Synapses. Medical search

Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate via direct electrical coupling with ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES. Several other non-synaptic chemical or electric signal transmitting processes occur via extracellular mediated interactions.

The interfaces between T-CELLS and ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS. Supramolecular organization of proteins takes place at these synapses involving various types of immune cells. Immunological synapses can have several functions including LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; enhancing, balancing, or terminating signaling; or directing cytokine secretion.

The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.

Depolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during neurotransmission. Excitatory postsynaptic potentials can singly or in summation reach the trigger threshold for ACTION POTENTIALS.

The distal terminations of axons which are specialized for the release of neurotransmitters. Also included are varicosities along the course of axons which have similar specializations and also release transmitters. Presynaptic terminals in both the central and peripheral nervous systems are included.

Specialized junctions between NEURONS which connect the cytoplasm of one neuron to another allowing direct passage of an ion current.

The capacity of the NERVOUS SYSTEM to change its reactivity as the result of successive activations.

The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.

A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.

Membrane-bound compartments which contain transmitter molecules. Synaptic vesicles are concentrated at presynaptic terminals. They actively sequester transmitter molecules from the cytoplasm. In at least some synapses, transmitter release occurs by fusion of these vesicles with the presynaptic membrane, followed by exocytosis of their contents.

Extensions of the nerve cell body. They are short and branched and receive stimuli from other NEURONS.

A class of ionotropic glutamate receptors characterized by their affinity for the agonist AMPA (alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid).

Spiny processes on DENDRITES, each of which receives excitatory input from one nerve ending (NERVE ENDINGS). They are commonly found on PURKINJE CELLS and PYRAMIDAL CELLS.

A persistent increase in synaptic efficacy, usually induced by appropriate activation of the same synapses. The phenomenological properties of long-term potentiation suggest that it may be a cellular mechanism of learning and memory.

Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.

An electrophysiologic technique for studying cells, cell membranes, and occasionally isolated organelles. All patch-clamp methods rely on a very high-resistance seal between a micropipette and a membrane; the seal is usually attained by gentle suction. The four most common variants include on-cell patch, inside-out patch, outside-out patch, and whole-cell clamp. Patch-clamp methods are commonly used to voltage clamp, that is control the voltage across the membrane and measure current flow, but current-clamp methods, in which the current is controlled and the voltage is measured, are also used.

A class of ionotropic glutamate receptors characterized by affinity for N-methyl-D-aspartate. NMDA receptors have an allosteric binding site for glycine which must be occupied for the channel to open efficiently and a site within the channel itself to which magnesium ions bind in a voltage-dependent manner. The positive voltage dependence of channel conductance and the high permeability of the conducting channel to calcium ions (as well as to monovalent cations) are important in excitotoxicity and neuronal plasticity.

The function of opposing or restraining the excitation of neurons or their target excitable cells.

The synapse between a neuron and a muscle.

Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.

A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Cell membranes associated with synapses. Both presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes are included along with their integral or tightly associated specializations for the release or reception of transmitters.

The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

A persistent activity-dependent decrease in synaptic efficacy between NEURONS. It typically occurs following repeated low-frequency afferent stimulation, but it can be induced by other methods. Long-term depression appears to play a role in MEMORY.

Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body.

Most generally any NEURONS which are not motor or sensory. Interneurons may also refer to neurons whose AXONS remain within a particular brain region in contrast to projection neurons, which have axons projecting to other brain regions.

Drugs that bind to but do not activate excitatory amino acid receptors, thereby blocking the actions of agonists.

The output neurons of the cerebellar cortex.

Axons of certain cells in the DENTATE GYRUS. They project to the polymorphic layer of the dentate gyrus and to the proximal dendrites of PYRAMIDAL CELLS of the HIPPOCAMPUS. These mossy fibers should not be confused with mossy fibers that are cerebellar afferents (see NERVE FIBERS).

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of the neurological system, processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

Projection neurons in the CEREBRAL CORTEX and the HIPPOCAMPUS. Pyramidal cells have a pyramid-shaped soma with the apex and an apical dendrite pointed toward the pial surface and other dendrites and an axon emerging from the base. The axons may have local collaterals but also project outside their cortical region.

Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.

Abrupt changes in the membrane potential that sweep along the CELL MEMBRANE of excitable cells in response to excitation stimuli.

A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.

Cell-surface proteins that bind glutamate and trigger changes which influence the behavior of cells. Glutamate receptors include ionotropic receptors (AMPA, kainate, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors), which directly control ion channels, and metabotropic receptors which act through second messenger systems. Glutamate receptors are the most common mediators of fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. They have also been implicated in the mechanisms of memory and of many diseases.

Cytoskeleton specialization at the cytoplasmic side of postsynaptic membrane in SYNAPSES. It is involved in neuronal signaling and NEURONAL PLASTICITY and comprised of GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS; scaffolding molecules (e.g., PSD95, PSD93), and other proteins (e.g., CaCMKII).

A MARVEL domain-containing protein found in the presynaptic vesicles of NEURONS and NEUROENDOCRINE CELLS. It is commonly used as an immunocytochemical marker for neuroendocrine differentiation.

A vesicular glutamate transporter protein that is predominately expressed in TELENCEPHALON of the BRAIN.

The study of the generation and behavior of electrical charges in living organisms particularly the nervous system and the effects of electricity on living organisms.

The voltages across pre- or post-SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES.

Catalyzes the ATP-dependent PHOSPHORYLATION of GMP to generate GDP and ADP.

Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.

The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.

Hyperpolarization of membrane potentials at the SYNAPTIC MEMBRANES of target neurons during NEUROTRANSMISSION. They are local changes which diminish responsiveness to excitatory signals.

Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.

A family of synaptic vesicle-associated proteins involved in the short-term regulation of NEUROTRANSMITTER release. Synapsin I, the predominant member of this family, links SYNAPTIC VESICLES to ACTIN FILAMENTS in the presynaptic nerve terminal. These interactions are modulated by the reversible PHOSPHORYLATION of synapsin I through various signal transduction pathways. The protein is also a substrate for cAMP- and CALCIUM-CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASES. It is believed that these functional properties are also shared by synapsin II.

Slender processes of NEURONS, including the AXONS and their glial envelopes (MYELIN SHEATH). Nerve fibers conduct nerve impulses to and from the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.

Cell surface proteins that bind glutamate and act through G-proteins to influence second messenger systems. Several types of metabotropic glutamate receptors have been cloned. They differ in pharmacology, distribution, and mechanisms of action.

An opisthobranch mollusk of the order Anaspidea. It is used frequently in studies of nervous system development because of its large identifiable neurons. Aplysiatoxin and its derivatives are not biosynthesized by Aplysia, but acquired by ingestion of Lyngbya (seaweed) species.

Surface ligands that mediate cell-to-cell adhesion and function in the assembly and interconnection of the vertebrate nervous system. These molecules promote cell adhesion via a homophilic mechanism. These are not to be confused with NEURAL CELL ADHESION MOLECULES, now known to be expressed in a variety of tissues and cell types in addition to nervous tissue.

A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.

Drugs that bind to but do not activate GABA RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of endogenous GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID and GABA RECEPTOR AGONISTS.

Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.

One of four subsections of the hippocampus described by Lorente de No, located furthest from the DENTATE GYRUS.

Electron microscopy in which the ELECTRONS or their reaction products that pass down through the specimen are imaged below the plane of the specimen.

Neurotransmitter receptors located on or near presynaptic terminals or varicosities. Presynaptic receptors which bind transmitter molecules released by the terminal itself are termed AUTORECEPTORS.

A technique for maintenance or growth of animal organs in vitro. It refers to three-dimensional cultures of undisaggregated tissue retaining some or all of the histological features of the tissue in vivo. (Freshney, Culture of Animal Cells, 3d ed, p1)

Electrical responses recorded from nerve, muscle, SENSORY RECEPTOR, or area of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM following stimulation. They range from less than a microvolt to several microvolts. The evoked potential can be auditory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY), somatosensory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY), visual (EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL), or motor (EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR), or other modalities that have been reported.

A meshlike structure composed of interconnecting nerve cells that are separated at the synaptic junction or joined to one another by cytoplasmic processes. In invertebrates, for example, the nerve net allows nerve impulses to spread over a wide area of the net because synapses can pass information in any direction.

Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.

Drugs used for their actions on any aspect of excitatory amino acid neurotransmitter systems. Included are drugs that act on excitatory amino acid receptors, affect the life cycle of excitatory amino acid transmitters, or affect the survival of neurons using excitatory amino acids.

A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.

Protein analogs and derivatives of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein that emit light (FLUORESCENCE) when excited with ULTRAVIOLET RAYS. They are used in REPORTER GENES in doing GENETIC TECHNIQUES. Numerous mutants have been made to emit other colors or be sensitive to pH.

Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.

INTERNEURONS of the vertebrate RETINA containing two processes. They receive inputs from the RETINAL PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS and send outputs to the RETINAL GANGLION CELLS. The bipolar cells also make lateral connections in the retina with the RETINAL HORIZONTAL CELLS and with the AMACRINE CELLS.

Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The superficial GRAY MATTER of the CEREBELLUM. It consists of two main layers, the stratum moleculare and the stratum granulosum.

Cellular release of material within membrane-limited vesicles by fusion of the vesicles with the CELL MEMBRANE.

A vesicular glutamate transporter protein that is predominately expressed in the DIENCEPHALON and lower brainstem regions of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Cell surface proteins which bind GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID and contain an integral membrane chloride channel. Each receptor is assembled as a pentamer from a pool of at least 19 different possible subunits. The receptors belong to a superfamily that share a common CYSTEINE loop.

