (prweb.com)
  • There are two camps when it comes to terpenes found in cannabis products like vape carts and edibles . (greenstate.com)
  • Terpenes work with CBD and THC compound that can be found in cannabis plants to bind the cannabinoid receptors in our bodies and brains. (commerceng.org)
  • While cannabis websites, and even some scientific studies, often cite that there are as many as 200 different terpenes found in cannabis, only about 50 of them are regularly encountered in North America and even fewer are regularly tested for. (cannigma.com)
  • Although sometimes used interchangeably with "terpenes", terpenoids (or isoprenoids) are modified terpenes that contain additional functional groups, usually oxygen-containing. (wikipedia.org)
  • The terms terpenes and terpenoids are often used interchangeably, however. (wikipedia.org)
  • Furthermore, terpenes are produced from terpenoids and many terpenoids are produced from terpenes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The number of terpenes and terpenoids is estimated at 55,000 chemical entities. (wikipedia.org)
  • Terpenes and terpenoids are also the primary constituents of the essential oils of many types of plants and flowers. (wikipedia.org)
  • In plants, terpenes and terpenoids are important mediators of ecological interactions. (wikipedia.org)
  • For example, turpentine, a mixture of terpenes (e.g., pinene), obtained from the distillation of pine tree resin, is used as an organic solvent and as a chemical feedstock (mainly for the production of other terpenoids). (wikipedia.org)
  • Terpenoids are similar to the terpene with one minor difference. (hightimes.com)
  • Terpenoids are terpenes that have been denatured by oxidation. (hightimes.com)
  • Terpenes may exist as hydrocarbons or have oxygen-containing compounds such as ketone or aldehyde groups (terpenoids). (medscape.com)
  • This book provides an overview and highlights recent research in the phytochemical and biological understanding of terpenes and terpenoids, examining the most essential functions of these kinds of secondary metabolites. (intechopen.com)
  • Dear Librarian, I would like to recommend the following IntechOpen book to be added to our library catalog: TITLE: 'Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances' PRINT ISBN: 978-1-83881-916-3 Libraries are offered a 20% discount on retail book prices. (intechopen.com)
  • While most of the alleged strains of weed out there are more or less made up , there is a wealth of flavorful ingredients naturally found in marijuana called terpene oils , closely related chemically to compounds called terpenoids. (inverse.com)
  • And while terpenoids and terpene oils provide the aromas and flavors of countless plants, recent scientific investigations suggest that all the terpene oils in the devil's lettuce are responsible for so much more. (inverse.com)
  • In general terms, terpenes - both terpene oils and terpenoids - are strong smelling oils produced by a vast multitude of plants and some animals. (inverse.com)
  • You may encounter the terms terpenoids, mono-terpenes, and sesqui-terpenes in terpene-related literature. (cannigma.com)
  • Terpenoids are simply oxygen-containing terpenes. (cannigma.com)
  • The addition of terpenes creates an entourage effect that involves the interaction of cannabinoids and terpenoids and enhances the effects of each component as a result. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • Functional characterization identified mono- and sesqui-TPS, whose products collectively comprise most of the terpenes of 'Finola' resin, including major compounds such as ß-myrcene, (E)-ß-ocimene, (-)-limonene, (+)-a-pinene, ß-caryophyllene, and a-humulene. (pacb.com)
  • Besides β-caryophyllene oxide, other terpenes such as α-caryophyllene, α-pinene, mycrene, limonene, and α-caryophylene amongst others were successfully extracted. (hielscher.com)
  • The limonene terpene has lemony, citrusy and orange scent and taste. (commerceng.org)
  • Terpenes like limonene, pinene, myrcene, beta-caryophyllene, and linalool are thought to be some of the biggest contributors to hemp's entourage effect. (jasperorganics.com)
  • Limonene - takes its name from the lemon, as the rind of the lemon, like other citrus fruits, contains considerable amounts of this terpene which also has an overwhelmingly pleasant aroma. (mdgreenery.com)
  • We found total VOC conversion to be dominated by reactions both with O3, which almost solely reacted with D-limonene, and also with OH, which reacted with D-limonene, other terpenes, alcohols, aldehydes, and aromatics. (cdc.gov)
