A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that utilizes citrate as a sole carbon source. It is pathogenic for humans, causing enteric fevers, gastroenteritis, and bacteremia. Food poisoning is the most common clinical manifestation. Organisms within this genus are separated on the basis of antigenic characteristics, sugar fermentation patterns, and bacteriophage susceptibility.
A serotype of Salmonella enterica that is a frequent agent of Salmonella gastroenteritis in humans. It also causes PARATYPHOID FEVER.
Infections with bacteria of the genus SALMONELLA.
A subgenus of Salmonella containing several medically important serotypes. The habitat for the majority of strains is warm-blooded animals.
Infections in animals with bacteria of the genus SALMONELLA.
A serotype of Salmonella enterica which is an etiologic agent of gastroenteritis in man and other animals.
A serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA which is the etiologic agent of TYPHOID FEVER.
Poisoning caused by ingestion of food harboring species of SALMONELLA. Conditions of raising, shipping, slaughtering, and marketing of domestic animals contribute to the spread of this bacterium in the food supply.
Viruses whose host is Salmonella. A frequently encountered Salmonella phage is BACTERIOPHAGE P22.
A serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA that causes mild PARATYPHOID FEVER in humans.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with SALMONELLA. This includes vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER or PARATYPHOID FEVER; (TYPHOID-PARATYPHOID VACCINES), and vaccines used to prevent nontyphoid salmonellosis.
The presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in food and food products. This term is not restricted to pathogenic organisms: the presence of various non-pathogenic bacteria and fungi in cheeses and wines, for example, is included in this concept.
Gram-negative rods widely distributed in LIZARDS and SNAKES, and implicated in enteric, bone (BONE DISEASES), and joint infections (JOINT DISEASES) in humans.
An acute systemic febrile infection caused by SALMONELLA TYPHI, a serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
A serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA which is an agent of PARATYPHOID FEVER in humans.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
Animal reproductive bodies, or the contents thereof, used as food. The concept is differentiated from OVUM, the anatomic or physiologic entity.
A technique of bacterial typing which differentiates between bacteria or strains of bacteria by their susceptibility to one or more bacteriophages.
The functional hereditary units of BACTERIA.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Distinct units in some bacterial, bacteriophage or plasmid GENOMES that are types of MOBILE GENETIC ELEMENTS. Encoded in them are a variety of fitness conferring genes, such as VIRULENCE FACTORS (in "pathogenicity islands or islets"), ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE genes, or genes required for SYMBIOSIS (in "symbiosis islands or islets"). They range in size from 10 - 500 kilobases, and their GC CONTENT and CODON usage differ from the rest of the genome. They typically contain an INTEGRASE gene, although in some cases this gene has been deleted resulting in "anchored genomic islands".
A prolonged febrile illness commonly caused by several Paratyphi serotypes of SALMONELLA ENTERICA. It is similar to TYPHOID FEVER but less severe.
Diseases of birds which are raised as a source of meat or eggs for human consumption and are usually found in barnyards, hatcheries, etc. The concept is differentiated from BIRD DISEASES which is for diseases of birds not considered poultry and usually found in zoos, parks, and the wild.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in bacteria.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
The presence in food of harmful, unpalatable, or otherwise objectionable foreign substances, e.g. chemicals, microorganisms or diluents, before, during, or after processing or storage.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
A serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA which is an agent of PARATYPHOID FEVER in Asia, Africa, and southern Europe.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
A protein with a molecular weight of 40,000 isolated from bacterial flagella. At appropriate pH and salt concentration, three flagellin monomers can spontaneously reaggregate to form structures which appear identical to intact flagella.
Common name for the species Gallus gallus, the domestic fowl, in the family Phasianidae, order GALLIFORMES. It is descended from the red jungle fowl of SOUTHEAST ASIA.
Tests of chemical substances and physical agents for mutagenic potential. They include microbial, insect, mammalian cell, and whole animal tests.
Domesticated birds raised for food. It typically includes CHICKENS; TURKEYS, DUCKS; GEESE; and others.
Gel electrophoresis in which the direction of the electric field is changed periodically. This technique is similar to other electrophoretic methods normally used to separate double-stranded DNA molecules ranging in size up to tens of thousands of base-pairs. However, by alternating the electric field direction one is able to separate DNA molecules up to several million base-pairs in length.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
A whiplike motility appendage present on the surface cells. Prokaryote flagella are composed of a protein called FLAGELLIN. Bacteria can have a single flagellum, a tuft at one pole, or multiple flagella covering the entire surface. In eukaryotes, flagella are threadlike protoplasmic extensions used to propel flagellates and sperm. Flagella have the same basic structure as CILIA but are longer in proportion to the cell bearing them and present in much smaller numbers. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER and/or PARATYPHOID FEVER which are caused by various species of SALMONELLA. Attenuated, subunit, and inactivated forms of the vaccines exist.
The lipopolysaccharide-protein somatic antigens, usually from gram-negative bacteria, important in the serological classification of enteric bacilli. The O-specific chains determine the specificity of the O antigens of a given serotype. O antigens are the immunodominant part of the lipopolysaccharide molecule in the intact bacterial cell. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that ferments sugar without gas production. Its organisms are intestinal pathogens of man and other primates and cause bacillary dysentery (DYSENTERY, BACILLARY).
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
In bacteria, a group of metabolically related genes, with a common promoter, whose transcription into a single polycistronic MESSENGER RNA is under the control of an OPERATOR REGION.
Techniques used in studying bacteria.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
The edible portions of any animal used for food including domestic mammals (the major ones being cattle, swine, and sheep) along with poultry, fish, shellfish, and game.
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
Chemical agents that increase the rate of genetic mutation by interfering with the function of nucleic acids. A clastogen is a specific mutagen that causes breaks in chromosomes.
Diseases of domestic swine and of the wild boar of the genus Sus.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
A sulfuric acid dimer, formed by disulfide linkage. This compound has been used to prolong coagulation time and as an antidote in cyanide poisoning.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
Any aspect of the operations in the preparation, processing, transport, storage, packaging, wrapping, exposure for sale, service, or delivery of food.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
A parasexual process in BACTERIA; ALGAE; FUNGI; and ciliate EUKARYOTA for achieving exchange of chromosome material during fusion of two cells. In bacteria, this is a uni-directional transfer of genetic material; in protozoa it is a bi-directional exchange. In algae and fungi, it is a form of sexual reproduction, with the union of male and female gametes.
Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Places where animals are slaughtered and dressed for market.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Ability of a microbe to survive under given conditions. This can also be related to a colony's ability to replicate.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed bacteria administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious bacterial disease.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
The blind sac or outpouching area of the LARGE INTESTINE that is below the entrance of the SMALL INTESTINE. It has a worm-like extension, the vermiform APPENDIX.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Those components of an organism that determine its capacity to cause disease but are not required for its viability per se. Two classes have been characterized: TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL and surface adhesion molecules that effect the ability of the microorganism to invade and colonize a host. (From Davis et al., Microbiology, 4th ed. p486)
Structures within the nucleus of bacterial cells consisting of or containing DNA, which carry genetic information essential to the cell.
Lipid A is the biologically active component of lipopolysaccharides. It shows strong endotoxic activity and exhibits immunogenic properties.
The transfer of bacterial DNA by phages from an infected bacterium to another bacterium. This also refers to the transfer of genes into eukaryotic cells by viruses. This naturally occurring process is routinely employed as a GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUE.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Discrete segments of DNA which can excise and reintegrate to another site in the genome. Most are inactive, i.e., have not been found to exist outside the integrated state. DNA transposable elements include bacterial IS (insertion sequence) elements, Tn elements, the maize controlling elements Ac and Ds, Drosophila P, gypsy, and pogo elements, the human Tigger elements and the Tc and mariner elements which are found throughout the animal kingdom.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Procedures for identifying types and strains of bacteria. The most frequently employed typing systems are BACTERIOPHAGE TYPING and SEROTYPING as well as bacteriocin typing and biotyping.
Food products manufactured from poultry.
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
Procedures or techniques used to keep food from spoiling.
DNA elements that include the component genes and insertion site for a site-specific recombination system that enables them to capture mobile gene cassettes.
INFLAMMATION of any segment of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT from ESOPHAGUS to RECTUM. Causes of gastroenteritis are many including genetic, infection, HYPERSENSITIVITY, drug effects, and CANCER.
A synthetic 1,8-naphthyridine antimicrobial agent with a limited bacteriocidal spectrum. It is an inhibitor of the A subunit of bacterial DNA GYRASE.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The expelling of bacteria from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract.
A test used to determine whether or not complementation (compensation in the form of dominance) will occur in a cell with a given mutant phenotype when another mutant genome, encoding the same mutant phenotype, is introduced into that cell.
Any method used for determining the location of and relative distances between genes on a chromosome.
The presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in water. This term is not restricted to pathogenic organisms.
A broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
A clear, colorless, viscous organic solvent and diluent used in pharmaceutical preparations.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Proteins obtained from ESCHERICHIA COLI.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
Mutagenesis where the mutation is caused by the introduction of foreign DNA sequences into a gene or extragenic sequence. This may occur spontaneously in vivo or be experimentally induced in vivo or in vitro. Proviral DNA insertions into or adjacent to a cellular proto-oncogene can interrupt GENETIC TRANSLATION of the coding sequences or interfere with recognition of regulatory elements and cause unregulated expression of the proto-oncogene resulting in tumor formation.
The section of the alimentary canal from the STOMACH to the ANAL CANAL. It includes the LARGE INTESTINE and SMALL INTESTINE.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms occur in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. The species are either nonpathogenic or opportunistic pathogens.
A complex sulfated polymer of galactose units, extracted from Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria confervoides, and related red algae. It is used as a gel in the preparation of solid culture media for microorganisms, as a bulk laxative, in making emulsions, and as a supporting medium for immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis.
A technique for identifying individuals of a species that is based on the uniqueness of their DNA sequence. Uniqueness is determined by identifying which combination of allelic variations occur in the individual at a statistically relevant number of different loci. In forensic studies, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM of multiple, highly polymorphic VNTR LOCI or MICROSATELLITE REPEAT loci are analyzed. The number of loci used for the profile depends on the ALLELE FREQUENCY in the population.
Examination of foods to assure wholesome and clean products free from unsafe microbes or chemical contamination, natural or added deleterious substances, and decomposition during production, processing, packaging, etc.
Articles of food which are derived by a process of manufacture from any portion of carcasses of any animal used for food (e.g., head cheese, sausage, scrapple).
The genetic complement of a BACTERIA as represented in its DNA.
A dilated cavity extended caudally from the hindgut. In adult birds, reptiles, amphibians, and many fishes but few mammals, cloaca is a common chamber into which the digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts discharge their contents. In most mammals, cloaca gives rise to LARGE INTESTINE; URINARY BLADDER; and GENITALIA.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
Tests that are dependent on the clumping of cells, microorganisms, or particles when mixed with specific antiserum. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Lymphoid tissue on the mucosa of the small intestine.
The productive enterprises concerned with food processing.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
A species of temperate bacteriophage in the genus P22-like viruses, family PODOVIRIDAE, that infects SALMONELLA species. The genome consists of double-stranded DNA, terminally redundant, and circularly permuted.
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The dose amount of poisonous or toxic substance or dose of ionizing radiation required to kill 50% of the tested population.
Inflammation of any segment of the SMALL INTESTINE.
A subdiscipline of genetics which deals with the genetic mechanisms and processes of microorganisms.
Cold-blooded, air-breathing VERTEBRATES belonging to the class Reptilia, usually covered with external scales or bony plates.
A genetic rearrangement through loss of segments of DNA or RNA, bringing sequences which are normally separated into close proximity. This deletion may be detected using cytogenetic techniques and can also be inferred from the phenotype, indicating a deletion at one specific locus.
Physicochemical property of fimbriated (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) and non-fimbriated bacteria of attaching to cells, tissue, and nonbiological surfaces. It is a factor in bacterial colonization and pathogenicity.
The phenomenon by which a temperate phage incorporates itself into the DNA of a bacterial host, establishing a kind of symbiotic relation between PROPHAGE and bacterium which results in the perpetuation of the prophage in all the descendants of the bacterium. Upon induction (VIRUS ACTIVATION) by various agents, such as ultraviolet radiation, the phage is released, which then becomes virulent and lyses the bacterium.
An increased liquidity or decreased consistency of FECES, such as running stool. Fecal consistency is related to the ratio of water-holding capacity of insoluble solids to total water, rather than the amount of water present. Diarrhea is not hyperdefecation or increased fecal weight.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Proteins that are structural components of bacterial fimbriae (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) or sex pili (PILI, SEX).
A class of plasmids that transfer antibiotic resistance from one bacterium to another by conjugation.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
In GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIA, multiprotein complexes that function to translocate pathogen protein effector molecules across the bacterial cell envelope, often directly into the host. These effectors are involved in producing surface structures for adhesion, bacterial motility, manipulation of host functions, modulation of host defense responses, and other functions involved in facilitating survival of the pathogen. Several of the systems have homologous components functioning similarly in GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIA.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
Inflammation of the MUCOSA of both the SMALL INTESTINE and the LARGE INTESTINE. Etiology includes ISCHEMIA, infections, allergic, and immune responses.
Animals which have become adapted through breeding in captivity to a life intimately associated with humans. They include animals domesticated by humans to live and breed in a tame condition on farms or ranches for economic reasons, including LIVESTOCK (specifically CATTLE; SHEEP; HORSES; etc.), POULTRY; and those raised or kept for pleasure and companionship, e.g., PETS; or specifically DOGS; CATS; etc.
The study of microorganisms living in a variety of environments (air, soil, water, etc.) and their pathogenic relationship to other organisms including man.
The science of breeding, feeding and care of domestic animals; includes housing and nutrition.
An essential amino acid that is required for the production of HISTAMINE.
Proteins isolated from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
An antibiotic produced by the soil actinomycete Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting the initiation and elongation processes during protein synthesis.
Refuse liquid or waste matter carried off by sewers.
'Housing, Animal' refers to the physical structure or environment designed and constructed to provide shelter, protection, and specific living conditions for various domestic or captive animals, meeting their biological and behavioral needs while ensuring their welfare and well-being.
A genus of bacteria found in the reproductive organs, intestinal tract, and oral cavity of animals and man. Some species are pathogenic.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
A broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic with a very long half-life and high penetrability to meninges, eyes and inner ears.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of Streptomyces venequelae in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Genomes of temperate BACTERIOPHAGES integrated into the DNA of their bacterial host cell. The prophages can be duplicated for many cell generations until some stimulus induces its activation and virulence.
Foodstuff used especially for domestic and laboratory animals, or livestock.
Measurable quantity of bacteria in an object, organism, or organism compartment.
A mixture of polymyxins B1 and B2, obtained from Bacillus polymyxa strains. They are basic polypeptides of about eight amino acids and have cationic detergent action on cell membranes. Polymyxin B is used for infections with gram-negative organisms, but may be neurotoxic and nephrotoxic.
Lining of the INTESTINES, consisting of an inner EPITHELIUM, a middle LAMINA PROPRIA, and an outer MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE. In the SMALL INTESTINE, the mucosa is characterized by a series of folds and abundance of absorptive cells (ENTEROCYTES) with MICROVILLI.
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
In eukaryotes, a genetic unit consisting of a noncontiguous group of genes under the control of a single regulator gene. In bacteria, regulons are global regulatory systems involved in the interplay of pleiotropic regulatory domains and consist of several OPERONS.
'Frozen foods' in a medical context typically refers to prepared or raw food items that have been rapidly cooled then stored at freezing temperatures, typically below -18 degrees Celsius, to minimize microbial growth and enzymatic reactions, thereby extending their shelf life.
A bacterial DNA topoisomerase II that catalyzes ATP-dependent breakage of both strands of DNA, passage of the unbroken strands through the breaks, and rejoining of the broken strands. Gyrase binds to DNA as a heterotetramer consisting of two A and two B subunits. In the presence of ATP, gyrase is able to convert the relaxed circular DNA duplex into a superhelix. In the absence of ATP, supercoiled DNA is relaxed by DNA gyrase.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Acute illnesses, usually affecting the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, brought on by consuming contaminated food or beverages. Most of these diseases are infectious, caused by a variety of bacteria, viruses, or parasites that can be foodborne. Sometimes the diseases are caused by harmful toxins from the microbes or other chemicals present in the food. Especially in the latter case, the condition is often called food poisoning.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
A methylpentose whose L- isomer is found naturally in many plant glycosides and some gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.
An enzyme of the shikimate pathway of AROMATIC AMINO ACID biosynthesis, it generates 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate and ORTHOPHOSPHATE from PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE and shikimate-3-phosphate. The shikimate pathway is present in BACTERIA and PLANTS but not in MAMMALS.
Genes which regulate or circumscribe the activity of other genes; specifically, genes which code for PROTEINS or RNAs which have GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION functions.
A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.
Cobamides are a class of compounds that function as cofactors in various enzymatic reactions, containing a corrin ring similar to vitamin B12, but with different substituents on the benzimidazole moiety, and can be found in certain bacteria and archaea.
One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.
Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.
Enzymes found in many bacteria which catalyze the hydrolysis of the amide bond in the beta-lactam ring. Well known antibiotics destroyed by these enzymes are penicillins and cephalosporins.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
Agents that reduce the frequency or rate of spontaneous or induced mutations independently of the mechanism involved.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Arabinose is a simple, pentose sugar (a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms) that is a constituent of various polysaccharides and glycosides, particularly found in plant tissues and some microorganisms, and can be metabolized in humans as a source of energy through the pentose phosphate pathway.
Presence of warmth or heat or a temperature notably higher than an accustomed norm.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Basic lipopeptide antibiotic group obtained from Bacillus polymyxa. They affect the cell membrane by detergent action and may cause neuromuscular and kidney damage. At least eleven different members of the polymyxin group have been identified, each designated by a letter.
Using MOLECULAR BIOLOGY techniques, such as DNA SEQUENCE ANALYSIS; PULSED-FIELD GEL ELECTROPHORESIS; and DNA FINGERPRINTING, to identify, classify, and compare organisms and their subtypes.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A protein which is a subunit of RNA polymerase. It effects initiation of specific RNA chains from DNA.
The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Porins are protein molecules that were originally found in the outer membrane of GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA and that form multi-meric channels for the passive DIFFUSION of WATER; IONS; or other small molecules. Porins are present in bacterial CELL WALLS, as well as in plant, fungal, mammalian and other vertebrate CELL MEMBRANES and MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES.
A bacterium which is one of the etiologic agents of bacillary dysentery (DYSENTERY, BACILLARY) and sometimes of infantile gastroenteritis.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
The aggregate enterprise of technically producing packaged meat.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
The family Erinaceidae, in the order INSECTIVORA. Most are true hedgehogs possessing a coat of spines and a very short tail. Those members of the family found in Southeast Asia (moonrats or gymnures) have normal body hair and a long tail.
Non-susceptibility of an organism to the action of the cephalosporins.

