A family of symporters that facilitate sodium-dependent membrane transport of phosphate.
A family of sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins with eight transmembrane domains. They are present primarily in the KIDNEY and SMALL INTESTINE and are responsible for renal and small intestinal epithelial transport of phosphate.
An electrogenic sodium-dependent phosphate transporter. It is present primarily in BRUSH BORDER membranes of PROXIMAL RENAL TUBULES.
A family of sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins that also transport organic ANIONS. They are low affinity phosphate transporters.
A non-electrogenic sodium-dependent phosphate transporter. It is found primarily in apical membranes of PROXIMAL RENAL TUBULES.
A sodium-dependent phosphate transporter present primarily at apical sites of EPITHELIAL CELLS in the SMALL INTESTINE.
Membrane transporters that co-transport two or more dissimilar molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Usually the transport of one ion or molecule is against its electrochemical gradient and is "powered" by the movement of another ion or molecule with its electrochemical gradient.
A condition of an abnormally low level of PHOSPHATES in the blood.
A family of highly conserved and widely expressed sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins. They are electrogenic sodium-dependent transporters of phosphate that were originally identified as retroviral receptors in HUMANS and have been described in yeast and many other organisms.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
A subclass of symporters that specifically transport SODIUM CHLORIDE and/or POTASSIUM CHLORIDE across cellular membranes in a tightly coupled process.
Agents that are used to stimulate evacuation of the bowels.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
New World marsupials of the family Didelphidae. Opossums are omnivorous, largely nocturnal and arboreal MAMMALS, grow to about three feet in length, including the scaly prehensile tail, and have an abdominal pouch in which the young are carried at birth.
A subclass of retinol-binding proteins that take part in the intracellular storage and transport of RETINOL. They are both functionally and structurally distinct from PLASMA RETINOL-BINDING PROTEINS.
Minute projections of cell membranes which greatly increase the surface area of the cell.
A hereditary disorder characterized by HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA; RICKETS; OSTEOMALACIA; renal defects in phosphate reabsorption and vitamin D metabolism; and growth retardation. Autosomal and X-linked dominant and recessive variants have been reported.
The renal tubule portion that extends from the BOWMAN CAPSULE in the KIDNEY CORTEX into the KIDNEY MEDULLA. The proximal tubule consists of a convoluted proximal segment in the cortex, and a distal straight segment descending into the medulla where it forms the U-shaped LOOP OF HENLE.
A diphenylmethane stimulant laxative used for the treatment of CONSTIPATION and for bowel evacuation. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p871)
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
A subtype of bone morphogenetic protein receptors with low affinity for BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS. They are constitutively active PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES that can interact with and phosphorylate TYPE I BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS.
A plasma membrane exchange glycoprotein transporter that functions in intracellular pH regulation, cell volume regulation, and cellular response to many different hormones and mitogens.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the luminal surface of the colon.
Proteins that cotransport sodium ions and bicarbonate ions across cellular membranes.
A subclass of symporters found in KIDNEY TUBULES, DISTAL that are the major pathway for salt resorption. Inhibition of these symporters by BENZOTHIADIAZINES is the basis of action of some DIURETICS.
Na-K-Cl transporter ubiquitously expressed. It plays a key role in salt secretion in epithelial cells and cell volume regulation in nonepithelial cells.
An abundant lysosomal-associated membrane protein that has been found to shuttle between LYSOSOMES; ENDOSOMES; and the PLASMA MEMBRANE. Loss of expression of lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 is associated with GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASE TYPE IIB.
A subtype of bone morphogenetic protein receptors with high affinity for BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS. They can interact with and undergo PHOSPHORYLATION by BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS, TYPE II. They signal primarily through RECEPTOR-REGULATED SMAD PROTEINS.
The founding member of the sodium glucose transport proteins. It is predominately expressed in the INTESTINAL MUCOSA of the SMALL INTESTINE.
Proteins which bind with RETINOL. The retinol-binding protein found in plasma has an alpha-1 mobility on electrophoresis and a molecular weight of about 21 kDa. The retinol-protein complex (MW=80-90 kDa) circulates in plasma in the form of a protein-protein complex with prealbumin. The retinol-binding protein found in tissue has a molecular weight of 14 kDa and carries retinol as a non-covalently-bound ligand.
The washing of a body cavity or surface by flowing water or solution for therapy or diagnosis.
Preparations of Cassia senna and C. angustifolia (see SENNA PLANT). They contain sennosides, which are anthraquinone type CATHARTICS and are used in many different preparations as laxatives.
Agents that produce a soft formed stool, and relax and loosen the bowels, typically used over a protracted period, to relieve CONSTIPATION.
A sulfamyl diuretic.
Na-K-Cl transporter in the ASCENDING LIMB OF LOOP OF HENLE. It mediates active reabsorption of sodium chloride and is inhibited by LOOP DIURETICS such as FUROSEMIDE; and BUMETANIDE. Mutations in the gene encoding SLC12A1 are associated with a BARTTER SYNDROME.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Agents that inhibit SODIUM-POTASSIUM-CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS which are concentrated in the thick ascending limb at the junction of the LOOP OF HENLE and KIDNEY TUBULES, DISTAL. They act as DIURETICS. Excess use is associated with HYPOKALEMIA and HYPERGLYCEMIA.
Homogeneous liquid preparations that contain one or more chemical substances dissolved, i.e., molecularly dispersed, in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. For reasons of their ingredients, method of preparation, or use, they do not fall into another group of products.
Agents used to prevent the formation of foam or to treat flatulence or bloat.
A solution or compound that is introduced into the RECTUM with the purpose of cleansing the COLON or for diagnostic procedures.
Na-Cl cotransporter in the convoluted segments of the DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE. It mediates active reabsorption of sodium and chloride and is inhibited by THIAZIDE DIURETICS.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A receptor-regulated smad protein that undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION by BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS. It regulates BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN signaling and plays an essential role in EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.
An inherited condition of abnormally low serum levels of PHOSPHATES (below 1 mg/liter) which can occur in a number of genetic diseases with defective reabsorption of inorganic phosphorus by the PROXIMAL RENAL TUBULES. This leads to phosphaturia, HYPOPHOSPHATEMIA, and disturbances of cellular and organ functions such as those in X-LINKED HYPOPHOSPHATEMIC RICKETS; OSTEOMALACIA; and FANCONI SYNDROME.
A chemical system that functions to control the levels of specific ions in solution. When the level of hydrogen ion in solution is controlled the system is called a pH buffer.
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
A poly(dimethylsiloxane) which is a polymer of 200-350 units of dimethylsiloxane, along with added silica gel. It is used as an antiflatulent, surfactant, and ointment base.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Ion channels that specifically allow the passage of SODIUM ions. A variety of specific sodium channel subtypes are involved in serving specialized functions such as neuronal signaling, CARDIAC MUSCLE contraction, and KIDNEY function.
A group of compounds that are monomethyl derivatives of pyridines. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
An inhibitory Smad protein that negatively regulates the SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS from BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS. Smad6 inhibits PHOSPHORYLATION of SMAD2 PROTEIN and SMAD3 PROTEIN.
One of the two types of ACTIVIN RECEPTORS. They are membrane protein kinases belonging to the family of PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES. The major type II activin receptors are ActR-IIA and ActR-IIB.
Polymers of ETHYLENE OXIDE and water, and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid depending on the molecular weight indicated by a number following the name. They are used as SURFACTANTS, dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, and tablet excipients. Some specific groups are NONOXYNOLS, OCTOXYNOLS, and POLOXAMERS.
Group of hemorrhagic disorders in which the VON WILLEBRAND FACTOR is either quantitatively or qualitatively abnormal. They are usually inherited as an autosomal dominant trait though rare kindreds are autosomal recessive. Symptoms vary depending on severity and disease type but may include prolonged bleeding time, deficiency of factor VIII, and impaired platelet adhesion.
A condition characterized by calcification of the renal tissue itself. It is usually seen in distal RENAL TUBULAR ACIDOSIS with calcium deposition in the DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULES and the surrounding interstitium. Nephrocalcinosis causes RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
Calcium salts of phosphoric acid. These compounds are frequently used as calcium supplements.
Inorganic compounds derived from hydrochloric acid that contain the Cl- ion.
A ubiquitous sodium salt that is commonly used to season food.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A receptor-regulated smad protein that undergoes PHOSPHORYLATION by BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS. It regulates BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN signaling and is essential for PHYSIOLOGICAL ANGIOGENESIS.
An ester of glucose with phosphoric acid, made in the course of glucose metabolism by mammalian and other cells. It is a normal constituent of resting muscle and probably is in constant equilibrium with fructose-6-phosphate. (Stedman, 26th ed)
Enzymes that catalyze the dehydrogenation of GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE. Several types of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase exist including phosphorylating and non-phosphorylating varieties and ones that transfer hydrogen to NADP and ones that transfer hydrogen to NAD.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
'Sugar phosphates' are organic compounds that consist of a sugar molecule linked to one or more phosphate groups, playing crucial roles in biochemical processes such as energy transfer and nucleic acid metabolism.
Skeletal muscle fibers characterized by their expression of the Type II MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN isoforms which have high ATPase activity and effect several other functional properties - shortening velocity, power output, rate of tension redevelopment. Several fast types have been identified.
An antibiotic mixture of two components, A and B, obtained from Nocardia lurida (or the same substance produced by any other means). It is no longer used clinically because of its toxicity. It causes platelet agglutination and blood coagulation and is used to assay those functions in vitro.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Phlorhizin is a non-transportable glucose analog that inhibits the sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) and aldohexose transporter (GLUT2), leading to reduced intestinal absorption and increased renal excretion of glucose, which is used in research to study glucose transport and diabetes-related processes.
Substances that dissociate into two or more ions, to some extent, in water. Solutions of electrolytes thus conduct an electric current and can be decomposed by it (ELECTROLYSIS). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A family of CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS that bind BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEINS. They are PROTEIN-SERINE-THREONINE KINASES that mediate SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS through SMAD PROTEINS.
A key intermediate in metabolism. It is an acid compound found in citrus fruits. The salts of citric acid (citrates) can be used as anticoagulants due to their calcium chelating ability.
Ubiquitously expressed integral membrane glycoproteins found in the LYSOSOME.
Retinol and derivatives of retinol that play an essential role in metabolic functioning of the retina, the growth of and differentiation of epithelial tissue, the growth of bone, reproduction, and the immune response. Dietary vitamin A is derived from a variety of CAROTENOIDS found in plants. It is enriched in the liver, egg yolks, and the fat component of dairy products.
A disease characterized by bony deposits or the ossification of muscle tissue.
The larger subunits of MYOSINS. The heavy chains have a molecular weight of about 230 kDa and each heavy chain is usually associated with a dissimilar pair of MYOSIN LIGHT CHAINS. The heavy chains possess actin-binding and ATPase activity.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Proteins which are present in or isolated from SOYBEANS.
Common name for two families of FLATFISHES belonging to the order Pleuronectiformes: left-eye flounders (Bothidae) and right-eye flounders (Pleuronectidae). The latter is more commonly used in research.
Skeletal muscle fibers characterized by their expression of the Type I MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN isoforms which have low ATPase activity and effect several other functional properties - shortening velocity, power output, rate of tension redevelopment.
Pathological processes in the COLON region of the large intestine (INTESTINE, LARGE).
The commonest and widest ranging species of the clawed "frog" (Xenopus) in Africa. This species is used extensively in research. There is now a significant population in California derived from escaped laboratory animals.
Heterocyclic compounds with SULFUR and NITROGEN in the ring. This term commonly refers to the BENZOTHIADIAZINES that inhibit SODIUM-POTASSIUM-CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS and are used as DIURETICS.
A mixture of related phosphoproteins occurring in milk and cheese. The group is characterized as one of the most nutritive milk proteins, containing all of the common amino acids and rich in the essential ones.
Care given during the period prior to undergoing surgery when psychological and physical preparations are made according to the special needs of the individual patient. This period spans the time between admission to the hospital to the time the surgery begins. (From Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
The U-shaped portion of the renal tubule in the KIDNEY MEDULLA, consisting of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It is situated between the PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE and the DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
The concentration of osmotically active particles in solution expressed in terms of osmoles of solute per liter of solution. Osmolality is expressed in terms of osmoles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
A sodium-glucose transporter that is expressed in the luminal membrane of the PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULES.
A high-molecular-weight plasma protein, produced by endothelial cells and megakaryocytes, that is part of the factor VIII/von Willebrand factor complex. The von Willebrand factor has receptors for collagen, platelets, and ristocetin activity as well as the immunologically distinct antigenic determinants. It functions in adhesion of platelets to collagen and hemostatic plug formation. The prolonged bleeding time in VON WILLEBRAND DISEASES is due to the deficiency of this factor.
A diuretic and renal diagnostic aid related to sorbitol. It has little significant energy value as it is largely eliminated from the body before any metabolism can take place. It can be used to treat oliguria associated with kidney failure or other manifestations of inadequate renal function and has been used for determination of glomerular filtration rate. Mannitol is also commonly used as a research tool in cell biological studies, usually to control osmolarity.
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
Inorganic salts that contain the -HCO3 radical. They are an important factor in determining the pH of the blood and the concentration of bicarbonate ions is regulated by the kidney. Levels in the blood are an index of the alkali reserve or buffering capacity.
A family of proteins that are involved in the translocation of signals from TGF-BETA RECEPTORS; BONE MORPHOGENETIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS; and other surface receptors to the CELL NUCLEUS. They were originally identified as a class of proteins that are related to the mothers against decapentaplegic protein, Drosophila and sma proteins from CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS.
An element in the alkali group of metals with an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte that plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.
Sodium or sodium compounds used in foods or as a food. The most frequently used compounds are sodium chloride or sodium glutamate.
Agents that inhibit SODIUM CHLORIDE SYMPORTERS. They act as DIURETICS. Excess use is associated with HYPOKALEMIA.
A nonmuscle isoform of myosin type II found predominantly in neuronal tissue.
Phosphoric acid esters of inositol. They include mono- and polyphosphoric acid esters, with the exception of inositol hexaphosphate which is PHYTIC ACID.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Female germ cells derived from OOGONIA and termed OOCYTES when they enter MEIOSIS. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until OVULATION at PUBERTY to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (OVUM).
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A growth differentiation factor that is a potent inhibitor of SKELETAL MUSCLE growth. It may play a role in the regulation of MYOGENESIS and in muscle maintenance during adulthood.
Cell surface receptors that bind growth or trophic factors with high affinity, triggering intracellular responses which influence the growth, differentiation, or survival of cells.
Proteins obtained from foods. They are the main source of the ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS.
Large, multinucleate single cells, either cylindrical or prismatic in shape, that form the basic unit of SKELETAL MUSCLE. They consist of MYOFIBRILS enclosed within and attached to the SARCOLEMMA. They are derived from the fusion of skeletal myoblasts (MYOBLASTS, SKELETAL) into a syncytium, followed by differentiation.
The portion of renal tubule that begins from the enlarged segment of the ascending limb of the LOOP OF HENLE. It reenters the KIDNEY CORTEX and forms the convoluted segments of the distal tubule.
Agents that promote the excretion of urine through their effects on kidney function.
Surface glycoproteins on platelets which have a key role in hemostasis and thrombosis such as platelet adhesion and aggregation. Many of these are receptors.
The movement of ions across energy-transducing cell membranes. Transport can be active, passive or facilitated. Ions may travel by themselves (uniport), or as a group of two or more ions in the same (symport) or opposite (antiport) directions.
A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A large group of membrane transport proteins that shuttle MONOSACCHARIDES across CELL MEMBRANES.
A family of organic anion transporters that specifically transport DICARBOXYLIC ACIDS such as alpha-ketoglutaric acid across cellular membranes.
A subclass of ORGANIC ANION TRANSPORTERS whose transport of organic anions is driven either directly or indirectly by a gradient of sodium ions.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
The normal process of elimination of fecal material from the RECTUM.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
A benzoic-sulfonamide-furan. It is a diuretic with fast onset and short duration that is used for EDEMA and chronic RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Platelet membrane glycoprotein complex important for platelet adhesion and aggregation. It is an integrin complex containing INTEGRIN ALPHAIIB and INTEGRIN BETA3 which recognizes the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) sequence present on several adhesive proteins. As such, it is a receptor for FIBRINOGEN; VON WILLEBRAND FACTOR; FIBRONECTIN; VITRONECTIN; and THROMBOSPONDINS. A deficiency of GPIIb-IIIa results in GLANZMANN THROMBASTHENIA.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
An aldotriose which is an important intermediate in glycolysis and in tryptophan biosynthesis.
Monosaccharide transport proteins that function as active symporters. They utilize SODIUM or HYDROGEN IONS to transport GLUCOSE across CELL MEMBRANES.