  • The recent emphasis on "natural" or "green" cleaning products has led to an increase in the use of terpenes (hydrocarbons produced by plants-particularly conifers) like alpha-pinene, limonene and delta-carene in cleaners and air fresheners. (cdc.gov)
  • Terpenes (/ˈtɜːrpiːn/) are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n ≥ 2. (wikipedia.org)
  • The best-known terpene compounds are camphor oil and turpentine. (medscape.com)
  • IRVINE, Calif. , March 12, 2020 /PRNewswire-PRWeb/ -- ABSTRAX, a leader in the study and production of botanically-derived and cannabis-inspired terpenes, announces the launch of its groundbreaking "Native Series" after recently unveiling its breakthrough discovery of "The Gas" aroma compounds inherent to cannabis. (prweb.com)
  • After two years of extensive research and leveraging its industry leading technology, ABSTRAX identified and extracted the compounds native to cannabis that impart the gassy, dank, skunky aroma and created THC-free terpene blends that are authentic, affordable, effective, consistent and available to ship internationally. (prweb.com)
  • We understand the importance of terpenes and cannabinoids outside of the main THC and CBD compounds, and we formulate our products to include the beneficial terpenes and other cannabinoids that are present in the specific genetics we cultivate," says Hughes. (inverse.com)
  • There are so many endocannabinoids and compounds in the plant that work synergistically with each other and terpenes that balance each other," says Hughes. (inverse.com)
  • Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for the distinctive scents and flavors of plants. (torontomike.com)
  • Through our extensive research efforts, Abstrax has been able to identify and isolate the compounds native to flower that impart the gassy, dank, and diesel aromas reminiscent of OG strains thought unachievable by non-cannabis derived terpene blends. (leafly.com)
  • Most of these aromatics can be credited to cannabis-derived terpenes, a large group of compounds that grow naturally in common cannabis plants. (greenstate.com)
  • Cannabis flowers' aroma is made of more than just terpenes alone, usually the result of a very complex mixture of terpenes, esters, ketones, and more aromatic compounds that create the overall effect, taste, and smell of a specific strain," said Nadav Eyal, CEO and co-founder of Israeli research firm and botanical terpene company Eybna Technologies . (greenstate.com)
  • The compound called terpenes is the other group of compounds that marijuana produces. (commerceng.org)
  • In the composition of Marijuana, terpenes interact with the other compounds named CBD and THC. (commerceng.org)
  • The terpenes have their own benefits and effects, but they are also known to work well with other compounds. (commerceng.org)
  • Terpenes are a diverse and large class of organic compounds that are produced by a variety of plants, particularly conifers, and by some insects. (hemponix.com)
  • Terpenes are aromatic compounds that make up the special scent of many plants like cannabis, pine, lavender, and oranges. (dutchgreenalternative.nl)
  • Terpenes also work with other compounds in the cannabis plant to produce desired effects. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • And over a hundred of these compounds belong to a class of molecules called terpenes . (jasperorganics.com)
  • Terpenes are aromatic compounds produced by plants and fruit, which give them their distinctive color and aroma. (flowertown.com)
  • There is concern for potential health impacts of secondary organic compounds formed via terpene oxidation reactions (Rohr, 2013). (cdc.gov)
  • These compounds exhibit active indoor air chemistry (ozone-initiated terpene chemistry), resulting in highly reactive intermediates that can exacerbate susceptible populations. (cdc.gov)
  • Terpenes are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and can be analyzed using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS/MS). (cdc.gov)
  • The terpene alpha-pinene is a major component of the common solvent, turpentine. (wikipedia.org)
  • One of the most common terpenes, pinene features a spicy forest smell and has been used by herbalists for centuries to relieve inflammation and asthmatic issues. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • While myrcene may be a sedative and hypnotic terpene, a-pinene is the opposite. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Another terpene is pinene, which is commonly found in sativa strains like Bubba Kush and Jack Herer. (commerceng.org)