Components of the Salmonella flagellar export apparatus and classification of export substrates. (1/3075)

Until now, identification of components of the flagellar protein export apparatus has been indirect. We have now identified these components directly by establishing whether mutants defective in putative export components could translocate export substrates across the cytoplasmic membrane into the periplasmic space. Hook-type proteins could be exported to the periplasm of rod mutants, indicating that rod protein export does not have to precede hook-type protein export and therefore that both types of proteins belong to a single export class, the rod/hook-type class, which is distinct from the filament-type class. Hook-capping protein (FlgD) and hook protein (FlgE) required FlhA, FlhB, FliH, FliI, FliO, FliP, FliQ, and FliR for their export to the periplasm. In the case of flagellin as an export substrate, because of the phenomenon of hook-to-filament switching of export specificity, it was necessary to use temperature-sensitive mutants and establish whether flagellin could be exported to the cell exterior following a shift from the permissive to the restrictive temperature. Again, FlhA, FlhB, FliH, FliI, and FliO were required for its export. No suitable temperature-sensitive fliQ or fliR mutants were available. FliP appeared not to be required for flagellin export, but we suspect that the temperature-sensitive FliP protein continued to function at the restrictive temperature if incorporated at the permissive temperature. Thus, we conclude that these eight proteins are general components of the flagellar export pathway. FliJ was necessary for export of hook-type proteins (FlgD and FlgE); we were unable to test whether FliJ is needed for export of filament-type proteins. We suspect that FliJ may be a cytoplasmic chaperone for the hook-type proteins and possibly also for FliE and the rod proteins. FlgJ was not required for the export of the hook-type proteins; again, because of lack of a suitable temperature-sensitive mutant, we were unable to test whether it was required for export of filament-type proteins. Finally, it was established that there is an interaction between the processes of outer ring assembly and of penetration of the outer membrane by the rod and nascent hook, the latter process being of course necessary for passage of export substrates into the external medium. During the brief transition stage from completion of rod assembly and initiation of hook assembly, the L ring and perhaps the capping protein FlgD can be regarded as bona fide export components, with the L ring being in a formal sense the equivalent of the outer membrane secretin structure of type III virulence factor export systems.  (+info)

Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of three Salmonella rapid detection kits using fresh and frozen poultry environmental samples versus those of standard plating. (2/3075)

To reduce human exposure to Salmonella spp. in poultry products, broiler chicken flocks have been tested by culture methods. Since the standard techniques may take 3 to 5 days, rapid detection methods have been developed. In this study we tested the performance of three rapid tests originally developed for food samples by using environmental samples obtained from poultry houses. These rapid tests were Reveal, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay from Neogen Corp.; BIND, a bacterial ice nucleation detection method from Idetek Corp.; and a filter monitor method from Future Medical Technologies, Inc. For the standard culture, brilliant green with novabiocin and xylose-lysine-tergitol-4 agar were used for presumptive identification, and identities were confirmed by using poly-O antisera. Environmental samples were collected from farms belonging to an integrated poultry company prior to chick placement and 1 week before slaughter. Sensitivities, specificities, and predictive values with 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Statistical differences were determined by using McNemar's chi square test. The sensitivities of the different tests were not stable, varying widely between sample times, and were affected by freezing of the samples. All of the rapid tests had low sensitivities, which led to many false-negative results. All tests were able to detect Salmonella spp. at a concentration of 10 CFU/ml in at least one of four trials. The BIND and Reveal tests were simple to use with multiple samples and reduced laboratory time by up to 1 day. Based on our results, we do not recommend that any of these rapid tests, in their present state of development, be utilized with environmental samples collected with drag swabs.  (+info)

The Salmonella invasin SipB induces macrophage apoptosis by binding to caspase-1. (3/3075)

Recently, Salmonella spp. were shown to induce apoptosis in infected macrophages. The mechanism responsible for this process is unknown. In this report, we establish that the Inv-Spa type III secretion apparatus target invasin SipB is necessary and sufficient for the induction of apoptosis. Purified SipB microinjected into macrophages led to cell death. Binding studies show that SipB associates with the proapoptotic protease caspase-1. This interaction results in the activation of caspase-1, as seen in its proteolytic maturation and the processing of its substrate interleukin-1beta. Caspase-1 activity is essential for the cytotoxicity. Functional inhibition of caspase-1 activity by acetyl-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-chloromethyl ketone blocks macrophage cytotoxicity, and macrophages lacking caspase-1 are not susceptible to Salmonella-induced apoptosis. Taken together, the data demonstrate that SipB functions as an analog of the Shigella invasin IpaB.  (+info)

Evaluation of accuracy and repeatability of identification of food-borne pathogens by automated bacterial identification systems. (4/3075)

The performances of five automated microbial identification systems, relative to that of a reference identification system, for their ability to accurately and repeatedly identify six common food-borne pathogens were assessed. The systems assessed were the MicroLog system (Biolog Inc., Hayward, Calif.), the Microbial Identification System (MIS; MIDI Inc., Newark, Del.), the VITEK system (bioMerieux Vitek, Hazelwood, Mo.), the MicroScan WalkAway 40 system (Dade-MicroScan International, West Sacramento, Calif.), and the Replianalyzer system (Oxoid Inc., Nepean, Ontario, Canada). The sensitivities and specificities of these systems for the identification of food-borne isolates of Bacillus cereus, Campylobacter jejuni, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli were determined with 40 reference positive isolates and 40 reference negative isolates for each pathogen. The sensitivities of these systems for the identification of these pathogens ranged from 42.5 to 100%, and the specificities of these systems for the identification of these pathogens ranged from 32.5 to 100%. Some of the systems had difficulty correctly identifying the reference isolates when the results were compared to those from the reference identification tests. The sensitivity of MIS for the identification of S. aureus, B. cereus, E. coli, and C. jejuni, for example, ranged from 47.5 to 72. 5%. The sensitivity of the Microlog system for the identification of E. coli was 72.5%, and the sensitivity of the VITEK system for the identification of B. cereus was 42.5%. The specificities of four of the five systems for the identification of all of the species tested with the available databases were greater than or equal to 97.5%; the exception was MIS for the identification of C. jejuni, which displayed a specificity of 32.5% when it was tested with reference negative isolates including Campylobacter coli and other Campylobacter species. All systems had >80% sensitivities for the identification of Salmonella species and Listeria species at the genus level. The repeatability of these systems for the identification of test isolates ranged from 30 to 100%. Not all systems included all six pathogens in their databases; thus, some species could not be tested with all systems. The choice of automated microbial identification system for the identification of a food-borne pathogen would depend on the availability of identification libraries within the systems and the performance of the systems for the identification of the pathogen.  (+info)

How intracellular bacteria survive: surface modifications that promote resistance to host innate immune responses. (5/3075)

Bacterial pathogens regulate the expression of virulence factors in response to environmental signals. In the case of salmonellae, many virulence factors are regulated via PhoP/PhoQ, a two-component signal transduction system that is repressed by magnesium and calcium in vitro. PhoP/PhoQ-activated genes promote intracellular survival within macrophages, whereas PhoP-repressed genes promote entrance into epithelial cells and macrophages by macropinocytosis and stimulate epithelial cell cytokine production. PhoP-activated genes include those that alter the cell envelope through structural alterations of lipopolysaccharide and lipid A, the bioactive component of lipopolysaccharide. PhoP-activated changes in the bacterial envelope likely promote intracellular survival by increasing resistance to host cationic antimicrobial peptides and decreasing host cell cytokine production.  (+info)

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) of oral black-pigmented bacteria induce tumor necrosis factor production by LPS-refractory C3H/HeJ macrophages in a way different from that of Salmonella LPS. (6/3075)

Some lipopolysaccharide (LPS) preparations from S- or R-form members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and oral black-pigmented bacteria (Porphyromonas gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia) are known to activate LPS-refractory C3H/HeJ macrophages. When contaminating proteins are removed from R-form LPS of Enterobacteriaceae by repurification, however, this ability is lost. In the present study, we investigated the capacity of LPS from P. gingivalis, P. intermedia, Salmonella minnesota, and Salmonella abortusequi to induce production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in gamma interferon-primed C3H/HeJ macrophages before and after repurification. P. abortusequi S-LPS was fractionated by centrifugal partition chromatography into two LPS forms: SL-LPS, having homologous long O-polysaccharide chains, and SS-LPS having short oligosaccharide chains. Prior to repurification, all LPS forms except SL-LPS induced TNF production in both C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN macrophages. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that repurification removed contaminating protein from the preparations, and repurified SS-LPS and S. minnesota Ra-LPS no longer stimulated TNF production in C3H/HeJ macrophages, although C3H/HeN macrophages remained responsive. In contrast, repurified oral bacterial LPS retained the capacity to induce TNF production in C3H/HeJ macrophages. Oral bacterial LPS preparations also were not antagonized by excess inactive, repurified SL-LPS; Ra-LPS; Rhodobacter sphaeroides lipid A, a competitive LPS antagonist, or paclitaxel, an LPS agonist, and they were comparatively resistant to polymyxin B treatment. Nevertheless, oral bacterial LPS was less toxic to D-galactosamine-treated C3H/HeN mice than was LPS from Salmonella. These findings indicate that the active molecule(s) and mode of action of LPS from P. gingivalis and P. intermedia are quite different from those of LPS from Salmonella.  (+info)

The cyclic structure of microcin J25, a 21-residue peptide antibiotic from Escherichia coli. (7/3075)

Microcin J25 (MccJ25) is the single representative of the immunity group J of the microcin group of peptide antibiotics produced by Enterobacteriaceae. It induces bacterial filamentation in susceptible cells in a non-SOS-dependent pathway [R. A. Salomon and R. Farias (1992) J. Bacteriol. 174, 7428-7435]. MccJ25 was purified to homogeneity from the growth medium of a microcin-overproducing Escherichia coli strain by reverse-phase HPLC. Based on amino acid composition and absolute configuration determination, liquid secondary ion and electrospray mass spectrometry, extensive two-dimensional NMR, enzymatic and chemical degradations studies, the structure of MccJ25 was elucidated as a 21-residue peptide, cyclo(-Val1-Gly-Ile-Gly-Thr- Pro-Ile-Ser-Phe-Tyr-Gly-Gly-Gly-Ala-Gly-His-Val-Pro-Glu-Tyr-Phe21- ). Although MccJ25 showed high resistance to most of endoproteases, linearization by thermolysin occurred from cleavage at the Phe21-Val1 bond and led to a single peptide, MccJ25-L. While MccJ25 exhibited remarkable antibiotic activity towards Salmonella newport and several E. coli strains (minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging between 0.01 and 0.2 microgram.mL-1), the thermolysin-linearized microcin showed a dramatic decrease of the activity, indicating that the cyclic structure is essential for the MccJ25 biological properties. As MccJ25 is ribosomally synthesized as a larger peptide precursor endowed with an N-terminal extremity, the present study shows that removal of this extension and head-tail cyclization of the resulting propeptide are the only post-translational modifications involved in the maturation of MccJ25, that appears as the first cyclic microcin.  (+info)

Presence of Campylobacter and Salmonella in sand from bathing beaches. (8/3075)

The purpose of this study was to determine the presence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. in sand from non-EEC standard and EEC standard designated beaches in different locations in the UK and to assess if potentially pathogenic strains were present. Campylobacter spp. were detected in 82/182 (45%) of sand samples and Salmonella spp. in 10/182 (6%). Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 46/92 (50%) of samples from non-EEC standard beaches and 36/90 (40%) from EEC standard beaches. The prevalence of Campylobacter spp. was greater in wet sand from both types of beaches but, surprisingly, more than 30% of samples from dry sand also contained these organisms. The major pathogenic species C. jejuni and C. coli were more prevalent in sand from non-EEC standard beaches. In contrast, C. lari and urease positive thermophilic campylobacters, which are associated with seagulls and other migratory birds, were more prevalent in sand from EEC standard beaches. Campylobacter isolates were further characterized by biotyping and serotyping, which confirmed that strains known to be of types associated with human infections were frequently found in sand on bathing beaches.  (+info)

Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacteria that are facultative anaerobes and are motile due to peritrichous flagella. They are non-spore forming and often have a single polar flagellum when grown in certain conditions. Salmonella species are important pathogens in humans and other animals, causing foodborne illnesses known as salmonellosis.