A potent excitatory amino acid antagonist with a preference for non-NMDA iontropic receptors. It is used primarily as a research tool.

A family of vesicular neurotransmitter transporter proteins that sequester the inhibitory neurotransmitters GLYCINE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; and possibly GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE into SECRETORY VESICLES.

The D-enantiomer is a potent and specific antagonist of NMDA glutamate receptors (RECEPTORS, N-METHYL-D-ASPARTATE). The L form is inactive at NMDA receptors but may affect the AP4 (2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate; APB) excitatory amino acid receptors.

Drugs that bind to and activate excitatory amino acid receptors.

Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in invertebrates. Invertebrate ganglia may also contain neuronal processes and non-neuronal supporting cells. Many invertebrate ganglia are favorable subjects for research because they have small numbers of functional neuronal types which can be identified from one animal to another.

Microscopy in which the samples are first stained immunocytochemically and then examined using an electron microscope. Immunoelectron microscopy is used extensively in diagnostic virology as part of very sensitive immunoassays.

The largest portion of the CEREBRAL CORTEX in which the NEURONS are arranged in six layers in the mammalian brain: molecular, external granular, external pyramidal, internal granular, internal pyramidal and multiform layers.

A dense intricate feltwork of interwoven fine glial processes, fibrils, synaptic terminals, axons, and dendrites interspersed among the nerve cells in the gray matter of the central nervous system.

The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.

The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.

The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).

Cell surface proteins that bind acetylcholine with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Cholinergic receptors are divided into two major classes, muscarinic and nicotinic, based originally on their affinity for nicotine and muscarine. Each group is further subdivided based on pharmacology, location, mode of action, and/or molecular biology.

Common name for Carassius auratus, a type of carp (CARPS).

An IBOTENIC ACID homolog and glutamate agonist. The compound is the defining agonist for the AMPA subtype of glutamate receptors (RECEPTORS, AMPA). It has been used as a radionuclide imaging agent but is more commonly used as an experimental tool in cell biological studies.

Postsynaptic potentials generated from a release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic nerve terminal in the absence of an ACTION POTENTIAL. They may be m.e.p.p.s (miniature EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS) or m.i.p.p.s (miniature INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS).

Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.

A light microscopic technique in which only a small spot is illuminated and observed at a time. An image is constructed through point-by-point scanning of the field in this manner. Light sources may be conventional or laser, and fluorescence or transmitted observations are possible.

The ten-layered nervous tissue membrane of the eye. It is continuous with the OPTIC NERVE and receives images of external objects and transmits visual impulses to the brain. Its outer surface is in contact with the CHOROID and the inner surface with the VITREOUS BODY. The outer-most layer is pigmented, whereas the inner nine layers are transparent.

Any of several ways in which living cells of an organism communicate with one another, whether by direct contact between cells or by means of chemical signals carried by neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and cyclic AMP.

Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.

Branch-like terminations of NERVE FIBERS, sensory or motor NEURONS. Endings of sensory neurons are the beginnings of afferent pathway to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Endings of motor neurons are the terminals of axons at the muscle cells. Nerve endings which release neurotransmitters are called PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS.

Paired bodies containing mostly GRAY MATTER and forming part of the lateral wall of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain.

The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.

A subsection of the hippocampus, described by Lorente de No, that is located between the HIPPOCAMPUS CA2 FIELD and the DENTATE GYRUS.

Annelids of the class Hirudinea. Some species, the bloodsuckers, may become temporarily parasitic upon animals, including man. Medicinal leeches (HIRUDO MEDICINALIS) have been used therapeutically for drawing blood since ancient times.

A protein component of the synaptic basal lamina. It has been shown to induce clustering of acetylcholine receptors on the surface of muscle fibers and other synaptic molecules in both synapse regeneration and development.

A class of ionotropic glutamate receptors characterized by their affinity for KAINIC ACID.

The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.

Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a peripheral part toward a nerve center.

The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.

The brain stem nucleus that receives the central input from the cochlear nerve. The cochlear nucleus is located lateral and dorsolateral to the inferior cerebellar peduncles and is functionally divided into dorsal and ventral parts. It is tonotopically organized, performs the first stage of central auditory processing, and projects (directly or indirectly) to higher auditory areas including the superior olivary nuclei, the medial geniculi, the inferior colliculi, and the auditory cortex.

Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID.

The study of PHYSICAL PHENOMENA and PHYSICAL PROCESSES as applied to living things.

Signal transduction mechanisms whereby calcium mobilization (from outside the cell or from intracellular storage pools) to the cytoplasm is triggered by external stimuli. Calcium signals are often seen to propagate as waves, oscillations, spikes, sparks, or puffs. The calcium acts as an intracellular messenger by activating calcium-responsive proteins.

An amino acid that, as the D-isomer, is the defining agonist for the NMDA receptor subtype of glutamate receptors (RECEPTORS, NMDA).

A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.

GRAY MATTER situated above the GYRUS HIPPOCAMPI. It is composed of three layers. The molecular layer is continuous with the HIPPOCAMPUS in the hippocampal fissure. The granular layer consists of closely arranged spherical or oval neurons, called GRANULE CELLS, whose AXONS pass through the polymorphic layer ending on the DENDRITES of PYRAMIDAL CELLS in the hippocampus.

A non-essential amino acid. It is found primarily in gelatin and silk fibroin and used therapeutically as a nutrient. It is also a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter.

An aminoperhydroquinazoline poison found mainly in the liver and ovaries of fishes in the order TETRAODONTIFORMES, which are eaten. The toxin causes paresthesia and paralysis through interference with neuromuscular conduction.

A family of vesicular neurotransmitter transporter proteins that were originally characterized as sodium dependent inorganic phosphate cotransporters. Vesicular glutamate transport proteins sequester the excitatory neurotransmitter GLUTAMATE from the CYTOPLASM into SECRETORY VESICLES in exchange for lumenal PROTONS.

An amorphous region of electron dense material in the cytoplasm from which the MICROTUBULES polymerization is nucleated. The pericentriolar region of the CENTROSOME which surrounds the CENTRIOLES is an example.

A multifunctional calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase subtype that occurs as an oligomeric protein comprised of twelve subunits. It differs from other enzyme subtypes in that it lacks a phosphorylatable activation domain that can respond to CALCIUM-CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE KINASE.

A subset of GABA RECEPTORS that signal through their interaction with HETEROTRIMERIC G-PROTEINS.

NEURAL PATHWAYS and connections within the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, beginning at the hair cells of the ORGAN OF CORTI, continuing along the eighth cranial nerve, and terminating at the AUDITORY CORTEX.

A pyridoxal-phosphate protein that catalyzes the alpha-decarboxylation of L-glutamic acid to form gamma-aminobutyric acid and carbon dioxide. The enzyme is found in bacteria and in invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems. It is the rate-limiting enzyme in determining GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID levels in normal nervous tissues. The brain enzyme also acts on L-cysteate, L-cysteine sulfinate, and L-aspartate. EC 4.1.1.15.

Compounds that interact with and modulate the activity of CANNABINOID RECEPTORS.

Inorganic or organic derivatives of phosphinic acid, H2PO(OH). They include phosphinates and phosphinic acid esters.

A pathway of fibers that originates in the lateral part of the ENTORHINAL CORTEX, perforates the SUBICULUM of the HIPPOCAMPUS, and runs into the stratum moleculare of the hippocampus, where these fibers synapse with others that go to the DENTATE GYRUS where the pathway terminates. It is also known as the perforating fasciculus.

An isoquinoline alkaloid obtained from Dicentra cucullaria and other plants. It is a competitive antagonist for GABA-A receptors.

Heterocyclic compounds of a ring with SULFUR and two NITROGEN atoms fused to a BENZENE ring. Members inhibit SODIUM-POTASSIUM-CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS and are used as DIURETICS.

Relatively permanent change in behavior that is the result of past experience or practice. The concept includes the acquisition of knowledge.

Physical forces and actions in living things.

Cell-surface proteins that bind GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID with high affinity and trigger changes that influence the behavior of cells. GABA-A receptors control chloride channels formed by the receptor complex itself. They are blocked by bicuculline and usually have modulatory sites sensitive to benzodiazepines and barbiturates. GABA-B receptors act through G-proteins on several effector systems, are insensitive to bicuculline, and have a high affinity for L-baclofen.

The cochlear part of the 8th cranial nerve (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE). The cochlear nerve fibers originate from neurons of the SPIRAL GANGLION and project peripherally to cochlear hair cells and centrally to the cochlear nuclei (COCHLEAR NUCLEUS) of the BRAIN STEM. They mediate the sense of hearing.

Derivatives of ammonium compounds, NH4+ Y-, in which all four of the hydrogens bonded to nitrogen have been replaced with hydrocarbyl groups. These are distinguished from IMINES which are RN=CR2.

Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.

Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized CONNECTIVE TISSUE located outside the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

INTERNEURONS of the vertebrate RETINA. They integrate, modulate, and interpose a temporal domain in the visual message presented to the RETINAL GANGLION CELLS, with which they synapse in the inner plexiform layer.

The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.

A member of the nerve growth factor family of trophic factors. In the brain BDNF has a trophic action on retinal, cholinergic, and dopaminergic neurons, and in the peripheral nervous system it acts on both motor and sensory neurons. (From Kendrew, The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994)

The relationship between the dose of administered radiation and the response of the organism or tissue to the radiation.

A noncompetitive antagonist at GABA-A receptors and thus a convulsant. Picrotoxin blocks the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-activated chloride ionophore. Although it is most often used as a research tool, it has been used as a CNS stimulant and an antidote in poisoning by CNS depressants, especially the barbiturates.