  • Terpenes were first identified in the 19th century and got their name from turpentine, a product made from pine tree resin that is rich in a terpene known as pinene. (cannigma.com)
  • After research illustrated the synergistic or "entourage effect" between two cannabinoids, Dr. Russo went on to study the synergistic effects of cannabinoids and terpenes. (hightimes.com)
  • The entourage effect is when terpenes and cannabinoids work together to produce an array ofmore prominent benefitst than if the cannabinoids and terpenes were isolated. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • Meaning cannabinoids and terpenes become even more effective when mixed. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • Now, many consumers are aware that cannabis terpenes are responsible for the distinct smell of each strain. (hightimes.com)
  • ABSTRAX now offers the industry's most advanced strain analysis and custom terpene profile creation. (prweb.com)
  • Upholds ABSTRAX's commitment to offering innovative, safe, effective, and strain-specific terpene formulations that bridge the cannabis and botanically-derived world. (prweb.com)
  • Or, for the refined drug-haver, the variety of terpenes that can be harvested make for the supposed plethora of pot strains that have allowed growers to assemble pot flavor wheels, like this interactive wheel that matches strain to aroma and alleged therapeutic effect. (inverse.com)
  • Each different strain contains different terpenes, yielding varied aromas and effects. (inverse.com)
  • Terpenes and marijuana go hand in hand due to their impact on any cannabis strain, but they're present in nearly all plants. (earthmed.com)
  • As we've been alluding to, every strain of marijuana has a unique chemical composition resulting in distinct terpene combinations and potency. (earthmed.com)
  • There are countless variations of terpene types (also known as the terpene profile or terp profile) in any given marijuana plant, and they'll often help you decide whether or not a strain is right for you. (earthmed.com)
  • Over 100 different terpenes have been identified in the cannabis plant, and every strain tends toward a unique terpene type and composition. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Stiiizy customers have reported a robust entourage effect and authentic cannabis strain flavor from cannabis terpene products. (greenstate.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1744-purple-dank-strain-profile-premium-terpenes-grand-daddy-purple.html">Strain Profile Premium. (express-cbd.com)
  • Strain Profile Premium Terpenes - Stardawg by Purple Dank is a strong and potent terpene. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1747-purple-dank-strain-profile-premium-terpenes-girl-scout-cookies.html">Strain Profile Premium. (express-cbd.com)
  • Tangie is a sweet and tropical blend from Purple Dank's lineup of Strain Profile Premium Terpenes that uplifts the mood while. (express-cbd.com)
  • Strain Profile Premium Terpenes - Pineapple Express is a tropical experience of apple, tangerine, and pineapple that provides a. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1759-purple-dank-strain-profile-premium-terpenes-og-kush.html">Strain Profile Premium. (express-cbd.com)
  • In the future, it's expected that terpenes could be used to matching users with ideal strain. (commerceng.org)
  • Full spectrum live resin terpenes offer the best experience for true to strain connoisseurs. (peakterpenes.com)
  • Research has found that the cannabinoid and terpene profile of a particular cannabis strain can help the consumer to predict the experience they might have - either uplifting or sedating - along with other therapeutic effects. (cannigma.com)
  • The relationship between terpenes and cannabinoids, known as the "entourage effect," ultimately differentiates one strain of cannabis from another. (mdgreenery.com)
  • Terpenes can also be the reason why you feel like the "expected effects" of an indica or sativa strain actually elicit the opposite effect in you. (flowertown.com)
  • The terpene profile helps us do more than distinguish strains by smell. (hightimes.com)
  • In this article, we'll delve into the most terpene-rich strains available in Canada, their appeal to consumers, and the role of terpenes in shaping the flavor, aroma, and overall experience of cannabis products, including the increasingly popular cannabis tinctures. (torontomike.com)
  • As the cannabis industry evolves, there's a growing emphasis on breeding strains with specific terpene profiles to target certain therapeutic effects, even in tincture formulations. (torontomike.com)