Salmonella can be found in the intestinal tracts of humans, birds, reptiles, and mammals. They can contaminate various foods, including meat, poultry, eggs, dairy products, and fresh produce. The bacteria can survive and multiply in a wide range of temperatures and environments, making them challenging to control completely.

Salmonella infection typically leads to gastroenteritis, characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. In some cases, the infection may spread beyond the intestines, leading to more severe complications like bacteremia (bacterial infection of the blood) or focal infections in various organs.

There are two main species of Salmonella: S. enterica and S. bongori. S. enterica is further divided into six subspecies and numerous serovars, with over 2,500 distinct serotypes identified to date. Some well-known Salmonella serovars include S. Typhi (causes typhoid fever), S. Paratyphi A, B, and C (cause paratyphoid fever), and S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium (common causes of foodborne salmonellosis).

"Salmonella enterica" serovar "Typhimurium" is a subspecies of the bacterial species Salmonella enterica, which is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium. It is a common cause of foodborne illness in humans and animals worldwide. The bacteria can be found in a variety of sources, including contaminated food and water, raw meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.

The infection caused by Salmonella Typhimurium is typically self-limiting and results in gastroenteritis, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. However, in some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body and cause more severe illness, particularly in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems.

Salmonella Typhimurium is a major public health concern due to its ability to cause outbreaks of foodborne illness, as well as its potential to develop antibiotic resistance. Proper food handling, preparation, and storage practices can help prevent the spread of Salmonella Typhimurium and other foodborne pathogens.

Salmonella infections, also known as salmonellosis, are a type of foodborne illness caused by the Salmonella bacterium. These bacteria can be found in the intestinal tracts of humans, animals, and birds, especially poultry. People typically get salmonella infections from consuming contaminated foods or water, or through contact with infected animals or their feces. Common sources of Salmonella include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and milk products; contaminated fruits and vegetables; and improperly prepared or stored food.

Symptoms of salmonella infections usually begin within 12 to 72 hours after exposure and can include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, vomiting, and headache. Most people recover from salmonella infections without treatment within four to seven days, although some cases may be severe or even life-threatening, especially in young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems. In rare cases, Salmonella can spread from the intestines to the bloodstream and cause serious complications such as meningitis, endocarditis, and arthritis.

Prevention measures include proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices; washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or touching animals; avoiding cross-contamination of foods during preparation; and using pasteurized dairy products and eggs. If you suspect that you have a Salmonella infection, it is important to seek medical attention promptly to prevent complications and reduce the risk of spreading the infection to others.

"Salmonella enterica" is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a common cause of foodborne illnesses worldwide, often resulting in gastroenteritis, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting.

"Salmonella enterica" is further divided into several serovars or subspecies, with some of the most common ones causing human illness being Typhimurium and Enteritidis. These bacteria are typically transmitted to humans through contaminated food or water sources, such as raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products.

Once ingested, "Salmonella enterica" can colonize the gastrointestinal tract and release endotoxins that cause inflammation and damage to the intestinal lining. In some cases, the bacteria can spread to other parts of the body, leading to more severe and potentially life-threatening infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

Preventing "Salmonella enterica" infections involves proper food handling and preparation practices, such as washing hands and surfaces thoroughly, cooking meats and eggs to appropriate temperatures, and avoiding cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods.

A Salmonella infection in animals refers to the presence and multiplication of Salmonella enterica bacteria in non-human animals, causing an infectious disease known as salmonellosis. Animals can become infected through direct contact with other infected animals or their feces, consuming contaminated food or water, or vertical transmission (from mother to offspring). Clinical signs vary among species but may include diarrhea, fever, vomiting, weight loss, and sepsis. In some cases, animals can be asymptomatic carriers, shedding the bacteria in their feces and acting as a source of infection for other animals and humans. Regular monitoring, biosecurity measures, and appropriate sanitation practices are crucial to prevent and control Salmonella infections in animals.

Salmonella Enteritidis is a specific strain of the Salmonella bacterium that primarily infects the intestinal tract, leading to a type of foodborne illness known as salmonellosis. This organism can be found in a variety of animals and their feces, including poultry and cattle. It can contaminate various foods, particularly eggs, raw meat, and unpasteurized dairy products.

Infection with Salmonella Enteritidis typically occurs when an individual ingests contaminated food or water. The bacteria then multiply within the digestive system, causing symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, and vomiting. In some cases, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems, Salmonella Enteritidis infection can lead to more severe complications, including bacteremia (bloodstream infection) and invasive diseases affecting other organs.

Preventing Salmonella Enteritidis infection involves proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices, as well as maintaining good hygiene and sanitation standards in both residential and commercial settings.

Salmonella typhi is a bacterium that causes typhoid fever, a severe and sometimes fatal infectious disease. It is a human-specific pathogen, which means it only infects humans and is not carried in animals or birds. The bacteria are spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. Once ingested, Salmonella typhi can invade the intestinal tract, causing symptoms such as high fever, headache, abdominal pain, constipation, and rose-colored spots on the chest. If left untreated, typhoid fever can lead to serious complications, including intestinal perforation, bacteremia, and death.

Salmonella food poisoning, also known as salmonellosis, is an infection caused by the Salmonella enterica bacterium. It's typically contracted through the consumption of contaminated food or water, or by coming into contact with infected animals or their feces. The bacteria can cause gastrointestinal distress, including diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever, within 12 to 72 hours after exposure. Symptoms usually last for four to seven days, and most people recover without treatment. However, in severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage dehydration caused by excessive diarrhea. In rare instances, Salmonella can spread from the intestines to the bloodstream and cause life-threatening infections.

Salmonella phages are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria of the genus Salmonella. These phages, also known as bacteriophages or simply phages, are composed of a protein capsid that encases the genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA. They specifically target Salmonella bacteria, using the bacteria's resources to replicate and produce new phage particles. This process often leads to the lysis (breaking open) of the bacterial cell, resulting in the release of newly formed phages.

Salmonella phages have been studied as potential alternatives to antibiotics for controlling Salmonella infections, particularly in food production settings. They offer the advantage of being highly specific to their target bacteria, reducing the risk of disrupting beneficial microbiota. However, further research is needed to fully understand their safety and efficacy before they can be widely used as therapeutic or prophylactic agents.

Salmonella Paratyphi A is a bacterium that causes a type of enteric fever known as Paratyphoid fever. It's a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is motile and non-spore forming. This bacterium is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. The incubation period for paratyphoid fever can range from 5 to 10 days. Symptoms include high fever, headache, abdominal pain, and sometimes a rash. Paratyphoid fever is a systemic infection that can affect various organs in the body, including the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. It's treated with antibiotics, and prevention measures include good hygiene practices, safe food handling, and vaccination for high-risk populations.

Salmonella vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against Salmonella infections, which are caused by bacteria of the Salmonella enterica species. These vaccines typically contain antigens or weakened forms of the Salmonella bacteria that stimulate an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future Salmonella infections.

There are two main types of Salmonella vaccines:

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines: These vaccines contain weakened (attenuated) forms of the Salmonella bacteria that can still replicate but at a much slower rate and with reduced virulence compared to the wild-type bacteria. Examples include Ty21a, a live oral typhoid vaccine, and χ 144, an experimental live oral vaccine against nontyphoidal Salmonella serovars.
2. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines: These vaccines contain killed Salmonella bacteria or their components, such as proteins or polysaccharides. They cannot replicate and are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines. However, they may not stimulate as strong an immune response compared to live vaccines. An example is the Vi polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever.

Salmonella vaccines are primarily used for preventing Salmonella infections in humans and animals, particularly those that cause typhoid fever and nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) infections. Vaccination is an essential component of controlling Salmonella infections, especially in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene, where the risk of exposure to Salmonella bacteria is higher.

Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that are present in food, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. This field examines how these microbes interact with food, how they affect its safety and quality, and how they can be controlled during food production, processing, storage, and preparation. Food microbiology also involves the development of methods for detecting and identifying pathogenic microorganisms in food, as well as studying the mechanisms of foodborne illnesses and developing strategies to prevent them. Additionally, it includes research on the beneficial microbes found in certain fermented foods and their potential applications in improving food quality and safety.

"Salmonella arizonae" is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is motile and facultatively anaerobic. It is a species within the genus Salmonella, which are commonly associated with foodborne illnesses in humans and animals. However, "Salmonella arizonae" is primarily associated with reptiles and is rarely known to cause disease in humans. It can be found in the intestinal tracts of reptiles, amphibians, and birds, and can contaminate their environments, including water and soil. In rare cases, human infection may occur through direct contact with infected animals or their feces, consumption of contaminated food or water, or person-to-person transmission. The clinical presentation of "Salmonella arizonae" infection in humans is similar to other Salmonella infections, typically causing gastroenteritis characterized by diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and fever.

Typhoid fever is an acute illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. It is characterized by sustained fever, headache, constipation or diarrhea, rose-colored rash (in some cases), abdominal pain, and weakness. The bacteria are spread through contaminated food, water, or direct contact with an infected person's feces. If left untreated, typhoid fever can lead to severe complications and even be fatal. It is diagnosed through blood, stool, or urine tests and treated with antibiotics. Vaccination is available for prevention.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Salmonella Paratyphi B, also known as Salmonella enterica serovar Java, is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacterium that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a human pathogen that can cause a systemic illness called paratyphoid fever, which is characterized by fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and headache. The infection typically spreads through the consumption of contaminated food or water.

Salmonella Paratyphi B has a characteristic bipolar staining pattern, giving it a "safety pin" appearance under the microscope. It is motile due to the presence of peritrichous flagella and can survive in a wide range of temperatures and environments. The bacterium produces several virulence factors that allow it to invade and colonize host cells, including fimbriae, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and type III secretion systems.

Paratyphoid fever caused by Salmonella Paratyphi B is generally less severe than typhoid fever caused by Salmonella Typhi, but it can still lead to serious complications such as bacteremia, meningitis, and intestinal perforation in some cases. The diagnosis of paratyphoid fever typically involves the isolation and identification of the bacterium from clinical samples such as blood or stool cultures. Treatment usually involves antibiotic therapy, with fluoroquinolones being the drug of choice for severe cases.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

In the medical context, the term "eggs" is not typically used as a formal medical definition. However, if you are referring to reproductive biology, an egg or ovum is a female reproductive cell (gamete) that, when fertilized by a male sperm, can develop into a new individual.

In humans, eggs are produced in the ovaries and are released during ovulation, usually once per month. They are much larger than sperm and contain all the genetic information necessary to create a human being, along with nutrients that help support the early stages of embryonic development.

It's worth noting that the term "eggs" is also commonly used in everyday language to refer to chicken eggs or eggs from other birds, which are not relevant to medical definitions.

Bacteriophage typing is a laboratory method used to identify and differentiate bacterial strains based on their susceptibility to specific bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. In this technique, a standard set of bacteriophages with known host ranges are allowed to infect and form plaques on a lawn of bacterial cells grown on a solid medium, such as agar. The pattern and number of plaques formed are then used to identify the specific bacteriophage types that are able to infect the bacterial strain, providing a unique "fingerprint" or profile that can be used for typing and differentiating different bacterial strains.

Bacteriophage typing is particularly useful in epidemiological studies, as it can help track the spread of specific bacterial clones within a population, monitor antibiotic resistance patterns, and provide insights into the evolution and ecology of bacterial pathogens. It has been widely used in the study of various bacterial species, including Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, among others.

A bacterial gene is a segment of DNA (or RNA in some viruses) that contains the genetic information necessary for the synthesis of a functional bacterial protein or RNA molecule. These genes are responsible for encoding various characteristics and functions of bacteria such as metabolism, reproduction, and resistance to antibiotics. They can be transmitted between bacteria through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms like conjugation, transformation, and transduction. Bacterial genes are often organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule.

It's important to note that the term "bacterial gene" is used to describe genetic elements found in bacteria, but not all genetic elements in bacteria are considered genes. For example, some DNA sequences may not encode functional products and are therefore not considered genes. Additionally, some bacterial genes may be plasmid-borne or phage-borne, rather than being located on the bacterial chromosome.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

"Genomic Islands" are horizontally acquired DNA segments in bacterial and archaeal genomes that exhibit distinct features, such as different nucleotide composition (e.g., GC content) and codon usage compared to the rest of the genome. They often contain genes associated with mobile genetic elements, such as transposons, integrases, and phages, and are enriched for functions related to adaptive traits like antibiotic resistance, heavy metal tolerance, and virulence factors. These islands can be transferred between different strains or species through various mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer (HGT), including conjugation, transformation, and transduction, contributing significantly to bacterial evolution and diversity.

Paratyphoid fever is an acute infectious disease, similar to typhoid fever, caused by the Salmonella enterica serotype Paratyphi bacteria. The illness is characterized by fever, headache, abdominal pain, and occasionally rash. It's spread through contaminated food and water, and it primarily affects the intestinal tract and sometimes the bloodstream. Symptoms typically appear within a week of exposure and may include sustained fever, malaise, muscle aches, headache, cough, and constipation or diarrhea. Paratyphoid fever can be prevented by practicing good sanitation and hygiene, such as frequent hand washing, and is treated with antibiotics.

Poultry diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious disorders that affect domesticated birds, particularly those raised for meat, egg, or feather production. These diseases can be caused by various factors including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, genetic predisposition, environmental conditions, and management practices.

Infectious poultry diseases are often highly contagious and can lead to significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and reduced quality of products. Some examples of infectious poultry diseases include avian influenza, Newcastle disease, salmonellosis, colibacillosis, mycoplasmosis, aspergillosis, and coccidiosis.

Non-infectious poultry diseases can be caused by factors such as poor nutrition, environmental stressors, and management issues. Examples of non-infectious poultry diseases include ascites, fatty liver syndrome, sudden death syndrome, and various nutritional deficiencies.

Prevention and control of poultry diseases typically involve a combination of biosecurity measures, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, good management practices, and monitoring for early detection and intervention. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of poultry diseases is crucial to implementing effective treatment and prevention strategies, and can help minimize the impact of disease outbreaks on both individual flocks and the broader poultry industry.

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

Gene expression regulation in bacteria refers to the complex cellular processes that control the production of proteins from specific genes. This regulation allows bacteria to adapt to changing environmental conditions and ensure the appropriate amount of protein is produced at the right time.