Cell adhesion molecule involved in a diverse range of contact-mediated interactions among neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and myotubes. It is widely but transiently expressed in many tissues early in embryogenesis. Four main isoforms exist, including CD56; (ANTIGENS, CD56); but there are many other variants resulting from alternative splicing and post-translational modifications. (From Pigott & Power, The Adhesion Molecule FactsBook, 1993, pp115-119)

The non-neuronal cells of the nervous system. They not only provide physical support, but also respond to injury, regulate the ionic and chemical composition of the extracellular milieu, participate in the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and BLOOD-RETINAL BARRIER, form the myelin insulation of nervous pathways, guide neuronal migration during development, and exchange metabolites with neurons. Neuroglia have high-affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitters, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is unclear.

An outbred strain of rats developed in 1915 by crossing several Wistar Institute white females with a wild gray male. Inbred strains have been derived from this original outbred strain, including Long-Evans cinnamon rats (RATS, INBRED LEC) and Otsuka-Long-Evans-Tokushima Fatty rats (RATS, INBRED OLETF), which are models for Wilson's disease and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, respectively.

Renewal or physiological repair of damaged nerve tissue.

A superfamily of various freshwater CRUSTACEA, in the infraorder Astacidea, comprising the crayfish. Common genera include Astacus and Procambarus. Crayfish resemble lobsters, but are usually much smaller.

Fatty acid derivatives that have specificity for CANNABINOID RECEPTORS. They are structurally distinct from CANNABINOIDS and were originally discovered as a group of endogenous CANNABINOID RECEPTOR AGONISTS.

Voltage-dependent cell membrane glycoproteins selectively permeable to calcium ions. They are categorized as L-, T-, N-, P-, Q-, and R-types based on the activation and inactivation kinetics, ion specificity, and sensitivity to drugs and toxins. The L- and T-types are present throughout the cardiovascular and central nervous systems and the N-, P-, Q-, & R-types are located in neuronal tissue.

Formation of NEURONS which involves the differentiation and division of STEM CELLS in which one or both of the daughter cells become neurons.

Proteins which are involved in the phenomenon of light emission in living systems. Included are the "enzymatic" and "non-enzymatic" types of system with or without the presence of oxygen or co-factors.

Chemically stimulated aggregation of cell surface receptors, which potentiates the action of the effector cell.

Proteins and peptides that are involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION within the cell. Included here are peptides and proteins that regulate the activity of TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS and cellular processes in response to signals from CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. Intracellular signaling peptide and proteins may be part of an enzymatic signaling cascade or act through binding to and modifying the action of other signaling factors.

A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.

Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.

Set of cell bodies and nerve fibers conducting impulses from the eyes to the cerebral cortex. It includes the RETINA; OPTIC NERVE; optic tract; and geniculocalcarine tract.

Cellular uptake of extracellular materials within membrane-limited vacuoles or microvesicles. ENDOSOMES play a central role in endocytosis.

Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory.

Low molecular weight, calcium binding muscle proteins. Their physiological function is possibly related to the contractile process.

Single chains of amino acids that are the units of multimeric PROTEINS. Multimeric proteins can be composed of identical or non-identical subunits. One or more monomeric subunits may compose a protomer which itself is a subunit structure of a larger assembly.

Wormlike or grublike stage, following the egg in the life cycle of insects, worms, and other metamorphosing animals.

Chemicals that bind to and remove ions from solutions. Many chelating agents function through the formation of COORDINATION COMPLEXES with METALS.

The ability of a substrate to retain an electrical charge.

Area of the parietal lobe concerned with receiving sensations such as movement, pain, pressure, position, temperature, touch, and vibration. It lies posterior to the central sulcus.

The anterior pair of the quadrigeminal bodies which coordinate the general behavioral orienting responses to visual stimuli, such as whole-body turning, and reaching.

Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.

A family of vesicular transport proteins characterized by an N-terminal transmembrane region and two C-terminal calcium-binding domains.

The absence or restriction of the usual external sensory stimuli to which the individual responds.

Cell surface receptors that bind signalling molecules released by neurons and convert these signals into intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Neurotransmitter is used here in its most general sense, including not only messengers that act to regulate ion channels, but also those which act on second messenger systems and those which may act at a distance from their release sites. Included are receptors for neuromodulators, neuroregulators, neuromediators, and neurohumors, whether or not located at synapses.

Molecules on the surface of T-lymphocytes that recognize and combine with antigens. The receptors are non-covalently associated with a complex of several polypeptides collectively called CD3 antigens (ANTIGENS, CD3). Recognition of foreign antigen and the major histocompatibility complex is accomplished by a single heterodimeric antigen-receptor structure, composed of either alpha-beta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, ALPHA-BETA) or gamma-delta (RECEPTORS, ANTIGEN, T-CELL, GAMMA-DELTA) chains.

ANIMALS whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING, or their offspring.

Pinched-off nerve endings and their contents of vesicles and cytoplasm together with the attached subsynaptic area of the membrane of the post-synaptic cell. They are largely artificial structures produced by fractionation after selective centrifugation of nervous tissue homogenates.

A genus of small, two-winged flies containing approximately 900 described species. These organisms are the most extensively studied of all genera from the standpoint of genetics and cytology.

A subclass of cannabinoid receptor found primarily on central and peripheral NEURONS where it may play a role modulating NEUROTRANSMITTER release.

Agents that emit light after excitation by light. The wave length of the emitted light is usually longer than that of the incident light. Fluorochromes are substances that cause fluorescence in other substances, i.e., dyes used to mark or label other compounds with fluorescent tags.

A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.

A family of POTASSIUM and SODIUM-dependent acidic amino acid transporters that demonstrate a high affinity for GLUTAMIC ACID and ASPARTIC ACID. Several variants of this system are found in neuronal tissue.

Photosensitive afferent neurons located in the peripheral retina, with their density increases radially away from the FOVEA CENTRALIS. Being much more sensitive to light than the RETINAL CONE CELLS, the rod cells are responsible for twilight vision (at scotopic intensities) as well as peripheral vision, but provide no color discrimination.

A genus of the Ambystomatidae family. The best known species are the axolotl AMBYSTOMA MEXICANUM and the closely related tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum. They may retain gills and remain aquatic without developing all of the adult characteristics. However, under proper changes in the environment they metamorphose.

A superorder of CEPHALOPODS comprised of squid, cuttlefish, and their relatives. Their distinguishing feature is the modification of their fourth pair of arms into tentacles, resulting in 10 limbs.

A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-TRYPTOPHAN. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator.

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (1/13503)

In deep layers of the cat motor cortex, we have investigated the properties of neurons displaying trans-synaptically induced bursts. In in vivo experiments, extracellularly recorded burst neurons were separated into two subtypes based on their dependence on stimulation sites, the medullary pyramid or the ventrolateral (VL) thalamic nucleus, from which bursts of 10-20 spikes were triggered. The spike amplitude attenuation and frequency adaptation during a burst were more prominent in pyramid-dependent burst neurons than in VL-dependent burst neurons. Intracellular recordings in in vivo experiments revealed that pyramid-dependent bursts emerged from a long-lasting depolarization, while each spike during a VL-dependent burst was narrow in half-width and was followed by a fast AHP, similar to fast spiking neurons. In in vitro slice experiments, intracellular recordings were obtained from neurons that displayed a burst of attenuated spikes emerging from a long-lasting depolarization, and were also obtained from fast spiking neurons. They were morphologically recovered to be multipolar cells with sparsely spiny dendrites and local axonal networks, suggesting that they are inhibitory interneurons. The multipolar neurons displaying bursts of attenuated spikes may mediate the recurrent inhibition of pyramidal tract cells. (+info)

Developmental synaptic changes increase the range of integrative capabilities of an identified excitatory neocortical connection. (2/13503)

Excitatory synaptic transmission between pyramidal cells and fast-spiking (FS) interneurons of layer V of the motor cortex was investigated in acute slices by using paired recordings at 30 degrees C combined with morphological analysis. The presynaptic and postsynaptic properties at these identified central synapses were compared between 3- and 5-week-old rats. At these two postnatal developmental stages, unitary EPSCs were mediated by the activation of AMPA receptors with fast kinetics at a holding potential of -72 mV. The amplitude distribution analysis of the EPSCs indicates that, at both stages, pyramidal-FS connections consisted of multiple functional release sites. The apparent quantal size obtained by decreasing the external calcium ([Ca2+]e) varied from 11 to 29 pA near resting membrane potential. In young rats, pairs of presynaptic action potentials elicited unitary synaptic responses that displayed paired-pulse depression at all tested frequencies. In older animals, inputs from different pyramidal cells onto the same FS interneuron had different paired-pulse response characteristics and, at most of these connections, a switch from depression to facilitation occurred when decreasing the rate of presynaptic stimulation. The balance between facilitation and depression endows pyramidal-FS connections from 5-week-old animals with wide integrative capabilities and confers unique functional properties to each synapse. (+info)

Modulation of long-term synaptic depression in visual cortex by acetylcholine and norepinephrine. (3/13503)