  • As such, producers are focusing more on terpene preservation , ensuring that post-harvest processes like drying and curing are optimized to maintain the rich terpene profiles of their strains. (torontomike.com)
  • Knowledge of the CsTPS gene family may offer opportunities for selection and improvement of terpene profiles of interest in different cannabis strains and varieties. (pacb.com)
  • Terpenes may play a key role in differentiating the effects of various cannabis strains. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • The brand grows house strains and uses an extraction process to preserve the naturally-occurring terpenes. (greenstate.com)
  • If flavoring is what your after we have organic terpenes for all strains, over 101 flavors are available. (coronacashandcarry.com)
  • The most common terpene is myrcene, which also contribute to the sedative effect of indica strains. (commerceng.org)
  • Cannabis terpene profiles are used in e-liquids to add flavors and aromas to different cannabis strains, allowing you to enjoy unique flavors without the risks associated with smoking. (caliterpenes.com)
  • Terpenes can be used to provide flavors and aromas of different cannabis strains to a base (distilled CBD or THC, among others), offering different products while also providing a different entourage effect to each product. (caliterpenes.com)
  • Terpenes are to thank for the noteworthy scent your nose is able to pick up on when taking a whiff of various strains of cannabis flower. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • Certain strains can contain a number of terpenes with contradictory effects. (flowertown.com)
  • Furthermore, the concept of the "entourage effect" suggests that terpenes, in conjunction with cannabinoids, can produce a synergistic effect, enhancing the therapeutic benefits of cannabis. (torontomike.com)
  • Since we extract a TRUE Full Spectrum Hemp Oil, Pawtanical provides your pet with not only the benefits of CBD, but also the entourage effect of all the associated cannabinoids (cbn, cbg, cbc), Terpenes, and Polyphenols. (creaturecomfort.ca)
  • Terpenes may also hold their own pharmacologic importance as they seem to operate synergistically with cannabinoids, producing what is referred to as the entourage effect . (cannigma.com)
  • The entourage effect plays a unique role in CBD, among cannabis, terpenes, and flavonoids in CBD products. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • Each terpene has a unique scent and many have been studied for their unique effects. (hightimes.com)
  • However, terpenes aren't merely scent enhancers. (torontomike.com)
  • As discussed in a previous blog post , terpenes cause plants to give off a unique scent. (earthmed.com)
  • There are hundreds of variations of terpenes, each of which generates its own unique scent. (earthmed.com)
  • Plants with the most terpenes will have a rich scent and a more potent flavor. (earthmed.com)
  • Terpenes are small scent molecules that give many plants and herbs their characteristic scents. (jasperorganics.com)
  • Being aromatic, terpenes are added into oils to provide a strong scent. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • It could be as simple as aromas produced by terpenes elicit different reactions in people because they play on the most emotional of the senses: scent. (flowertown.com)
  • Scent is so closely linked with memory, the reaction you get from a terpene could be because it reminds you of making berry pie with your grandma every Sunday morning. (flowertown.com)
  • Simply put, terpenes are what give plants their unique flavors and aromas. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Terpenes, or isoprenoids, provide cannabis with its unique aromas. (mdgreenery.com)
  • Monoterpenes contain two but there are sesquiterpenes other more complex terpenes that contain additional isoprene units. (hightimes.com)
  • The basic structure of terpenes is repeating isoprene units (C5H8)n, and they are grouped according to the number of repeating isoprene units. (medscape.com)
  • Structurally, terpenes are built from isoprene units, which is a five-carbon molecule that follows the empirical formula C5H8. (hemponix.com)
  • For example, terpenes are made of hydrocarbons, specifically a five-carbon isoprene unit (C5H8). (cannigma.com)
  • Reflecting their defensive role in plants, terpenes are used as active ingredients of pesticides in agriculture. (wikipedia.org)
  • If you asked a botanist, "what are terpenes" they would most likely tell you they are in the essential oils of plants. (hightimes.com)
  • Terpenes are natural products derived from plants that have medicinal properties and biological activity. (medscape.com)