Bacteria have a variety of mechanisms for regulating gene expression, including:

1. Operon structure: Many bacterial genes are organized into operons, which are clusters of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule. The expression of these genes can be coordinately regulated by controlling the transcription of the entire operon.
2. Promoter regulation: Transcription is initiated at promoter regions upstream of the gene or operon. Bacteria have regulatory proteins called sigma factors that bind to the promoter and recruit RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into RNA. The binding of sigma factors can be influenced by environmental signals, allowing for regulation of transcription.
3. Attenuation: Some operons have regulatory regions called attenuators that control transcription termination. These regions contain hairpin structures that can form in the mRNA and cause transcription to stop prematurely. The formation of these hairpins is influenced by the concentration of specific metabolites, allowing for regulation of gene expression based on the availability of those metabolites.
4. Riboswitches: Some bacterial mRNAs contain regulatory elements called riboswitches that bind small molecules directly. When a small molecule binds to the riboswitch, it changes conformation and affects transcription or translation of the associated gene.
5. CRISPR-Cas systems: Bacteria use CRISPR-Cas systems for adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids. These systems incorporate short sequences from foreign DNA into their own genome, which can then be used to recognize and cleave similar sequences in invading genetic elements.

Overall, gene expression regulation in bacteria is a complex process that allows them to respond quickly and efficiently to changing environmental conditions. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms can provide insights into bacterial physiology and help inform strategies for controlling bacterial growth and behavior.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Food contamination is the presence of harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or foreign substances in food or water that can cause illness or injury to individuals who consume it. This can occur at any stage during production, processing, storage, or preparation of food, and can result from various sources such as:

1. Biological contamination: This includes the presence of harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that can cause foodborne illnesses. Examples include Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria, and norovirus.

2. Chemical contamination: This involves the introduction of hazardous chemicals into food, which may occur due to poor handling practices, improper storage, or exposure to environmental pollutants. Common sources of chemical contamination include pesticides, cleaning solvents, heavy metals, and natural toxins produced by certain plants or fungi.

3. Physical contamination: This refers to the presence of foreign objects in food, such as glass, plastic, hair, or insects, which can pose a choking hazard or introduce harmful substances into the body.

Preventing food contamination is crucial for ensuring food safety and protecting public health. Proper hygiene practices, temperature control, separation of raw and cooked foods, and regular inspections are essential measures to minimize the risk of food contamination.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Salmonella Paratyphi C is a bacterium that causes a type of enteric fever, also known as paratyphoid fever. This is a severe gastrointestinal infection characterized by fever, abdominal pain, diarrhea or constipation, vomiting, and headache. The bacteria is usually transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It can also be spread through close contact with an infected person.

Salmonella Paratyphi C specifically causes a less severe form of paratyphoid fever compared to Salmonella Typhi, which causes typhoid fever. However, it can still lead to serious complications such as intestinal perforation, bacteremia (bacteria in the blood), and chronic carrier state if not properly treated with antibiotics.

It's important to note that Salmonella Paratyphi C is a relatively rare cause of enteric fever, with most cases occurring in developing countries where access to clean water and proper sanitation may be limited.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

Flagellin is a protein that makes up the structural filament of the flagellum, which is a whip-like structure found on many bacteria that enables them to move. It is also known as a potent stimulator of the innate immune response and can be recognized by Toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) in the host's immune system, triggering an inflammatory response. Flagellin is highly conserved among different bacterial species, making it a potential target for broad-spectrum vaccines and immunotherapies against bacterial infections.

"Chickens" is a common term used to refer to the domesticated bird, Gallus gallus domesticus, which is widely raised for its eggs and meat. However, in medical terms, "chickens" is not a standard term with a specific definition. If you have any specific medical concern or question related to chickens, such as food safety or allergies, please provide more details so I can give a more accurate answer.

Mutagenicity tests are a type of laboratory assays used to identify agents that can cause genetic mutations. These tests detect changes in the DNA of organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, after exposure to potential mutagens. The most commonly used mutagenicity test is the Ames test, which uses a strain of Salmonella bacteria that is sensitive to mutagens. If a chemical causes an increase in the number of revertants (reversion to the wild type) in the bacterial population, it is considered to be a mutagen. Other tests include the mouse lymphoma assay and the chromosomal aberration test. These tests are used to evaluate the potential genotoxicity of chemicals and are an important part of the safety evaluation process for new drugs, chemicals, and other substances.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "poultry" is not a medical term. It is a agricultural and culinary term that refers to domestic birds (such as chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys) that are kept for their eggs, meat, or feathers. The study and care of these birds would fall under the field of veterinary medicine, but "poultry" itself is not a medical term.

Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) is a type of electrophoresis technique used in molecular biology to separate DNA molecules based on their size and conformation. In this method, the electric field is applied in varying directions, which allows for the separation of large DNA fragments that are difficult to separate using traditional gel electrophoresis methods.

The DNA sample is prepared by embedding it in a semi-solid matrix, such as agarose or polyacrylamide, and then subjected to an electric field that periodically changes direction. This causes the DNA molecules to reorient themselves in response to the changing electric field, which results in the separation of the DNA fragments based on their size and shape.

PFGE is a powerful tool for molecular biology research and has many applications, including the identification and characterization of bacterial pathogens, the analysis of genomic DNA, and the study of gene organization and regulation. It is also used in forensic science to analyze DNA evidence in criminal investigations.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.

MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.

MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.

Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.

Flagella are long, thin, whip-like structures that some types of cells use to move themselves around. They are made up of a protein called tubulin and are surrounded by a membrane. In bacteria, flagella rotate like a propeller to push the cell through its environment. In eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus), such as sperm cells or certain types of algae, flagella move in a wave-like motion to achieve locomotion. The ability to produce flagella is called flagellation.

Typhoid-Paratyphoid vaccines are immunizations that protect against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers, which are caused by the Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi, respectively. These vaccines contain inactivated or attenuated bacteria or specific antigens that stimulate an individual's immune system to develop immunity against these diseases without causing the illness itself. There are several types of typhoid-paratyphoid vaccines available, including:

1. Ty21a (oral live attenuated vaccine): This is a live but weakened form of the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. It is given orally in capsule form and requires a series of 4 doses taken every other day. The vaccine provides protection for about 5-7 years.
2. Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) typhoid vaccine: This vaccine contains purified Vi antigens from the Salmonella Typhi bacterium's outer capsular layer. It is given as an injection and provides protection for approximately 2-3 years.
3. Combined typhoid-paratyphoid A and B vaccines (Vi-rEPA): This vaccine combines Vi polysaccharide antigens from Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi A and B. It is given as an injection and provides protection for about 3 years against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers A and B.
4. Typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs): These vaccines combine the Vi polysaccharide antigen from Salmonella Typhi with a protein carrier to enhance the immune response, particularly in children under 2 years of age. TCVs are given as an injection and provide long-lasting protection against typhoid fever.

It is important to note that none of these vaccines provides 100% protection, but they significantly reduce the risk of contracting typhoid or paratyphoid fevers. Additionally, good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, can further minimize the risk of infection.

"O antigens" are a type of antigen found on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The "O" in O antigens stands for "outer" membrane. These antigens are composed of complex carbohydrates and can vary between different strains of the same species of bacteria, which is why they are also referred to as the bacterial "O" somatic antigens.

The O antigens play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenesis of many Gram-negative bacteria, as they help the bacteria evade the host's immune system by changing the structure of the O antigen, making it difficult for the host to mount an effective immune response against the bacterial infection.

The identification and classification of O antigens are important in epidemiology, clinical microbiology, and vaccine development, as they can be used to differentiate between different strains of bacteria and to develop vaccines that provide protection against specific bacterial infections.

Shigella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are primarily responsible for causing shigellosis, also known as bacillary dysentery. These pathogens are highly infectious and can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in humans through the consumption of contaminated food or water, or direct contact with an infected person's feces.

There are four main species of Shigella: S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, and S. sonnei. Each species has distinct serotypes that differ in their epidemiology, clinical presentation, and antibiotic susceptibility patterns. The severity of shigellosis can range from mild diarrhea to severe dysentery with abdominal cramps, fever, and tenesmus (the strong, frequent urge to defecate). In some cases, Shigella infections may lead to complications such as bacteremia, seizures, or hemolytic uremic syndrome.

Preventive measures include maintaining good personal hygiene, proper food handling and preparation, access to clean water, and adequate sanitation facilities. Antibiotic treatment is generally recommended for severe cases of shigellosis, but the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains has become a growing concern in recent years.

Culture media is a substance that is used to support the growth of microorganisms or cells in an artificial environment, such as a petri dish or test tube. It typically contains nutrients and other factors that are necessary for the growth and survival of the organisms being cultured. There are many different types of culture media, each with its own specific formulation and intended use. Some common examples include blood agar, which is used to culture bacteria; Sabouraud dextrose agar, which is used to culture fungi; and Eagle's minimum essential medium, which is used to culture animal cells.

An operon is a genetic unit in prokaryotic organisms (like bacteria) consisting of a cluster of genes that are transcribed together as a single mRNA molecule, which then undergoes translation to produce multiple proteins. This genetic organization allows for the coordinated regulation of genes that are involved in the same metabolic pathway or functional process. The unit typically includes promoter and operator regions that control the transcription of the operon, as well as structural genes encoding the proteins. Operons were first discovered in bacteria, but similar genetic organizations have been found in some eukaryotic organisms, such as yeast.

Bacteriological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and study of bacteria. These techniques are essential in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and research. Here are some common bacteriological techniques:

1. **Sterilization**: This is a process that eliminates or kills all forms of life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Common sterilization methods include autoclaving (using steam under pressure), dry heat (in an oven), chemical sterilants, and radiation.

2. **Aseptic Technique**: This refers to practices used to prevent contamination of sterile materials or environments with microorganisms. It includes the use of sterile equipment, gloves, and lab coats, as well as techniques such as flaming, alcohol swabbing, and using aseptic transfer devices.

3. **Media Preparation**: This involves the preparation of nutrient-rich substances that support bacterial growth. There are various types of media, including solid (agar), liquid (broth), and semi-solid (e.g., stab agar). The choice of medium depends on the type of bacteria being cultured and the purpose of the investigation.

4. **Inoculation**: This is the process of introducing a bacterial culture into a medium. It can be done using a loop, swab, or needle. The inoculum should be taken from a pure culture to avoid contamination.

5. **Incubation**: After inoculation, the bacteria are allowed to grow under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition. This process is called incubation.

6. **Staining and Microscopy**: Bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, they need to be stained and observed under a microscope. Gram staining is a common method used to differentiate between two major groups of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

7. **Biochemical Tests**: These are tests used to identify specific bacterial species based on their biochemical characteristics, such as their ability to ferment certain sugars, produce particular enzymes, or resist certain antibiotics.

8. **Molecular Techniques**: Advanced techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing can provide more precise identification of bacteria. They can also be used for genetic analysis and epidemiological studies.

Remember, handling microorganisms requires careful attention to biosafety procedures to prevent accidental infection or environmental contamination.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.

These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.

Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

In a medical context, "meat" generally refers to the flesh of animals that is consumed as food. This includes muscle tissue, as well as fat and other tissues that are often found in meat products. However, it's worth noting that some people may have dietary restrictions or medical conditions that prevent them from consuming meat, so it's always important to consider individual preferences and needs when discussing food options.

It's also worth noting that the consumption of meat can have both positive and negative health effects. On the one hand, meat is a good source of protein, iron, vitamin B12, and other essential nutrients. On the other hand, consuming large amounts of red and processed meats has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and certain types of cancer. Therefore, it's generally recommended to consume meat in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Attenuated vaccines consist of live microorganisms that have been weakened (attenuated) through various laboratory processes so they do not cause disease in the majority of recipients but still stimulate an immune response. The purpose of attenuation is to reduce the virulence or replication capacity of the pathogen while keeping it alive, allowing it to retain its antigenic properties and induce a strong and protective immune response.

Examples of attenuated vaccines include:

1. Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV): This vaccine uses live but weakened polioviruses to protect against all three strains of the disease-causing poliovirus. The weakened viruses replicate in the intestine and induce an immune response, which provides both humoral (antibody) and cell-mediated immunity.
2. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: This combination vaccine contains live attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella viruses. It is given to protect against these three diseases and prevent their spread in the population.
3. Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: This vaccine uses a weakened form of the varicella-zoster virus, which causes chickenpox. By introducing this attenuated virus into the body, it stimulates an immune response that protects against future infection with the wild-type virus.
4. Yellow fever vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to prevent yellow fever, a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and South America. The vaccine contains a weakened form of the yellow fever virus that cannot cause the disease but still induces an immune response.
5. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to protect against tuberculosis (TB). It contains a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which does not cause TB in humans but stimulates an immune response that provides some protection against the disease.

Attenuated vaccines are generally effective at inducing long-lasting immunity and can provide robust protection against targeted diseases. However, they may pose a risk for individuals with weakened immune systems, as the attenuated viruses or bacteria could potentially cause illness in these individuals. Therefore, it is essential to consider an individual's health status before administering live attenuated vaccines.

Mutagens are physical or chemical agents that can cause permanent changes in the structure of genetic material, including DNA and chromosomes, leading to mutations. These mutations can be passed down to future generations and may increase the risk of cancer and other diseases. Examples of mutagens include ultraviolet (UV) radiation, tobacco smoke, and certain chemicals found in industrial settings. It is important to note that not all mutations are harmful, but some can have negative effects on health and development.

Swine diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious conditions that affect pigs. These diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, or environmental factors. Some common swine diseases include:

1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS): a viral disease that causes reproductive failure in sows and respiratory problems in piglets and grower pigs.
2. Classical Swine Fever (CSF): also known as hog cholera, is a highly contagious viral disease that affects pigs of all ages.
3. Porcine Circovirus Disease (PCVD): a group of diseases caused by porcine circoviruses, including Porcine CircoVirus Associated Disease (PCVAD) and Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS).
4. Swine Influenza: a respiratory disease caused by type A influenza viruses that can infect pigs and humans.
5. Mycoplasma Hyopneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes pneumonia in pigs.
6. Actinobacillus Pleuropneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes severe pneumonia in pigs.
7. Salmonella: a group of bacteria that can cause food poisoning in humans and a variety of diseases in pigs, including septicemia, meningitis, and abortion.
8. Brachyspira Hyodysenteriae: a bacterial disease that causes dysentery in pigs.
9. Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae: a bacterial disease that causes erysipelas in pigs.
10. External and internal parasites, such as lice, mites, worms, and flukes, can also cause diseases in swine.

Prevention and control of swine diseases rely on good biosecurity practices, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, and management practices. Regular veterinary check-ups and monitoring are essential to detect and treat diseases early.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but Tetrathionic Acid is not a medical term. It is a chemical compound with the formula S4O62-. It's an acidic oxyanion of sulfur with the sulfur in the +5 oxidation state. It is not related to human health or medicine directly. If you have any questions about a medical topic, I'd be happy to help with that instead!