Protein kinase C activators induce membrane retrieval of type II Na+-phosphate cotransporters expressed in Xenopus oocytes. (1/56)

1. The rate of inorganic phosphate (Pi) reabsorption in the mammalian kidney is determined by the amount of type II sodium-coupled inorganic phosphate (Na+-Pi) cotransport protein present in the brush border membrane. Under physiological conditions, parathyroid hormone (PTH) leads to an inhibition of Na+-Pi cotransport activity, most probably mediated by the protein kinase A (PKA) and/or C (PKC) pathways. 2. In this study, PKC-induced inhibition of type II Na+-Pi cotransport activity was characterized in Xenopus laevis oocytes using electrophysiological and immunodetection techniques. Transport function was quantified in terms of Pi-activated current. 3. Oocytes expressing the type IIa rat renal, type IIb flounder renal or type IIb mouse intestinal Na+-Pi cotransporters lost > 50 % of Pi-activated transport function when exposed to the PKC activators DOG (1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol) or PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate). DOG-induced inhibition was partially reduced with the PKC inhibitors staurosporine and bisindolylmaleimide I. Oocytes exposed to the inactive phorbol ester 4alpha-PDD (4alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate) showed no significant loss of cotransporter function. 4. Oocytes expressing the rat renal Na+-SO42- cotransporter alone, or coexpressing this with the type IIa rat renal Na+-Pi cotransporter, showed no downregulation of SO42--activated cotransport activity by DOG. 5. Steady-state and presteady-state voltage-dependent kinetics of type II Na+-Pi cotransporter function were unaffected by DOG. 6. DOG induced a decrease in membrane capacitance which indicated a reduction in membrane area, thereby providing evidence for PKC-mediated endocytosis. 7. Immunocytochemical studies showed a redistribution of type II Na+-Pi cotransporters from the oolemma to the submembrane region after DOG treatment. Surface biotinylation confirmed a DOG-induced internalization of the transport protein. 8. These findings document a specific retrieval of exogenous type II Na+-Pi cotransporters induced by activation of a PKC pathway in the Xenopus oocyte.  (+info)

Regulation of small intestinal Na-P(i) type IIb cotransporter by dietary phosphate intake. (2/56)

Dietary restriction of phosphate is a well-known stimulator (acting indirectly via vitamin D(3)) of small intestinal apical Na-P(i) cotransport. In the present study, we document by Western blots and immunohistochemistry that, in mice, a low-P(i) diet given for several days leads (in parallel to a stimulation of Na-P(i) cotransport) to an increase of the abundance of the type IIb Na-P(i) cotransporter in the brush-border membrane of mouse enterocytes. Similar results were also obtained by an injection of cholecalciferol. The abundance of the type IIb transcript was investigated by Northern blots. These results indicated that the amount of the type IIb transcript was not changed by either low-P(i) diet or cholecalciferol. It is concluded that stimulation of intestinal Na-P(i) cotransport by low-P(i) diet and vitamin D(3) can be explained by an increased amount of type IIb Na-P(i) cotransporters in the brush-border membrane and that augmentation of type IIb Na-P(i) cotransporters is not related to an increased rate of transcription of the type IIb gene.  (+info)

Functional characterization of a Na+-phosphate cotransporter (NaPi-II) from zebrafish and identification of related transcripts. (3/56)

1. We report the molecular identification of a Na+-Pi (inorganic phosphate) cotransport system of the NaPi-II protein family from zebrafish intestine. Following a PCR-related strategy, a DNA fragment from intestine-derived RNA was isolated. Rapid amplification of cDNA ends (3'- and 5'-RACE) resulted in the complete sequence (2607 bp) containing an open reading frame of 1893 bp. 2. The NaPi-II-related protein was expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and the resulting transport activity was analysed by electrophysiological means. The apparent Km for Pi was 250 microM (96 mM Na+, -60 mV), and voltage-dependent binding of Na+ exhibited a Km of 67.1 mM (1 mM Pi, -60 mV). 3. Interestingly, the overall transport activity was almost insensitive to changes in the holding potential. The apparent affinity for Na+ decreased under hyperpolarizing conditions, whereas Pi binding showed no voltage dependence. Transport activity was inhibited at low pH, which is characteristic for renal NaPi-II isoforms. 4. The expression of the NaPi-II-related isoform was addressed by reverse-transcription PCR. The mRNA could be detected in intestine, liver, eye and kidney. Unexpectedly, a second NaPi-II-related isoform was identified and found to be expressed in kidney, intestine, liver, brain, eye and prominently in testis. In addition, a shorter amplicon was demonstrated to be an antisense transcript related to the NaPi-II intestinal isoform.  (+info)

Regulation of intestinal Na+-dependent phosphate co-transporters by a low-phosphate diet and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. (4/56)

In a study of the rat intestinal P(i) transport system, an activator protein for rat Na/P(i) co-transport system (PiUS) was isolated and characterized. We also investigated the effects of restriction of vitamin D and P(i) (two of the most important physiological and pathophysiological regulators of P(i) absorption in the small intestine) on intestinal P(i) transport activity and the expression of Na/P(i) co-transporters that are expressed in rat small intestine. Rat PiUS encodes a 424-residue protein with a calculated molecular mass of 51463 Da. The microinjection of rat PiUS into Xenopus oocytes markedly stimulated Na(+)-dependent P(i) co-transport activity. In rats fed with a low-P(i) diet, Na(+)-dependent P(i) co-transport activity was increased approx. 2-fold compared with that of rats fed a normal P(i) diet. Kinetic studies demonstrated that this increased activity was due to an elevation of V(max) but not K(m). The PiUS mRNA levels showed an approximate doubling in the rats fed with the low-P(i) diet compared with those fed with the normal P(i) diet. In addition, after the administration of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) [1,25-(OH)(2)D(3)] to vitamin D-deficient animals, the P(i) uptake was significantly increased in the Na(+)-dependent component in the brush border membrane vesicle (BBMV) at 24 and 48 h. In addition, we found a further high-affinity Na/P(i) co-transport system in the BBMV isolated from the vitamin D-replete animals. The levels of type III Na/P(i) co-transporter PiT-2 mRNA were increased 24 and 48 h after 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3) administration to vitamin D-deficient animals, whereas PiUS and the type IIb Na/P(i) co-transporter mRNA levels were unchanged. In conclusion, we first cloned a rat activator protein, PiUS, and then studied its role along with that of other type III Na/P(i) co-transporters. PiUS and PiT-2 might be important components in the regulation of the intestinal P(i) transport system by P(i) restriction and 1,25-(OH)(2)D(3).  (+info)

Expression of type II Na-P(i) cotransporter in alveolar type II cells. (5/56)

Type II Na-P(i) cotransporters (type IIa and type IIb) represent apically located Na-P(i) cotransporters in epithelia of proximal tubules (type IIa) and small intestine (type IIb). Here we provide evidence that the type IIb (but not the type IIa) Na-P(i) cotransporter is also expressed in the lung. With the use of immunohistochemistry, location of the type IIb protein was found exclusively in the apical membrane of type II cells of the alveolar epithelium. Such a location of the type IIb cotransporter suggests an involvement in the reuptake of phosphate necessary for the synthesis of surfactant. A possible regulation of the abundance of the type IIb cotransporter in the lung was studied after adaptation of mice to a low-P(i) diet. After a chronic adaptation to a low-P(i) diet, no changes in the type IIb protein and the type IIb transcript were observed. These results exclude dietary intake of phosphate as a regulatory factor of the type IIb Na-P(i) cotransporter in alveolar type II cells.  (+info)

Asymmetrical targeting of type II Na-P(i) cotransporters in renal and intestinal epithelial cell lines. (6/56)

Targeting of newly synthesized transporters to either the apical or basolateral domains of polarized cells is crucial for the function of epithelia, such as in the renal proximal tubule or in the small intestine. Recently, different sodium-phosphate cotransporters have been identified. Type II cotransporters can be subdivided into two groups: type IIa and type IIb. Type IIa is predominantly expressed in renal proximal tubules, whereas type IIb is located on the intestinal and lung epithelia. To gain some insights into the polarized targeting of the type II cotransporters, we have transiently expressed type IIa and type IIb cotransporters in several epithelial cell lines: two lines derived from renal proximal cells (opossum kidney and LLC-PK(1)), one from renal distal cells (Madin-Darby canine kidney), and one from colonic epithelium (CaCo-2). We studied the expression of the transporters fused to the enhanced green fluorescent protein. Our data indicate that the polarized targeting is dependent on molecular determinants most probably located at the COOH terminus of the cotransporters as well as on the cellular context.  (+info)

Requirement of a leucine residue for (apical) membrane expression of type IIb NaPi cotransporters. (7/56)

Type II NaPi cotransporters mediate epithelial phosphate (P(i)) reabsorption. In mammals the type IIb protein is expressed in the small intestinal apical membrane and other epithelia; it is not expressed in the renal proximal tubule where we find the type IIa isoform. To look for molecular determinant(s) involved in apical expression of type IIb cotransporters, we have made deletion mutations within the C-terminal tails of mouse IIb (mIIb) and human IIb (hIIb) transporter proteins. The constructs were fused to the enhanced green fluorescent protein and transiently transfected into intestinal CaCo2-cells. Both mIIb and hIIb were located exclusively in the apical membrane of the cells. For mIIb, the removal of a cysteine cluster or the last three amino acids (TVF) had no effect on the location of the protein. However, truncation at the level of the conserved L691/689 prevented the apical membrane expression of both mIIb and hIIb, respectively, and the mutated proteins were located in endosomal and lysosomal structures. A similar expression pattern of the mIIb and hIIb constructs was found in renal proximal tubular opossum kidney cells. Our data suggest that L691/689 is involved in mechanisms leading to an apical expression of type IIb NaPi cotransporters.  (+info)

Isolation and localization of type IIb Na/Pi cotransporter in the developing rat lung. (8/56)

Differential display analysis of rat lung at different developmental stages identified a fragment, HG80, which appeared on embryonic day 16.5 and thereafter. A full-length cDNA derived from a cDNA library of newborn rat lung probed with HG80 was the rat counterpart of sodium-dependent phosphate transporter type IIb and was designated rNaPi IIb. In situ hybridization showed that rNaPi IIb was expressed in type II alveolar cells, suggesting a role in the synthesis of surfactant in the alveoli. The time-dependent changes in localization of this gene in the developing lung and its possible use as a type II pneumocyte marker are discussed.  (+info)

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins are membrane transport proteins that facilitate the active transport of sodium and inorganic phosphate ions across biological membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in maintaining phosphate homeostasis within the body by regulating the absorption and excretion of phosphate in the kidneys and intestines. They exist in two major types, type I (NaPi-I) and type II (NaPi-II), each having multiple subtypes with distinct tissue distributions and regulatory mechanisms.

Type I sodium-phosphate cotransporters are primarily expressed in the kidney's proximal tubules and play a significant role in reabsorbing phosphate from the primary urine back into the bloodstream. Type II sodium-phosphate cotransporters, on the other hand, are found in both the kidneys and intestines. In the kidneys, they contribute to phosphate reabsorption, while in the intestines, they facilitate phosphate absorption from food.

These proteins function by coupling the passive downhill movement of sodium ions (driven by the electrochemical gradient) with the active uphill transport of phosphate ions against their concentration gradient. This coupled transport process enables cells to maintain intracellular phosphate concentrations within a narrow range, despite fluctuations in dietary intake and renal function.

Dysregulation of sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), tumoral calcinosis, and certain genetic disorders affecting phosphate homeostasis.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type II (NPTII), are a group of membrane transport proteins that facilitate the active transport of inorganic phosphate (Pi) and sodium ions (Na+) across the cell membrane. They play a crucial role in maintaining intracellular phosphate homeostasis and regulating various physiological processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and bone mineralization.

The type II sodium-phosphate cotransporters are further divided into three subtypes: NPT2a, NPT2b, and NPT2c. These subtypes differ in their tissue distribution, substrate affinity, and regulatory mechanisms. NPT2a is primarily expressed in the kidney proximal tubules and plays a major role in reabsorbing phosphate from the glomerular filtrate. NPT2b is predominantly found in the small intestine and contributes to phosphate absorption from the diet. NPT2c is widely distributed, with significant expression in the kidney, brain, and testis, although its specific functions are not as well understood as those of NPT2a and NPT2b.

Dysregulation of sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type II, has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as renal phosphate wasting disorders, tumoral calcinosis, and certain forms of hyperparathyroidism.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type IIa (NaPi-IIa), are a subtype of membrane transport proteins that facilitate the active transport of sodium and phosphate ions across the cell membrane. They play a crucial role in maintaining phosphate homeostasis within the body by regulating the reabsorption of phosphate in the kidney's proximal tubules.

NaPi-IIa proteins are located on the brush border membrane of the proximal tubule cells and function to couple the movement of sodium ions down its electrochemical gradient into the cell with the influx of phosphate ions against its concentration gradient, from the lumen into the cell. This process is driven by the sodium-potassium ATPase pump, which maintains a low intracellular sodium concentration and a negative membrane potential.

NaPi-IIa proteins are encoded by the SLC34A1 gene in humans and are subject to regulation by various hormonal and physiological factors, such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), and dietary phosphate intake. Dysregulation of NaPi-IIa function has been implicated in several kidney diseases and disorders of phosphate homeostasis, such as hyperphosphatemia and hypophosphatemic rickets.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type I (NaPi-I), are a group of membrane transport proteins that facilitate the active transport of sodium and phosphate ions across the cell membrane. These proteins play a crucial role in regulating phosphate homeostasis in the body by reabsorbing phosphate from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney back into the bloodstream.

The type I sodium-phosphate cotransporters are composed of two subtypes, NaPi-IA and NaPi-IB, which share a similar structure and function. They consist of 13 transmembrane domains, with both the N- and C-termini located in the cytoplasm. These proteins are primarily expressed in the brush border membrane of the proximal tubule cells in the kidney.

NaPi-I proteins function as sodium-phosphate symporters, meaning they transport both sodium and phosphate ions in the same direction. The energy required for this active transport process comes from the electrochemical gradient of sodium ions across the cell membrane, which is maintained by the activity of the Na+/K+-ATPase pump.

Regulation of these proteins is critical for maintaining phosphate balance in the body. In response to changes in dietary phosphate intake or hormonal signals, such as parathyroid hormone (PTH) and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), the expression and activity of NaPi-I proteins can be modulated to adjust phosphate reabsorption in the kidney.

In summary, sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type I, are essential membrane transport proteins that regulate phosphate homeostasis by facilitating the active reabsorption of phosphate from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney. Their expression and activity are tightly regulated to maintain proper phosphate balance in the body.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type IIc (NPTIIc), are a subtype of sodium-dependent phosphate transporters that play a crucial role in the regulation of phosphate homeostasis within the body. They are located primarily in the kidney's proximal tubule cells and intestinal epithelial cells.

NPTIIc proteins facilitate the active transport of inorganic phosphate (Pi) ions across the cell membrane, in conjunction with sodium ions (Na+). This symport mechanism allows for the movement of Pi against its concentration gradient, from areas of low concentration to high concentration. The energy required for this process is derived from the electrochemical gradient of sodium ions.

These transporters are essential for maintaining normal phosphate levels in the body, as they help reabsorb a significant portion of filtered phosphate in the kidneys and absorb dietary phosphate in the intestines. Dysregulation of NPTIIc proteins can lead to various disorders related to phosphate homeostasis, such as hypophosphatemia (low serum phosphate levels) or hyperphosphatemia (high serum phosphate levels), which can have detrimental effects on bone health, mineral metabolism, and overall body function.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type IIb (NaPi-IIb), are membrane transport proteins found in the kidney's brush border membrane of proximal tubule cells. They play a crucial role in reabsorbing inorganic phosphate from the primary urine back into the bloodstream. These cotransporters facilitate the active transport of phosphate ions (PO4^3-) coupled with sodium ions (Na+) through the cell membrane, using the energy derived from the electrochemical gradient of sodium ions.

Type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporters are specifically expressed in the kidney and contribute to maintaining phosphate homeostasis in the body. Disorders in NaPi-IIb function can lead to abnormal phosphate levels, which may be associated with various medical conditions such as hypophosphatemia or hyperphosphatemia.

A symporter is a type of transmembrane protein that functions to transport two or more molecules or ions across a biological membrane in the same direction, simultaneously. This process is called co-transport and it is driven by the concentration gradient of one of the substrates, which is usually an ion such as sodium (Na+) or proton (H+).

Symporters are classified based on the type of energy that drives the transport process. Primary active transporters, such as symporters, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis or from the electrochemical gradient of ions to move substrates against their concentration gradient. In contrast, secondary active transporters use the energy stored in an existing electrochemical gradient of one substrate to drive the transport of another substrate against its own concentration gradient.

Symporters play important roles in various physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, neurotransmitter reuptake, and ion homeostasis. For example, the sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) is a symporter that co-transports glucose and sodium ions across the intestinal epithelium and the renal proximal tubule, contributing to glucose absorption and regulation of blood glucose levels. Similarly, the dopamine transporter (DAT) is a symporter that co-transports dopamine and sodium ions back into presynaptic neurons, terminating the action of dopamine in the synapse.

Hypophosphatemia is a medical condition characterized by abnormally low levels of phosphate (phosphorus) in the blood, specifically below 2.5 mg/dL. Phosphate is an essential electrolyte that plays a crucial role in various bodily functions such as energy production, bone formation, and maintaining acid-base balance.

Hypophosphatemia can result from several factors, including malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, alcoholism, hormonal imbalances, and certain medications. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia may include muscle weakness, fatigue, bone pain, confusion, and respiratory failure in severe cases. Treatment typically involves correcting the underlying cause and administering phosphate supplements to restore normal levels.

Sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type III (NPTIII), are a subfamily of sodium-dependent phosphate transporters that play a crucial role in the regulation of phosphate homeostasis within the body. They are located primarily in the proximal tubule cells of the kidney and facilitate the active transport of inorganic phosphate (Pi) from the lumen into the cell, coupled with the movement of sodium ions (Na+) in the same direction.

The type III sodium-phosphate cotransporters consist of two isoforms, NaPi-IIa and NaPi-IIc, which are encoded by the SLC34A1 and SLC34A3 genes, respectively. These proteins have a molecular weight of approximately 80-90 kDa and contain 13 transmembrane domains, with both the N- and C-termini located intracellularly.

NaPi-IIa is responsible for the majority of sodium-dependent phosphate reabsorption in the kidney, while NaPi-IIc plays a modulatory role under conditions of high dietary phosphate intake or during development. Dysregulation of these cotransporters has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD), tumoral calcinosis, and certain forms of hypophosphatemic rickets.

In summary, sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type III, are essential for maintaining phosphate balance by mediating the active reabsorption of inorganic phosphate from the kidney tubular lumen into the bloodstream.

Phosphates, in a medical context, refer to the salts or esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates play crucial roles in various biological processes within the human body. They are essential components of bones and teeth, where they combine with calcium to form hydroxyapatite crystals. Phosphates also participate in energy transfer reactions as phosphate groups attached to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Additionally, they contribute to buffer systems that help maintain normal pH levels in the body.

Abnormal levels of phosphates in the blood can indicate certain medical conditions. High phosphate levels (hyperphosphatemia) may be associated with kidney dysfunction, hyperparathyroidism, or excessive intake of phosphate-containing products. Low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia) might result from malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or certain diseases affecting the small intestine or kidneys. Both hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia can have significant impacts on various organ systems and may require medical intervention.