  • [ 4 ] The terpene thujone is found in a variety of plants, including arborvitae ( Thuja ), sage ( Salvia officinalis ), and wormood ( Artemisia absinthium ). (medscape.com)
  • In some plants, cannabis included, the pungent odors of the terpene oils emanating from tiny, bubble-like structures called trichomes provide a protective mechanism that keeps hungry herbivores at bay. (inverse.com)
  • Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) plants produce and accumulate a terpene-rich resin in glandular trichomes, which are abundant on the surface of the female inflorescence. (pacb.com)
  • How are terpenes extracted from plants using probe-type ultrasonication? (hielscher.com)
  • Plants sometimes use terpenes as a defense too. (greenstate.com)
  • Terpenes are also found in other plants and essential oil, so there's a high chance that you have smelt it before. (commerceng.org)
  • The functions of terpenes in plants are varied and include deterring herbivores, attracting pollinators, and protecting the plant from environmental stresses. (hemponix.com)
  • Terpenes are the aromatic oils found in all plants. (cannigma.com)
  • Terpenes can be found in all plants, and are abundant in most fresh fruits, flowers and vegetables. (cannigma.com)
  • Terpenes are oils secreted by glandular hairs found most densely on female plants' floral leaves and flowers. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • Terpenes are found in plants and herbs such as lavender, rosemary, citrus and cannabis. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • There are hundreds of terpenes. (hightimes.com)
  • But when you combine hundreds of terpenes, hundreds of cannabinoids, and everything else found in full spectrum hemp. (jasperorganics.com)
  • The most widely represented class of hydrocarbons in essential oils is the terpenes. (doterra.com)
  • What is the difference between essential oils and terpenes? (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • The main difference is that essential oils contain all the volatile components in a given plant species, while terpenes are isolated and removed from everything else. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • The most widely represented class of hydrocarbons in essential oils is the terpenes….Part 4: Terpene Hydrocarbons-Monoterpenes. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Why do you use terpenes in essential oils? (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • When you think of essential oils, think of a complex mixture of individual terpenes. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • A large portion of essential oils are actually made up of terpenes. (greenstate.com)
  • Many of the terpenes found in pot have alleged medical effects , from the anti-inflammatory effects of β-myrcene to D-linalool's potential application in treating seizures. (inverse.com)
  • These botanically-derived terpenes can be reproduced with unwavering consistency and purity. (prweb.com)
  • If done properly, botanically derived terpenes will usually have a more fresh, crisp, and appealing smell than cannabis-derived. (greenstate.com)
  • Our Solvent Free Terpene Blends are derived from high quality, individual isolated terpenes. (extractconsultants.com)
  • These terpene blends are designed specifically for customers who want to remain solvent free. (extractconsultants.com)
  • Extract Consultant's line of terpene blends and terpene flavors are specifically designed to work directly with oil based products. (extractconsultants.com)
  • Calculate how much of our Essential Terpene Blends you will need to use by weight. (extractconsultants.com)
  • By adding specific terpenes to hemp's pre-existing blends, one can get access to specific effects. (jasperorganics.com)
  • Terpenes are widely used as fragrances and flavors in consumer products such as perfumes, cosmetics and cleaning products, as well as food and drink products. (wikipedia.org)
  • What are terpene flavors? (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Secreted in the same glands that produce cannabinoids like THC and CBD, terpenes are aromatic oils that color cannabis varieties with distinctive flavors like citrus, berry, mint, and pine. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Peach Mango Watermelon terpenes combine the juicy flavors of peach and mango with the sweet, summery taste of watermelon. (extractconsultants.com)
  • Amped's Balanced 50/50 Pure Terpenes has natural flavors that you will enjoy and relax. (express-cbd.com)