In a slice preparation of rat visual cortex, we discovered that paired-pulse stimulation (PPS) elicits a form of homosynaptic long-term depression (LTD) in the superficial layers when carbachol (CCh) or norepinephrine (NE) is applied concurrently. PPS by itself, or CCh and NE in the absence of synaptic stimulation, produced no lasting change. The LTD induced by PPS in the presence of NE or CCh is of comparable magnitude with that obtained with prolonged low-frequency stimulation (LFS) but requires far fewer stimulation pulses (40 vs 900). The cholinergic facilitation of LTD was blocked by atropine and pirenzepine, suggesting involvement of M1 receptors. The noradrenergic facilitation of LTD was blocked by urapidil and was mimicked by methoxamine, suggesting involvement of alpha1 receptors. beta receptor agonists and antagonists were without effect. Induction of LTD by PPS was inhibited by NMDA receptor blockers (completely in the case of NE; partially in the case of CCh), suggesting that one action of the modulators is to control the gain of NMDA receptor-dependent homosynaptic LTD in visual cortex. We propose that this is a mechanism by which cholinergic and noradrenergic inputs to the neocortex modulate naturally occurring receptive field plasticity. (+info)

Plasticity of first-order sensory synapses: interactions between homosynaptic long-term potentiation and heterosynaptically evoked dopaminergic potentiation. (4/13503)

Persistent potentiations of the chemical and electrotonic components of the eighth nerve (NVIII) EPSP recorded in vivo in the goldfish reticulospinal neuron, the Mauthner cell, can be evoked by afferent tetanization or local dendritic application of an endogenous transmitter, dopamine (3-hydroxytyramine). These modifications are attributable to the activation of distinct intracellular kinase cascades. Although dopamine-evoked potentiation (DEP) is mediated by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), tetanization most likely activates a Ca2+-dependent protein kinase via an increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration. We present evidence that the eighth nerve tetanus that induces LTP does not act by triggering dopamine release, because it is evoked in the presence of a broad spectrum of dopamine antagonists. To test for interactions between these pathways, we applied the potentiating paradigms sequentially. When dopamine was applied first, tetanization produced additional potentiation of the mixed synaptic response, but when the sequence was reversed, DEP was occluded, indicating that the synapses potentiated by the two procedures belong to the same or overlapping populations. Experiments were conducted to determine interactions between the underlying regulatory mechanisms and the level of their convergence. Inhibiting PKA does not impede tetanus-induced LTP, and chelating postsynaptic Ca2+ with BAPTA does not block DEP, indicating that the initial steps of the induction processes are independent. Pharmacological and voltage-clamp analyses indicate that the two pathways converge on functional AMPA/kainate receptors for the chemically mediated EPSP and gap junctions for the electrotonic component or at intermediaries common to both pathways. A cellular model incorporating these interactions is proposed on the basis of differential modulation of synaptic responses via receptor-protein phosphorylation. (+info)

Cellular sites for dynorphin activation of kappa-opioid receptors in the rat nucleus accumbens shell. (5/13503)

The nucleus accumbens (Acb) is prominently involved in the aversive behavioral aspects of kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonists, including its endogenous ligand dynorphin (Dyn). We examined the ultrastructural immunoperoxidase localization of KOR and immunogold labeling of Dyn to determine the major cellular sites for KOR activation in this region. Of 851 KOR-labeled structures sampled from a total area of 10,457 microm2, 63% were small axons and morphologically heterogenous axon terminals, 31% of which apposed Dyn-labeled terminals or also contained Dyn. Sixty-eight percent of the KOR-containing axon terminals formed punctate-symmetric or appositional contacts with unlabeled dendrites and spines, many of which received convergent input from terminals that formed asymmetric synapses. Excitatory-type terminals that formed asymmetric synapses with dendritic spines comprised 21% of the KOR-immunoreactive profiles. Dendritic spines within the neuropil were the major nonaxonal structures that contained KOR immunoreactivity. These spines also received excitatory-type synapses from unlabeled terminals and were apposed by Dyn-containing terminals. These results provide ultrastructural evidence that in the Acb shell (AcbSh), KOR agonists play a primary role in regulating the presynaptic release of Dyn and other neuromodulators that influence the output of spiny neurons via changes in the presynaptic release of or the postsynaptic responses to excitatory amino acids. The cellular distribution of KOR complements those described previously for the reward-associated mu- and delta-opioid receptors in the Acb shell. (+info)

GABAergic excitatory synapses and electrical coupling sustain prolonged discharges in the prey capture neural network of Clione limacina. (6/13503)

Afterdischarges represent a prominent characteristic of the neural network that controls prey capture reactions in the carnivorous mollusc Clione limacina. Their main functional implication is transformation of a brief sensory input from a prey into a lasting prey capture response. The present study, which focuses on the neuronal mechanisms of afterdischarges, demonstrates that a single pair of interneurons [cerebral A interneuron (Cr-Aint)] is responsible for afterdischarge generation in the network. Cr-Aint neurons are electrically coupled to all other neurons in the network and produce slow excitatory synaptic inputs to them. This excitatory transmission is found to be GABAergic, which is demonstrated by the use of GABA antagonists, uptake inhibitors, and double-labeling experiments showing that Cr-Aint neurons are GABA-immunoreactive. The Cr-Aint neurons organize three different pathways in the prey capture network, which provide positive feedback necessary for sustaining prolonged spike activity. The first pathway includes electrical coupling and slow chemical transmission from the Cr-Aint neurons to all other neurons in the network. The second feedback is based on excitatory reciprocal connections between contralateral interneurons. Recurrent excitation via the contralateral cell can sustain prolonged interneuron firing, which then drives the activity of all other cells in the network. The third positive feedback is represented by prominent afterdepolarizing potentials after individual spikes in the Cr-Aint neurons. Afterdepolarizations apparently represent recurrent GABAergic excitatory inputs. It is suggested here that these afterdepolarizing potentials are produced by GABAergic excitatory autapses. (+info)

A genetic approach to visualization of multisynaptic neural pathways using plant lectin transgene. (7/13503)

The wiring patterns among various types of neurons via specific synaptic connections are the basis of functional logic employed by the brain for information processing. This study introduces a powerful method of analyzing the neuronal connectivity patterns by delivering a tracer selectively to specific types of neurons while simultaneously transsynaptically labeling their target neurons. We developed a novel genetic approach introducing cDNA for a plant lectin, wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), as a transgene under the control of specific promoter elements. Using this method, we demonstrate three examples of visualization of specific transsynaptic neural pathways: the mouse cerebellar efferent pathways, the mouse olfactory pathways, and the Drosophila visual pathways. This strategy should greatly facilitate studies on the anatomical and functional organization of the developing and mature nervous system. (+info)

Single synaptic events evoke NMDA receptor-mediated release of calcium from internal stores in hippocampal dendritic spines. (8/13503)

We have used confocal microscopy to monitor synaptically evoked Ca2+ transients in the dendritic spines of hippocampal pyramidal cells. Individual spines respond to single afferent stimuli (<0.1 Hz) with Ca2+ transients or failures, reflecting the probability of transmitter release at the activated synapse. Both AMPA and NMDA glutamate receptor antagonists block the synaptically evoked Ca2+ transients; the block by AMPA antagonists is relieved by low Mg2+. The Ca2+ transients are mainly due to the release of calcium from internal stores, since they are abolished by antagonists of calcium-induced calcium release (CICR); CICR antagonists, however, do not depress spine Ca2+ transients generated by backpropagating action potentials. These results have implications for synaptic plasticity, since they show that synaptic stimulation can activate NMDA receptors, evoking substantial Ca2+ release from the internal stores in spines without inducing long-term potentiation (LTP) or depression (LTD). (+info)

Although synapse formation is an activity-independent event, modification of synapses and synapse elimination requires neural ... CNS synapses[edit]. Agrin appears not to be a central mediator of CNS synapse formation and there is active interest in ... Synapse formation[edit]. Neuromuscular junction[edit]. Main article: Neuromuscular junction. Much of our understanding of ... the generation of synapses between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, and finally the lifelong changes in synapses, ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_development

Synapse[edit]. Main article: Synapse (comics). Max Mullins[edit]. Main article: Synapse (Max Mullins) ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Marvel_Comics_characters:_S

Synapses[edit]. Mead's work underlies the development of computer processors whose electronic components are connected in ways ... Diorio, C.; Hasler, P.; Minch, A.; Mead, C.A. (1995). "A single-transistor silicon synapse". IEEE Transactions on Electron ... Hasler, P.; Diorio, C.; Minch, A.; Mead, C.A. (1999). "Single transistor learning synapse with long term storage". Proceedings ... Diorio, Chris; Hasler, Paul; Minch, Bradley A.; Mead, Carver (1998). "Floating-Gate MOS Synapse Transistors". In Lande, Tor ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carver_Mead

Synapse[edit]. At the synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitter normally diffuses across the synapse to eventually contact ... thus releasing acetylcholine into the synapse. Once acetylcholine is present in the synapse it is able to bind to nicotinic ... The neuromuscular junction is a specialized synapse between a neuron and the muscle it innervates. It allows efferent signals ... In the neuromuscular junction, the diseases will either act on the presynaptic membrane of the motor neuron, the synapse ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction_disease

... "chemical nerve synapse".[103] The chemical nerve synapse is the synapse most often truncated to the more ambiguous term "nerve ... A gap junction located in neurons is often referred to as an electrical synapse. The electrical synapse was discovered using ... Electrical and chemical nerve synapses[edit]. Because of the widespread occurrence of gap junctions in cell types other than ... Robertson, J. D. (1953). "Ultrastructure of two invertebrate synapses". Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gap_junction

Synaptogenesis is dependent upon the assembly of new synapses and the disassembly of old synapses by β-adducin.[57] Adducins ... as these are the components of the synapse that will communicate regularly and maintain the synapse structure and function long ... positive regulation of synapse assembly. • positive regulation of collateral sprouting. • nervous system development. • axon ... Synapse stability[edit]. In addition to mediating transient effects on NMDAR activation to promote memory-related molecular ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDNF