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

"Food handling" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. However, in the context of public health and food safety, it generally refers to the activities involved in the storage, preparation, and serving of food in a way that minimizes the risk of contamination and foodborne illnesses. This includes proper hygiene practices, such as handwashing and wearing gloves, separating raw and cooked foods, cooking food to the correct temperature, and refrigerating or freezing food promptly. Proper food handling is essential for ensuring the safety and quality of food in various settings, including restaurants, hospitals, schools, and homes.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Genetic conjugation is a type of genetic transfer that occurs between bacterial cells. It involves the process of one bacterium (the donor) transferring a piece of its DNA to another bacterium (the recipient) through direct contact or via a bridge-like connection called a pilus. This transferred DNA may contain genes that provide the recipient cell with new traits, such as antibiotic resistance or virulence factors, which can make the bacteria more harmful or difficult to treat. Genetic conjugation is an important mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance and other traits among bacterial populations.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are large molecules found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. They consist of a hydrophilic polysaccharide called the O-antigen, a core oligosaccharide, and a lipid portion known as Lipid A. The Lipid A component is responsible for the endotoxic activity of LPS, which can trigger a powerful immune response in animals, including humans. This response can lead to symptoms such as fever, inflammation, and septic shock, especially when large amounts of LPS are introduced into the bloodstream.

An abattoir is a facility where animals are slaughtered and processed for human consumption. It is also known as a slaughterhouse. The term "abattoir" comes from the French word "abattre," which means "to take down" or "slaughter." In an abattoir, animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and chickens are killed and then butchered into smaller pieces of meat that can be sold to consumers.

Abattoirs must follow strict regulations to ensure the humane treatment of animals and the safety of the meat products they produce. These regulations cover various aspects of the slaughtering and processing process, including animal handling, stunning, bleeding, evisceration, and inspection. The goal of these regulations is to minimize the risk of contamination and ensure that the meat is safe for human consumption.

It's important to note that while abattoirs play an essential role in providing a reliable source of protein for humans, they can also be controversial due to concerns about animal welfare and the environmental impact of large-scale animal agriculture.

Bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that consist of long chains of sugar molecules (monosaccharides) linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are produced and used by bacteria for various purposes such as:

1. Structural components: Bacterial polysaccharides, such as peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of bacterial cells. Peptidoglycan is a major component of the bacterial cell wall, while LPS forms the outer layer of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria.
2. Nutrient storage: Some bacteria synthesize and store polysaccharides as an energy reserve, similar to how plants store starch. These polysaccharides can be broken down and utilized by the bacterium when needed.
3. Virulence factors: Bacterial polysaccharides can also function as virulence factors, contributing to the pathogenesis of bacterial infections. For example, certain bacteria produce capsular polysaccharides (CPS) that surround and protect the bacterial cells from host immune defenses, allowing them to evade phagocytosis and persist within the host.
4. Adhesins: Some polysaccharides act as adhesins, facilitating the attachment of bacteria to surfaces or host cells. This is important for biofilm formation, which helps bacteria resist environmental stresses and antibiotic treatments.
5. Antigenic properties: Bacterial polysaccharides can be highly antigenic, eliciting an immune response in the host. The antigenicity of these molecules can vary between different bacterial species or even strains within a species, making them useful as targets for vaccines and diagnostic tests.

In summary, bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that serve various functions in bacteria, including structural support, nutrient storage, virulence factor production, adhesion, and antigenicity.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Microbial viability is the ability of a microorganism to grow, reproduce and maintain its essential life functions. It can be determined through various methods such as cell growth in culture media, staining techniques that detect metabolic activity, or direct observation of active movement. In contrast, non-viable microorganisms are those that have been killed or inactivated and cannot replicate or cause further harm. The measurement of microbial viability is important in various fields such as medicine, food safety, water quality, and environmental monitoring to assess the effectiveness of disinfection and sterilization procedures, and to determine the presence and concentration of harmful bacteria in different environments.

Bacterial vaccines are types of vaccines that are created using bacteria or parts of bacteria as the immunogen, which is the substance that triggers an immune response in the body. The purpose of a bacterial vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to develop protection against specific bacterial infections.

There are several types of bacterial vaccines, including:

1. Inactivated or killed whole-cell vaccines: These vaccines contain entire bacteria that have been killed or inactivated through various methods, such as heat or chemicals. The bacteria can no longer cause disease, but they still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response.
2. Subunit, protein, or polysaccharide vaccines: These vaccines use specific components of the bacterium, such as proteins or polysaccharides, that are known to trigger an immune response. By using only these components, the vaccine can avoid using the entire bacterium, which may reduce the risk of adverse reactions.
3. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain live bacteria that have been weakened or attenuated so that they cannot cause disease but still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine can provide long-lasting immunity, but it may not be suitable for people with weakened immune systems.

Bacterial vaccines are essential tools in preventing and controlling bacterial infections, reducing the burden of diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. They work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of the bacteria or its components, which triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and fight off future infections with that same bacterium.

It's important to note that while vaccines are generally safe and effective, they may cause mild side effects such as pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, fever, or fatigue. Serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccine.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

The cecum is the first part of the large intestine, located at the junction of the small and large intestines. It is a pouch-like structure that connects to the ileum (the last part of the small intestine) and the ascending colon (the first part of the large intestine). The cecum is where the appendix is attached. Its function is to absorb water and electrolytes, and it also serves as a site for the fermentation of certain types of dietary fiber by gut bacteria. However, the exact functions of the cecum are not fully understood.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Virulence factors are characteristics or components of a microorganism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, that contribute to its ability to cause damage or disease in a host organism. These factors can include various structures, enzymes, or toxins that allow the pathogen to evade the host's immune system, attach to and invade host tissues, obtain nutrients from the host, or damage host cells directly.

Examples of virulence factors in bacteria include:

1. Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that can trigger a strong immune response and inflammation.
2. Exotoxins: proteins secreted by some bacteria that have toxic effects on host cells, such as botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum or diphtheria toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
3. Adhesins: structures that help the bacterium attach to host tissues, such as fimbriae or pili in Escherichia coli.
4. Capsules: thick layers of polysaccharides or proteins that surround some bacteria and protect them from the host's immune system, like those found in Streptococcus pneumoniae or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
5. Invasins: proteins that enable bacteria to invade and enter host cells, such as internalins in Listeria monocytogenes.
6. Enzymes: proteins that help bacteria obtain nutrients from the host by breaking down various molecules, like hemolysins that lyse red blood cells to release iron or hyaluronidases that degrade connective tissue.

Understanding virulence factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

Bacterial chromosomes are typically circular, double-stranded DNA molecules that contain the genetic material of bacteria. Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA housed within a nucleus, bacterial chromosomes are located in the cytoplasm of the cell, often associated with the bacterial nucleoid.

Bacterial chromosomes can vary in size and structure among different species, but they typically contain all of the genetic information necessary for the survival and reproduction of the organism. They may also contain plasmids, which are smaller circular DNA molecules that can carry additional genes and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation.

One important feature of bacterial chromosomes is their ability to replicate rapidly, allowing bacteria to divide quickly and reproduce in large numbers. The replication of the bacterial chromosome begins at a specific origin point and proceeds in opposite directions until the entire chromosome has been copied. This process is tightly regulated and coordinated with cell division to ensure that each daughter cell receives a complete copy of the genetic material.

Overall, the study of bacterial chromosomes is an important area of research in microbiology, as understanding their structure and function can provide insights into bacterial genetics, evolution, and pathogenesis.

Lipid A is the biologically active component of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. It is responsible for the endotoxic activity of LPS and plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of gram-negative bacterial infections. Lipid A is a glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor, consisting of a glucosamine disaccharide backbone with multiple fatty acid chains and phosphate groups attached to it. It can induce the release of proinflammatory cytokines, fever, and other symptoms associated with sepsis when introduced into the bloodstream.

Genetic transduction is a process in molecular biology that describes the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another by a viral vector called a bacteriophage (or phage). In this process, the phage infects one bacterium and incorporates a portion of the bacterial DNA into its own genetic material. When the phage then infects a second bacterium, it can transfer the incorporated bacterial DNA to the new host. This can result in the horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of traits such as antibiotic resistance or virulence factors between bacteria.

There are two main types of transduction: generalized and specialized. In generalized transduction, any portion of the bacterial genome can be packaged into the phage particle, leading to a random assortment of genetic material being transferred. In specialized transduction, only specific genes near the site where the phage integrates into the bacterial chromosome are consistently transferred.

It's important to note that genetic transduction is not to be confused with transformation or conjugation, which are other mechanisms of HGT in bacteria.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

DNA transposable elements, also known as transposons or jumping genes, are mobile genetic elements that can change their position within a genome. They are composed of DNA sequences that include genes encoding the enzymes required for their own movement (transposase) and regulatory elements. When activated, the transposase recognizes specific sequences at the ends of the element and catalyzes the excision and reintegration of the transposable element into a new location in the genome. This process can lead to genetic variation, as the insertion of a transposable element can disrupt the function of nearby genes or create new combinations of gene regulatory elements. Transposable elements are widespread in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes and are thought to play a significant role in genome evolution.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Bacterial typing techniques are methods used to identify and differentiate bacterial strains or isolates based on their unique characteristics. These techniques are essential in epidemiological studies, infection control, and research to understand the transmission dynamics, virulence, and antibiotic resistance patterns of bacterial pathogens.

There are various bacterial typing techniques available, including:

1. **Bacteriophage Typing:** This method involves using bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to identify specific bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to particular phages.
2. **Serotyping:** It is a technique that differentiates bacterial strains based on the antigenic properties of their cell surface components, such as capsules, flagella, and somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens.
3. **Biochemical Testing:** This method uses biochemical reactions to identify specific metabolic pathways or enzymes present in bacterial strains, which can be used for differentiation. Commonly used tests include the catalase test, oxidase test, and various sugar fermentation tests.
4. **Molecular Typing Techniques:** These methods use genetic markers to identify and differentiate bacterial strains at the DNA level. Examples of molecular typing techniques include:
* **Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE):** This method uses restriction enzymes to digest bacterial DNA, followed by electrophoresis in an agarose gel under pulsed electrical fields. The resulting banding patterns are analyzed and compared to identify related strains.
* **Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST):** It involves sequencing specific housekeeping genes to generate unique sequence types that can be used for strain identification and phylogenetic analysis.
* **Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS):** This method sequences the entire genome of a bacterial strain, providing the most detailed information on genetic variation and relatedness between strains. WGS data can be analyzed using various bioinformatics tools to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), gene deletions or insertions, and other genetic changes that can be used for strain differentiation.

These molecular typing techniques provide higher resolution than traditional methods, allowing for more accurate identification and comparison of bacterial strains. They are particularly useful in epidemiological investigations to track the spread of pathogens and identify outbreaks.

Medical definitions of terms often come from authoritative sources such as those produced by the US National Institutes of Health (NIH), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), or the World Health Organization (WHO). However, I couldn't find a specific medical definition for 'poultry products' in these resources. Instead, poultry products are commonly defined by food safety authorities such as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

According to the USDA, "Poultry products" are items that are derived from the whole carcasses, parts, or portions of poultry carcasses, such as chicken, turkey, duck, goose, guinea fowl, and ratites (emus and ostriches). These products include, but are not limited to, meat, skin, fat, bones, organs, eggs, and egg products.

It's important to note that poultry products can be a source of various bacteria, parasites, and viruses, including Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria, and avian influenza viruses. Proper handling, cooking, and storage are crucial steps in preventing foodborne illnesses associated with the consumption of poultry products.

Cattle diseases are a range of health conditions that affect cattle, which include but are not limited to:

1. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD): Also known as "shipping fever," BRD is a common respiratory illness in feedlot cattle that can be caused by several viruses and bacteria.
2. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A viral disease that can cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, and reproductive issues.
3. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It primarily affects the intestines and can cause severe diarrhea and weight loss.
4. Digital Dermatitis: Also known as "hairy heel warts," this is a highly contagious skin disease that affects the feet of cattle, causing lameness and decreased productivity.
5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK): Also known as "pinkeye," IBK is a common and contagious eye infection in cattle that can cause blindness if left untreated.
6. Salmonella: A group of bacteria that can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in cattle, including diarrhea, dehydration, and septicemia.
7. Leptospirosis: A bacterial disease that can cause a wide range of symptoms in cattle, including abortion, stillbirths, and kidney damage.
8. Blackleg: A highly fatal bacterial disease that causes rapid death in young cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei and vaccination is recommended for prevention.
9. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Cattle can become infected by ingesting spores found in contaminated soil, feed or water.
10. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): A highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle. It is characterized by fever and blisters on the feet, mouth, and teats. FMD is not a threat to human health but can have serious economic consequences for the livestock industry.

It's important to note that many of these diseases can be prevented or controlled through good management practices, such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, and proper nutrition. Regular veterinary care and monitoring are also crucial for early detection and treatment of any potential health issues in your herd.

Food preservation, in the context of medical and nutritional sciences, refers to the process of treating, handling, and storing food items to reduce the risk of foodborne illness and to extend their shelf life. The goal is to prevent the growth of pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and mold, as well as to slow down the oxidation process that can lead to spoilage.

Common methods of food preservation include:

1. Refrigeration and freezing: These techniques slow down the growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity that cause food to spoil.
2. Canning: This involves sealing food in airtight containers, then heating them to destroy microorganisms and inactivate enzymes.
3. Dehydration: Removing water from food inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds.
4. Acidification: Adding acidic ingredients like lemon juice or vinegar can lower the pH of food, making it less hospitable to microorganisms.
5. Fermentation: This process involves converting sugars into alcohol or acids using bacteria or yeasts, which can preserve food and also enhance its flavor.
6. Irradiation: Exposing food to small doses of radiation can kill bacteria, parasites, and insects, extending the shelf life of certain foods.
7. Pasteurization: Heating food to a specific temperature for a set period of time can destroy harmful bacteria while preserving the nutritional value and taste.

Proper food preservation is crucial in preventing foodborne illnesses and ensuring the safety and quality of the food supply.

Integrons are genetic elements that can capture, integrate and express mobile gene cassettes, which are circular DNA molecules containing one or more antibiotic resistance genes. Integrons consist of an integrase gene (intI), a recombination site (attI), and a promoter region that drives the expression of integrated gene cassettes. They play a significant role in the spread and dissemination of antibiotic resistance among bacterial populations, as they can facilitate the acquisition and exchange of resistance genes between different bacteria. Integrons are commonly found on plasmids and transposons, which are mobile genetic elements that can move between different bacterial species, further contributing to the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance.

Gastroenteritis is not a medical condition itself, but rather a symptom-based description of inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract, primarily involving the stomach and intestines. It's often referred to as "stomach flu," although it's not caused by influenza virus.

Medically, gastroenteritis is defined as an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, usually resulting in symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever, and dehydration. This condition can be caused by various factors, including viral (like rotavirus or norovirus), bacterial (such as Salmonella, Shigella, or Escherichia coli), or parasitic infections, food poisoning, allergies, or the use of certain medications.

Gastroenteritis is generally self-limiting and resolves within a few days with proper hydration and rest. However, severe cases may require medical attention to prevent complications like dehydration, which can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems.

Nalidixic acid is an antimicrobial agent, specifically a synthetic quinolone derivative. It is primarily used for the treatment of urinary tract infections caused by susceptible strains of gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Nalidixic acid works by inhibiting bacterial DNA gyrase, an enzyme necessary for DNA replication. This leads to the prevention of DNA synthesis and ultimately results in bacterial cell death. However, its use has become limited due to the emergence of resistance and the availability of more effective antimicrobials.