Sodium-Potassium-Chloride Symporters are membrane transport proteins that facilitate the active transport of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions across the cell membrane. These symporters use the energy derived from the concentration gradient of sodium ions to co-transport potassium and chloride ions into or out of the cell. This process helps maintain electrolyte balance, regulate cell volume, and facilitate various physiological functions such as nerve impulse transmission and kidney function. An example of a Sodium-Potassium-Chloride Symporter is the NKCC1 (Na-K-2Cl cotransporter).

Cathartics are a type of medication that stimulates bowel movements and evacuates the intestinal tract. They are often used to treat constipation or to prepare the bowel for certain medical procedures, such as colonoscopies. Common cathartic medications include laxatives, enemas, and suppositories.

Cathartics work by increasing the muscle contractions of the intestines, which helps to move stool through the digestive tract more quickly. They may also increase the amount of water in the stool, making it softer and easier to pass. Some cathartics, such as bulk-forming laxatives, work by absorbing water and swelling in the intestines, which helps to bulk up the stool and stimulate a bowel movement.

While cathartics can be effective at relieving constipation, they should be used with caution. Overuse of cathartics can lead to dependence on them for bowel movements, as well as electrolyte imbalances and other complications. It is important to follow the instructions carefully when using cathartic medications and to speak with a healthcare provider if constipation persists or worsens.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Sodium is an essential mineral and electrolyte that is necessary for human health. In a medical context, sodium is often discussed in terms of its concentration in the blood, as measured by serum sodium levels. The normal range for serum sodium is typically between 135 and 145 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Sodium plays a number of important roles in the body, including:

* Regulating fluid balance: Sodium helps to regulate the amount of water in and around your cells, which is important for maintaining normal blood pressure and preventing dehydration.
* Facilitating nerve impulse transmission: Sodium is involved in the generation and transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system, which is necessary for proper muscle function and coordination.
* Assisting with muscle contraction: Sodium helps to regulate muscle contractions by interacting with other minerals such as calcium and potassium.

Low sodium levels (hyponatremia) can cause symptoms such as confusion, seizures, and coma, while high sodium levels (hypernatremia) can lead to symptoms such as weakness, muscle cramps, and seizures. Both conditions require medical treatment to correct.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "opossums" are not a medical term or a medical condition. Opossums are actually marsupials (pouched mammals) that are native to the Americas. They are often known for their "playing dead" behavior as a defense mechanism when threatened. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help with those!

Retinol-binding proteins (RBPs) are a group of proteins found in the body that play a crucial role in transporting and delivering retinol (vitamin A alcohol) to various tissues and cells. RBPs are synthesized primarily in the liver and then secreted into the bloodstream, where they bind to retinol and form a complex called holo-RBP.

Cellular RBPs, also known as intracellular RBPs or CRBPs (cellular retinol-binding proteins), are a subclass of RBPs that function inside cells. They are responsible for transporting retinol within the cell and facilitating its conversion to retinal and then to retinoic acid, which are active forms of vitamin A involved in various physiological processes such as vision, immune function, and embryonic development.

CRBPs have a high affinity for retinol and help regulate its intracellular concentration by preventing its degradation and promoting its uptake into the cell. There are several isoforms of CRBPs, including CRBP-I, CRBP-II, CRBP-III, and CRBP-IV, each with distinct expression patterns and functions in different tissues and cells.

Overall, CRBPs play a critical role in maintaining the homeostasis of vitamin A metabolism and ensuring its proper utilization in various physiological processes.

Microvilli are small, finger-like projections that line the apical surface (the side facing the lumen) of many types of cells, including epithelial and absorptive cells. They serve to increase the surface area of the cell membrane, which in turn enhances the cell's ability to absorb nutrients, transport ions, and secrete molecules.

Microvilli are typically found in high density and are arranged in a brush-like border called the "brush border." They contain a core of actin filaments that provide structural support and allow for their movement and flexibility. The membrane surrounding microvilli contains various transporters, channels, and enzymes that facilitate specific functions related to absorption and secretion.

In summary, microvilli are specialized structures on the surface of cells that enhance their ability to interact with their environment by increasing the surface area for transport and secretory processes.

Familial Hypophosphatemic Rickets (FHR) is a genetic disorder characterized by impaired reabsorption of phosphate in the kidneys, leading to low levels of phosphate in the blood (hypophosphatemia). This condition results in defective mineralization of bones and teeth, causing rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.

FHR is typically caused by mutations in the PHEX gene, which encodes a protein that helps regulate phosphate levels in the body. In FHR, the mutation leads to an overproduction of a hormone called fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), which increases phosphate excretion in the urine and decreases the activation of vitamin D, further contributing to hypophosphatemia.

Symptoms of FHR may include bowing of the legs, bone pain, muscle weakness, short stature, dental abnormalities, and skeletal deformities. Treatment typically involves oral phosphate supplements and active forms of vitamin D to correct the hypophosphatemia and improve bone mineralization. Regular monitoring of blood phosphate levels, kidney function, and bone health is essential for effective management of this condition.

The proximal kidney tubule is the initial portion of the renal tubule in the nephron of the kidney. It is located in the renal cortex and is called "proximal" because it is closer to the glomerulus, compared to the distal tubule. The proximal tubule plays a crucial role in the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the filtrate that has been formed by the glomerulus. It also helps in the secretion of waste products and other substances into the urine.

The proximal tubule is divided into two segments: the pars convoluta and the pars recta. The pars convoluta is the curved portion that receives filtrate from the Bowman's capsule, while the pars recta is the straight portion that extends deeper into the renal cortex.

The proximal tubule is lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium, and its cells are characterized by numerous mitochondria, which provide energy for active transport processes. The apical surface of the proximal tubular cells has numerous microvilli, forming a brush border that increases the surface area for reabsorption.

In summary, the proximal kidney tubule is a critical site for the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, contributing to the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

Bisacodyl is a stimulant laxative that is used to treat constipation and to clean out the intestines before a colonoscopy or other medical procedures. It works by increasing the muscle contractions in the intestines, which helps to move stool through the bowels and promotes bowel movements. Bisacodyl is available as a tablet or suppository, and it is typically taken at night to produce a bowel movement the next morning.

Bisacodyl is a prescription medication, and it should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional. It is important to follow the instructions for use carefully, as improper use can increase the risk of side effects such as dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, and dependence on laxatives.

Some common side effects of bisacodyl include abdominal cramping, diarrhea, and nausea. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. However, if they are severe or persist, it is important to talk to a healthcare professional. In rare cases, bisacodyl can cause more serious side effects such as allergic reactions, heart problems, and intestinal inflammation. If you experience any of these side effects, seek medical attention immediately.

It is important to note that bisacodyl is not recommended for long-term use, as it can lead to dependence on laxatives and other health problems. It should only be used as directed by a healthcare professional and for the shortest duration necessary to treat constipation or prepare for a medical procedure.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Bone morphogenetic protein receptors, type II (BMPR2) are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which are growth factors involved in the regulation of various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. BMPR2 is a serine/threonine kinase receptor and forms a complex with type I BMP receptors upon BMP binding. This complex activation leads to the phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules, including SMAD proteins, which ultimately regulate gene transcription.

Mutations in the BMPR2 gene have been associated with several genetic disorders, most notably pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a rare but life-threatening condition characterized by increased pressure in the pulmonary arteries that supply blood to the lungs. In addition, BMPR2 mutations have also been linked to Marfan syndrome, a genetic disorder that affects connective tissue and can cause skeletal, cardiovascular, and ocular abnormalities.

A Sodium-Hydrogen Antiporter (NHA) is a type of membrane transport protein that exchanges sodium ions (Na+) and protons (H+) across a biological membrane. It is also known as a Na+/H+ antiporter or exchanger. This exchange mechanism plays a crucial role in regulating pH, cell volume, and intracellular sodium concentration within various cells and organelles, including the kidney, brain, heart, and mitochondria.

In general, NHA transporters utilize the energy generated by the electrochemical gradient of sodium ions across a membrane to drive the uphill transport of protons from inside to outside the cell or organelle. This process helps maintain an optimal intracellular pH and volume, which is essential for proper cellular function and homeostasis.

There are several isoforms of Sodium-Hydrogen Antiporters found in different tissues and organelles, each with distinct physiological roles and regulatory mechanisms. Dysfunction or alterations in NHA activity have been implicated in various pathophysiological conditions, such as hypertension, heart failure, neurological disorders, and cancer.

A colonoscopy is a medical procedure used to examine the large intestine, also known as the colon and rectum. It is performed using a flexible tube with a tiny camera on the end, called a colonoscope, which is inserted into the rectum and gently guided through the entire length of the colon.

The procedure allows doctors to visually inspect the lining of the colon for any abnormalities such as polyps, ulcers, inflammation, or cancer. If any polyps are found during the procedure, they can be removed immediately using special tools passed through the colonoscope. Colonoscopy is an important tool in the prevention and early detection of colorectal cancer, which is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide.

Patients are usually given a sedative to help them relax during the procedure, which is typically performed on an outpatient basis in a hospital or clinic setting. The entire procedure usually takes about 30-60 minutes to complete, although patients should plan to spend several hours at the medical facility for preparation and recovery.

Sodium-bicarbonate symporters, also known as sodium bicarbonate co-transporters, are membrane transport proteins that facilitate the movement of both sodium ions (Na+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) across the cell membrane in the same direction. These transporters play a crucial role in maintaining acid-base balance in the body by regulating the concentration of bicarbonate ions, which is an important buffer in the blood and other bodily fluids.

The term "symporter" refers to the fact that these proteins transport two or more different molecules or ions in the same direction across a membrane. In this case, sodium-bicarbonate symporters co-transport one sodium ion and one bicarbonate ion together, usually using a concentration gradient of sodium to drive the uptake of bicarbonate.

These transporters are widely expressed in various tissues, including the kidneys, where they help reabsorb bicarbonate ions from the urine back into the bloodstream, and the gastrointestinal tract, where they contribute to the absorption of sodium and bicarbonate from food and drink. Dysfunction of sodium-bicarbonate symporters has been implicated in several diseases, including renal tubular acidosis and hypertension.

Sodium chloride symporters are membrane transport proteins that actively co-transport sodium and chloride ions into a cell. They are also known as sodium-chloride cotransporters or NCCs. These transporters play a crucial role in regulating the electrolyte balance and water homeostasis in various tissues, particularly in the kidney's distal convoluted tubule.

The primary function of sodium chloride symporters is to reabsorb sodium and chloride ions from the filtrate in the nephron back into the bloodstream. By doing so, they help maintain the body's sodium concentration and control water balance through osmosis.

Mutations in the gene encoding for the NCC can lead to various kidney disorders, such as Gitelman syndrome or Bartter syndrome type III, which are characterized by electrolyte imbalances, low blood pressure, and metabolic alkalosis.

Solute Carrier Family 12, Member 2 (SLC12A2) is a gene that encodes for a protein called the potassium-chloride cotransporter type 2 (KCC2). This protein is a member of the solute carrier family, which are membrane transport proteins that move various molecules across cell membranes. KCC2 is specifically responsible for the active transport of chloride and potassium ions out of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.

KCC2 plays a crucial role in maintaining the proper balance of ions within neurons, which is essential for normal electrical signaling and communication between nerve cells. Mutations in the SLC12A2 gene have been associated with several neurological disorders, including epilepsy, infantile spasms, and intellectual disability.

Lysosome-Associated Membrane Protein 2 (LAMP-2) is a type of transmembrane protein that is primarily found in the membranes of lysosomes, which are organelles within cells responsible for breaking down and recycling various cellular components. LAMP-2 plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and stability of the lysosomal membrane. It also participates in the process of autophagy, where damaged or unnecessary cellular components are engulfed by membranes to form vesicles called autophagosomes, which then fuse with lysosomes for degradation. Mutations in the LAMP-2 gene have been associated with certain genetic disorders, such as Danon disease, a rare X-linked condition characterized by heart problems, muscle weakness, and intellectual disability.

Bone morphogenetic protein receptors (BMPRs) are a group of transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors that play a crucial role in the signaling pathway of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which are growth factors involved in various biological processes including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.

Type I BMPRs include three subtypes: activin receptor-like kinase 2 (ALK2), ALK3 (also known as BMPR-IA), and ALK6 (also known as BMPR-IB). These receptors form a complex with type II BMPRs upon binding of BMP ligands to their extracellular domains. The activation of the receptor complex leads to the phosphorylation of intracellular signaling molecules, such as SMAD proteins, which then translocate to the nucleus and regulate gene expression.

Mutations in type I BMPRs have been associated with several genetic disorders, including hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), a vascular dysplasia disorder characterized by the formation of abnormal blood vessels. Additionally, alterations in BMP signaling pathways have been implicated in various human diseases, such as cancer, fibrosis, and bone disorders.

Sodium-Glucose Transporter 1 (SGLT1) is a protein found in the membrane of intestinal and kidney cells. It is responsible for the active transport of glucose and sodium ions from the lumen into the epithelial cells. In the intestine, SGLT1 plays a crucial role in glucose absorption after meals, while in the kidneys, it helps reabsorb glucose back into the bloodstream to prevent wasting through urine. The transport process is driven by the sodium gradient created by Na+/K+ ATPase, which actively pumps sodium ions out of the cell. SGLT1 inhibitors are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes to reduce glucose reabsorption and enhance urinary glucose excretion, leading to better glycemic control.

Retinol-binding proteins (RBPs) are specialized transport proteins that bind and carry retinol (vitamin A alcohol) in the bloodstream. The most well-known and studied RBP is serum retinol-binding protein 4 (RBP4), which is primarily produced in the liver and circulates in the bloodstream.

RBP4 plays a crucial role in delivering retinol to target tissues, where it gets converted into active forms of vitamin A, such as retinal and retinoic acid, which are essential for various physiological functions, including vision, immune response, cell growth, and differentiation. RBP4 binds to retinol in a 1:1 molar ratio, forming a complex that is stable and soluble in the bloodstream.

Additionally, RBP4 has been identified as an adipokine, a protein hormone produced by adipose tissue, and has been associated with insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. However, the precise mechanisms through which RBP4 contributes to these conditions are not yet fully understood.

Therapeutic irrigation, also known as lavage, is a medical procedure that involves the introduction of fluids or other agents into a body cavity or natural passageway for therapeutic purposes. This technique is used to cleanse, flush out, or introduce medication into various parts of the body, such as the bladder, lungs, stomach, or colon.

The fluid used in therapeutic irrigation can be sterile saline solution, distilled water, or a medicated solution, depending on the specific purpose of the procedure. The flow and pressure of the fluid are carefully controlled to ensure that it reaches the desired area without causing damage to surrounding tissues.

Therapeutic irrigation is used to treat a variety of medical conditions, including infections, inflammation, obstructions, and toxic exposures. It can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help identify abnormalities or lesions within body cavities.

Overall, therapeutic irrigation is a valuable technique in modern medicine that allows healthcare providers to deliver targeted treatment directly to specific areas of the body, improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

Senna extract is a herbal preparation made from the leaves and fruit of the senna plant (Cassia senna or Cassia angustifolia), which belongs to the Fabaceae family. The active components in senna extract are anthraquinone glycosides, primarily sennosides A and B, that have laxative properties.

The medical definition of Senna extract is:
A standardized herbal extract derived from the leaves or fruit of the senna plant, containing a specific amount of sennosides (usually expressed as a percentage). It is used medically as a stimulant laxative to treat constipation and prepare the bowel for diagnostic procedures like colonoscopies. The laxative effect of senna extract is due to increased peristalsis and inhibition of water and electrolyte absorption in the large intestine, which results in softer stools and easier evacuation.

It's important to note that long-term use or misuse of senna extract can lead to dependence, electrolyte imbalances, and potential damage to the colon. Therefore, medical supervision is recommended when using senna extract as a laxative.

Laxatives are substances or medications that are used to promote bowel movements or loosen the stools, thereby helping in the treatment of constipation. They work by increasing the amount of water in the stool or stimulating the muscles in the intestines to contract and push the stool through. Laxatives can be categorized into several types based on their mechanism of action, including bulk-forming laxatives, lubricant laxatives, osmotic laxatives, saline laxatives, stimulant laxatives, and stool softeners. It is important to use laxatives only as directed by a healthcare professional, as overuse or misuse can lead to serious health complications.

Bumetanide is a loop diuretic medication that is primarily used to treat fluid buildup and swelling caused by various medical conditions, such as heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. It works by increasing the excretion of salt and water from the body through urination.

The increased urine output helps reduce the amount of fluid in the body, which can help alleviate symptoms such as shortness of breath, weight gain, and swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet. Bumetanide is a potent diuretic and should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider to monitor its effects on the body's electrolyte balance and fluid levels.

Like other loop diuretics, bumetanide can cause side effects such as dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, hearing loss, and kidney damage if used inappropriately or in excessive doses. It is important to follow the prescribed dosage regimen and inform your healthcare provider of any changes in your health status while taking this medication.

Solute Carrier Family 12, Member 1 (SLC12A1) is a protein that functions as a sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC1). It is responsible for the transport of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions across the membrane of cells. This transporter plays a crucial role in regulating the volume and composition of fluids in various tissues, including the inner ear and brain. Dysfunction of this protein has been implicated in several medical conditions, such as hearing loss, balance disorders, and neurological disorders.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Sodium-potassium-chloride symporters, also known as sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporters or NKCCs, are a type of membrane transport protein that facilitates the movement of ions across the cell membrane. Specifically, they mediate the simultaneous transport of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl-) ions into cells.

Sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors are pharmacological agents that block the activity of these transporters, thereby preventing the uptake of these ions into cells. These drugs have been used in various clinical settings to treat or manage conditions such as hypertension, edema, and certain types of epilepsy.

Examples of sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors include loop diuretics such as furosemide, bumetanide, and torasemide, which target the NKCC2 transporter in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney. By blocking this transporter, these drugs increase sodium and water excretion, reducing blood volume and lowering blood pressure.