Tripartite synapse[edit]. Within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, activated astrocytes have the ability to respond to almost ... They are also known as astrocytic glial cells. Star-shaped, their many processes envelop synapses made by neurons. Astrocytes ... Parri R, Crunelli V (2003). "An astrocyte bridge from synapse to blood flow". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (1): 5-6. doi:10.1038/ ... One factor at the forefront of recent research is in the pain-potentiating synapse located in the dorsal horn of the spinal ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrocytes

Synapses. Musée du Montparnasse, Paris. 2007. Graphology. Palais de Tokyo, Paris. 2009. Collection Gallizia. Grand Palais - ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L'Atlas

Rousseau, Jacques (2011-07-14). "Elevatorgate and the power of words". Synapses. Archived from the original on 2019-12-15. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheist_feminism

The book discussed neuron theory, the "synapse" (a term he had introduced in 1897, the word itself suggested by classicist A. W ... Cowan, W. Maxwell; Südhof, Thomas C.; Stevens, Charles F. (2003). Synapses. JHU Press. p. 11. ISBN 9780801871184. Retrieved 9 ... Pearce, J. M. (2004). "Sir Charles Scott Sherrington (1857-1952) and the synapse". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington

1988). The Cholinergic Synapse. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 86. New York: Springer. ISBN 0-387-18613-1. Whittaker, V ... Cowan, W.M.; Südhof, T.C.; Stevens, C. (2001). Synapses. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-8018-6498 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_P._Whittaker

"The Press Ombusdman's Huffington Post ruling - #ShelleyGarland and hate speech , Synapses". Synapses. 2017-04-23. Retrieved ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verashni_Pillay

Rousseau, Jacques (July 14, 2011). "Elevatorgate and the power of words". Synapses. "Company Created Official-Looking 'Class of ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_"-gate"_scandals

"Synapses". The Brain from Top to Bottom. McGill University. Professor Heather Ashton (2002). "Benzodiazepines: How They Work ... roughly one-quarter to one-third of synapses use GABA. The use of benzodiazepines has a profound effect on almost every aspect ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine_dependence

This can help to encode changes in the state of an individual synapse without necessarily affecting the state of other synapses ... Half of the synapsing axons and dendritic spines are physically tethered by calcium-dependent cadherin, which forms cell-to- ... The variable spine shape and volume is thought to be correlated with the strength and maturity of each spine-synapse. Dendritic ... Excitatory axon proximity to dendritic spines is not sufficient to predict the presence of a synapse, as demonstrated by the ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_spine

Rousseau, Jacques (July 14, 2011). "Elevatorgate and the power of words". Synapses. Band, Emily (July 24, 2011). "Richard ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Watson

"Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City (SBAHC)". Euro Synapses. Archived from the original on 28 September 2012. Retrieved 29 ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan_bin_Abdulaziz

Synapse. 39 (1): 32-41. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1,32::AID-SYN5,3.0.CO;2-3. PMID 11071707.. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitor

... : A Festival of Asian American Film, Music and Food , Synapse *^ a b New and Improved! Asian American Showcase Rebrands ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_International_Asian_American_Film_Festival

Ultrastructure of synapses". Journal of Neurocytology. 2 (3): 249-263. doi:10.1007/BF01104029. PMID 9224490. Hutton, Danielle M ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoglea

TNF strengthens synapses. TNF in neurons promotes their survival, whereas TNF in macrophages and microglia results in ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor

"Free Astronomy Lesson 7 - The Phases of the Moon". Synapses.co.uk. Retrieved 2015-12-28. Origin: 1350-1400; Middle English < ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_phase

CS1 maint: discouraged parameter (link) "The Oblique craftmanship of Sheldon". Auditory Synapses blog. Retrieved 2018-11-12. ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dingwall_Designer_Guitars

Neurons and synapsesEdit. PrP is present in both the pre- and post-synaptic compartments, with the greatest concentration in ... Researchers have also proposed roles for PrP in cell signaling or in the formation of synapses.[19] PrPC attaches to the outer ... "Recombinant prion protein induces rapid polarization and development of synapses in embryonic rat hippocampal neurons in vitro ...

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/PRNP

SynapsisEdit. Main article: Synapsis. During meiosis, synapsis (the pairing of homologous chromosomes) ordinarily precedes ...

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination

Electrical synapsesEdit. Main articles: Electrical synapse, Gap junction, and Connexin. Some synapses dispense with the " ... Chemical synapsesEdit. Main articles: Chemical synapse, Neurotransmitter, Excitatory postsynaptic potential, and Inhibitory ... 1989). Methods in Neuronal Modeling: From Synapses to Networks. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-11133-1 ... A special case of a chemical synapse is the neuromuscular junction, in which the axon of a motor neuron terminates on a muscle ...

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potentials

Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses.[11] Electrical synapses are found throughout the nervous system, ... Chemical synapses are not the only type of biological synapse: electrical and immunological synapses also exist. Without a ... Relationship to electrical synapsesEdit. An electrical synapse is an electrically conductive link between two abutting neurons ... Synapses may be described as symmetric or asymmetric. When examined under an electron microscope, asymmetric synapses are ...

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_cleft

The concept for People has been attributed to Andrew Heiskell, Time Inc.'s chief executive officer at the time and the former publisher of the weekly Life magazine. The founding managing editor of People was Richard B. "Dick" Stolley, a former assistant managing editor at Life and the journalist who acquired the Zapruder film of the John F. Kennedy assassination for Time Inc. in 1963. People's first publisher was Richard J. "Dick" Durrell, another Time Inc. veteran.[citation needed] Stolley characterized the magazine as "getting back to the people who are causing the news and who are caught up in it, or deserve to be in it. Our focus is on people, not issues."[11] Stolley's almost religious determination to keep the magazine people-focused contributed significantly to its rapid early success. It is said that although Time Inc. pumped an estimated $40 million into the venture, the magazine only broke even 18 months after its debut in March 1974. Initially, the magazine was sold primarily on ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_

Learns by modifying weights of synapses - Thousands of synapses on the dendrites - Active dendrites: cell recognizes hundreds ... Co-activation of a set of synapses on a dendritic segment causes an NMDA spike and depolarization at the soma ... Models dendrites and NMDA spikes with each array of coincident detectors having a set of synapses ... Feedforward inputs which form synapses proximal to the soma and directly lead to action potentials ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neuron_model

a b Why Neurons Have Thousands of Synapses, a Theory of Sequence Memory in Neocortex ... Co-activation of a set of synapses on a dendritic segment causes an NMDA spike and depolarization at the soma ... Models dendrites and NMDA spikes with each array of coincident detectors having a set of synapses ... Feedforward inputs which form synapses proximal to the soma and directly lead to action potentials ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_Temporal_Memory

Synapses (Chinese: 那个我最亲爱的陌生人), also known as The Beloved Stranger, is a 2019 Taiwanese film directed and written by Chang Tso- ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapses_(film)

The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a ... An autapse is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same ... There are two fundamentally different types of synapses: *In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron ... This article is about synapses of the nervous system. For other uses, see Synapse (disambiguation). ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapses

... and postsynaptic neurons is substantially greater at chemical synapses than at electrical synapses and is called the synaptic ... the transmitter employed at peripheral neuromuscular synapses, in autonomic ganglia, and at some central synapses. ... However, the key feature of all chemical synapses is the presence of small, membrane-bounded organelles called synaptic ... and it is these chemical agents acting as messengers between the communicating neurons that gives this type of synapse its name ...

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11009/

Hebbian synapses in hippocampus. S R Kelso, A H Ganong, and T H Brown ... Postsynaptic bursting is essential for Hebbian induction of associative long-term potentiation at excitatory synapses in rat ... Hebbian induction of long-term potentiation of Aplysia sensorimotor synapses: partial requirement for activation of an NMDA- ... Evolution of Adaptive Synapses: Robots with Fast Adaptive Behavior in New Environments ...

https://www.pnas.org/content/83/14/5326/tab-article-info

However, the interest and scope of the whole subject of synapses stimulated me to write a much more comprehensive and extensive ... In 1927 the subject of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses was chosen for investigation in the course leading to the Oxford D. ... if the author were to make the claim that this book is the fruit of a life-time of enquiry into the physiology of synapses. ...

https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-642-64950-9

... synapses have been detected between neurons and oligodendrocytes in CA1 of the hippocampus AND these synapses can undergo a ... Neuron to Glia Synapses on Axons?. I posted a couple months ago about neuron to glia (in this case oligodendrocyte) synapses in ... The structure of the neuron-glia synapses found in NG2 cells differs from that of neuronal synapses by having a less well- ... synapses have been detected between neurons and oligodendrocytes in CA1 of the hippocampus AND these synapses can undergo a ...

https://scienceblogs.com/purepedantry/2006/07/19/neuron-to-glia-synapses

synapses. Not Exactly Rocket Science. Tag archives for synapses. Simple sponges provide clues to origin of nervous system. ...

http://scienceblogs.com/notrocketscience/tag/synapses/

Scientists develop a memristor that can be conditioned just like a real synapse October 5, 2016 at 11:25 am Scientists just ... IBM takes a step towards building artificial semiconductor synapses March 27, 2013 at 1:40 pm Researchers at IBM have ... built a memristor that mimics a synapse so closely, we could do simple classical conditioning on it. ...

https://www.extremetech.com/tag/synapses

The SyNAPSE team for IBM is led by Dharmendra Modha, manager of IBMs cognitive computing initiative. The SyNAPSE team for HRL ... SyNAPSE is a backronym standing for Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics. The name alludes to synapses ... SyNAPSE is a DARPA program that aims to develop electronic neuromorphic machine technology, an attempt to build a new kind of ... New IBM SyNAPSE Chip Could Open Era of Vast Neural Networks IBM, August 7, 2014 "Dharmendra S Modhas Cognitive Computing Blog ...