It is essential to note that nalidixic acid is not typically used as a first-line treatment for urinary tract infections or any other type of infection. It should only be used when other antibiotics are not suitable due to resistance, allergies, or other factors. Additionally, the drug's potential side effects, such as gastrointestinal disturbances, headaches, and dizziness, may limit its use in some patients.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Bacterial shedding refers to the release or discharge of bacteria from an infected individual into their environment. This can occur through various routes, such as respiratory droplets when coughing or sneezing, or through fecal matter. The bacteria can then potentially spread to other individuals, causing infection and disease. It's important to note that not all bacteria that are shed cause illness, and some people may be colonized with certain bacteria without showing symptoms. However, in healthcare settings, bacterial shedding is a concern for the transmission of harmful pathogens, particularly in vulnerable populations such as immunocompromised patients.

A genetic complementation test is a laboratory procedure used in molecular genetics to determine whether two mutated genes can complement each other's function, indicating that they are located at different loci and represent separate alleles. This test involves introducing a normal or wild-type copy of one gene into a cell containing a mutant version of the same gene, and then observing whether the presence of the normal gene restores the normal function of the mutated gene. If the introduction of the normal gene results in the restoration of the normal phenotype, it suggests that the two genes are located at different loci and can complement each other's function. However, if the introduction of the normal gene does not restore the normal phenotype, it suggests that the two genes are located at the same locus and represent different alleles of the same gene. This test is commonly used to map genes and identify genetic interactions in a variety of organisms, including bacteria, yeast, and animals.

Chromosome mapping, also known as physical mapping, is the process of determining the location and order of specific genes or genetic markers on a chromosome. This is typically done by using various laboratory techniques to identify landmarks along the chromosome, such as restriction enzyme cutting sites or patterns of DNA sequence repeats. The resulting map provides important information about the organization and structure of the genome, and can be used for a variety of purposes, including identifying the location of genes associated with genetic diseases, studying evolutionary relationships between organisms, and developing genetic markers for use in breeding or forensic applications.

Water microbiology is not a formal medical term, but rather a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms found in water. It involves the identification, enumeration, and characterization of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other microscopic organisms present in water sources such as lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater, drinking water, and wastewater.

In a medical context, water microbiology is relevant to public health because it helps to assess the safety of water supplies for human consumption and recreational activities. It also plays a critical role in understanding and preventing waterborne diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms that can lead to illnesses such as diarrhea, skin infections, and respiratory problems.

Water microbiologists use various techniques to study water microorganisms, including culturing, microscopy, genetic analysis, and biochemical tests. They also investigate the ecology of these organisms, their interactions with other species, and their response to environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and nutrient availability.

Overall, water microbiology is a vital field that helps ensure the safety of our water resources and protects public health.

Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory, urinary, and skin infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase, which is an enzyme necessary for bacterial replication and transcription. This leads to bacterial cell death. Ciprofloxacin is available in oral and injectable forms and is usually prescribed to be taken twice a day. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and headache. It may also cause serious adverse reactions such as tendinitis, tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, and central nervous system effects. It is important to note that ciprofloxacin should not be used in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to fluoroquinolones and should be used with caution in patients with a history of seizures, brain injury, or other neurological conditions.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Propylene glycol is not a medical term, but rather a chemical compound. However, it does have various applications in the medical field. Medically, propylene glycol can be used as a:

1. Vehicle for intravenous (IV) medications: Propylene glycol helps dissolve drugs that are not water-soluble and allows them to be administered intravenously. It is used in the preparation of some IV medications, including certain antibiotics, antivirals, and chemotherapeutic agents.
2. Preservative: Propylene glycol acts as a preservative in various medical products, such as topical ointments, eye drops, and injectable solutions, to prevent bacterial growth and increase shelf life.
3. Humectant: In some medical devices and pharmaceutical formulations, propylene glycol is used as a humectant, which means it helps maintain moisture and prevent dryness in the skin or mucous membranes.

The chemical definition of propylene glycol (C3H8O2) is:

A colorless, nearly odorless, viscous liquid belonging to the alcohol family. It is a diol, meaning it contains two hydroxyl groups (-OH), and its molecular formula is C3H8O2. Propylene glycol is miscible with water and most organic solvents and has applications in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, food processing, cosmetics, and industrial manufacturing.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

'Escherichia coli (E. coli) proteins' refer to the various types of proteins that are produced and expressed by the bacterium Escherichia coli. These proteins play a critical role in the growth, development, and survival of the organism. They are involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, translation, repair, and regulation.

E. coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobe that is commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. It is widely used as a model organism in scientific research due to its well-studied genetics, rapid growth, and ability to be easily manipulated in the laboratory. As a result, many E. coli proteins have been identified, characterized, and studied in great detail.

Some examples of E. coli proteins include enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism such as lactase, sucrase, and maltose; proteins involved in DNA replication such as the polymerases, single-stranded binding proteins, and helicases; proteins involved in transcription such as RNA polymerase and sigma factors; proteins involved in translation such as ribosomal proteins, tRNAs, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases; and regulatory proteins such as global regulators, two-component systems, and transcription factors.

Understanding the structure, function, and regulation of E. coli proteins is essential for understanding the basic biology of this important organism, as well as for developing new strategies for combating bacterial infections and improving industrial processes involving bacteria.

Bacterial fimbriae are thin, hair-like protein appendages that extend from the surface of many types of bacteria. They are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces, other cells, or extracellular structures. Fimbriae enable bacteria to adhere to host tissues and form biofilms, which contribute to bacterial pathogenicity and survival in various environments. These protein structures are composed of several thousand subunits of a specific protein called pilin. Some fimbriae can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, initiating the process of infection and colonization.

Insertional mutagenesis is a process of introducing new genetic material into an organism's genome at a specific location, which can result in a change or disruption of the function of the gene at that site. This technique is often used in molecular biology research to study gene function and regulation. The introduction of the foreign DNA is typically accomplished through the use of mobile genetic elements, such as transposons or viruses, which are capable of inserting themselves into the genome.

The insertion of the new genetic material can lead to a loss or gain of function in the affected gene, resulting in a mutation. This type of mutagenesis is called "insertional" because the mutation is caused by the insertion of foreign DNA into the genome. The effects of insertional mutagenesis can range from subtle changes in gene expression to the complete inactivation of a gene.

This technique has been widely used in genetic research, including the study of developmental biology, cancer, and genetic diseases. It is also used in the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural and industrial applications.

The intestines, also known as the bowel, are a part of the digestive system that extends from the stomach to the anus. They are responsible for the further breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food, as well as the elimination of waste products. The intestines can be divided into two main sections: the small intestine and the large intestine.

The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that measures about 20 feet in length and is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase its surface area and enhance nutrient absorption. The small intestine is where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place.

The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a wider tube that measures about 5 feet in length and is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from digested food, forming stool, and eliminating waste products from the body. The large intestine includes several regions, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.

Together, the intestines play a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being by ensuring that the body receives the nutrients it needs to function properly.

"Escherichia" is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. The most well-known species in this genus is "Escherichia coli," or "E. coli," which is a normal inhabitant of the human gut and is often used as an indicator of fecal contamination in water and food. Some strains of E. coli can cause illness, however, including diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and meningitis. Other species in the genus "Escherichia" are less well-known and are not typically associated with disease.

Agar is a substance derived from red algae, specifically from the genera Gelidium and Gracilaria. It is commonly used in microbiology as a solidifying agent for culture media. Agar forms a gel at relatively low temperatures (around 40-45°C) and remains stable at higher temperatures (up to 100°C), making it ideal for preparing various types of culture media.

In addition to its use in microbiology, agar is also used in other scientific research, food industry, and even in some artistic applications due to its unique gelling properties. It is important to note that although agar is often used in the preparation of food, it is not typically consumed as a standalone ingredient by humans or animals.

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a laboratory technique used to identify and compare the unique genetic makeup of individuals by analyzing specific regions of their DNA. This method is based on the variation in the length of repetitive sequences of DNA called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) or short tandem repeats (STRs), which are located at specific locations in the human genome and differ significantly among individuals, except in the case of identical twins.

The process of DNA fingerprinting involves extracting DNA from a sample, amplifying targeted regions using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and then separating and visualizing the resulting DNA fragments through electrophoresis. The fragment patterns are then compared to determine the likelihood of a match between two samples.

DNA fingerprinting has numerous applications in forensic science, paternity testing, identity verification, and genealogical research. It is considered an essential tool for providing strong evidence in criminal investigations and resolving disputes related to parentage and inheritance.

A "Food Inspection" is not a medical term per se, but rather it falls under the purview of public health and food safety. It refers to the process of examining, testing, and evaluating food products, production processes, and establishments to ensure they comply with regulatory standards, guidelines, and laws established to protect consumers from foodborne illnesses, allergens, chemical contaminants, and other potential hazards.

The inspection can be carried out by governmental agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), or local health departments, at various stages of food production, processing, distribution, and retail sale. The primary goal is to minimize the risk of contamination, ensure proper labeling, and maintain the overall safety and integrity of the food supply chain.

While not a medical definition, it's important to note that food inspections play a crucial role in preventing foodborne illnesses, which can lead to significant health complications for vulnerable populations, such as children, the elderly, pregnant women, and individuals with weakened immune systems.

Medical definitions typically do not include terms like "meat products" as they are too broad and not specific to medical conditions or treatments. However, in a general food science or nutrition context, "meat products" could be defined as:

Processed or unprocessed foods that contain meat or meat derivatives as the primary ingredient. This can include various types of muscle tissue from mammals, birds, fish, and other animals, along with any accompanying fat, skin, blood vessels, and other tissues. Meat products may be fresh, cured, smoked, or cooked, and they may also contain additional ingredients like salt, sugar, preservatives, and flavorings. Examples of meat products include beef jerky, bacon, sausages, hot dogs, and canned meats.

A bacterial genome is the complete set of genetic material, including both DNA and RNA, found within a single bacterium. It contains all the hereditary information necessary for the bacterium to grow, reproduce, and survive in its environment. The bacterial genome typically includes circular chromosomes, as well as plasmids, which are smaller, circular DNA molecules that can carry additional genes. These genes encode various functional elements such as enzymes, structural proteins, and regulatory sequences that determine the bacterium's characteristics and behavior.

Bacterial genomes vary widely in size, ranging from around 130 kilobases (kb) in Mycoplasma genitalium to over 14 megabases (Mb) in Sorangium cellulosum. The complete sequencing and analysis of bacterial genomes have provided valuable insights into the biology, evolution, and pathogenicity of bacteria, enabling researchers to better understand their roles in various diseases and potential applications in biotechnology.

A cloaca is a common cavity or channel in some animals, including many birds and reptiles, that serves as the combined endpoint for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. Feces, urine, and in some cases, eggs are all expelled through this single opening. In humans and other mammals, these systems have separate openings. Anatomical anomalies can result in a human born with a cloaca, which is very rare and typically requires surgical correction.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Agglutination tests are laboratory diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, such as blood or serum. These tests work by observing the clumping (agglutination) of particles, like red blood cells or bacteriophages, coated with specific antigens or antibodies when mixed with a patient's sample.

In an agglutination test, the sample is typically combined with a reagent containing known antigens or antibodies on the surface of particles, such as latex beads, red blood cells, or bacteriophages. If the sample contains the corresponding antibodies or antigens, they will bind to the particles, forming visible clumps or agglutinates. The presence and strength of agglutination are then assessed visually or with automated equipment to determine the presence and quantity of the target antigen or antibody in the sample.

Agglutination tests are widely used in medical diagnostics for various applications, including:

1. Bacterial and viral infections: To identify specific bacterial or viral antigens in a patient's sample, such as group A Streptococcus, Legionella pneumophila, or HIV.
2. Blood typing: To determine the ABO blood group and Rh type of a donor or recipient before a blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
3. Autoimmune diseases: To detect autoantibodies in patients with suspected autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
4. Allergies: To identify specific IgE antibodies in a patient's sample to determine allergic reactions to various substances, such as pollen, food, or venom.
5. Drug monitoring: To detect and quantify the presence of drug-induced antibodies, such as those developed in response to penicillin or hydralazine therapy.

Agglutination tests are simple, rapid, and cost-effective diagnostic tools that provide valuable information for clinical decision-making and patient management. However, they may have limitations, including potential cross-reactivity with other antigens, false-positive results due to rheumatoid factors or heterophile antibodies, and false-negative results due to the prozone effect or insufficient sensitivity. Therefore, it is essential to interpret agglutination test results in conjunction with clinical findings and other laboratory data.

Peyer's patches are specialized lymphoid nodules found in the mucosa of the ileum, a part of the small intestine. They are a component of the immune system and play a crucial role in monitoring and defending against harmful pathogens that are ingested with food and drink. Peyer's patches contain large numbers of B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and macrophages, which work together to identify and eliminate potential threats. They also have a unique structure that allows them to sample and analyze the contents of the intestinal lumen, providing an early warning system for the immune system.

I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. The "food processing industry" is not a medical term per se, but rather a term used to describe the branch of manufacturing that involves transforming raw agricultural ingredients into food products for commercial sale.

The food-processing industry includes activities such as:

1. Cleaning and grading raw food materials
2. Preservation through canning, freezing, refrigeration, or dehydration
3. Preparation of food by chopping, cooking, baking, or mixing
4. Packaging and labeling of the final food product

While not a medical term, it is still relevant to the medical field as processed foods can impact human health, both positively and negatively. For example, processing can help preserve nutrients, increase food safety, and make certain foods more accessible and convenient. However, overly processed foods often contain high levels of added sugars, sodium, and unhealthy fats, which can contribute to various health issues such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

Bacteriophage P22 is a specific type of virus that infects and replicates within the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. It is a double-stranded DNA virus and has an icosahedral head and a short, non-contractile tail. Bacteriophage P22 is known for its ability to undergo generalized transduction, where it can package host bacterial DNA into new phage particles, allowing the transfer of genetic material between bacteria. It is widely used in molecular biology as a tool for studying and manipulating bacterial genomes.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Medical Definition:

Lethal Dose 50 (LD50) is a standard measurement in toxicology that refers to the estimated amount or dose of a substance, which if ingested, injected, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin by either human or animal, would cause death in 50% of the test population. It is expressed as the mass of a substance per unit of body weight (mg/kg, μg/kg, etc.). LD50 values are often used to compare the toxicity of different substances and help determine safe dosage levels.

Enteritis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the small intestine. The small intestine is responsible for digesting and absorbing nutrients from food, so inflammation in this area can interfere with these processes and lead to symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss.

Enteritis can be caused by a variety of factors, including bacterial or viral infections, parasites, autoimmune disorders, medications, and exposure to toxins. In some cases, the cause of enteritis may be unknown. Treatment for enteritis depends on the underlying cause, but may include antibiotics, antiparasitic drugs, anti-inflammatory medications, or supportive care such as fluid replacement therapy.

Microbial genetics is the study of heredity and variation in microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It involves the investigation of their genetic material (DNA and RNA), genes, gene expression, genetic regulation, mutations, genetic recombination, and genome organization. This field is crucial for understanding the mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis, evolution, ecology, and biotechnological applications. Research in microbial genetics has led to significant advancements in areas such as antibiotic resistance, vaccine development, and gene therapy.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Reptiles" is not a medical term. It is a term used in biology to describe a class of cold-blooded, scaly-skinned animals that include snakes, lizards, alligators, crocodiles, turtles, and tortoises. They are characterized by having lungs for breathing, laying eggs on land, and having a three-chambered heart. If you have any medical questions or terms, I'd be happy to help clarify those!