It's worth noting that while "sodium-potassium-chloride symporter inhibitors" is a valid term, it may be less commonly used than more specific terms such as "loop diuretics."

"Pharmaceutical solutions" is a term that refers to medications or drugs that are formulated in a liquid state, as opposed to solid forms like tablets or capsules. These solutions are typically created by dissolving the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in a solvent, such as water or ethanol, along with other excipients that help stabilize and preserve the solution.

Pharmaceutical solutions can be administered to patients through various routes, including oral, intravenous, subcutaneous, or intramuscular injection, depending on the desired site of action and the specific properties of the drug. Some examples of pharmaceutical solutions include antibiotic infusions, pain medications, and electrolyte replacement drinks.

It's important to note that the term "pharmaceutical solutions" can also refer more broadly to the process of developing and manufacturing drugs, as well as to the industry as a whole. However, in a medical context, it most commonly refers to liquid medications.

Antifoaming agents are substances that prevent or reduce the formation of foam in liquids. They are often used in industrial processes, such as manufacturing and food production, to minimize the negative effects of foam on equipment performance, product quality, and safety. In a medical context, antifoaming agents may be used in certain medications, intravenous (IV) fluids, or enteral feedings to prevent or treat foaming that can interfere with proper administration or absorption of the treatment.

These agents work by reducing surface tension, promoting bubble rupture, or absorbing excess gases. Common antifoaming agents include silicone-based compounds, such as dimethicone and simethicone, as well as other substances like polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate (Tween) and alcohols.

In some cases, antifoaming agents may be used during medical procedures to prevent or treat the accumulation of foam in body cavities, such as the stomach or lungs. For instance, simethicone is sometimes administered to newborns with meconium ileus (a bowel obstruction caused by thickened meconium) to help reduce the formation of gas and facilitate the passage of meconium. Similarly, antifoaming agents may be used in mechanical ventilation to prevent or treat pulmonary air leaks and improve oxygenation.

While antifoaming agents are generally considered safe when used as directed, they can have side effects, particularly if overused or misused. Potential adverse reactions include gastrointestinal symptoms like diarrhea, nausea, or bloating, as well as allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. It is essential to follow the recommended dosage and administration guidelines provided by a healthcare professional when using antifoaming agents for medical purposes.

An enema is a medical procedure in which liquid is introduced into the lower part of the large intestine, specifically the sigmoid colon or rectum, through the anus using a special device called an enema kit. The liquid used can be plain water, saline solution, or a medicated solution, and it is typically retained for a short period of time before being expelled.

The purpose of an enema may vary, but it is often used to relieve constipation, prepare the bowel for medical procedures such as colonoscopy, or administer medications or nutrients that cannot be taken by mouth. Enemas can also be used for therapeutic purposes, such as to stimulate the immune system or promote relaxation.

It is important to follow proper instructions when administering an enema to avoid injury or discomfort. Possible side effects of enemas may include cramping, bloating, nausea, or electrolyte imbalances. If you have any health concerns or conditions that may be affected by an enema, it is recommended to consult with a healthcare professional before using one.

Solute Carrier Family 12, Member 3 (SLC12A3) is a protein that belongs to the solute carrier family, which are membrane transport proteins involved in the movement of various substances across cell membranes. Specifically, SLC12A3 is a member of the electroneutral cation-chloride cotransporter (CCC) family and encodes for the protein known as downregulated in adenoma maturity alpha (DRA).

The DRA protein functions as an apical membrane transporter that mediates the coupled movement of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions across epithelial cells. It is primarily expressed in the colon, where it plays a critical role in maintaining electrolyte homeostasis by facilitating the absorption of sodium and chloride ions from the intestinal lumen into the bloodstream.

Mutations in the SLC12A3 gene have been associated with several human diseases, including congenital chloride diarrhea (CLD), a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by chronic watery diarrhea due to excessive loss of sodium and chloride ions.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Smad1 is a protein that belongs to the Smad family, which are intracellular signaling proteins that play a critical role in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway. Smad1 is primarily involved in the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) branch of the TGF-β superfamily.

When BMPs bind to their receptors on the cell surface, they initiate a signaling cascade that leads to the phosphorylation and activation of Smad1. Once activated, Smad1 forms a complex with other Smad proteins, known as a Smad complex, which then translocates into the nucleus. In the nucleus, the Smad complex interacts with various DNA-binding proteins and transcription factors to regulate gene expression.

Smad1 plays crucial roles in several biological processes, including embryonic development, cell differentiation, and tissue homeostasis. Dysregulation of Smad1 signaling has been implicated in a variety of human diseases, such as cancer, fibrosis, and skeletal disorders.

Familial Hypophosphatemia is a genetic disorder characterized by low levels of phosphate in the blood (hypophosphatemia) due to impaired absorption of phosphates in the gut. This condition results from mutations in the SLC34A3 gene, which provides instructions for making a protein called NaPi-IIc, responsible for reabsorbing phosphates from the filtrate in the kidney tubules back into the bloodstream.

In familial hypophosphatemia, the impaired function of NaPi-IIc leads to excessive loss of phosphate through urine, resulting in hypophosphatemia. This condition can cause rickets (a softening and weakening of bones) in children and osteomalacia (softening of bones) in adults. Symptoms may include bowed legs, bone pain, muscle weakness, and short stature.

Familial Hypophosphatemia is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition.

A buffer in the context of physiology and medicine refers to a substance or system that helps to maintain stable or neutral conditions, particularly in relation to pH levels, within the body or biological fluids.

Buffers are weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to minimize changes in the pH level. They do this by taking up excess hydrogen ions (H+) when acidity increases or releasing hydrogen ions when alkalinity increases, thereby maintaining a relatively constant pH.

In the human body, some of the key buffer systems include:

1. Bicarbonate buffer system: This is the major buffer in blood and extracellular fluids. It consists of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). When there is an increase in acidity, the bicarbonate ion accepts a hydrogen ion to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates into water and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide can be exhaled, helping to remove excess acid from the body.
2. Phosphate buffer system: This is primarily found within cells. It consists of dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-) and monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42-) ions. When there is an increase in alkalinity, the dihydrogen phosphate ion donates a hydrogen ion to form monohydrogen phosphate, helping to neutralize the excess base.
3. Protein buffer system: Proteins, particularly histidine-rich proteins, can also act as buffers due to the presence of ionizable groups on their surfaces. These groups can bind or release hydrogen ions in response to changes in pH, thus maintaining a stable environment within cells and organelles.

Maintaining appropriate pH levels is crucial for various biological processes, including enzyme function, cell membrane stability, and overall homeostasis. Buffers play a vital role in preserving these balanced conditions despite internal or external challenges that might disrupt them.

Betamethasone is a type of corticosteroid medication that is used to treat various medical conditions. It works by reducing inflammation and suppressing the activity of the immune system. Betamethasone is available in several forms, including creams, ointments, lotions, gels, solutions, tablets, and injectable preparations.

The medical definition of betamethasone is:

A synthetic corticosteroid with anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and vasoconstrictive properties. It is used to treat a variety of conditions such as skin disorders, allergies, asthma, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases. Betamethasone is available in various formulations including topical (creams, ointments, lotions, gels), oral (tablets), and injectable preparations. It acts by binding to specific receptors in cells, which leads to the inhibition of the production of inflammatory mediators and the suppression of immune responses.

It is important to note that betamethasone should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as it can have significant side effects if not used properly.

Simethicone is an anti-foaming agent that is commonly used in the medical field, particularly for the treatment of gastric symptoms such as bloating and discomfort caused by excessive gas in the gastrointestinal tract. It works by reducing the surface tension of gas bubbles in the stomach and intestines, allowing them to combine and be expelled more easily from the body.

Simethicone is not absorbed into the bloodstream and has minimal systemic absorption, making it a safe and well-tolerated medication for most individuals. It can be found in various forms, including tablets, chewable tablets, capsules, and liquids, and is often combined with other medications to provide symptomatic relief of gastric discomfort.

It's important to note that simethicone should only be used as directed by a healthcare professional, and individuals should always consult their doctor or pharmacist before taking any new medication.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Sodium channels are specialized protein structures that are embedded in the membranes of excitable cells, such as nerve and muscle cells. They play a crucial role in the generation and transmission of electrical signals in these cells. Sodium channels are responsible for the rapid influx of sodium ions into the cell during the initial phase of an action potential, which is the electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a neuron or muscle fiber. This sudden influx of sodium ions causes the membrane potential to rapidly reverse, leading to the depolarization of the cell. After the action potential, the sodium channels close and become inactivated, preventing further entry of sodium ions and helping to restore the resting membrane potential.

Sodium channels are composed of a large alpha subunit and one or two smaller beta subunits. The alpha subunit forms the ion-conducting pore, while the beta subunits play a role in modulating the function and stability of the channel. Mutations in sodium channel genes have been associated with various inherited diseases, including certain forms of epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmias, and muscle disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "picolines" is not a term commonly used in medical definitions. It is a term that refers to a group of chemical compounds known as methylated benzenes or xylenols. They have some industrial uses, but they are not typically relevant in the context of medical definitions or healthcare. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I'd be happy to try and help with those instead!

Smad6 protein is a negative regulator of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway. It belongs to the Smad family of proteins, which are intracellular signal transducers and transcriptional modulators that mediate TGF-β superfamily signaling.

Smad6 functions by inhibiting the formation of active Smad complexes and promoting their degradation, thereby preventing the transcription of TGF-β target genes. It also plays a role in regulating other signaling pathways, including bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and Wnt signaling.

Mutations in the gene that encodes Smad6 have been associated with certain human diseases, such as craniosynostosis and osteochondroma. Additionally, altered expression of Smad6 has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation.

Activin receptors, type II, are a subgroup of serine/threonine kinase receptors that play a crucial role in signal transduction pathways involved in various biological processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. There are two types of activin receptors, Type IIA (ACVR2A) and Type IIB (ACVR2B), which are single-pass transmembrane proteins with an extracellular domain that binds to activins and a cytoplasmic domain with kinase activity.

Activins are dimeric proteins that belong to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily, and they play essential roles in regulating developmental processes, reproduction, and homeostasis. Activin receptors, type II, function as primary binding sites for activins, forming a complex with Type I activin receptors (ALK4, ALK5, or ALK7) to initiate downstream signaling cascades.

Once the activin-receptor complex is formed, the intracellular kinase domain of the Type II receptor phosphorylates and activates the Type I receptor, which in turn propagates the signal by recruiting and phosphorylating downstream effectors such as SMAD proteins. Activated SMADs then form a complex and translocate to the nucleus, where they regulate gene expression.

Dysregulation of activin receptors, type II, has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, fibrosis, and developmental disorders. Therefore, understanding their function and regulation is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are a family of synthetic, water-soluble polymers with a wide range of molecular weights. They are commonly used in the medical field as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations due to their ability to improve drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability. PEGs can also be used as laxatives to treat constipation or as bowel cleansing agents prior to colonoscopy examinations. Additionally, some PEG-conjugated drugs have been developed for use in targeted cancer therapies.

In a medical context, PEGs are often referred to by their average molecular weight, such as PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 1500, and so on. Higher molecular weight PEGs tend to be more viscous and have longer-lasting effects in the body.

It's worth noting that while PEGs are generally considered safe for use in medical applications, some people may experience allergic reactions or hypersensitivity to these compounds. Prolonged exposure to high molecular weight PEGs has also been linked to potential adverse effects, such as decreased fertility and developmental toxicity in animal studies. However, more research is needed to fully understand the long-term safety of PEGs in humans.

Von Willebrand disease (vWD) is a genetic bleeding disorder caused by deficiency or dysfunction of the von Willebrand factor (VWF), a protein involved in blood clotting. The VWF plays a crucial role in the formation of a stable platelet plug during the process of hemostasis, which helps to stop bleeding.

There are three main types of vWD:

1. Type 1: This is the most common form, characterized by a partial quantitative deficiency of functional VWF. Bleeding symptoms are usually mild.
2. Type 2: In this type, there is a qualitative defect in the VWF protein leading to various subtypes (2A, 2B, 2M, and 2N) with different bleeding patterns. Symptoms can range from mild to severe.
3. Type 3: This is the most severe form of vWD, characterized by a near or complete absence of functional VWF and Factor VIII. Affected individuals have a high risk of spontaneous and severe bleeding episodes.

The clinical manifestations of vWD include easy bruising, prolonged nosebleeds (epistaxis), heavy menstrual periods in women, and excessive bleeding after dental procedures, surgeries, or trauma. The diagnosis is made based on laboratory tests that assess VWF antigen levels, VWF activity, and Factor VIII coagulant activity. Treatment options include desmopressin (DDAVP) to stimulate the release of VWF from endothelial cells, recombinant VWF, or plasma-derived VWF concentrates, and antifibrinolytic agents like tranexamic acid to reduce bleeding.

Nephrocalcinosis is a medical condition characterized by the deposition of calcium salts in the renal parenchyma, specifically within the tubular epithelial cells and interstitium of the kidneys. This process can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and ultimately impaired renal function if left untreated.

The condition is often associated with metabolic disorders such as hyperparathyroidism, distal renal tubular acidosis, or hyperoxaluria; medications like loop diuretics, corticosteroids, or calcineurin inhibitors; and chronic kidney diseases. The diagnosis of nephrocalcinosis is typically made through imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or X-ray. Treatment usually involves addressing the underlying cause, modifying dietary habits, and administering medications to control calcium levels in the body.

Calcium phosphates are a group of minerals that are important components of bones and teeth. They are also found in some foods and are used in dietary supplements and medical applications. Chemically, calcium phosphates are salts of calcium and phosphoric acid, and they exist in various forms, including hydroxyapatite, which is the primary mineral component of bone tissue. Other forms of calcium phosphates include monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate, which are used as food additives and dietary supplements. Calcium phosphates are important for maintaining strong bones and teeth, and they also play a role in various physiological processes, such as nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.

Chlorides are simple inorganic ions consisting of a single chlorine atom bonded to a single charged hydrogen ion (H+). Chloride is the most abundant anion (negatively charged ion) in the extracellular fluid in the human body. The normal range for chloride concentration in the blood is typically between 96-106 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Chlorides play a crucial role in maintaining electrical neutrality, acid-base balance, and osmotic pressure in the body. They are also essential for various physiological processes such as nerve impulse transmission, maintenance of membrane potentials, and digestion (as hydrochloric acid in the stomach).

Chloride levels can be affected by several factors, including diet, hydration status, kidney function, and certain medical conditions. Increased or decreased chloride levels can indicate various disorders, such as dehydration, kidney disease, Addison's disease, or diabetes insipidus. Therefore, monitoring chloride levels is essential for assessing a person's overall health and diagnosing potential medical issues.

Sodium Chloride is defined as the inorganic compound with the chemical formula NaCl, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. It is commonly known as table salt or halite, and it is used extensively in food seasoning and preservation due to its ability to enhance flavor and inhibit bacterial growth. In medicine, sodium chloride is used as a balanced electrolyte solution for rehydration and as a topical wound irrigant and antiseptic. It is also an essential component of the human body's fluid balance and nerve impulse transmission.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Smad5 protein is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the intracellular signaling pathway of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily members. It is a key player in TGF-β-mediated signal transduction, which regulates various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis.

When TGF-β binds to its receptor on the cell surface, it triggers a cascade of phosphorylation events that ultimately lead to the activation of Smad5 protein. Once activated, Smad5 forms a complex with other Smad proteins (Smad4 and Smad2/3) and translocates into the nucleus, where it binds to specific DNA sequences and regulates the expression of target genes involved in various cellular responses.

Dysregulation of the TGF-β signaling pathway and Smad5 protein function has been implicated in several human diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, understanding the role of Smad5 protein in TGF-β signaling is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a vital intermediate compound in the metabolism of glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as a primary source of energy for living organisms. G6P plays a critical role in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, contributing to the regulation of blood glucose levels and energy production within cells.

In biochemistry, glucose-6-phosphate is defined as:

A hexose sugar phosphate ester formed by the phosphorylation of glucose at the 6th carbon atom by ATP in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase. This reaction is the first step in both glycolysis and glucose storage (glycogen synthesis) processes, ensuring that glucose can be effectively utilized for energy production or stored for later use.

G6P serves as a crucial metabolic branch point, leading to various pathways such as:

1. Glycolysis: In the presence of sufficient ATP and NAD+ levels, G6P is further metabolized through glycolysis to generate pyruvate, which enters the citric acid cycle for additional energy production in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
2. Gluconeogenesis: During periods of low blood glucose levels, G6P can be synthesized back into glucose through the gluconeogenesis pathway, primarily occurring in the liver and kidneys. This process helps maintain stable blood glucose concentrations and provides energy to cells when dietary intake is insufficient.
3. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP): A portion of G6P can be shunted into the PPP, an alternative metabolic route that generates NADPH, ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, and erythrose-4-phosphate for aromatic amino acid production. The PPP is essential in maintaining redox balance within cells and supporting biosynthetic processes.

Overall, glucose-6-phosphate plays a critical role as a central metabolic intermediate, connecting various pathways to regulate energy homeostasis, redox balance, and biosynthesis in response to cellular demands and environmental cues.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolic pathway of glycolysis. Its primary function is to convert glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (a triose sugar phosphate) into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate, while also converting nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into its reduced form NADH. This reaction is essential for the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during cellular respiration. GAPDH has also been implicated in various non-metabolic processes, including DNA replication, repair, and transcription regulation, due to its ability to interact with different proteins and nucleic acids.

Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in the body for normal functioning. It is a key component of several important biomolecules, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary source of energy for cells, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are the genetic materials in cells.

Phosphorus is also a major constituent of bones and teeth, where it combines with calcium to provide strength and structure. In addition, phosphorus plays a critical role in various metabolic processes, including energy production, nerve impulse transmission, and pH regulation.

The medical definition of phosphorus refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 15 and the symbol P. It is a highly reactive non-metal that exists in several forms, including white phosphorus, red phosphorus, and black phosphorus. In the body, phosphorus is primarily found in the form of organic compounds, such as phospholipids, phosphoproteins, and nucleic acids.