  • Essentially, terpenes act like other e-liquid flavorings, offering a wide spectrum of flavors that many others simply can't provide. (caliterpenes.com)
  • This word cloud represents general flavors, sources and possible effects based on the terpenes present. (foggterpenes.com)
  • A cannabis plant's terpene profile is influenced by genetic lineage, growing conditions, harvesting techniques, and post-harvest processes. (torontomike.com)
  • However, terpenes can have a similar influence on a marijuana plant's potency. (earthmed.com)
  • In nature, this terpene contributes to a plant's defenses and possess antifungal properties. (mdgreenery.com)
  • Terpenes are further classified by the number of carbons: monoterpenes (C10), sesquiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), as examples. (wikipedia.org)
  • Boiling points scale with molecular size: terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes respectively at 110, 160, and 220 °C. Being highly non-polar, they are insoluble in water. (wikipedia.org)
  • We begin with amorpha-4,11-diene synthase (ADS) and ( E)-β-farnesene synthase (BFS), a pair of terpene synthases that produce cyclic or linear terpenes, respectively. (sri.com)
  • Terpene synthases from Cannabis sativa. (pacb.com)
  • Nine cannabis terpene synthases (CsTPS) were identified in subfamilies TPS-a and TPS-b. (pacb.com)
  • Multiple variation patterns of terpene synthases in 26 maize genomes. (bvsalud.org)
  • Since then, products high in terpenes have increased in popularity. (hightimes.com)
  • Citrus fruits and aromatic herbs are, of course, both high in terpenes, but their types of terpenes are what cause them to produce very distinct smells. (earthmed.com)
  • A blend of organic terpenes is used in the creation of Strawberry Kush. (vapoholic.co.uk)
  • Now consumers have the ability to enjoy a botanical terpene blend that tastes and smells like cannabis terpenes, without the THC. (prweb.com)
  • Our mission is to incorporate the standards and practices of the existing terpene/aroma industry with the burgeoning botanical terpene space, by sourcing the highest purity, food-grade, ingredients from the top and most trusted suppliers. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Indica Pure Terpenes - 2ml. (express-cbd.com)
  • Try Amped's Indica Pure Terpenes , have the soothing effects they bring. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/2271-amped-indica-pure-terpenes-2ml.html">Indica Pure Terpenes - 2ml. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1863-amped-balanced-50-50-pure-terpenes-2ml.html">Balanced 50/50 Pure. (express-cbd.com)
  • Sativa Pure Terpenes - 10ml. (express-cbd.com)
  • The Sativa Pure Terpenes has a earthy and fruity core. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1849-amped-sativa-pure-terpenes-10ml.html">Sativa Pure Terpenes - 10ml. (express-cbd.com)
  • Oxidized fragrance terpenes, in contrast to the pure terpenes, gave positive patch test reactions in consecutive dermatitis patients as frequently as the most common standard allergens. (cdc.gov)
  • There isn't enough research on the effects of a specific terpene in combination with cannabinoids. (hightimes.com)
  • Active ingredients are believed to be terpene ginkgolides and flavonoids. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Research has suggested that when a terpene interacts with cannabinoid receptors they can assist or hinder the effects of cannabinoids . (hightimes.com)
  • Once bound with cannabinoid receptors, terpenes help to reduce the anxiety and paranoia, which is a negative effect of THC. (commerceng.org)
  • Trinity Terpenes worked in the California medical system to create a collaborative vape using clean chemistries combining ultra pure distillate and consistent terpene profiles. (leafly.com)
  • Stiiizy is one cannabis company that uses cannabis-derived terpenes in its vape pods. (greenstate.com)
  • Linalool, also known as the lavender terpene, is powerfully calming - and so is CBD , in fact. (jasperorganics.com)
  • Extracts with higher than 40 percent terpene contents are unpleasant to vaporize and far from the ratios found in an actual plant. (hightimes.com)
  • [ 3 ] The antineoplastic agent paclitaxel is a terpene derived from yew plant bark. (medscape.com)
  • The plant material is then mixed with a solvent (such as ethanol or water) to extract the terpenes. (hielscher.com)
  • This causes acoustic cavitation and a rapid vibration of the solvent, which promotes the disintegration and disruption of the plant cells and the release the terpenes. (hielscher.com)
  • The mixture is then filtered to separate the solid plant material from the liquid containing the extracted terpenes. (hielscher.com)