Gene deletion is a type of mutation where a segment of DNA, containing one or more genes, is permanently lost or removed from a chromosome. This can occur due to various genetic mechanisms such as homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining, or other types of genomic rearrangements.

The deletion of a gene can have varying effects on the organism, depending on the function of the deleted gene and its importance for normal physiological processes. If the deleted gene is essential for survival, the deletion may result in embryonic lethality or developmental abnormalities. However, if the gene is non-essential or has redundant functions, the deletion may not have any noticeable effects on the organism's phenotype.

Gene deletions can also be used as a tool in genetic research to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes. For example, researchers may use gene deletion techniques to create genetically modified animal models to investigate the impact of gene deletion on disease progression or development.

Bacterial adhesion is the initial and crucial step in the process of bacterial colonization, where bacteria attach themselves to a surface or tissue. This process involves specific interactions between bacterial adhesins (proteins, fimbriae, or pili) and host receptors (glycoproteins, glycolipids, or extracellular matrix components). The attachment can be either reversible or irreversible, depending on the strength of interaction. Bacterial adhesion is a significant factor in initiating biofilm formation, which can lead to various infectious diseases and medical device-associated infections.

Lysogeny is a process in the life cycle of certain viruses, known as bacteriophages or phages, which can infect bacteria. In lysogeny, the viral DNA integrates into the chromosome of the host bacterium and replicates along with it, remaining dormant and not producing any new virus particles. This state is called lysogeny or the lysogenic cycle.

The integrated viral DNA is known as a prophage. The bacterial cell that contains a prophage is called a lysogen. The lysogen can continue to grow and divide normally, passing the prophage onto its daughter cells during reproduction. This dormant state can last for many generations of the host bacterium.

However, under certain conditions such as DNA damage or exposure to UV radiation, the prophage can be induced to excise itself from the bacterial chromosome and enter the lytic cycle. In the lytic cycle, the viral DNA replicates rapidly, producing many new virus particles, which eventually leads to the lysis (breaking open) of the host cell and the release of the newly formed virions.

Lysogeny is an important mechanism for the spread and survival of bacteriophages in bacterial populations. It also plays a role in horizontal gene transfer between bacteria, as genes carried by prophages can be transferred to other bacteria during transduction.

Diarrhea is a condition in which an individual experiences loose, watery stools frequently, often exceeding three times a day. It can be acute, lasting for several days, or chronic, persisting for weeks or even months. Diarrhea can result from various factors, including viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections, food intolerances, medications, and underlying medical conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. Dehydration is a potential complication of diarrhea, particularly in severe cases or in vulnerable populations like young children and the elderly.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.

Fimbriae proteins are specialized protein structures found on the surface of certain bacteria, including some pathogenic species. Fimbriae, also known as pili, are thin, hair-like appendages that extend from the bacterial cell wall and play a role in the attachment of the bacterium to host cells or surfaces.

Fimbrial proteins are responsible for the assembly and structure of these fimbriae. They are produced by the bacterial cell and then self-assemble into long, thin fibers that extend from the surface of the bacterium. The proteins have a highly conserved sequence at their carboxy-terminal end, which is important for their polymerization and assembly into fimbriae.

Fimbrial proteins can vary widely between different species of bacteria, and even between strains of the same species. Some fimbrial proteins are adhesins, meaning they bind to specific receptors on host cells, allowing the bacterium to attach to and colonize tissues. Other fimbrial proteins may play a role in biofilm formation or other aspects of bacterial pathogenesis.

Understanding the structure and function of fimbrial proteins is important for developing new strategies to prevent or treat bacterial infections, as these proteins can be potential targets for vaccines or therapeutic agents.

In the context of medical laboratory reporting, "R factors" refer to a set of values that describe the resistance of certain bacteria to different antibiotics. These factors are typically reported as R1, R2, R3, and so on, where each R factor corresponds to a specific antibiotic or class of antibiotics.

An R factor value of "1" indicates susceptibility to the corresponding antibiotic, while an R factor value of "R" (or "R-", depending on the laboratory's reporting practices) indicates resistance. An intermediate category may also be reported as "I" or "I-", indicating that the bacterium is intermediately sensitive to the antibiotic in question.

It's important to note that R factors are just one piece of information used to guide clinical decision-making around antibiotic therapy, and should be interpreted in conjunction with other factors such as the patient's clinical presentation, the severity of their infection, and any relevant guidelines or recommendations from infectious disease specialists.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

Bacterial secretion systems are specialized molecular machines that allow bacteria to transport proteins and other molecules across their cell membranes. These systems play a crucial role in bacterial survival, pathogenesis, and communication with their environment. They are composed of several protein components organized into complex structures that span the bacterial cell envelope.

There are several types of bacterial secretion systems, including type I to type IX secretion systems (T1SS to T9SS). Each type has a unique structure and mechanism for transporting specific substrates across the membrane. Here are some examples:

* Type II secretion system (T2SS): This system transports folded proteins across the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. It is composed of 12 to 15 protein components that form a complex structure called the secretion apparatus or "secretion nanomachine." The T2SS secretes various virulence factors, such as exotoxins and hydrolases, which contribute to bacterial pathogenesis.
* Type III secretion system (T3SS): This system transports effector proteins directly into the cytosol of host cells during bacterial infection. It is composed of a hollow needle-like structure that extends from the bacterial cell surface and injects effectors into the host cell. The T3SS plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of many gram-negative bacteria, including Yersinia, Salmonella, and Shigella.
* Type IV secretion system (T4SS): This system transports DNA or proteins across the bacterial cell envelope and into target cells. It is composed of a complex structure that spans both the inner and outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria and the cytoplasmic membrane of gram-positive bacteria. The T4SS plays a role in bacterial conjugation, DNA uptake and release, and delivery of effector proteins to host cells.
* Type VI secretion system (T6SS): This system transports effector proteins into neighboring cells or the extracellular environment. It is composed of a contractile sheath-tube structure that propels effectors through a hollow inner tube and out of the bacterial cell. The T6SS plays a role in interbacterial competition, biofilm formation, and virulence.

Overall, these secretion systems play crucial roles in bacterial survival, pathogenesis, and communication with their environment. Understanding how they function and how they contribute to bacterial infection and disease is essential for developing new strategies to combat bacterial infections and improve human health.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

Enterocolitis is a medical condition that involves inflammation of the small intestine (enteritis) and large intestine (colitis). This condition can affect people of all ages, but it is most commonly seen in infants and young children. The symptoms of enterocolitis may include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, nausea, vomiting, fever, and dehydration.

There are several types of enterocolitis, including:

1. Infectious Enterocolitis: This type is caused by a bacterial, viral, or parasitic infection in the intestines. Common causes include Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and norovirus.
2. Antibiotic-Associated Enterocolitis: This type is caused by an overgrowth of harmful bacteria in the intestines following the use of antibiotics that kill off beneficial gut bacteria.
3. Pseudomembranous Enterocolitis: This is a severe form of antibiotic-associated enterocolitis caused by the bacterium Clostridioides difficile (C. diff).
4. Necrotizing Enterocolitis: This is a serious condition that primarily affects premature infants, causing inflammation and damage to the intestinal tissue, which can lead to perforations and sepsis.
5. Ischemic Enterocolitis: This type is caused by reduced blood flow to the intestines, often due to conditions such as mesenteric ischemia or vasculitis.
6. Radiation Enterocolitis: This type occurs as a complication of radiation therapy for cancer treatment, which can damage the intestinal lining and lead to inflammation.
7. Eosinophilic Enterocolitis: This is a rare condition characterized by an excessive buildup of eosinophils (a type of white blood cell) in the intestinal tissue, leading to inflammation and symptoms similar to those seen in inflammatory bowel disease.

Treatment for enterocolitis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. It may include antibiotics, antiparasitic medications, probiotics, or surgery in severe cases.

Domestic animals, also known as domestic animals or pets, are species that have been tamed and kept by humans for various purposes. These purposes can include companionship, work, protection, or food production. Some common examples of domestic animals include dogs, cats, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and chickens.

Domestic animals are distinguished from wild animals in that they are dependent on humans for their survival and are able to live in close proximity to people. They have often been selectively bred over generations to possess certain traits or characteristics that make them more suitable for their intended uses. For example, dogs may be bred for their size, strength, agility, or temperament, while cats may be bred for their coat patterns or behaviors.

It is important to note that the term "domestic animal" does not necessarily mean that an animal is tame or safe to handle. Some domestic animals, such as certain breeds of dogs, can be aggressive or dangerous if not properly trained and managed. It is always important to approach and handle any animal, domestic or wild, with caution and respect.

Environmental Microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microscopic entities, that are found in various environments such as water, soil, air, and organic matter. This field focuses on understanding how these microbes interact with their surroundings, their role in various ecological systems, and their impact on human health and the environment. It also involves studying the genetic and biochemical mechanisms that allow microorganisms to survive and thrive in different environmental conditions, as well as the potential uses of microbes for bioremediation, bioenergy, and other industrial applications.

Animal husbandry is the practice of breeding and raising animals for agricultural purposes, such as for the production of meat, milk, eggs, or fiber. It involves providing proper care for the animals, including feeding, housing, health care, and breeding management. The goal of animal husbandry is to maintain healthy and productive animals while also being mindful of environmental sustainability and animal welfare.

Histidine is an essential amino acid, meaning it cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources. Its chemical formula is C6H9N3O2. Histidine plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including:

1. Protein synthesis: As an essential amino acid, histidine is required for the production of proteins, which are vital components of various tissues and organs in the body.

2. Hemoglobin synthesis: Histidine is a key component of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. The imidazole side chain of histidine acts as a proton acceptor/donor, facilitating the release and uptake of oxygen by hemoglobin.

3. Acid-base balance: Histidine is involved in maintaining acid-base homeostasis through its role in the biosynthesis of histamine, which is a critical mediator of inflammatory responses and allergies. The decarboxylation of histidine results in the formation of histamine, which can increase vascular permeability and modulate immune responses.

4. Metal ion binding: Histidine has a high affinity for metal ions such as zinc, copper, and iron. This property allows histidine to participate in various enzymatic reactions and maintain the structural integrity of proteins.

5. Antioxidant defense: Histidine-containing dipeptides, like carnosine and anserine, have been shown to exhibit antioxidant properties by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chelating metal ions. These compounds may contribute to the protection of proteins and DNA from oxidative damage.

Dietary sources of histidine include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and wheat germ. Histidine deficiency is rare but can lead to growth retardation, anemia, and impaired immune function.

Bacterial outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are a type of protein found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. The outer membrane is a unique characteristic of gram-negative bacteria, and it serves as a barrier that helps protect the bacterium from hostile environments. OMPs play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and selective permeability of the outer membrane. They are involved in various functions such as nutrient uptake, transport, adhesion, and virulence factor secretion.

OMPs are typically composed of beta-barrel structures that span the bacterial outer membrane. These proteins can be classified into several groups based on their size, function, and structure. Some of the well-known OMP families include porins, autotransporters, and two-partner secretion systems.

Porins are the most abundant type of OMPs and form water-filled channels that allow the passive diffusion of small molecules, ions, and nutrients across the outer membrane. Autotransporters are a diverse group of OMPs that play a role in bacterial pathogenesis by secreting virulence factors or acting as adhesins. Two-partner secretion systems involve the cooperation between two proteins to transport effector molecules across the outer membrane.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial OMPs is essential for developing new antibiotics and therapies that target gram-negative bacteria, which are often resistant to conventional treatments.

Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug derived from the actinobacterium Streptomyces griseus. It belongs to the class of aminoglycosides and works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and leading to bacterial death.

Streptomycin is primarily used to treat a variety of infections caused by gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, including tuberculosis, brucellosis, plague, tularemia, and certain types of bacterial endocarditis. It is also used as part of combination therapy for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB).

Like other aminoglycosides, streptomycin has a narrow therapeutic index and can cause ototoxicity (hearing loss) and nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) with prolonged use or high doses. Therefore, its use is typically limited to cases where other antibiotics are ineffective or contraindicated.

It's important to note that the use of streptomycin requires careful monitoring of drug levels and kidney function, as well as regular audiometric testing to detect any potential hearing loss.

Sewage is not typically considered a medical term, but it does have relevance to public health and medicine. Sewage is the wastewater that is produced by households and industries, which contains a variety of contaminants including human waste, chemicals, and other pollutants. It can contain various pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites, which can cause diseases in humans if they come into contact with it or consume contaminated food or water. Therefore, the proper treatment and disposal of sewage is essential to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and protect public health.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Housing, Animal" is not a standard term in medical terminology. Medical terminology typically relates to the human body, diseases, treatments, and healthcare practices. "Housing, Animal" would be more related to veterinary medicine or animal care fields, which pertain to the accommodation and environment provided for animals. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I'd be happy to help!

'Campylobacter' is a genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestinal tracts of animals, including birds and mammals. These bacteria are a leading cause of bacterial foodborne illness worldwide, with Campylobacter jejuni being the most frequently identified species associated with human infection.

Campylobacter infection, also known as campylobacteriosis, typically causes symptoms such as diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting. The infection is usually acquired through the consumption of contaminated food or water, particularly undercooked poultry, raw milk, and contaminated produce. It can also be transmitted through contact with infected animals or their feces.

While most cases of campylobacteriosis are self-limiting and resolve within a week without specific treatment, severe or prolonged infections may require antibiotic therapy. In rare cases, Campylobacter infection can lead to serious complications such as bacteremia (bacterial bloodstream infection), meningitis, or Guillain-Barré syndrome, a neurological disorder that can cause muscle weakness and paralysis.

Preventive measures include proper food handling and cooking techniques, thorough handwashing, and avoiding cross-contamination between raw and cooked foods.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Ceftriaxone has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Ceftriaxone is available in injectable form and is commonly used to treat serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and sepsis. It is also used to prevent infections after surgery or trauma. The drug is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious side effects such as anaphylaxis, kidney damage, and seizures.

It's important to note that Ceftriaxone should be used only under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and that it is not recommended for use in individuals with a history of allergic reactions to cephalosporins or penicillins. Additionally, as with all antibiotics, it should be taken as directed and for the full duration of the prescribed course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the treatment is finished.

Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic medication that is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the ability of bacteria to synthesize proteins, which essential for their growth and survival. This helps to stop the spread of the infection and allows the body's immune system to clear the bacteria from the body.

Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which means that it is effective against many different types of bacteria. It is often used to treat serious infections that have not responded to other antibiotics. However, because of its potential for serious side effects, including bone marrow suppression and gray baby syndrome, chloramphenicol is usually reserved for use in cases where other antibiotics are not effective or are contraindicated.

Chloramphenicol can be given by mouth, injection, or applied directly to the skin in the form of an ointment or cream. It is important to take or use chloramphenicol exactly as directed by a healthcare provider, and to complete the full course of treatment even if symptoms improve before all of the medication has been taken. This helps to ensure that the infection is fully treated and reduces the risk of antibiotic resistance.

A prophage is a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria) genome that is integrated into the chromosome of a bacterium and replicates along with it. The phage genome remains dormant within the bacterial host until an environmental trigger, such as stress or damage to the host cell, induces the prophage to excise itself from the bacterial chromosome and enter a lytic cycle, during which new virions are produced and released by lysing the host cell. This process is known as lysogeny.