Abnormal levels of phosphorus in the body can lead to various health problems. For example, high levels of phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia) can occur in patients with kidney disease or those who consume large amounts of phosphorus-rich foods, and can contribute to the development of calcification of soft tissues and cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, low levels of phosphorus (hypophosphatemia) can occur in patients with malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or alcoholism, and can lead to muscle weakness, bone pain, and an increased risk of infection.

Sugar phosphates are organic compounds that play crucial roles in various biological processes, particularly in the field of genetics and molecular biology. They are formed by the attachment of a phosphate group to a sugar molecule, most commonly to the 5-carbon sugar ribose or deoxyribose.

In genetics, sugar phosphates form the backbone of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. In DNA, the sugar phosphate backbone consists of alternating deoxyribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, linked together by covalent bonds between the 5' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 3' carbon atom of another sugar molecule. This forms a long, twisted ladder-like structure known as a double helix.

Similarly, in RNA, the sugar phosphate backbone is formed by ribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, creating a single-stranded structure that can fold back on itself to form complex shapes. These sugar phosphate backbones provide structural support for the nucleic acids and help to protect the genetic information stored within them.

Sugar phosphates also play important roles in energy metabolism, as they are involved in the formation and breakdown of high-energy compounds such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and GTP (guanosine triphosphate). These molecules serve as energy currency for cells, storing and releasing energy as needed to power various cellular processes.

Fast-twitch muscle fibers, also known as type II fibers, are a type of skeletal muscle fiber that are characterized by their rapid contraction and relaxation rates. These fibers have a larger diameter and contain a higher concentration of glycogen, which serves as a quick source of energy for muscle contractions. Fast-twitch fibers are further divided into two subcategories: type IIa and type IIb (or type IIx). Type IIa fibers have a moderate amount of mitochondria and can utilize both aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways, making them fatigue-resistant. Type IIb fibers, on the other hand, have fewer mitochondria and primarily use anaerobic metabolism, leading to faster fatigue. Fast-twitch fibers are typically used in activities that require quick, powerful movements such as sprinting or weightlifting.

Ristocetin is not a medical condition but a type of antibiotic used to treat infections caused by certain Gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. Ristocetin is an glycopeptide antibiotic, which works by binding to the bacterial cell wall and inhibiting its synthesis, leading to bacterial death. It is not commonly used due to its potential to cause blood disorders, such as thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) and platelet aggregation.

In medical literature, ristocetin is also known for its use in the laboratory setting as a reagent for the platelet function test, called the ristocetin-induced platelet aggregation (RIPA) assay. This test is used to evaluate the ability of platelets to aggregate and form clots in response to ristocetin, which can help diagnose certain bleeding disorders such as Bernard-Soulier syndrome and von Willebrand disease.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Phlorhizin is not a medical condition or term, but rather a chemical compound. It is a glucoside that can be found in the bark of apple trees and other related plants. Phlorhizin has been studied in the field of medicine for its potential effects on various health conditions. Specifically, it has been shown to inhibit the enzyme called glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), which is involved in the absorption of glucose in the body. As a result, phlorhizin has been investigated as a potential treatment for diabetes, as it may help regulate blood sugar levels. However, more research is needed to fully understand its effects and safety profile before it can be used as a medical treatment.

Electrolytes are substances that, when dissolved in water, break down into ions that can conduct electricity. In the body, electrolytes are responsible for regulating various important physiological functions, including nerve and muscle function, maintaining proper hydration and acid-base balance, and helping to repair tissue damage.

The major electrolytes found in the human body include sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate. These electrolytes are tightly regulated by various mechanisms, including the kidneys, which help to maintain their proper balance in the body.

When there is an imbalance of electrolytes in the body, it can lead to a range of symptoms and health problems. For example, low levels of sodium (hyponatremia) can cause confusion, seizures, and even coma, while high levels of potassium (hyperkalemia) can lead to heart arrhythmias and muscle weakness.

Electrolytes are also lost through sweat during exercise or illness, so it's important to replace them through a healthy diet or by drinking fluids that contain electrolytes, such as sports drinks or coconut water. In some cases, electrolyte imbalances may require medical treatment, such as intravenous (IV) fluids or medication.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that play a crucial role in bone and cartilage development, as well as in other biological processes such as wound healing and embryonic development. These receptors are part of the TGF-β (transforming growth factor-beta) superfamily and are composed of two types of subunits: type I and type II.

Type I BMP receptors include BMPR1A, BMPR1B, and ACTRIIA/B. Type II BMP receptors include BMPR2, ACVR2A, and ACVR2B. When BMPs bind to these receptors, they initiate a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of downstream targets involved in bone formation, cartilage development, and other processes.

Mutations in BMP receptor genes have been associated with various genetic disorders, including fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), a rare condition characterized by the abnormal formation of bone in muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Additionally, dysregulation of BMP signaling has been implicated in diseases such as cancer, where it can contribute to tumor growth and metastasis.

Citric acid is a weak organic acid that is widely found in nature, particularly in citrus fruits such as lemons and oranges. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7, and it exists in a form known as a tribasic acid, which means it can donate three protons in chemical reactions.

In the context of medical definitions, citric acid may be mentioned in relation to various physiological processes, such as its role in the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle), which is a key metabolic pathway involved in energy production within cells. Additionally, citric acid may be used in certain medical treatments or therapies, such as in the form of citrate salts to help prevent the formation of kidney stones. It may also be used as a flavoring agent or preservative in various pharmaceutical preparations.

Lysosome-Associated Membrane Glycoproteins (LAMPs) are a group of proteins found in the membrane of lysosomes, which are cellular organelles responsible for breaking down and recycling various biomolecules. LAMPs play a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and function of the lysosomal membrane.

There are two major types of LAMPs: LAMP-1 and LAMP-2. Both proteins share structural similarities, including a large heavily glycosylated domain that faces the lumen of the lysosome and a short hydrophobic region that anchors them to the membrane.

The primary function of LAMPs is to protect the lysosomal membrane from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes present inside the lysosome. They also participate in the process of autophagy, a cellular recycling mechanism, by fusing with autophagosomes (double-membraned vesicles formed during autophagy) to form autolysosomes, where the contents are degraded.

Moreover, LAMPs have been implicated in several cellular processes, such as antigen presentation, cholesterol homeostasis, and intracellular signaling. Mutations in LAMP-2 have been associated with certain genetic disorders, including Danon disease, a rare X-linked dominant disorder characterized by heart problems, muscle weakness, and intellectual disability.

Medical Definition of Vitamin A:

Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for normal vision, immune function, and cell growth. It is also an antioxidant that helps protect the body's cells from damage caused by free radicals. Vitamin A can be found in two main forms: preformed vitamin A, which is found in animal products such as dairy, fish, and meat, particularly liver; and provitamin A carotenoids, which are found in plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, and vegetable oils.

The most active form of vitamin A is retinoic acid, which plays a critical role in the development and maintenance of the heart, lungs, kidneys, and other organs. Vitamin A deficiency can lead to night blindness, dry skin, and increased susceptibility to infections. Chronic vitamin A toxicity can cause nausea, dizziness, headaches, coma, and even death.

Myositis ossificans is a medical condition characterized by the formation of bone tissue within the soft tissues, particularly in the muscles. It is also known as heterotopic ossification, which means "bone formation in an abnormal location." This condition usually occurs after trauma or injury to the muscle, such as a severe contusion (bruise) or a muscle strain or tear.

In myositis ossificans, the body's repair process goes awry, and instead of healing the muscle with normal scar tissue, bone tissue forms within the muscle. This can cause pain, stiffness, and limited mobility in the affected area. In some cases, the bone tissue may continue to grow and harden over time, leading to further complications.

Myositis ossificans is typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans, which can show the presence of bone tissue within the muscle. Treatment may include physical therapy, pain management, and in some cases, surgery to remove the excess bone tissue. Preventive measures such as early mobilization and protection of the affected area may help reduce the risk of developing myositis ossificans after an injury.

Myosin Heavy Chains are the large, essential components of myosin molecules, which are responsible for the molecular motility in muscle cells. These heavy chains have a molecular weight of approximately 200 kDa and form the motor domain of myosin, which binds to actin filaments and hydrolyzes ATP to generate force and movement during muscle contraction. There are several different types of myosin heavy chains, each with specific roles in various tissues and cellular functions. In skeletal and cardiac muscles, for example, myosin heavy chains have distinct isoforms that contribute to the contractile properties of these tissues.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Soybean proteins are the proteins derived from soybeans, a legume native to East Asia. Soybeans contain approximately 40% protein by weight, making them a significant source of plant-based protein. The two major types of soy protein are:

1. Soy protein isolate (SPI): This is a highly refined protein that contains at least 90% protein by weight. It is made by removing carbohydrates and fiber from defatted soy flour, leaving behind a protein-rich powder. SPI is often used as an ingredient in various food products, including meat alternatives, energy bars, and beverages.
2. Soy protein concentrate (SPC): This type of soy protein contains approximately 70% protein by weight. It is made by removing some of the carbohydrates from defatted soy flour, leaving behind a higher concentration of proteins. SPC has applications in food and industrial uses, such as in textured vegetable protein (TVP) for meat alternatives, baked goods, and functional foods.

Soy proteins are considered high-quality proteins due to their complete amino acid profile, containing all nine essential amino acids necessary for human nutrition. They also have various health benefits, such as lowering cholesterol levels, improving bone health, and promoting muscle growth and maintenance. However, it is important to note that soy protein consumption should be balanced with other protein sources to ensure a diverse intake of nutrients.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "flounder" is not a medical term. It is a common name used for several species of flatfish that are widely consumed as food. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, please don't hesitate to ask!

Slow-twitch muscle fibers, also known as type I muscle fibers, are specialized skeletal muscle cells that contract relatively slowly and generate less force than fast-twitch fibers. However, they can maintain contraction for longer periods of time and have a higher resistance to fatigue. These fibers primarily use oxygen and aerobic metabolism to produce energy, making them highly efficient during prolonged, lower-intensity activities such as long-distance running or cycling. Slow-twitch muscle fibers also have an abundant blood supply, which allows for efficient delivery of oxygen and removal of waste products.

Colonic diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the colon, also known as the large intestine or large bowel. The colon is the final segment of the digestive system, responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes, and storing and eliminating waste products.

Some common colonic diseases include:

1. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): This includes conditions such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, which cause inflammation and irritation in the lining of the digestive tract.
2. Diverticular disease: This occurs when small pouches called diverticula form in the walls of the colon, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel movements.
3. Colorectal cancer: This is a type of cancer that develops in the colon or rectum, often starting as benign polyps that grow and become malignant over time.
4. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): This is a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel movements, but without any underlying structural or inflammatory causes.
5. Constipation: This is a common condition characterized by infrequent bowel movements, difficulty passing stools, or both.
6. Infectious colitis: This occurs when the colon becomes infected with bacteria, viruses, or parasites, leading to symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever.

Treatment for colonic diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include medications, lifestyle changes, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

"Xenopus laevis" is not a medical term itself, but it refers to a specific species of African clawed frog that is often used in scientific research, including biomedical and developmental studies. Therefore, its relevance to medicine comes from its role as a model organism in laboratories.

In a broader sense, Xenopus laevis has contributed significantly to various medical discoveries, such as the understanding of embryonic development, cell cycle regulation, and genetic research. For instance, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1963 to John R. B. Gurdon and Sir Michael J. Bishop for their discoveries concerning the genetic mechanisms of organism development using Xenopus laevis as a model system.

Thiazides are a class of diuretic drugs that promote the excretion of salt and water from the body by inhibiting the reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions in the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron in the kidney. Chemically, thiazides contain a sulfonamide group and a benzothiadiazine ring.

Thiazide diuretics are widely used in the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure), heart failure, and edema (fluid retention) associated with various medical conditions such as liver cirrhosis, kidney disease, and nephrotic syndrome. Examples of thiazide diuretics include hydrochlorothiazide, chlorthalidone, indapamide, and metolazone.

It is important to note that while thiazides are effective in reducing fluid volume and blood pressure, they can also cause electrolyte imbalances, including hypokalemia (low potassium levels), hyponatremia (low sodium levels), and hypercalcemia (high calcium levels). Therefore, patients taking thiazide diuretics should be monitored closely for any signs of electrolyte abnormalities.

Caseins are a group of phosphoproteins found in the milk of mammals, including cows and humans. They are the major proteins in milk, making up about 80% of the total protein content. Caseins are characterized by their ability to form micelles, or tiny particles, in milk when it is mixed with calcium. This property allows caseins to help transport calcium and other minerals throughout the body.

Caseins are also known for their nutritional value, as they provide essential amino acids and are easily digestible. They are often used as ingredients in infant formula and other food products. Additionally, caseins have been studied for their potential health benefits, such as reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and improving bone health. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits.

Preoperative care refers to the series of procedures, interventions, and preparations that are conducted before a surgical operation. The primary goal of preoperative care is to ensure the patient's well-being, optimize their physical condition, reduce potential risks, and prepare them mentally and emotionally for the upcoming surgery.

Preoperative care typically includes:

1. Preoperative assessment: A thorough evaluation of the patient's overall health status, including medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and diagnostic imaging, to identify any potential risk factors or comorbidities that may impact the surgical procedure and postoperative recovery.
2. Informed consent: The process of ensuring the patient understands the nature of the surgery, its purpose, associated risks, benefits, and alternative treatment options. The patient signs a consent form indicating they have been informed and voluntarily agree to undergo the surgery.
3. Preoperative instructions: Guidelines provided to the patient regarding their diet, medication use, and other activities in the days leading up to the surgery. These instructions may include fasting guidelines, discontinuing certain medications, or arranging for transportation after the procedure.
4. Anesthesia consultation: A meeting with the anesthesiologist to discuss the type of anesthesia that will be used during the surgery and address any concerns related to anesthesia risks, side effects, or postoperative pain management.
5. Preparation of the surgical site: Cleaning and shaving the area where the incision will be made, as well as administering appropriate antimicrobial agents to minimize the risk of infection.
6. Medical optimization: Addressing any underlying medical conditions or correcting abnormalities that may negatively impact the surgical outcome. This may involve adjusting medications, treating infections, or managing chronic diseases such as diabetes.
7. Emotional and psychological support: Providing counseling, reassurance, and education to help alleviate anxiety, fear, or emotional distress related to the surgery.
8. Preoperative holding area: The patient is transferred to a designated area near the operating room where they are prepared for surgery by changing into a gown, having intravenous (IV) lines inserted, and receiving monitoring equipment.

By following these preoperative care guidelines, healthcare professionals aim to ensure that patients undergo safe and successful surgical procedures with optimal outcomes.

The Loop of Henle, also known as the Henle's loop or nephron loop, is a hairpin-shaped structure in the nephrons of the mammalian kidney. It is a part of the renal tubule and plays a crucial role in concentrating urine and maintaining water-electrolyte balance in the body.

The Loop of Henle consists of two main segments: the thin descending limb, which dips into the medulla of the kidney, and the thick ascending limb, which returns to the cortex. The loop is responsible for creating a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium, allowing for the reabsorption of water from the filtrate in the collecting ducts under the influence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

In summary, the Loop of Henle is a vital component of the kidney's nephron that facilitates urine concentration and helps regulate fluid balance in the body.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Osmolar concentration is a measure of the total number of solute particles (such as ions or molecules) dissolved in a solution per liter of solvent (usually water), which affects the osmotic pressure. It is expressed in units of osmoles per liter (osmol/L). Osmolarity and osmolality are related concepts, with osmolarity referring to the number of osmoles per unit volume of solution, typically measured in liters, while osmolality refers to the number of osmoles per kilogram of solvent. In clinical contexts, osmolar concentration is often used to describe the solute concentration of bodily fluids such as blood or urine.

Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2 (SGLT2) is a medically recognized term referring to a specific protein that plays a crucial role in the reabsorption of glucose in the kidneys. It is a type of membrane transport protein located in the proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron, where it actively transports glucose and sodium ions from the urine back into the bloodstream.

In healthy individuals, SGLT2 is responsible for reabsorbing about 90% of the filtered glucose, maintaining normal blood glucose levels. However, in certain medical conditions like diabetes, the amount of glucose in the blood can be significantly higher than normal. As a result, SGLT2 inhibitors have been developed as a class of medications to block this transporter's function, thereby increasing glucose excretion through urine and lowering blood glucose levels.

SGLT2 inhibitors are often prescribed in combination with other diabetes medications to help manage type 2 diabetes more effectively. Common SGLT2 inhibitors include canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin.

Von Willebrand factor (vWF) is a large multimeric glycoprotein that plays a crucial role in hemostasis, the process which leads to the cessation of bleeding and the formation of a blood clot. It was named after Erik Adolf von Willebrand, a Finnish physician who first described the disorder associated with its deficiency, known as von Willebrand disease (vWD).

The primary functions of vWF include:

1. Platelet adhesion and aggregation: vWF mediates the initial attachment of platelets to damaged blood vessel walls by binding to exposed collagen fibers and then interacting with glycoprotein Ib (GPIb) receptors on the surface of platelets, facilitating platelet adhesion. Subsequently, vWF also promotes platelet-platelet interactions (aggregation) through its interaction with platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa) receptors under high shear stress conditions found in areas of turbulent blood flow, such as arterioles and the capillary bed.

2. Transport and stabilization of coagulation factor VIII: vWF serves as a carrier protein for coagulation factor VIII (FVIII), protecting it from proteolytic degradation and maintaining its stability in circulation. This interaction between vWF and FVIII is essential for the proper functioning of the coagulation cascade, particularly in the context of vWD, where impaired FVIII function can lead to bleeding disorders.

3. Wound healing: vWF contributes to wound healing by promoting platelet adhesion and aggregation at the site of injury, which facilitates the formation of a provisional fibrin-based clot that serves as a scaffold for tissue repair and regeneration.

In summary, von Willebrand factor is a vital hemostatic protein involved in platelet adhesion, aggregation, coagulation factor VIII stabilization, and wound healing. Deficiencies or dysfunctions in vWF can lead to bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease.