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SyNAPSE

"When we learn something new, synapses can be added or strengthened, but synapses must be weakened as well - so that the brain ... Building and Breaking Synapses. Researchers find a protein thats involved in helping control the architecture of connections ... Although tiny, synapses are not simple and must be precisely organized to function properly. Indeed, diseases like autism and ... Researchers who study how synapses grow and are lost have long focused on a molecule called PSD-95, which helps create and ...

https://www.newswise.com/articles/building-and-breaking-synapses

synapse* A specialized junction where transmission of information takes place between a nerve fibre and another nerve cell, or ... The major types of neural synapses include axodendritic synapses, axosomatic synapses, and axoaxonic synapses-each ... The major types of neural synapses include axodendritic synapses, axosomatic synapses, and axoaxonic synapses-each ... Synapse Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology COPYRIGHT 2001 The Gale Group Inc.. Synapse. The tiny gap through which communication ...

https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/anatomy-and-physiology/anatomy-and-physiology/synapse

The results implicate many genes in communication at the synapse between neurons and muscle. The identification of proteins ... Figure 1: Signal transmission at the neuromuscular junction (the synapse).. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is stored within ... 1). Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular synapse of C. elegans, as it is in vertebrates. The neuron ... Given that so many of the proteins reside in or near the synapse, and that many had associations with known synaptic components ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/436473a?error=cookies_not_supported&code=5393c4a7-ba2b-494b-98bc-e5f2f6fea346

Ararat Synapse - Pascal TCP/IP Library for Dephi, C++Builder, Kylix and FreePascal. ... Download Ararat Synapse for free. Pascal TCP/IP Library. ... Ive used synapse for years and it always gets the job done ... Ararat Synapse - Pascal TCP/IP Library for Dephi, C++Builder, Kylix and FreePascal. ...

https://sourceforge.net/projects/synalist/

Loss of a single protein such as PAXX or one of the XRCC4, XLF or ligase IV components reduced synapsis lifetime; however, loss ... By modulating force on one end of the DNA construct, DNA synapsis formation could be characterized by observing the change in ... DNA-PK recruits additional factors such as PAXX, XRCC4, XLF and ligase IV to mediate DNA synapsis. To determine the ... Song, Y. Stabilizing synapsis. Nat Chem Biol 14, 637 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41589-018-0095-3 ...

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41589-018-0095-3?error=cookies_not_supported&code=a80a331f-a386-4a3a-9bf5-001d0820f718

Meek H.J. (1990) Tectal morphology: connections, neurones and synapses. In: Douglas R., Djamgoz M. (eds) The Visual System of ... cell types and synapses. J. Comp. Neurol., 199, 149-73.Google Scholar ...

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-0411-8_8

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immunological synapses exist as well. Without a qualifier, however, synapse commonly refers to a chemical synapse.. Structure ... Electrical synapses are therefore faster and more reliable than chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are found throughout the ... Relationship to electrical synapses. An electrical synapse is a mechanical and electrically conductive link between two ... acetylcholinesterase prior to removal from the synapse.. Integration of synaptic inputs. In general, if an excitatory synapse ...

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Overall, this study supports the idea that sleep may universally weaken synapses that are strengthened from learning, allowing ... Synapses in the hippocampus are larger and stronger after sleep deprivation, according to new research in mice published in ... Sleep readies synapses for learning. Society for Neuroscience. Journal. Journal of Neuroscience. Funder. National Institutes of ... Synapses in the hippocampus are larger and stronger after sleep deprivation, according to new research in mice published in ...

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Three different target structures of the inhibitory synapses. (A) A symmetrical synapse (white arrow) of the LS neurogliaform ( ... Orange structures are boutons forming symmetrical synapses. (E) A symmetrical synapse (white arrow) from a CR positive double ... black arrow for VGLUT2 synapse (blue) and white arrows for symmetrical synapses (red)) on the spine head (DiS, green). (C) A ... The axonal terminal of the LS NG cell (red) innervates the soma (green). (C) A symmetrical synapse (white arrow) from a ...

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27199670?dopt=Abstract

... and NK cell synapses as specific subtypes of immunological synapses. Among all synapses, phagocytic synapses might serve as an ... Organizing information in synapses. Both the nervous system and immune system utilize several types of receptors in synapses. ... The discovery of phosphatase micro-exclusion from signaling elements in immunological synapses and innate phagocytic synapses ... "synapse" to describe the close cell-cell contacts in each. Chemical synapses in the nervous system can be defined as sites of ...

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/58705

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Together with his team, he examines the contact points between nerves, so-called dendrical thorns, and synapses. The researcher ... Together with his team, he examines the contact points between nerves, so-called dendrical thorns, and synapses. The researcher ...

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In the nervous system , a synapse [1] is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the target effector cell. (wikipedia.org)
At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target ( postsynaptic ) cell. (wikipedia.org)
In a chemical synapse , electrical activity in the presynaptic neuron is converted (via the activation of voltage-gated calcium channels ) into the release of a chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds to receptors located in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. (wikipedia.org)
An autapse is a chemical or electrical synapse that forms when the axon of one neuron synapses onto dendrites of the same neuron. (wikipedia.org)
These spherical organelles are filled with one or more neurotransmitters, the chemical signals secreted from the presynaptic neuron , and it is these chemical agents acting as messengers between the communicating neurons that gives this type of synapse its name. (nih.gov)
The structure of the neuron-glia synapses found in NG2 cells differs from that of neuronal synapses by having a less well-defined postsynaptic density and smaller presynaptic boutons that contain fewer vesicles. (scienceblogs.com)
Thus it is of interest to examine whether the neuron-NG2 cell synapses have adequate expression and localization of components required for both the induction and expression of LTP. (scienceblogs.com)
I posted a couple months ago about neuron to glia (in this case oligodendrocyte) synapses in the hippocampus, and how researchers had shown that these synapses were capable of LTP. (scienceblogs.com)
The appearance and disappearance of synapses can be fluid in a neuron," says Dr. Dalva. (newswise.com)
When the neuron is activated, the neurotransmitter is released into the synapse at active zones by a process called exocytosis. (nature.com)
Aren't all facts, at the neuron and synapse level, really the same? (dictionary.com)
The contact of the axon of one neuron with the dendrons of another is called a synapse . (dictionary.com)
These are transferred from neuron to neuron through the synapse . (dictionary.com)
The synapse consists of the synaptic terminal , or presynaptic ending, of a sending neuron, a postsynaptic ending of the receiving cell that contains receptor sites, and the space between them (the synaptic cleft ). (dictionary.com)
Most interestingly, there are two types of synapses in the brain - "excitatory" and "inhibitory" - we will discuss how these two opposing signals interact in the receiving ``neuron. (coursera.org)
For the reception of these signals, each neuron has finely branched antennae that integrate with thousands of terminals from other neurons to form synapses. (tu-darmstadt.de)
Or neuroplasticity can occur at the level of entire cells where the total number of synapses between a neuron and its target cell are changed. (khanacademy.org)
Synapse communication neuron. (alamy.com)
In the scientific journal Neuron, they report that the neurotransmitter-releasing part of a synapse dramatically remodels itself in response to electrical stimulation. (mail-archive.com)

Frozen Synapse 2 is the sequel to the award-winning turn-based tactical game. (steampowered.com)
Frozen Synapse 2 brings you classic tactical gameplay with a new twist: it's set within a vast procedurally generated city. (steampowered.com)
In single player, Frozen Synapse 2 tasks you with defending the city of Markov Geist against an array of threats from within and without. (steampowered.com)
Frozen Synapse is a multi-award-winning tactical game. (apple.com)
Frozen Synapse brings the simultaneous turn-based strategy genre bang up-to-date and lets you give detailed, accurate orders to your squad: classic gameplay with a modern interface. (apple.com)
Competitive-but-intuitive multiplayer and a huge single player campaign mean that Frozen Synapse will give you hours and hours of tactical delight. (apple.com)
Frozen Synapse is a wonderfully complex, immensely satisfying turn-based tactical game. (apple.com)
Frozen Synapse is an amazing refinement of the tactical strategy genre. (greenmangaming.com)
Frozen Synapse is won with tactics and planning. (greenmangaming.com)
Frozen Synapse gives the ultimate illusion of control. (greenmangaming.com)

Building artificial synapses may have just become a little easier. (extremetech.com)
And, of course, the artificial synapses may be used to boost the artificial intelligence of the sort of robots that get sci-fi fans all hot under the collar. (fastcompany.com)

In 1927 the subject of Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses was chosen for investigation in the course leading to the Oxford D. Phil. (springer.com)
Whether a synapse is excitatory or inhibitory depends on what type(s) of ion channel conduct the postsynaptic current display(s), which in turn is a function of the type of receptors and neurotransmitter employed at the synapse. (mcgill.ca)
The postsynaptic density of excitatory synapses is thicker (more pronounced) than the postsynaptic density of inhibitory synapses. (els.net)
With a five-year, $500,000 grant from the Rita Allen Foundation, Tian will develop imaging tools to obtain a comprehensive view of both excitatory and inhibitory synapses in action at the cellular, tissue and whole-animal levels. (ucdavis.edu)
Perhaps the cells form new synapses to inhibitory nerve cells, which would reduce the transmission of synaptic information even more', Nadine Becker speculates on her results. (mail-archive.com)

Work from other laboratories has shown that these synapses, with less PSD-95, are likely to be weakened or lost. (newswise.com)