  • These organic terpenes are extracted from natural plant sources using plant analytics to recreate terpene profiles and flower-like effect. (extractconsultants.com)
  • A plant being eaten by a deer, for example, might grow back with a new terpene that deer don't like the taste of to inhibit further snacking. (greenstate.com)
  • Cannabis-derived terpenes are taken directly from the cannabis plant, producing a taste that's more natural and true to the flavor of cannabis flower," said Lambourne. (greenstate.com)
  • Many of our customers want to taste the plant in their smoke experience, which is why we produce pods using cannabis-derived terpenes and reference the terminology on the packaging, so people know exactly what they're getting. (greenstate.com)
  • Explore the unique aroma of Plant of Life's 1ml Cannabis Terpene. (express-cbd.com)
  • https://express-cbd.com/terpenes/1869-plant-of-life-cannabis-terpene-1ml.html">Cannabis Terpene - 1ml by. (express-cbd.com)
  • Sure, this might not mean much to the average toker, but the nomenclature helps us to further appreciate terpenes and their significance in the cannabis plant. (cannigma.com)
  • Terpenes are produced in tiny resin glands on the surface of the cannabis plant known as trichomes. (cannigma.com)
  • The Benefits of Terpenes If you've ever taken a whiff of a particularly aromatic plant like lavender, you've encountered terpenes. (dutchgreenalternative.nl)
  • The distinct and unmistakable aroma of cannabis is evidence of the many terpenes in the plant. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • In recent years, terpenes have been associated with cannabis, due to the high concentration of terpenes in the plant. (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • The type of cannabis plant could contradict the terpene profile and its expected effects, causing a range of experiences. (flowertown.com)
  • Why did you react to the terpene profile and your friend reacted to the type of cannabis plant? (flowertown.com)
  • 2005). Terpenes are also a major component of plant resins (Paduch et. (cdc.gov)
  • In that study, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid samples from 51 EVALI cases from 16 states and a comparison group of samples from 99 individuals without EVALI were analyzed for toxicants, including vitamin E acetate, plant oils, medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil, coconut oil, petroleum distillates, and terpenes. (cdc.gov)
  • Despite this, many users feel extracts with the full spectrum of terpenes available on top of cannabinoids are more effective than isolated cannabinoids. (hightimes.com)
  • When shopping for terpenes there are high terpene extracts with little cannabinoid content, high terpene full spectrum extracts with higher cannabinoid contents and finally, isolated terpenes with no cannabinoid content. (hightimes.com)
  • Terpenes are volatile molecules which impart flavor, fragrance and potential therapeutic qualities. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Terpenes are also very volatile, which means they evaporate easily. (jasperorganics.com)
  • In most cases, terpenes are mixed in with Cannabis sativa flower extract, but terpenes can also be added in with edibles though this is a more complicated process. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • We know that cannabinoid type, cannabinoid potency, and its indica-or-sativa classification can help determine your high, but terpenes also play a major role in what your cannabis experience will be like. (flowertown.com)
  • Certain brands have even gone so far as to do away with the aging indica-sativa classification method and advertise terpene content instead. (flowertown.com)
  • Aside from sativa or indica classifications, terpenes produce their own effects that determine whether your high will be invigorating or sedating. (flowertown.com)
  • For example, termites of the subfamily Nasutitermitinae ward off predatory insects through the use of a specialized mechanism called a fontanellar gun, which ejects a resinous mixture of terpenes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The correct way to formulate a terpene mixture is to figure out the right percentage, which can be difficult when making edibles where there are multiple ingredients involved. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • Secondly, is to know exactly what percentage of terpenes you want your mixture to be so you can determine the exact amount to add-in. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • Witnessing the toxic, inconsistent products on the market led to our first Powered by Trinity Terpenes collaboration. (leafly.com)