Mannitol is a type of sugar alcohol (a sugar substitute) used primarily as a diuretic to reduce brain swelling caused by traumatic brain injury or other causes that induce increased pressure in the brain. It works by drawing water out of the body through the urine. It's also used before surgeries in the heart, lungs, and kidneys to prevent fluid buildup.

In addition, mannitol is used in medical laboratories as a medium for growing bacteria and other microorganisms, and in some types of chemical research. In the clinic, it is also used as an osmotic agent in eye drops to reduce the pressure inside the eye in conditions such as glaucoma.

It's important to note that mannitol should be used with caution in patients with heart or kidney disease, as well as those who are dehydrated, because it can lead to electrolyte imbalances and other complications.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Bicarbonates, also known as sodium bicarbonate or baking soda, is a chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. In the context of medical definitions, bicarbonates refer to the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), which is an important buffer in the body that helps maintain normal pH levels in blood and other bodily fluids.

The balance of bicarbonate and carbonic acid in the body helps regulate the acidity or alkalinity of the blood, a condition known as pH balance. Bicarbonates are produced by the body and are also found in some foods and drinking water. They work to neutralize excess acid in the body and help maintain the normal pH range of 7.35 to 7.45.

In medical testing, bicarbonate levels may be measured as part of an electrolyte panel or as a component of arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis. Low bicarbonate levels can indicate metabolic acidosis, while high levels can indicate metabolic alkalosis. Both conditions can have serious consequences if not treated promptly and appropriately.

Smad proteins are a family of intracellular signaling molecules that play a crucial role in the transmission of signals from the cell surface to the nucleus in response to transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) superfamily ligands. These ligands include TGF-βs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), activins, and inhibins.

There are eight mammalian Smad proteins, which are categorized into three classes based on their function: receptor-regulated Smads (R-Smads), common mediator Smads (Co-Smads), and inhibitory Smads (I-Smads). R-Smads include Smad1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad5, and Smad8/9, while Smad4 is the only Co-Smad. The I-Smads consist of Smad6 and Smad7.

Upon TGF-β superfamily ligand binding to their transmembrane serine/threonine kinase receptors, R-Smads are phosphorylated and form complexes with Co-Smad4. These complexes then translocate into the nucleus, where they regulate the transcription of target genes involved in various cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, migration, and extracellular matrix production. I-Smads act as negative regulators of TGF-β signaling by competing with R-Smads for receptor binding or promoting the degradation of receptors and R-Smads.

Dysregulation of Smad protein function has been implicated in various human diseases, including fibrosis, cancer, and developmental disorders.

Potassium is a essential mineral and an important electrolyte that is widely distributed in the human body. The majority of potassium in the body (approximately 98%) is found within cells, with the remaining 2% present in blood serum and other bodily fluids. Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Regulation of fluid balance and maintenance of normal blood pressure through its effects on vascular tone and sodium excretion.
2. Facilitation of nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction by participating in the generation and propagation of action potentials.
3. Protein synthesis, enzyme activation, and glycogen metabolism.
4. Regulation of acid-base balance through its role in buffering systems.

The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L (milliequivalents per liter) or mmol/L (millimoles per liter). Potassium levels outside this range can have significant clinical consequences, with both hypokalemia (low potassium levels) and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels) potentially leading to serious complications such as cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure.

Potassium is primarily obtained through the diet, with rich sources including fruits (e.g., bananas, oranges, and apricots), vegetables (e.g., leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes), legumes, nuts, dairy products, and meat. In cases of deficiency or increased needs, potassium supplements may be recommended under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Dietary sodium is a mineral that is primarily found in table salt (sodium chloride) and many processed foods. It is an essential nutrient for human health, playing a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance, transmitting nerve impulses, and regulating muscle contractions. However, consuming too much dietary sodium can increase blood pressure and contribute to the development of hypertension, heart disease, stroke, and kidney problems.

The recommended daily intake of dietary sodium is less than 2,300 milligrams (mg) per day for most adults, but the American Heart Association recommends no more than 1,500 mg per day for optimal heart health. It's important to note that many processed and restaurant foods contain high levels of sodium, so it's essential to read food labels and choose fresh, whole foods whenever possible to help limit dietary sodium intake.

Sodium chloride symporter inhibitors are a class of pharmaceutical agents that block the function of the sodium chloride symporter (NCC), which is a protein found in the kidney's distal convoluted tubule. The NCC is responsible for reabsorbing sodium and chloride ions from the filtrate back into the bloodstream, helping to regulate electrolyte balance and blood pressure.

Sodium chloride symporter inhibitors work by selectively binding to and blocking the NCC, preventing it from transporting sodium and chloride ions across the cell membrane. This leads to increased excretion of sodium and chloride in the urine, which can help lower blood pressure in patients with hypertension.

Examples of sodium chloride symporter inhibitors include thiazide diuretics such as hydrochlorothiazide and chlorthalidone, which have been used for many years to treat hypertension and edema associated with heart failure and liver cirrhosis. These medications work by reducing the amount of sodium and fluid in the body, which helps lower blood pressure and reduce swelling.

It's worth noting that while sodium chloride symporter inhibitors can be effective at treating hypertension, they can also cause side effects such as electrolyte imbalances, dehydration, and increased urination. As with any medication, it's important to use them under the guidance of a healthcare provider and to follow dosing instructions carefully.

Nonmuscle Myosin Type IIB (NMMIIB) is a type of motor protein that belongs to the myosin superfamily. It is involved in various cellular processes, including cell division, adhesion, migration, and maintenance of cell shape. NMMIIB is composed of two heavy chains, two regulatory light chains, and two essential light chains. The heavy chains have a motor domain that enables the protein to move along actin filaments, generating force and movement.

NMMIIB is widely expressed in non-muscle tissues, and its activity is regulated by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the regulatory light chains. Phosphorylation activates NMMIIB, leading to contractile forces that can alter cell shape and promote cell motility. In contrast, dephosphorylation inactivates NMMIIB, allowing for relaxation of the contractile forces.

Abnormal regulation of NMMIIB has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer metastasis, cardiovascular diseases, and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms that regulate NMMIIB function is an important area of research with potential therapeutic implications.

Inositol phosphates are a family of molecules that consist of an inositol ring, which is a six-carbon heterocyclic compound, linked to one or more phosphate groups. These molecules play important roles as intracellular signaling intermediates and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism.

Inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6), also known as phytic acid, is a form of inositol phosphate that is found in plant-based foods. IP6 has the ability to bind to minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and iron, which can reduce their bioavailability in the body.

Inositol phosphates have been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, altered levels of certain inositol phosphates have been observed in cancer cells, suggesting that they may play a role in tumor growth and progression. Additionally, mutations in enzymes involved in the metabolism of inositol phosphates have been associated with several genetic diseases.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

An oocyte, also known as an egg cell or female gamete, is a large specialized cell found in the ovary of female organisms. It contains half the number of chromosomes as a normal diploid cell, as it is the product of meiotic division. Oocytes are surrounded by follicle cells and are responsible for the production of female offspring upon fertilization with sperm. The term "oocyte" specifically refers to the immature egg cell before it reaches full maturity and is ready for fertilization, at which point it is referred to as an ovum or egg.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Myostatin is a protein that is primarily known for its role in regulating muscle growth. It's also called "growth differentiation factor 8" or GDF-8. Produced by muscle cells, myostatin inhibits the process of muscle growth by preventing the transformation of stem cells into muscle fibers and promoting the breakdown of existing muscle proteins.

In essence, myostatin acts as a negative regulator of muscle mass, keeping it in check to prevent excessive growth. Mutations leading to reduced myostatin activity or expression have been associated with increased muscle mass and strength in both animals and humans, making it a potential target for therapeutic interventions in muscle-wasting conditions such as muscular dystrophy and age-related sarcopenia.

Growth factor receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to specific growth factors, which are signaling molecules that play crucial roles in regulating various cellular processes such as growth, differentiation, and survival. These receptors have an extracellular domain that can recognize and bind to the growth factor and an intracellular domain that can transduce the signal into the cell through a series of biochemical reactions.

There are several types of growth factors, including fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), epidermal growth factors (EGFs), vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Each type of growth factor has its own specific receptor or family of receptors.

Once a growth factor binds to its receptor, it triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression, protein synthesis, and other cellular responses. These responses can include the activation of enzymes, the regulation of ion channels, and the modulation of cytoskeletal dynamics.

Abnormalities in growth factor receptor signaling have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, mutations in growth factor receptors can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division, which is a hallmark of cancer. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of growth factor receptors has important implications for the development of new therapies for these diseases.

Dietary proteins are sources of protein that come from the foods we eat. Protein is an essential nutrient for the human body, required for various bodily functions such as growth, repair, and immune function. Dietary proteins are broken down into amino acids during digestion, which are then absorbed and used to synthesize new proteins in the body.

Dietary proteins can be classified as complete or incomplete based on their essential amino acid content. Complete proteins contain all nine essential amino acids that cannot be produced by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. Examples of complete protein sources include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, soy, and quinoa.

Incomplete proteins lack one or more essential amino acids and are typically found in plant-based foods such as grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds. However, by combining different incomplete protein sources, it is possible to obtain all the essential amino acids needed for a complete protein diet. This concept is known as complementary proteins.

It's important to note that while dietary proteins are essential for good health, excessive protein intake can have negative effects on the body, such as increased stress on the kidneys and bones. Therefore, it's recommended to consume protein in moderation as part of a balanced and varied diet.

Skeletal muscle fibers, also known as striated muscle fibers, are the type of muscle cells that make up skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary movements of the body. These muscle fibers are long, cylindrical, and multinucleated, meaning they contain multiple nuclei. They are surrounded by a connective tissue layer called the endomysium, and many fibers are bundled together into fascicles, which are then surrounded by another layer of connective tissue called the perimysium.

Skeletal muscle fibers are composed of myofibrils, which are long, thread-like structures that run the length of the fiber. Myofibrils contain repeating units called sarcomeres, which are responsible for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers. Sarcomeres are composed of thick and thin filaments, which slide past each other during muscle contraction to shorten the sarcomere and generate force.

Skeletal muscle fibers can be further classified into two main types based on their contractile properties: slow-twitch (type I) and fast-twitch (type II). Slow-twitch fibers have a high endurance capacity and are used for sustained, low-intensity activities such as maintaining posture. Fast-twitch fibers, on the other hand, have a higher contractile speed and force generation capacity but fatigue more quickly and are used for powerful, explosive movements.

Distal kidney tubules are the final segment of the renal tubule in the nephron of the kidney. The nephron is the basic unit of the kidney that filters blood and produces urine. After the filtrate leaves the glomerulus, it enters the proximal tubule where most of the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients occurs.

The filtrate then moves into the loop of Henle, which is divided into a thin and thick descending limb and a thin and thick ascending limb. The loop of Henle helps to establish a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium, allowing for the reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts.

The distal tubule is the last segment of the renal tubule before the filtrate enters the collecting duct. It is a relatively short structure that receives filtrate from the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. The distal tubule plays an important role in regulating electrolyte and water balance by actively transporting ions such as sodium, potassium, and chloride.

The distal tubule also contains specialized cells called principal cells and intercalated cells that are responsible for secreting or reabsorbing hydrogen and potassium ions to maintain acid-base balance. Additionally, the distal tubule is a site of action for several hormones, including aldosterone, which stimulates sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion, and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), which promotes water reabsorption in the collecting ducts.

Diuretics are a type of medication that increase the production of urine and help the body eliminate excess fluid and salt. They work by interfering with the reabsorption of sodium in the kidney tubules, which in turn causes more water to be excreted from the body. Diuretics are commonly used to treat conditions such as high blood pressure, heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. There are several types of diuretics, including loop diuretics, thiazide diuretics, potassium-sparing diuretics, and osmotic diuretics, each with its own mechanism of action and potential side effects. It is important to use diuretics under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can interact with other medications and have an impact on electrolyte balance in the body.

Platelet membrane glycoproteins are specialized proteins found on the surface of platelets, which are small blood cells responsible for clotting. These glycoproteins play crucial roles in various processes related to hemostasis and thrombosis, including platelet adhesion, activation, and aggregation.

There are several key platelet membrane glycoproteins, such as:

1. Glycoprotein (GP) Ia/IIa (also known as integrin α2β1): This glycoprotein mediates the binding of platelets to collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix, facilitating platelet adhesion and activation.
2. GP IIb/IIIa (also known as integrin αIIbβ3): This is the most abundant glycoprotein on the platelet surface and functions as a receptor for fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and other adhesive proteins. Upon activation, GP IIb/IIIa undergoes conformational changes that enable it to bind these ligands, leading to platelet aggregation and clot formation.
3. GPIb-IX-V: This glycoprotein complex is involved in the initial tethering and adhesion of platelets to von Willebrand factor (vWF) in damaged blood vessels. It consists of four subunits: GPIbα, GPIbβ, GPIX, and GPV.
4. GPVI: This glycoprotein is essential for platelet activation upon contact with collagen. It associates with the Fc receptor γ-chain (FcRγ) to form a signaling complex that triggers intracellular signaling pathways, leading to platelet activation and aggregation.

Abnormalities in these platelet membrane glycoproteins can lead to bleeding disorders or thrombotic conditions. For example, mutations in GPIIb/IIIa can result in Glanzmann's thrombasthenia, a severe bleeding disorder characterized by impaired platelet aggregation. On the other hand, increased expression or activation of these glycoproteins may contribute to the development of arterial thrombosis and cardiovascular diseases.

Ion transport refers to the active or passive movement of ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and calcium (Ca2+) ions, across cell membranes. This process is essential for various physiological functions, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and maintenance of resting membrane potential.

Ion transport can occur through several mechanisms, including:

1. Diffusion: the passive movement of ions down their concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
2. Facilitated diffusion: the passive movement of ions through specialized channels or transporters in the cell membrane.
3. Active transport: the energy-dependent movement of ions against their concentration gradient, requiring the use of ATP. This process is often mediated by ion pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase).
4. Co-transport or symport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in the same direction, often driven by an electrochemical gradient.
5. Counter-transport or antiport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in opposite directions, also often driven by an electrochemical gradient.

Abnormalities in ion transport can lead to various medical conditions, such as cystic fibrosis (which involves defective chloride channel function), hypertension (which may be related to altered sodium transport), and certain forms of heart disease (which can result from abnormal calcium handling).

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Monosaccharide transport proteins are a type of membrane transport protein that facilitate the passive or active transport of monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in the absorption, distribution, and metabolism of carbohydrates in the body.

There are two main types of monosaccharide transport proteins: facilitated diffusion transporters and active transporters. Facilitated diffusion transporters, also known as glucose transporters (GLUTs), passively transport monosaccharides down their concentration gradient without the need for energy. In contrast, active transporters, such as the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT), use energy in the form of ATP to actively transport monosaccharides against their concentration gradient.

Monosaccharide transport proteins are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the intestines, kidneys, liver, and brain. They play a critical role in maintaining glucose homeostasis by regulating the uptake and release of glucose into and out of cells. Dysfunction of these transporters has been implicated in several diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and neurological disorders.

Dicarboxylic acid transporters are a type of membrane transport protein that are responsible for the transportation of dicarboxylic acids across biological membranes. Dicarboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain two carboxyl groups, and they play important roles in various metabolic processes within the body.

The sodium-dependent dicarboxylic acid transporters (NaDCs) are a subfamily of these transporters that are widely expressed in many tissues, including the kidney, intestine, and brain. NaDCs mediate the uptake of dicarboxylates, such as succinate and glutarate, into cells in an energy-dependent manner, using the gradient of sodium ions across the membrane to drive the transport process.

The other subfamily of dicarboxylic acid transporters are the proton-coupled dicarboxylate transporters (PCDTs), which use a proton gradient to transport dicarboxylates. These transporters play important roles in the absorption and metabolism of dietary fibers, as well as in the regulation of intracellular pH.

Defects in dicarboxylic acid transporters have been implicated in several human diseases, including renal tubular acidosis, a condition characterized by impaired ability to excrete hydrogen ions and reabsorb bicarbonate ions in the kidney.

Organic anion transporters (OATs) are membrane transport proteins that facilitate the movement of organic anions across biological membranes. The term "sodium-dependent" refers to a specific type of OAT that requires sodium ions (Na+) as a co-transport substrate to move organic anions across the membrane. These transporters play crucial roles in the elimination and distribution of various endogenous and exogenous organic anions, including drugs, toxins, and metabolites. Sodium-dependent OATs are primarily located in the kidneys and liver, where they help maintain homeostasis by regulating the reabsorption and secretion of these substances.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Defecation is the medical term for the act of passing stools (feces) through the anus. It is a normal bodily function that involves the contraction of muscles in the colon and anal sphincter to release waste from the body. Defecation is usually a regular and daily occurrence, with the frequency varying from person to person.

The stool is made up of undigested food, bacteria, and other waste products that are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus. The process of defecation is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate and digestion.

Difficulties with defecation can occur due to various medical conditions, including constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, and inflammatory bowel disease. These conditions can cause symptoms such as hard or painful stools, straining during bowel movements, and a feeling of incomplete evacuation. If you are experiencing any problems with defecation, it is important to speak with your healthcare provider for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Furosemide is a loop diuretic medication that is primarily used to treat edema (fluid retention) associated with various medical conditions such as heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. It works by inhibiting the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter in the ascending loop of Henle in the kidneys, thereby promoting the excretion of water, sodium, and chloride ions. This increased urine output helps reduce fluid accumulation in the body and lower blood pressure.

Furosemide is also known by its brand names Lasix and Frusid. It can be administered orally or intravenously, depending on the patient's condition and the desired rate of diuresis. Common side effects include dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, hearing loss (in high doses), and increased blood sugar levels.

It is essential to monitor kidney function, electrolyte levels, and fluid balance while using furosemide to minimize potential adverse effects and ensure appropriate treatment.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

The platelet glycoprotein GPIIb-IIIa complex, also known as integrin αIIbβ3 or CD41/CD61, is a heterodimeric transmembrane receptor found on the surface of platelets and megakaryocytes. It plays a crucial role in platelet aggregation and thrombus formation during hemostasis and pathological conditions such as arterial thrombosis.