A new paper, publishing in Nature Neuroscience October 19th, reveals that a second protein interacts with PSD-95 and enables adaptive changes, such as changes in sensation, to be translated into changes in the synaptic scaffold, changing the amount of PSD-95 at the synapse. (newswise.com)
We can't see or learn or talk without synapses working properly," says senior author Matthew Dalva, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Neuroscience at the Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University and the Farber Institute of Neuroscience at Jefferson and leader of the Theme Team for Synapse Biology. (newswise.com)
If you missed the first Synapse meeting and would like to be added to the Neuroscience Journal Club mailing list, please email me at [email protected] with your name and preferred email address. (google.com)
The Neuroscience Department and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience at Yale are pleased to announce the 2021-2022 SYNAPSES seminar series. (yale.edu)
SYNAPSES (Seminars at Yale Neuroscience: Advanced PoStdoc Extramural Series) brings to Yale postdocs from around the world to share their latest work. (yale.edu)
Trettenbrein acknowledges that "the idea that learning is essentially the modification of synapses in an ever-changing plastic brain has become one of the dogmas of modern neuroscience" . (discovermagazine.com)

immunological synapses exist as well. (mcgill.ca)
The discovery of phosphatase micro-exclusion from signaling elements in immunological synapses and innate phagocytic synapses define a common functional unit at a common sub-micron scale across synapse types. (jci.org)
Herein we refer to data from phagocytic, T cell, B cell, and NK cell synapses as specific subtypes of immunological synapses. (jci.org)

[2] The word "synapse" - from the Greek synapsis ( συνάψις ), meaning "conjunction", in turn from συνάπτεὶν ( συν ("together") and ἅπτειν ("to fasten")) - was introduced in 1897 by the English neurophysiologist Charles Sherrington in Michael Foster 's Textbook of Physiology . (wikipedia.org)
There would be some justification if the author were to make the claim that this book is the fruit of a life-time of enquiry into the physiology of synapses. (springer.com)
One of the most fundamental issues in synaptic physiology is whether receptors at a single synapse are saturated by a quantum of neurotransmitter. (pnas.org)
Synapses are little nanoscale machines that transmit information," said senior author Vitaly A. Klyachko, PhD, an associate professor of cell biology and physiology at the School of Medicine. (eurekalert.org)

Because this process is very similar to how calcium ions behave in biological synapses, the device can mimic short-term plasticity in neurons, the researchers said. (livescience.com)

More restrained signaling may promote a longer-lived junction than can then be used to process action potentials into chemical synapse and compute one output from many inputs. (jci.org)
Graded signaling requires a synapse to sustain high rates of exocytosis for relatively long periods, and this capacity is the special virtue of ribbon synapses. (nih.gov)

In an electrical synapse , the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected by special channels called gap junctions or synaptic cleft that are capable of passing an electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes in the postsynaptic cell. (wikipedia.org)
With the exception of developing neuromuscular junctions, long-term potentiation (LTP) has been observed only at synapses between neurons. (scienceblogs.com)
Chemical synapses are among the most elaborate junctions existing between two cells, enabling communication between neurons through chemical neurotransmission within milliseconds. (els.net)
The name alludes to synapses, the junctions between biological neurons. (wikipedia.org)

The cytoplasm of the presynaptic nerve terminal (in a chemical synapse) is packed full of small vesicles, each containing a few thousand molecules of neurotransmitter. (encyclopedia.com)
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular synapse of C. elegans , as it is in vertebrates. (nature.com)
The neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the target cell to pass the signal across the synapse, and any excess neurotransmitter is broken down by enzymes called acetylcholinesterases, so that the synapse is primed for the next signal. (nature.com)
One change that can occur is that for each action potential reaching the axon terminal, more neurotransmitter may be released into the synapse so that a bigger response is going to be seen in the target cell because more neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal with each action potential coming down the axon. (khanacademy.org)

C ) T cell synapses are larger interfaces in which TCR microclusters that exclude CD45 are formed. (jci.org)

Axons typically form synapses en passant (in passage) with dendritic segments from many neurons. (els.net)

The general structure of a chemical synapse is shown schematically in Figure 5.1B . The space between the pre- and postsynaptic neurons is substantially greater at chemical synapses than at electrical synapses and is called the synaptic cleft . (nih.gov)
At electrical synapses , which are relatively rare in vertebrates, the membranes of the two cells are in tight contact, producing electrical coupling, which enables a nerve impulse (or action potential ) arriving at the presynaptic nerve ending to pass swiftly and reliably to the next cell. (encyclopedia.com)

When sending signals, the transmitting side of the synapse releases little packages of neurotransmitters, which traverse the gap and bind to receptors on the receiving side, completing the information relay. (eurekalert.org)
On the transmitting side of the synapse the neurotransmitters at the active zone are packaged into synaptic vesicles. (eurekalert.org)
By comparison, the other side of the synapse, the transmitter unit, also known as bouton, was believed to play only a passive role in the formation of synapses. (mail-archive.com)

synapses have been detected between neurons and oligodendrocytes in CA1 of the hippocampus AND these synapses can undergo a kind of LTP. (scienceblogs.com)
Synapses in the hippocampus are larger and stronger after sleep deprivation, according to new research in mice published in JNeurosci . (eurekalert.org)
Chiara Cirelli and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin-Madison examined how synapses in the hippocampus, a structure involved in learning, changed following sleep and sleep deprivation in mice. (eurekalert.org)

In the postsynaptic density of neuronal excitatory synapses, PDZ proteins such as PSD-95 organize glutamate receptors and their associated signalling proteins and determine the size and strength of synapses. (nih.gov)

synapse A specialized junction where transmission of information takes place between a nerve fibre and another nerve cell, or between a nerve fibre and a muscle or gland cell. (encyclopedia.com)
At nerve-muscle synapses, and in many nerve-nerve synapses, the receptors have a double function, since they also serve as ion channels . (encyclopedia.com)
Acetylcholine is the excitatory transmitter at nerve-muscle synapses, and glutamate is the main excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system . (encyclopedia.com)
junction between two nerve cells," 1899, from Greek synapsis "conjunction," from synaptein "to clasp," from syn- "together" (see syn- ) + haptein "to fasten. (dictionary.com)
In biological systems, when a nerve impulse reaches a synapse , it causes channels to open, allowing calcium ions to flood into the synapse. (livescience.com)
Now, scientists at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis report they have been able to achieve -- with a custom-built microscope -- the closest view yet of living nerve synapses. (eurekalert.org)
A synapse consists of a tiny gap between two nerves, with one nerve serving as the transmitter and the other as the receiver. (eurekalert.org)
Thanks to the flexibility of the nerve cell's communication units, called synapses, we are good at both. (mail-archive.com)
The brain can deal with its complicated tasks only when the nerve cells manage to exchange information at the right time and place via their synapses. (mail-archive.com)

An example of chemical synapse by the release of neurotransmitters like acetylcholine or glutamic acid . (wikipedia.org)
There are many kinds of neurotransmitters (see Chapter 6), the best studied example being acetylcholine , the transmitter employed at peripheral neuromuscular synapses, in autonomic ganglia, and at some central synapses. (nih.gov)
b) Schematic diagram of a synapse, showing the three main components: the presynaptic bouton containing synaptic vesicles (SVs), the synaptic cleft containing neurotransmitters released from SVs and the postsynaptic junction where receptors are localised. (els.net)
Specifically, we would like to understand how synaptic vesicles fuse to release neurotransmitters and how vesicles are regenerated at the synapse to maintain synaptic transmission. (hhmi.org)

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Synapses (Chinese: 那个我最亲爱的陌生人), also known as The Beloved Stranger, is a 2019 Taiwanese film directed and written by Chang Tso-chi , starring Lü Hsueh-feng, Oscar Chiu. (wikipedia.org)

In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon and the postsynaptic part is located on a dendrite or soma . (wikipedia.org)
The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however, a variety of other arrangements exist. (wikipedia.org)
The axon can synapse onto a dendrite, onto a cell body, or onto another axon or axon terminal, as well as into the bloodstream or diffusely into the adjacent nervous tissue. (wikipedia.org)
Here in light blue will be the target cell membrane seeing a corresponding amount of activity from the axon terminal that it's synapsing with. (khanacademy.org)

Chemical synapses are more complex, because the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are physically separated by a minute gap (the synaptic cleft ), which prevents simple electrical transmission of the action potential to the postsynaptic cell. (encyclopedia.com)

Figure 1: Signal transmission at the neuromuscular junction (the synapse). (nature.com)
There are three major structural components that define the synapse: the presynaptic bouton (also known as presynaptic terminal), postsynaptic junction (also known as postsynaptic terminal) and the synaptic cleft. (els.net)
The synapse , then, is not a thing, but simply a junction between two neurones. (dictionary.com)
That junction is known as a synapse. (livescience.com)
Understanding the detailed workings of a synapse -- the junction between neurons that govern how these cells communicate with each other -- is vital for modeling brain networks and understanding how diseases as diverse as depression, Alzheimer's or schizophrenia may affect brain function, according to the researchers. (eurekalert.org)

The conversion of CaPARs [Ca-permeable AMPA receptors] into Ca2+-impermeable receptors at Bergmann glial cells, by transfection with the GluR2 subunit, results in the retraction of glial processes that ensheath synapses and multiple innervations of Purkinje cells by climbing fibers. (scienceblogs.com)
In this study, Bear's team also used the phosphorylation of hippocampal glutamate receptors to show that LTP had occurred, but not its counterpart, long-term depression - another learning-induced process that involves the weakening, rather than strengthening of synapses. (the-scientist.com)
Thus, glutamate receptors at hippocampal synapses are not generally saturated by quantal release. (pnas.org)
We find that this variability must arise presynaptically and conclude that glutamate receptors at hippocampal synapses are, therefore, not saturated. (pnas.org)