  • From our experience with our first Powered by Trinity Terpenes success, we branched out into developing a diverse set of collaborative products from Concept to Creation. (leafly.com)
  • We decided to challenge what was already on the market by creating Terpene Infused Products that are differentiated, unique, and refined. (leafly.com)
  • Are there terpenes in the products you use? (lotusblissbotanicals.com)
  • People react to the mix of terpenes differently, experiencing a sedative effect while others feel uplifted. (flowertown.com)
  • This attention to detail is also evident in the production of cannabis tinctures, which aim to capture the full spectrum of terpenes and cannabinoids. (torontomike.com)
  • We make our full spectrum hemp oil with CO2-extracted full spectrum hemp containing over 80 naturally occurring phytocannabinoids, terpenes and phytonutrients. (moonmotherhemp.com)
  • Professional product formulators utilize terpenes to hone in on, and better control the flavor and aroma profile of the product that they're developing. (mysqlpreacher.com)
  • Our terpenes can also be used to add flavor and aroma to herbs designed for vaping. (caliterpenes.com)
  • The use of our terpene profiles on flowers made for aromatic vaping can improve their qualities and performance, enriching their flavor and aroma. (caliterpenes.com)
  • Concentrations of terpenes less than 2% have very little impact, the flavor and aroma are hardly discernable, and it has little positive effects in the solution itself. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • Over the last couple of years, terpenes have been mentioned with much more frequency among cannabis consumers. (hightimes.com)
  • Terpenes only recently rose to popularity among cannabis enthusiasts, but really, they've been around since the dawn of time. (cannigma.com)
  • These effects may be attributed to the presence of terpenes which constitute a large component of the leafy extract, as revealed via GC-MS. (nih.gov)
  • All the data presented in our study show that the terpene-rich A. cherimola ethanolic leaf extract exhibits an anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effect on the AML cell lines used. (nih.gov)
  • Abstrax is the only terpene manufacturer licensed in the United States to study, extract, and formulate our own cannabis terpene profiles. (leafly.com)
  • The final product is a terpene-rich extract that can be used in various applications such as dietary supplements, functional foods, and cosmetics. (hielscher.com)
  • This pure terpene extract will improve your senses and help. (express-cbd.com)
  • Beyond their aromatic allure, terpenes are gaining attention for their potential therapeutic benefits. (torontomike.com)
  • Scientific research into terpenes continues to reveal their potential in therapeutic applications and their ecological significance. (hemponix.com)
  • Specifically, you'll want to understand the main terpenes found in high concentrations in cannabis, their aroma, effects and potential therapeutic uses. (cannigma.com)
  • Transcriptome analysis of trichomes of the cannabis hemp variety 'Finola' revealed sequences of all stages of terpene biosynthesis. (pacb.com)
  • Transcripts associated with terpene biosynthesis are highly expressed in trichomes compared to non-resin producing tissues. (pacb.com)
  • Similar reactions were observed with many of the terpenes investigated. (cdc.gov)
  • 2006). The presence of these terpenes in high concentrations present a potential hazard due to their reactivity with ozone. (cdc.gov)
  • Oils can have various flavor profiles, like citrusy, fruity, floral, or piney depending upon the terpenes added in. (naturesownterpenes.com)
  • In the context of human use, terpenes have found applications in traditional and alternative medicines, as they are believed to exhibit a range of biological activities such as anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and anti-cancer properties. (hemponix.com)
  • This terpene acts as an appetite suppressant and exhibits potent anti-inflammatory activity. (mdgreenery.com)
  • This terpene can be found in Lemon Sour Diesel and Pineapple Jack, and other common sativas. (commerceng.org)
  • Colleen Hughes, a representative at Pharmacannis, a New York-based medical marijuana dispensary, tells Inverse that even in states with robust medical cannabis programs, the federal ban has been a huge obstruction for researchers who want to learn more about terpene oils and jazz cabbage in general. (inverse.com)