The GPIIb-IIIa complex is composed of two non-covalently associated subunits, GPIIb (αIIb or CD41) and IIIa (β3 or CD61). Upon platelet activation by various agonists like ADP, thrombin, or collagen, the GPIIb-IIIa complex undergoes a conformational change that allows it to bind fibrinogen, von Willebrand factor, and other adhesive proteins. This binding event leads to platelet aggregation and the formation of a hemostatic plug or pathological thrombus.

Inhibition of the GPIIb-IIIa complex has been a target for antiplatelet therapy in the prevention and treatment of arterial thrombosis, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Several pharmacological agents, including monoclonal antibodies and small molecule antagonists, have been developed to block this complex and reduce platelet aggregation.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is a crucial intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis metabolic pathways. It is an triose sugar phosphate, which means it contains three carbon atoms and has a phosphate group attached to it.

In the glycolysis process, G3P is produced during the third step of the process from the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) via the enzyme triosephosphate isomerase. In the following steps, G3P is converted into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, which eventually leads to the production of ATP and NADH.

In gluconeogenesis, G3P is produced from the reverse reaction of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, using the molecule dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) as a starting point. G3P is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate, which can be further metabolized or released from the cell.

It's important to note that Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate plays a key role in energy production and carbohydrate metabolism.

Sodium-glucose transport proteins (SGLTs) are a group of membrane transporters that facilitate the active transport of glucose across cell membranes in various tissues, including the kidneys and intestines. They function by coupling the movement of glucose molecules with sodium ions, using the energy generated by the sodium gradient across the membrane.

The two main types of SGLTs are:

1. SGLT1: This transporter is primarily found in the intestines and plays a crucial role in glucose absorption from food. It has a high affinity for glucose and transports it along with sodium ions, which helps create an electrochemical gradient that drives the transport process.

2. SGLT2: This transporter is mainly located in the early proximal tubules of the kidneys and is responsible for reabsorbing about 90% of the filtered glucose back into the bloodstream. It has a lower affinity for glucose compared to SGLT1 but operates at a higher transport rate, allowing it to efficiently reabsorb large amounts of glucose.

Inhibitors of SGLT2, known as SGLT2 inhibitors or gliflozins, have been developed for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. By blocking SGLT2-mediated glucose reabsorption in the kidneys, these medications promote urinary glucose excretion and help lower blood glucose levels. Examples of SGLT2 inhibitors include canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin.