The diffusion memristor is helping the drift-type memristor behave similarly to a real synapse," Yang said. (livescience.com)

F ) Microgaph of a neural synapse. (jci.org)
The student reviews information on the neural synapse. (merlot.org)
The presentation of Physiological Events at the Neural Synapse by Barbara Lang was a brief and clear presentation of material that may be useful for nursing students. (merlot.org)

However, the key feature of all chemical synapses is the presence of small, membrane-bounded organelles called synaptic vesicles within the presynaptic terminal . (nih.gov)

however, loss of two proteins nearly abolished synapsis entirely. (nature.com)
These proteins are also required during synaptogenesis to ensure that the synapse forms properly. (els.net)

These include but are not limited to axo-axonic, dendro-dendritic , axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses. (wikipedia.org)
Using loose-patch recording of synaptic terminals ( 10 ), local stimulation of glutamate release ( 11 ), and calcium imaging of individual dendritic spines ( 13 ), responses of AMPARs at single synapses to a single quantum of glutamate in hippocampal cultures were shown to be highly variable. (pnas.org)

Estimates for adults vary from 10 15 to 5 × 10 15 (1-5 quadrillion) synapses. (mcgill.ca)
Previous research has suggested that the human brain has about 100 billion neurons and approximately 1 quadrillion (1 million billion) synapses. (livescience.com)

Maybe, the founders of Annexon Biosciences think, you can fight Alzheimer's by stopping the immune system from removing synapses that we need for normal neuronal functioning. (forbes.com)

Overall, this study supports the idea that sleep may universally weaken synapses that are strengthened from learning, allowing for new learning to occur after waking. (eurekalert.org)
Study reveals how, when a synapse strengthens, its neighbors weaken. (constantcontact.com)
In a new study in Science, researchers at the Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT demonstrate for the first time how this balance is struck: when one connection, called a synapse, strengthens, immediately neighboring synapses weaken based on the action of a crucial protein called Arc. (constantcontact.com)

See Synapse Design Salaries , Synapse Design Hourly Pay , or check out salaries for Synapse Design Internship or Synapse Design Contractor . (glassdoor.com)

2 have implicated the products of 185 genes in various synaptic functions, including exocytosis, endocytosis, formation of the active and peri-active zones, vesicle transport and neuropeptide modulation at the synapse. (nature.com)

Because of the complexity of receptor signal transduction , chemical synapses can have complex effects on the postsynaptic cell. (wikipedia.org)
Transmission at chemical synapses is based on the elaborate sequence of events depicted in Figure 5.3 . (nih.gov)
Sequence of events involved in transmission at a typical chemical synapse. (nih.gov)
Without a qualifier, however, 'synapse' commonly refers to a chemical synapse. (mcgill.ca)
Chemical synapses pass information directionally from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell and are therefore asymmetric in structure and function. (mcgill.ca)
The functioning brain receives thousands of chemical and electrical signals at the synapse, the area of connection between neurons," Tian said. (ucdavis.edu)
Powered by a bio-chemical reaction, the infested Synapse rifle fries it's targets with a steady stream of electricity. (ign.com)

Synapses are essential to neuronal function: neurons are cells that are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so. (wikipedia.org)
As we age, the problem is that C1q accumulates on synapses and removes ones we need for normal neuronal function, says Annexon CEO Doug Love . (forbes.com)

The initial phase of the SyNAPSE program developed nanometer scale electronic synaptic components capable of adapting the connection strength between two neurons in a manner analogous to that seen in biological systems (Hebbian learning), and simulated the utility of these synaptic components in core microcircuits that support the overall system architecture. (wikipedia.org)

Recently, using various techniques to monitor synaptic responses at single synapses, several laboratories have confirmed that mEPSC amplitudes mediated by both AMPA and NMDARs are, indeed, highly variable, even at single synapses ( 9 - 13 ). (pnas.org)

Welcome to synapses, neurons and brains! (coursera.org)
Such artificial brains would be used in robots whose intelligence would scale with the size of the neural system in terms of total number of neurons and synapses and their connectivity. (wikipedia.org)

Exclusive details/art: Synapse is releasing "SUSPIRIA" on 4K UltraHD disc! (rue-morgue.com)

Now researchers at Thomas Jefferson University have found a new way in which synapses organization is controlled, which could eventually lead to better treatments for neurological diseases. (newswise.com)
Researchers who study how synapses grow and are lost have long focused on a molecule called PSD-95, which helps create and maintain the scaffolding around which a synapse is built. (newswise.com)
Through high-powered microscopy and biochemical analyses, the researchers discovered that a protein called ephrin-B3, which sits at membrane of neuronal synapses near clusters of PSD-95. (newswise.com)
Consistent with previous studies in the cortex, the researchers observed that synapses were larger, and therefore stronger, after the mice were awake for six to seven hours compared to after they were asleep for the same amount of time. (eurekalert.org)
Additionally, the researchers found that the synapses were strongest when the mice were forced to stay awake and interact with new stimuli, compared to mice that stayed awake on their own. (eurekalert.org)

This article is about synapses of the nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
Cell-cell communication systems in the immune and nervous systems share several features, which has led to the adoption of the common term "synapse" to describe the close cell-cell contacts in each. (jci.org)
One way to define this term is that it refers to changes in synapses and/or other parts of neurons that affect how information is processed and transmitted in the nervous system. (khanacademy.org)

The main advantage of an electrical synapse is the rapid transfer of signals from one cell to the next. (wikipedia.org)

The upshot of this memory effect is that the NOMFET behaves in a similar way to the manner of an organic synapse as it transmits a signal between neurons-it can modify its reaction to incoming signals based on events that happened before, or on the nature of the signal it's dealing with at that moment. (fastcompany.com)
The exciting thing is that the signals that a cell receives from, say, ten simultaneously active synapses can be greater than the sum of the signals from the ten individual synapses," says Volker Scheuss, summarizing the basis of his recently published study. (innovations-report.com)
This is the first anatomical explanation for the disproportionate strength of clustered synapse signals in comparison to the individual signals - a finding known from activity measurements. (innovations-report.com)

Maybe his secretary's two neurones would fail to synapse this morning, and she'd lose them altogether. (dictionary.com)

But these memristors are based on physical processes very different from those in biological synapses, which limits their fidelity and the variety of possible synaptic functions, Yang said. (livescience.com)

Anatomy56

Organisms16

Chemicals and Drugs64

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment11

Psychiatry and Psychology3

Phenomena and Processes27

Disciplines and Occupations3

Health Care2

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (1/13503)

Developmental synaptic changes increase the range of integrative capabilities of an identified excitatory neocortical connection. (2/13503)

Modulation of long-term synaptic depression in visual cortex by acetylcholine and norepinephrine. (3/13503)

Plasticity of first-order sensory synapses: interactions between homosynaptic long-term potentiation and heterosynaptically evoked dopaminergic potentiation. (4/13503)

Cellular sites for dynorphin activation of kappa-opioid receptors in the rat nucleus accumbens shell. (5/13503)

GABAergic excitatory synapses and electrical coupling sustain prolonged discharges in the prey capture neural network of Clione limacina. (6/13503)

A genetic approach to visualization of multisynaptic neural pathways using plant lectin transgene. (7/13503)

Single synaptic events evoke NMDA receptor-mediated release of calcium from internal stores in hippocampal dendritic spines. (8/13503)

Synapses

Immunological Synapses

Synaptic Transmission

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials

Presynaptic Terminals

Electrical Synapses

Neuronal Plasticity

Neurons

Hippocampus

Synaptic Vesicles

Dendrites

Receptors, AMPA

Dendritic Spines

Long-Term Potentiation

Electric Stimulation

Patch-Clamp Techniques

Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate

Neural Inhibition

Neuromuscular Junction

Neurotransmitter Agents

Glutamic Acid

Synaptic Membranes

gamma-Aminobutyric Acid

Nerve Tissue Proteins

Long-Term Synaptic Depression

Axons

Interneurons

Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists

Purkinje Cells

Mossy Fibers, Hippocampal

Models, Neurological

Pyramidal Cells

Animals, Newborn

Action Potentials

Rats, Sprague-Dawley

Receptors, Glutamate

Post-Synaptic Density

Synaptophysin

Vesicular Glutamate Transport Protein 1

Electrophysiology

Synaptic Potentials

Guanylate Kinase

Motor Neurons

Cerebellum

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials

Cells, Cultured

Synapsins

Nerve Fibers

Neural Pathways

Receptors, Metabotropic Glutamate

Aplysia

Cell Adhesion Molecules, Neuronal

Calcium

GABA Antagonists

Microscopy, Electron

Pyridinium Compounds

CA1 Region, Hippocampal

Microscopy, Electron, Transmission

Receptors, Presynaptic

Organ Culture Techniques

Evoked Potentials

Nerve Net

Mice, Inbred C57BL

Mice, Knockout

Excitatory Amino Acid Agents

Rats, Wistar

Green Fluorescent Proteins

Membrane Proteins

Retinal Bipolar Cells

Neurons, Afferent

Cerebellar Cortex

Exocytosis

Vesicular Glutamate Transport Protein 2

Time Factors

Receptors, GABA-A

6-Cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione

Vesicular Inhibitory Amino Acid Transport Proteins

2-Amino-5-phosphonovalerate

Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists

Ganglia, Invertebrate