Na+/phosphate cotransporter (NaPi) - Sodium-phosphate cotransporters are from the SLC34 and SLC20 protein families. They are ... Na+/I− symporter (NIS) - Sodium-Iodide is a type of symporter that is responsible for transferring iodide in the thyroid gland ... NaPi coupled with 3 Na+ ions and 1 divalent Pi, are classified as NaPi IIa and NaPi IIb. NaPi that couples with 2 Na+ and 1 ... Na-K-2Cl symporter K-Cl cotransporter Sodium/phosphate cotransporter Sodium-glucose transport proteins Glucose transporter ...
"Regulation of the human sodium-phosphate cotransporter NaP(i)-IIb gene promoter by epidermal growth factor". American Journal ... May 2002). "Growth-related renal type II Na/Pi cotransporter". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (22): 19665-19672. doi: ... Sodium-dependent phosphate transport protein 2B (NaPi2b) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC34A2 gene. Sodium- ... "Entrez Gene: SLC34A2 solute carrier family 34 (sodium phosphate), member 2". Yin BW, Kiyamova R, Chua R, Caballero OL, Gout I, ...
... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type iib MeSH D12.776.543.585.450.074.750.750.750.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type iib MeSH D12.776.543.585.450.625.625.750.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins MeSH D12.776.543.585.450.625.625.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type i ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type ii MeSH D12.776.543.585.450.074.750.750.750.124 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ...
... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type iib MeSH D12.776.157.530.450.074.750.750.750.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type iib MeSH D12.776.157.530.450.625.625.750.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type iib MeSH D12.776.157.648.500.750.750.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter ... sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins MeSH D12.776.157.530.450.625.625.500 - sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins, type i ...
"The autozygous segments predicted by a genome-wide SNP typing revealed mutations in the type IIb sodium phosphate cotransporter ... protein that is expressed primarily in the apical portions of alveolar type II cells and is the most abundant phosphate carrier ... the sodium phosphate co-transporter, and 12 of the 13 exons located within the gene encode this co-transporter. Type II ... Mutations in the gene SLC34A2 result in loss of a key sodium, phosphate co-transporter (called Npt2b), known to be expressed in ...
... of a compound called calcium phosphate gradually accumulate in the small air sacs (alveoli) located throughout the lungs. ... This gene provides instructions for making a protein called the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, which plays a role in ... Research suggests that the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter normally helps clear this phosphate. SLC34A2 gene mutations ... are thought to impair the activity of the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, resulting in the accumulation of phosphate ...
Na+/phosphate cotransporter (NaPi) - Sodium-phosphate cotransporters are from the SLC34 and SLC20 protein families. They are ... Na+/I− symporter (NIS) - Sodium-Iodide is a type of symporter that is responsible for transferring iodide in the thyroid gland ... NaPi coupled with 3 Na+ ions and 1 divalent Pi, are classified as NaPi IIa and NaPi IIb. NaPi that couples with 2 Na+ and 1 ... Na-K-2Cl symporter K-Cl cotransporter Sodium/phosphate cotransporter Sodium-glucose transport proteins Glucose transporter ...
Subsequent studies have shown43 that PFA is not an effective inhibitor of sodium-phosphate co-transporter type III (Pit1 and ... The SLC20 family of proteins: dual functions as sodium-phosphate cotransporters and viral receptors. ... NaPi-II or SLC34 cotransporters are formed by 3 isoforms: NaPi-IIa, NaPi-IIb, and NaPi-IIc.37 These play a main role in ... Phosphate transport. The main phosphate transporter family is the sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter, also known as NaPi ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
2016). Characterizing and evaluating the expression of the type IIb sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (slc34a2) gene and ... 2001). Interaction of the type IIa Na/P. i cotransporter with PDZ proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 9206-9213. 11099500 ... 2012). Molecular cloning and functional characterization of swine sodium dependent phosphate cotransporter type II b (NaPi-IIb ... 2017). Characterization of the isoforms of type IIb sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (Slc34a2) in yellow catfish, ...
A sodium-phosphate (NaPi) cotransporter has been cloned from the mouse small intestine and designated as a type IIb (NaPiIIb) ... Type IIb is located in human chromosome 4, whereas type IIa (NaPiIIa) is located in human chromosome 5. NaPiIIb protein was ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporters. The structure of a class of NaPi cotransporters in the brush-border membrane of the proximal ... and electroneutral divalent phosphate transport HPO4−/2Na+ by NaPiIIc. Type III cotransporters mediate monovalent phosphate ...
Sodium-phosphate transport protein 2B; AltName: Full=Na(+)-dependent phosphate cotransporter 2B; AltName: Full=Sodium/phosphate ... sodium-dependent phosphate transporter,organism=Tigriopus kingsejongensis,type=gene,length=10523bp,location=Sequence derived ... Pi cotransporter 2B; Short=NaPi-2b; AltName: Full=Solute carrier family 34 member 2; Short=rNaPi IIb). HSP 1 Score: 463.381 ... Sodium-phosphate transport protein 2A; AltName: Full=Na(+)-dependent phosphate cotransporter 2A; AltName: Full=Sodium/phosphate ...
... sodium-calcium exchanger 1 (NCX1), plasma membrane calcium ATPase 1b (PMCA1b), and IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter (NaPi-IIb ... A protein kinase C α and ß inhibitor blunts hyperphagia to halt renal function decline and reduces adiposity in a rat model of ... Adequacy and types of mutation(s) detected were analysed. Cases where multiple EGFR testing was performed on the same patient ... The mRNA levels of other Ca and P transporters (PMCA1b, NCX1, NaPi-IIb, PiT-1, and PiT-2) increased by 0.57-1.74 folds by ...
... and the mammary differentiation marker sodium phosphate cotransporter type IIb (NPT2B; SIC34A2 - Mouse Genome Informatics), ... Tissue protein lysates were prepared from mammary glands and immunoprecipitated proteins were analyzed by western blot ... Nuclear ERBB4 protein can be detected in Erbb4+/+Wap-Cre mammary glands and Erbb4Flox/FloxWap-Cre mammary glands at L1. ... Nuclear ERBB4 protein can be detected in Erbb4+/+Wap-Cre mammary glands and Erbb4Flox/FloxWap-Cre mammary glands at L1. ...
... and Type IIb (Danon) (lysosomal membrane protein-2), Type IIIa and IIIb GSD (Debrancher enzyme; amyloglucosidase and ... Na phosphate cotransporter).. Exemplary glycogen storage diseases that can be treated according to the present invention ... Parenteral vehicles include sodium chloride solution, Ringers dextrose, dextrose and sodium chloride, lactated Ringers, or ... AAV type 2, AAV type 3 (including types 3A and 3B), AAV type 4, AAV type 5, AAV type 6, AAV type 7, AAV type 8, AAV type 9, AAV ...
Sodium Chloride. Sodium Chlorite. Sodium Citrate. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors. Sodium Nitrite. Sodium ... Phosphate Binders. Phosphodiesterase Type 3 Inhibitors (PDE3 Inhibitors). Phosphodiesterase Type 4 Inhibitors (PDE4 Inhibitors) ... Platelet Glycoprotein IIb IIIa Receptor Antagonists. Platelet P2Y12 Receptor Antagonists. Polatuzumab Vedotin Piiq (Polivy). ... Programmed Cell Death Protein 1 Checkpoint Inhibitors (PD-1 Checkpoint Inhibitors). Promethazine (Phenergan). Propafenone ( ...
... and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), to develop high cellular levels of inositol 3-phosphate (IP), a mighty inducer of Ca2+ ... Members of this type are also ubiquitous within the natural environment owed to their accumulation during forest fires, mien in ... Lцscher W, Puskarjov, M, Kaila K (2012) Cation-chloride cotransporters NKCC1 and KCC2 as potential targets in place of novella ... An epilepsy change in the beta1 subunit of the voltage-gated sodium channel results in reduced ditch sensitivity to phenytoin. ...
Comparison of human protein-protein interaction maps.. Futschik, M.E. and Chaurasia, G. and Herzel, H. Bioinformatics 23 (5): ... Niacin lowers serum phosphate and increases HDL cholesterol in dialysis patients.. Mueller, D. and Mehling, H. and Otto, B. and ... Group by: Item Type , Creators Name. Jump to: Article , Book Section , Conference or Workshop Item , Book , Patent , Review , ... Membrane currents and cytoplasmic sodium transients generated by glutamate transport in Bergmann glial cells.. Kirischuk, S. ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb / genetics* Actions. * Search in PubMed * Search in MeSH ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb / metabolism Actions. * Search in PubMed * Search in MeSH ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb Actions. * Search in PubMed * Search in MeSH ...
... of a compound called calcium phosphate gradually accumulate in the small air sacs (alveoli) located throughout the lungs. ... This gene provides instructions for making a protein called the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, which plays a role in ... Research suggests that the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter normally helps clear this phosphate. SLC34A2 gene mutations ... are thought to impair the activity of the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, resulting in the accumulation of phosphate ...
NPTIIb Transporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate Symporter Proteins ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.157.530.937.704.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.543.585.937.829.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.157.648.500.750.750.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, ...
NPTIIb Transporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate Symporter Proteins ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.157.530.937.704.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.543.585.937.829.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.157.648.500.750.750.249] * Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, ...
Type IIb Sodium Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium Phosphate Symporter Proteins Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate ... Type IIb Sodium Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins. Type IIb Sodium Phosphate Symporter Proteins. Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.157.530.937.704.249] Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb [D12.776.543.585.937.829.249] Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type ...
Type IIa N0000169718 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb N0000169717 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, ... Type I N0000169716 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II N0000169719 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, ... Hormone N0000169713 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins N0000169715 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, ... Type I N0000169422 Antifreeze Proteins, Type II N0000169423 Antifreeze Proteins, Type III N0000169421 Antifreeze Proteins, Type ...
... in the SLC34A2 gene which is located on chromosome 4p15 and encodes a 690-amino acid type IIb sodium phosphate cotransporter. ... This protein is expressed in alveolar type II cells and its mutation results in disordered phosphate homeostasis and clearance ... The protein encoded by this gene is involved in phosphate homeostasis and alveolar surfactant metabolism. Although a family ... PAM is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterised by the accumulation of innumerable calcium phosphate deposits known as ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
type II sodium-dependent phosphate transporter 3b. Description. From NCBI Gene: The protein encoded by this gene is a pH- ... NAPI-IIb. *NPTIIb. *Na(+)-dependent phosphate cotransporter 2B. *Na(+)/Pi cotransporter 2B ... sensitive sodium-dependent phosphate transporter. Phosphate uptake is increased at lower pH. Defects in this gene are a cause ... sodium-dependent phosphate transport protein 2B. *sodium/phosphate cotransporter 2B. *solute carrier family 34 (sodium ...
In proximal tubule cells and enterocytes, type II sodium-phosphate cotransporters (NaPi-II) are expressed in the apical ... whereas NaPi-IIb is responsible for intestinal absorption of phosphate. About 70% of proximal tubule phosphate reabsorption is ... PHOSPHATONINS: Hormones that regulate phosphate metabolism (e.g. fibroblast growth factor 23 and frizzled-related protein 4) ... Transepithelial phosphate transport across intact intestinal epithelium is driven by an active sodium-dependent process. ...
HN - 2006(2004) BX - Type IIa Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins MH - Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb UI ... HN - 2006(2004) BX - Type IIb Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins MH - Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIc UI ... Type IIc BX - Type IIc Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins MH - Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III UI - ... HN - 2006(2004) BX - Type I Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins MH - Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II UI - ...
Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type IIb D12.776.157.530.937.704.249 D12.776.543.585.937.829.249 Sodium-Phosphate ... Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type II D12.776.157.530.937.704 D12.776.543.585.937.829 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter ... Type IIc D12.776.157.530.937.704.500 D12.776.543.585.937.829.500 Sodium-Phosphate Cotransporter Proteins, Type III D12.776. ... ELAV Proteins D12.776.641.520 D12.776.631.520 ELAV-Like Protein 2 D12.776.641.520.500 D12.776.631.520.500 ELAV-Like Protein 3 ...
2. Vitamin D and type II sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporters.. Kido S; Kaneko I; Tatsumi S; Segawa H; Miyamoto K. Contrib ... 5. Segment-specific expression of sodium-phosphate cotransporters NaPi-IIa and -IIc and interacting proteins in mouse renal ... I. Segmental expression and adaptation to low-P(i) diet of the type IIb Na(+)-P(i) cotransporter in mouse small intestine. ... Type II Na+-Pi cotransporters in osteoblast mineral formation: regulation by inorganic phosphate.. Lundquist P; Murer H; Biber ...
... an Encyclopedia of Membrane Proteins Analyzed by Structure and Symmetry. https://doi.org/10.1101/391961 Heinz V, Güler G, Leone ... Functional identification of the first sodium binding site of the phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa (SLC34A1). Biophys J 108: ... Forrest LR, Honig B. An assessment of the accuracy of methods for predicting hydrogen positions in protein structures. Proteins ... Cation interactions and membrane potential induce conformational changes in NaPi-IIb. Biophys J 111: 973-988 (2016) ...
Villa-Bellosta R and Sorribas V (2010) Arsenate transport by sodium/phosphate cotransporter type IIb, Toxicology and Applied ... 2004). Expression of each mutant AQP9 protein was verified by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and ... Villa-Bellosta R and Sorribas V (2008) Role of rat sodium/phosphate cotransporters in the cell membrane transport of arsenate, ... Bienert G, Schüssler M and Jahn T (2008) Metalloids: essential, beneficial or toxic? Major intrinsic proteins sort it out, ...
Inactivating mutations in SLC34A2, which encodes the NPT2b sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter, has been proposed as a ... surfactant protein D, and lysozyme. These immune deficits were accompanied by lower alveolar type II epithelial cell counts and ... Proteínas Cotransportadoras de Sódio-Fosfato Tipo IIb/deficiência , Proteínas Cotransportadoras de Sódio-Fosfato Tipo IIb/ ... Modeling pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis by epithelial deletion of the Npt2b sodium phosphate cotransporter reveals putative ...
... differentiation-associated sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate cotransporter,C1424492,sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate ... bpoc c2h2-type zinc finger protein,c2h2-type zinc finger protein,C1418630,znf900,gngm surface of epiphysis of humerus,surface ... nonmuscle myosin iib,gngm tnfsf5ip1,tnfsf5ip1,C1428428,hepatocellular carcinoma susceptibility protein,gngm or2e1p gene,or2e1p ... sodium channel, voltage-gated, type vii, alpha subunit,gngm nav2.2,nav2 .2,C1419865,sodium channel, voltage-gated, type vii, ...
Some Slc13 family proteins function as sodium ion coupled co-transporters of sulfate and other anions. HN - 2019 MH - ... on protein or amino acid functional groups from isocyanic acid or CARBAMOYL-PHOSPHATE. Carbamylation may induce a structural ... Type 1 ribosome inactivating proteins derived from SAPONARIA OFFICINALIS that function through endohydrolysis of the N- ... A Fab fragment of the chimeric monoclonal antibody 7E3 that binds to the glycoprotein IIb-IIIa receptor of human platelets, and ...
... differentiation-associated sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate cotransporter,C1424492,sodium-dependent inorganic phosphate ... bpoc c2h2-type zinc finger protein,c2h2-type zinc finger protein,C1418630,znf900,gngm surface of epiphysis of humerus,surface ... nonmuscle myosin iib,gngm tnfsf5ip1,tnfsf5ip1,C1428428,hepatocellular carcinoma susceptibility protein,gngm or2e1p gene,or2e1p ... sodium channel, voltage-gated, type vii, alpha subunit,gngm nav2.2,nav2 .2,C1419865,sodium channel, voltage-gated, type vii, ...
Beck, L.; Markovich, D. 1999: Cloning and characterization of the mouse sodium-sulfate cotransporter NaSi-1 cDNA and gene. ... a novel protein distantly related with Emopamil Binding Protein. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 365(Suppl ... Hopfer, U.; Jablonski, K.; Stahl, R.A.K.; Olsen, B.R.; Wolf, G. 2003: Cloning and characterization of murine type VIII collagen ... Del Valle, A.; Harrison, L.M.; Cappello, M. 2000: Cloning and expression of a platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitor from ...
  • SLC34A2 gene mutations are thought to impair the activity of the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, resulting in the accumulation of phosphate in the alveoli. (medlineplus.gov)
  • 2016). Characterizing and evaluating the expression of the type IIb sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (slc34a2) gene and its potential influence on phosphorus utilization efficiency in yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco). (tcdb.org)
  • 2017). Characterization of the isoforms of type IIb sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporter (Slc34a2) in yellow catfish, Pelteobagrus fulvidraco, and their vitamin D3-regulated expression under low-phosphate conditions. (tcdb.org)
  • Vascular smooth muscle cells are sensitive to changes in inorganic phosphate (Pi) levels. (revistanefrologia.com)
  • The PNaS family includes several functionally characterized, sodium-dependent, inorganic phosphate (P i ) transporter (NPT2 or NptA) proteins from mammals. (tcdb.org)
  • Mammalian porters of the PNaS family may catalyze cotransport of 3 Na + with 1 inorganic phosphate. (tcdb.org)
  • In response to parathyroid hormone and dietary inorganic phosphate, the renal cotransporter is rapidly inserted into and retrieved from the renal brush border membrane in a fashion similar to that by which the glucose transporter (Glut4) (TC# 2.A.1.1) is regulated by insulin, and aquaporins 1 and 2 (TC# 1.A.8.1) are regulated by vasopressin (Levi et al. (tcdb.org)
  • Pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis is a disorder in which many tiny fragments (microliths) of a compound called calcium phosphate gradually accumulate in the small air sacs (alveoli) located throughout the lungs. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Vascular calcification is a pathology characterized by the deposition of calcium-phosphate in cardiovascular structures, mainly in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals, resulting in ectopic calcification. (revistanefrologia.com)
  • For instance the wheat HKT1 transporter shows two modes of transport by the same protein. (wikipedia.org)
  • This gene provides instructions for making a protein called the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, which plays a role in the regulation of phosphate levels (phosphate homeostasis). (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cotransporters can be classified as antiporters and symporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here, since both glucose and sodium are transported in the same direction across the membrane, they would be classified as symporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • Antiporters and symporters both transport two or more different types of molecules at the same time in a coupled movement. (wikipedia.org)
  • In one conformation the protein will have the binding site (or sites in the case of symporters) exposed to one side of the membrane. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here we describe the results of administering a potent and selective inhibitor of Protein Kinase C (PKC) family members PKCα and PKCß, Cmpd 1, in the ZSF1 obese rat model of hyperphagia-induced, obesity-driven T2D. (bvsalud.org)
  • In mammals, glucose is transported through sodium dependent glucose transporters, which use energy in this process. (wikipedia.org)
  • His experience in the areas of glucose-6-phosphate biochemistry, carbon dioxide fixation, hexokinase and phosphate studies led him to hypothesize cotransport of glucose along with sodium through the intestine. (wikipedia.org)
  • Defects in epithelial functional differentiation at parturition were accompanied by a profound reduction in expression of the STAT5-regulated milk genes casein beta and whey acidic protein . (silverchair.com)
  • Cotransporters are a subcategory of membrane transport proteins (transporters) that couple the favorable movement of one molecule with its concentration gradient and unfavorable movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient. (wikipedia.org)
  • Uniporters are also transporters but move only one type of molecule down its concentration gradient and are not classified as cotransporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the energy derived from the concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane the cotransporter protein is integrated within. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cotransporters undergo a cycle of conformational changes by linking the movement of an ion with its concentration gradient (downhill movement) to the movement of a cotransported solute against its concentration gradient (uphill movement). (wikipedia.org)
  • Variations in serum protein alter proportionately the concentration of the protein-bound and total serum calcium. (abdominalkey.com)
  • An increase in serum albumin concentration of 1 g/dL increases protein-bound calcium by 0.8 mg/dL, whereas an increase of 1 g/dL of globulin increases protein-bound calcium by 0.16 mg/dL. (abdominalkey.com)
  • Marked changes in serum sodium concentration also affect the protein binding of calcium. (abdominalkey.com)
  • Pictured right is of Dr. Crane and his drawing of the cotransporter system he proposed in 1960, at the international meet on membrane transport and metabolism. (wikipedia.org)
  • This cycle of conformational changes only transports one substrate ion at a time, which results in a fairly slow transport rate (100 to 104 ions or molecules per second) when compared to other transport proteins like ion channels. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2012). Functional Interaction between CFTR and the Sodium-Phosphate Co-Transport Type 2a in Xenopus laevis Oocytes. (tcdb.org)
  • These cells produce and recycle surfactant, which is a mixture of certain phosphate-containing fats (called phospholipids) and proteins that lines the lung tissue and makes breathing easy. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Although this protein can be found in several organs and tissues in the body, it is located mainly in the lungs, specifically in cells in the alveoli called alveolar type II cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The well-characterized mammalian proteins are found in renal (IIa isoform) and intestinal (IIb isoform) brush border membranes and are about 640 amino acyl residues long with 8-12 putative TMSs. (tcdb.org)
  • The ERBB family of type 1 receptor tyrosine kinases and their ligands have crucial functions during mammopoiesis, but the signaling networks that ultimately regulate ERBB activity in the breast have remained elusive. (silverchair.com)
  • Dystrophin associates with a number of proteins to form a large oligomeric complex named the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), which bridges across the sarcolemma and connects the extracellular matrix and the actin cytoskeleton (Allamand and Campbell, (2000) Human Molecular Genetics 9:2459-2467). (justia.com)
  • Serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-binding protein-3 concentrations and prostate cancer risk: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. (mdc-berlin.de)
  • Although this protein can be found in several organs and tissues in the body, it is located mainly in the lungs, specifically in cells in the alveoli called alveolar type II cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This protein is expressed in alveolar type II cells and its mutation results in disordered phosphate homeostasis and clearance from the alveoli. (rcpjournals.org)
  • 12. Expression of type II Na-P(i) cotransporter in alveolar type II cells. (nih.gov)
  • These analyses revealed that in addition to pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis, intratracheal silica challenge induced osteoclast-like differentiation of alveolar macrophages and recruited monocytes, driven by induction of the osteoclastogenic cytokine, receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) in pulmonary lymphocytes and alveolar type II cells. (bvsalud.org)
  • [ 5 ] A low phosphorus diet and 1,25(OH) 2 vitamin D 3 are the two most important positive regulators of the intestinal isoform (NaPi-IIb). (medscape.com)
  • Metabolic acidosis, estrogen and epidermal growth factor (EGF) enhance expression of NaPi-IIb. (medscape.com)
  • Serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1 stimulates phosphate transport, at least in part, by phosphorylating Nedd4-2, thereby inhibiting binding of this ubiquitin ligase to NaPi-IIb. (medscape.com)
  • [ 10 ] NaPi-IIb is not ubiquitinated and its expression in the membrane is increased. (medscape.com)
  • 8. Expression of NaPi-IIb in rodent and human kidney and upregulation in a model of chronic kidney disease. (nih.gov)
  • 9. The vitamin D analog ED-71 is a potent regulator of intestinal phosphate absorption and NaPi-IIb. (nih.gov)
  • 11. Intestinal Depletion of NaPi-IIb/Slc34a2 in Mice: Renal and Hormonal Adaptation. (nih.gov)
  • 15. Upregulation of the Na⁺-coupled phosphate cotransporters NaPi-IIa and NaPi-IIb by B-RAF. (nih.gov)
  • A large proportion of dietary phosphate is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and excreted in urine. (medscape.com)
  • [ 8 , 9 ] A novel signaling pathway in regulation of intestinal phosphate transport involves serum and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase 1, and the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2. (medscape.com)
  • 3. Regulation of intestinal phosphate transport. (nih.gov)
  • This gene provides instructions for making a protein called the type IIb sodium-phosphate cotransporter, which plays a role in the regulation of phosphate levels (phosphate homeostasis). (medlineplus.gov)
  • The protein encoded by this gene is involved in phosphate homeostasis and alveolar surfactant metabolism. (rcpjournals.org)
  • They are present primarily in the KIDNEY and SMALL INTESTINE and are responsible for renal and small intestinal epithelial transport of phosphate. (reference.md)
  • PAM is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterised by the accumulation of innumerable calcium phosphate deposits known as microliths in the lungs. (rcpjournals.org)
  • Cotransporters can be classified as antiporters and symporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • Here, since both glucose and sodium are transported in the same direction across the membrane, they would be classified as symporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • Antiporters and symporters both transport two or more different types of molecules at the same time in a coupled movement. (wikipedia.org)
  • In one conformation the protein will have the binding site (or sites in the case of symporters) exposed to one side of the membrane. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cotransporters undergo a cycle of conformational changes by linking the movement of an ion with its concentration gradient (downhill movement) to the movement of a cotransported solute against its concentration gradient (uphill movement). (wikipedia.org)
  • Pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis is a disorder in which many tiny fragments (microliths) of a compound called calcium phosphate gradually accumulate in the small air sacs (alveoli) located throughout the lungs. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The accumulated phosphate forms the microliths that cause the signs and symptoms of pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The single cell transcriptomic analysis of a pulmonary alveolar microlithiasis lung explant showing a robust osteoclast gene signature in alveolar monocytes and the finding that calcium phosphate microliths contain a rich protein and lipid matrix that includes bone resorbing osteoclast enzymes and other proteins suggested a role for osteoclast-like cells in the host response to microliths. (bvsalud.org)
  • A family of sodium-phosphate cotransporter proteins with eight transmembrane domains. (reference.md)
  • A Proton gradient moves the ions into the vacuole by proton-sodium antiporter or the proton-calcium antiporter. (wikipedia.org)
  • The serum assay measures inorganic orthophosphates, of which 10% are bound to protein, 5% are complexed with calcium and magnesium, and 85% are H 2 PO 4 - and HPO 4 2- . (medscape.com)
  • [ 11 ] Three sodium-phosphorus cotransporters are expressed in proximal tubule cells. (medscape.com)
  • WK TPM values with a β superscript signify non-proximal tubule cell type selective markers with rat proximal tubule RPKM values >10 in at least one proximal tubule subsegment. (nih.gov)
  • 1. Intestinal and renal adaptation to a low-Pi diet of type II NaPi cotransporters in vitamin D receptor- and 1alphaOHase-deficient mice. (nih.gov)
  • 6. Age, phosphorus, and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol regulate mRNA expression of vitamin D receptor and sodium-phosphate cotransporter in the small intestine of broiler chickens. (nih.gov)
  • 7. Intestinal Na-P(i) cotransporter adaptation to dietary P(i) content in vitamin D receptor null mice. (nih.gov)
  • 18. Role of the vitamin D receptor in FGF23 action on phosphate metabolism. (nih.gov)
  • A Fab fragment of the chimeric monoclonal antibody 7E3 that binds to the glycoprotein IIb-IIIa receptor of human platelets, and blocks PLATELET GLYCOPROTEIN GPIIB-IIIA COMPLEX, potently inhibiting PLATELET AGGREGATION. (nih.gov)
  • Cotransporters are a subcategory of membrane transport proteins (transporters) that couple the favorable movement of one molecule with its concentration gradient and unfavorable movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient. (wikipedia.org)
  • In general, cotransporters consist of two out of the three classes of integral membrane proteins known as transporters that move molecules and ions across biomembranes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pictured right is of Dr. Crane and his drawing of the cotransporter system he proposed in 1960, at the international meet on membrane transport and metabolism. (wikipedia.org)
  • This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the energy derived from the concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane the cotransporter protein is integrated within. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ubiquitination of target proteins tags them for removal from the cell membrane and for degradation in PROTEASOMES. (medscape.com)
  • These cells produce and recycle surfactant, which is a mixture of certain phosphate-containing fats (called phospholipids) and proteins that lines the lung tissue and makes breathing easy. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The recycling of surfactant releases phosphate into the alveoli. (medlineplus.gov)
  • 4. Expression of renal and intestinal Na/Pi cotransporters in the absence of GABARAP. (nih.gov)
  • 5. Segment-specific expression of sodium-phosphate cotransporters NaPi-IIa and -IIc and interacting proteins in mouse renal proximal tubules. (nih.gov)
  • 13. Renal expression of the sodium/phosphate cotransporter gene, Npt2, is not required for regulation of renal 1 alpha-hydroxylase by phosphate. (nih.gov)
  • 17. Expression and regulation of the renal Na/phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa in a mouse model deficient for the PDZ protein PDZK1. (nih.gov)
  • 14. Type II Na+-Pi cotransporters in osteoblast mineral formation: regulation by inorganic phosphate. (nih.gov)
  • Phosphate uptake is increased at lower pH. (nih.gov)
  • I. Segmental expression and adaptation to low-P(i) diet of the type IIb Na(+)-P(i) cotransporter in mouse small intestine. (nih.gov)
  • In mammals, glucose is transported through sodium dependent glucose transporters, which use energy in this process. (wikipedia.org)
  • Transepithelial phosphate transport across intact intestinal epithelium is driven by an active sodium-dependent process. (medscape.com)
  • 2. Vitamin D and type II sodium-dependent phosphate cotransporters. (nih.gov)
  • This database provides mean TPM values for the cell type selective markers expressed in mouse whole kidney (WK) samples. (nih.gov)
  • Representation and relative abundance of cell-type selective markers in whole-kidney RNA-Seq data. (nih.gov)
  • https://nhtsa.gov/Driving-Safety/Aggressive-Driving) HN - 2019 MH - Alefacept UI - D000077944 MN - D12.776.124.486.485.114.619.393.131 MN - D12.776.124.790.651.114.619.393.131 MN - D12.776.377.715.548.114.619.393.131 MN - D12.776.395.550.34.500 MN - D12.776.543.550.158.500 MN - D12.776.828.300.100 MS - A recombinant human fusion protein of LFA-3 antigen and immunoglobulin IGG1 that binds to CD2 ANTIGENS on memory T-LYMPHOCYTES, preventing their activation and proliferation. (nih.gov)
  • AN - coordinate IM with ADENOMA (IM) HN - 2006 BX - Corticotroph Adenoma BX - Pituitary Adenoma, ACTH-Secreting BX - Pituitary Corticotropin-Secreting Adenoma MH - Actin Capping Proteins UI - D051344 MN - D5.750.78.730.32 MN - D12.776.220.525.32 MS - Actin capping proteins are cytoskeletal proteins that bind to the ends of ACTIN FILAMENTS to regulate actin polymerization. (nih.gov)
  • Arp2-3 complex binds WASP PROTEIN and existing ACTIN FILAMENTS, and it nucleates the formation of new branch point filaments. (nih.gov)
  • HN - 2006 BX - Arp2-3 Complex MH - Actin-Related Protein 3 UI - D051378 MN - D5.750.78.730.246.750 MN - D12.776.220.525.246.750 MS - A component of the Arp2-3 complex that is related in sequence and structure to ACTIN and that binds ATP. (nih.gov)
  • A carcinoma originating in the lung and the most common lung cancer type in never-smokers. (nih.gov)
  • HN - 2019 (1985) MH - Adenocarcinoma of Lung UI - D000077192 MN - C4.557.470.200.25.22 MN - C4.588.894.797.520.55 MS - A carcinoma originating in the lung and the most common lung cancer type in never-smokers. (nih.gov)
  • NaPi-II expression in both cell types is controlled by hormones and metabolic factors in response to homeostatic needs. (medscape.com)
  • HN - 2006(1981) BX - Actin-Capping Proteins MH - Actin Depolymerizing Factors UI - D051339 MN - D5.750.78.730.212 MN - D12.776.220.525.212 MS - A family of low MOLECULAR WEIGHT actin-binding proteins found throughout eukaryotes. (nih.gov)
  • The rate at which this cycle of conformational changes occurs is called the turnover rate (TOR) and is expressed as the average number of complete cycles per second performed by a single cotransporter molecule. (wikipedia.org)
  • HN - 2006(1998) MH - Actin-Related Protein 2-3 Complex UI - D051376 MN - D5.750.78.730.246 MN - D12.776.220.525.246 MS - A complex of seven proteins including ARP2 PROTEIN and ARP3 PROTEIN that plays an essential role in maintenance and assembly of the CYTOSKELETON. (nih.gov)
  • When levels of dietary phosphorus are normal and parathyroid function is intact, about 80% of filtered phosphate is reabsorbed. (medscape.com)
  • It is expressed at higher levels than ARP2 PROTEIN and does not contain a PROFILIN binding domain. (nih.gov)
  • Some studies show that cotransporters can function as ion channels, contradicting the classical models. (wikipedia.org)
  • His experience in the areas of glucose-6-phosphate biochemistry, carbon dioxide fixation, hexokinase and phosphate studies led him to hypothesize cotransport of glucose along with sodium through the intestine. (wikipedia.org)
  • His studies were confirmed by other groups and are now used as the classical model to understand cotransporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • First, mesangial expansion is directly induced by hyperglycemia, perhaps via increased matrix production or glycation of matrix proteins. (medscape.com)
  • In urine, phosphate is an effective buffer, a function of its relatively high tubular concentration and PKa of 6.8, which is close to the pH of urine under normal conditions. (medscape.com)
  • HN - 2006(1981) BX - Cofilins MH - Actin-Related Protein 2 UI - D051377 MN - D5.750.78.730.246.500 MN - D12.776.220.525.246.500 MS - A PROFILIN binding domain protein that is part of the Arp2-3 complex. (nih.gov)
  • Gene symbols marked with an α superscript are listed as markers in multiple cell types. (nih.gov)