Prophages can play important roles in the biology of their bacterial hosts, such as contributing to genetic diversity through horizontal gene transfer, modulating bacterial virulence, and providing resistance to superinfection by other phages. However, they can also have detrimental effects on the host, such as causing lysis or altering bacterial phenotypes in ways that are disadvantageous for survival.

It's worth noting that not all bacteriophages form prophages; some exist exclusively as extrachromosomal elements, while others can integrate into the host genome but do not necessarily become dormant or replicate with the host cell.

Animal feed refers to any substance or mixture of substances, whether processed, unprocessed, or partially processed, which is intended to be used as food for animals, including fish, without further processing. It includes ingredients such as grains, hay, straw, oilseed meals, and by-products from the milling, processing, and manufacturing industries. Animal feed can be in the form of pellets, crumbles, mash, or other forms, and is used to provide nutrients such as energy, protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals to support the growth, reproduction, and maintenance of animals. It's important to note that animal feed must be safe, nutritious, and properly labeled to ensure the health and well-being of the animals that consume it.

Bacterial load refers to the total number or concentration of bacteria present in a given sample, tissue, or body fluid. It is a measure used to quantify the amount of bacterial infection or colonization in a particular area. The bacterial load can be expressed as colony-forming units (CFU) per milliliter (ml), gram (g), or other units of measurement depending on the sample type. High bacterial loads are often associated with more severe infections and increased inflammation.

Polymyxin B is an antibiotic derived from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. It belongs to the class of polypeptide antibiotics and has a cyclic structure with a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region, which allows it to interact with and disrupt the bacterial cell membrane. Polymyxin B is primarily active against gram-negative bacteria, including many multidrug-resistant strains. It is used clinically to treat serious infections caused by these organisms, such as sepsis, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections. However, its use is limited due to potential nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.

The intestinal mucosa is the innermost layer of the intestines, which comes into direct contact with digested food and microbes. It is a specialized epithelial tissue that plays crucial roles in nutrient absorption, barrier function, and immune defense. The intestinal mucosa is composed of several cell types, including absorptive enterocytes, mucus-secreting goblet cells, hormone-producing enteroendocrine cells, and immune cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages.

The surface of the intestinal mucosa is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells, which are joined together by tight junctions to form a protective barrier against harmful substances and microorganisms. This barrier also allows for the selective absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. The intestinal mucosa also contains numerous lymphoid follicles, known as Peyer's patches, which are involved in immune surveillance and defense against pathogens.

In addition to its role in absorption and immunity, the intestinal mucosa is also capable of producing hormones that regulate digestion and metabolism. Dysfunction of the intestinal mucosa can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and food allergies.

Host-pathogen interactions refer to the complex and dynamic relationship between a living organism (the host) and a disease-causing agent (the pathogen). This interaction can involve various molecular, cellular, and physiological processes that occur between the two entities. The outcome of this interaction can determine whether the host will develop an infection or not, as well as the severity and duration of the illness.

During host-pathogen interactions, the pathogen may release virulence factors that allow it to evade the host's immune system, colonize tissues, and obtain nutrients for its survival and replication. The host, in turn, may mount an immune response to recognize and eliminate the pathogen, which can involve various mechanisms such as inflammation, phagocytosis, and the production of antimicrobial agents.

Understanding the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases. This knowledge can help identify new targets for therapeutic interventions, inform vaccine design, and guide public health policies to control the spread of infectious agents.

A regulon is a group of genes that are regulated together in response to a specific signal or stimulus, often through the action of a single transcription factor or regulatory protein. This means that when the transcription factor binds to specific DNA sequences called operators, it can either activate or repress the transcription of all the genes within the regulon.

This type of gene regulation is important for coordinating complex biological processes, such as cellular metabolism, stress responses, and developmental programs. By regulating a group of genes together, cells can ensure that they are all turned on or off in a coordinated manner, allowing for more precise control over the overall response to a given signal.

It's worth noting that the term "regulon" is not commonly used in clinical medicine, but rather in molecular biology and genetics research.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "frozen foods" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It generally refers to food that has been frozen and preserved at low temperatures. While there may be some medical concerns related to the consumption of certain types of frozen foods (such as those high in sodium or fat), it's not a term that would be used within a medical context. If you have any questions about the safety or nutritional content of specific frozen foods, I'd recommend consulting with a healthcare provider or a nutritionist.

DNA gyrase is a type II topoisomerase enzyme that plays a crucial role in the negative supercoiling and relaxation of DNA in bacteria. It functions by introducing transient double-stranded breaks into the DNA helix, allowing the strands to pass through one another and thereby reducing positive supercoils or introducing negative supercoils as required for proper DNA function, replication, and transcription.

DNA gyrase is composed of two subunits, GyrA and GyrB, which form a heterotetrameric structure (AB-BA) in the functional enzyme. The enzyme's activity is targeted by several antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones and novobiocin, making it an essential target for antibacterial drug development.

In summary, DNA gyrase is a bacterial topoisomerase responsible for maintaining the correct supercoiling of DNA during replication and transcription, which can be inhibited by specific antibiotics to combat bacterial infections.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

Foodborne diseases, also known as foodborne illnesses or food poisoning, are defined as disorders caused by the consumption of contaminated foods or beverages, which contain harmful bacteria, parasites, viruses, toxins, or chemicals. These agents can cause a range of symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and dehydration. The severity of the illness can vary from mild discomfort to severe life-threatening conditions, depending on the type of infectious agent and the individual's immune system and overall health status. Common examples of foodborne diseases include Salmonella, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Listeria, Staphylococcus aureus, and Norovirus infections. Proper food handling, preparation, storage, and cooking can help prevent the occurrence of foodborne diseases.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Rhamnose is a naturally occurring sugar or monosaccharide, that is commonly found in various plants and some fruits. It is a type of deoxy sugar, which means it lacks one hydroxyl group (-OH) compared to a regular hexose sugar. Specifically, rhamnose has a hydrogen atom instead of a hydroxyl group at the 6-position of its structure.

Rhamnose is an essential component of various complex carbohydrates and glycoconjugates found in plant cell walls, such as pectins and glycoproteins. It also plays a role in bacterial cell wall biosynthesis and is used in the production of some antibiotics.

In medical contexts, rhamnose may be relevant to research on bacterial infections, plant-derived medicines, or the metabolism of certain sugars. However, it is not a commonly used term in clinical medicine.

"Evaluation studies" is a broad term that refers to the systematic assessment or examination of a program, project, policy, intervention, or product. The goal of an evaluation study is to determine its merits, worth, and value by measuring its effects, efficiency, and impact. There are different types of evaluation studies, including formative evaluations (conducted during the development or implementation of a program to provide feedback for improvement), summative evaluations (conducted at the end of a program to determine its overall effectiveness), process evaluations (focusing on how a program is implemented and delivered), outcome evaluations (assessing the short-term and intermediate effects of a program), and impact evaluations (measuring the long-term and broad consequences of a program).

In medical contexts, evaluation studies are often used to assess the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of new treatments, interventions, or technologies. These studies can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about patient care, guide policymakers in developing evidence-based policies, and promote accountability and transparency in healthcare systems. Examples of evaluation studies in medicine include randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare the outcomes of a new treatment to those of a standard or placebo treatment, observational studies that examine the real-world effectiveness and safety of interventions, and economic evaluations that assess the costs and benefits of different healthcare options.

3-Phosphoshikimate 1-Carboxyvinyltransferase (PCT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the sixth step in the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids in plants and microorganisms. The reaction it catalyzes is the conversion of 3-phosphoshikimate (3PSM) and phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP). This step is a key control point in the aromatic amino acid biosynthetic pathway, and the enzyme is the target of several herbicides, including glyphosate. The gene that encodes this enzyme is also used as a molecular marker for plant systematics and evolutionary studies.

Regulator genes are a type of gene that regulates the activity of other genes in an organism. They do not code for a specific protein product but instead control the expression of other genes by producing regulatory proteins such as transcription factors, repressors, or enhancers. These regulatory proteins bind to specific DNA sequences near the target genes and either promote or inhibit their transcription into mRNA. This allows regulator genes to play a crucial role in coordinating complex biological processes, including development, differentiation, metabolism, and response to environmental stimuli.

There are several types of regulator genes, including:

1. Constitutive regulators: These genes are always active and produce regulatory proteins that control the expression of other genes in a consistent manner.
2. Inducible regulators: These genes respond to specific signals or environmental stimuli by producing regulatory proteins that modulate the expression of target genes.
3. Negative regulators: These genes produce repressor proteins that bind to DNA and inhibit the transcription of target genes, thereby reducing their expression.
4. Positive regulators: These genes produce activator proteins that bind to DNA and promote the transcription of target genes, thereby increasing their expression.
5. Master regulators: These genes control the expression of multiple downstream target genes involved in specific biological processes or developmental pathways.

Regulator genes are essential for maintaining proper gene expression patterns and ensuring normal cellular function. Mutations in regulator genes can lead to various diseases, including cancer, developmental disorders, and metabolic dysfunctions.

A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.

Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Cobamides are a class of compounds that are structurally related to vitamin B12 (cobalamin). They consist of a corrin ring, which is a large heterocyclic ring made up of four pyrrole rings, and a cobalt ion in the center. The lower axial ligand of the cobalt ion can be a variety of different groups, including cyano, hydroxo, methyl, or 5'-deoxyadenosyl groups.

Cobamides are involved in a number of important biological processes, including the synthesis of amino acids and nucleotides, the metabolism of fatty acids and cholesterol, and the regulation of gene expression. They function as cofactors for enzymes called cobamide-dependent methyltransferases, which transfer methyl groups (CH3) from one molecule to another.

Cobamides are found in a wide variety of organisms, including bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. In humans, the most important cobamide is vitamin B12, which is essential for the normal functioning of the nervous system and the production of red blood cells. Vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to neurological problems and anemia.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.

Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Beta-lactamases are enzymes produced by certain bacteria that can break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. This enzymatic activity makes the bacteria resistant to these antibiotics, limiting their effectiveness in treating infections caused by these organisms.

Beta-lactamases work by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring, a structural component of these antibiotics that is essential for their antimicrobial activity. By breaking down this ring, the enzyme renders the antibiotic ineffective against the bacterium, allowing it to continue growing and potentially causing harm.

There are different classes of beta-lactamases (e.g., Ambler Class A, B, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and mechanisms for breaking down various beta-lactam antibiotics. The emergence and spread of bacteria producing these enzymes have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, making it increasingly challenging to treat infections caused by these organisms.

To overcome this issue, researchers have developed beta-lactamase inhibitors, which are drugs that can bind to and inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thus restoring the effectiveness of certain beta-lactam antibiotics. Examples of such combinations include amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn).

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

Antimutagenic agents are substances that prevent or reduce the frequency of mutations in DNA, which can be caused by various factors such as radiation, chemicals, and free radicals. These agents work by preventing the formation of mutations or by repairing the damage already done to the DNA. They can be found naturally in foods, such as antioxidants, or they can be synthesized in a laboratory. Antimutagenic agents have potential use in cancer prevention and treatment, as well as in reducing the negative effects of environmental mutagens.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Arabinose is a simple sugar or monosaccharide that is a stereoisomer of xylose. It is a pentose, meaning it contains five carbon atoms, and is classified as a hexahydroxyhexital because it has six hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to the carbon atoms. Arabinose is found in various plant polysaccharides, such as hemicelluloses, gums, and pectic substances. It can also be found in some bacteria and yeasts, where it plays a role in their metabolism. In humans, arabinose is not an essential nutrient and must be metabolized by specific enzymes if consumed.

In a medical context, "hot temperature" is not a standard medical term with a specific definition. However, it is often used in relation to fever, which is a common symptom of illness. A fever is typically defined as a body temperature that is higher than normal, usually above 38°C (100.4°F) for adults and above 37.5-38°C (99.5-101.3°F) for children, depending on the source.

Therefore, when a medical professional talks about "hot temperature," they may be referring to a body temperature that is higher than normal due to fever or other causes. It's important to note that a high environmental temperature can also contribute to an elevated body temperature, so it's essential to consider both the body temperature and the environmental temperature when assessing a patient's condition.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Polymyxins are a group of antibiotics derived from the bacterium Paenibacillus polymyxa. They consist of polymyxin B and polymyxin E (also known as colistin), which have similar structures and mechanisms of action. Polymyxins bind to the lipopolysaccharide component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, causing disruption of the membrane and ultimately leading to bacterial cell death. These antibiotics are primarily used to treat serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria, but their use is limited due to potential nephrotoxicity and neurotoxicity.

Molecular typing is a laboratory technique used to identify and characterize specific microorganisms, such as bacteria or viruses, at the molecular level. This method is used to differentiate between strains of the same species based on their genetic or molecular differences. Molecular typing techniques include methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA), and whole genome sequencing (WGS). These techniques allow for high-resolution discrimination between strains, enabling epidemiological investigations of outbreaks, tracking the transmission of pathogens, and studying the evolution and population biology of microorganisms.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A sigma factor is a type of protein in bacteria that plays an essential role in the initiation of transcription, which is the first step of gene expression. Sigma factors recognize and bind to specific sequences on DNA, known as promoters, enabling the attachment of RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for synthesizing RNA.

In bacteria, RNA polymerase is made up of several subunits, including a core enzyme and a sigma factor. The sigma factor confers specificity to the RNA polymerase by recognizing and binding to the promoter region of the DNA, allowing transcription to begin. Once transcription starts, the sigma factor is released from the RNA polymerase, which then continues to synthesize RNA until it reaches the end of the gene.

Bacteria have multiple sigma factors that allow them to respond to different environmental conditions and stresses by regulating the expression of specific sets of genes. For example, some sigma factors are involved in the regulation of genes required for growth and metabolism under normal conditions, while others are involved in the response to heat shock, starvation, or other stressors.

Overall, sigma factors play a crucial role in regulating gene expression in bacteria, allowing them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and maintain cellular homeostasis.

Anaerobiosis is a state in which an organism or a portion of an organism is able to live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen (O2). In biological contexts, "anaerobe" refers to any organism that does not require oxygen for growth, and "aerobe" refers to an organism that does require oxygen for growth.

There are two types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes, which cannot tolerate the presence of oxygen and will die if exposed to it; and facultative anaerobes, which can grow with or without oxygen but prefer to grow in its absence. Some organisms are able to switch between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depending on the availability of oxygen, a process known as "facultative anaerobiosis."

Anaerobic respiration is a type of metabolic process that occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen. In this process, organisms use alternative electron acceptors other than oxygen to generate energy through the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration. Examples of alternative electron acceptors include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.

Anaerobic metabolism is less efficient than aerobic metabolism in terms of energy production, but it allows organisms to survive in environments where oxygen is not available or is toxic. Anaerobic bacteria are important decomposers in many ecosystems, breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment. In the human body, anaerobic bacteria can cause infections and other health problems if they proliferate in areas with low oxygen levels, such as the mouth, intestines, or deep tissue wounds.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Porins are a type of protein found in the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. They form water-filled channels, or pores, that allow small molecules such as ions, nutrients, and waste products to pass through the otherwise impermeable outer membrane. Porins are important for the survival of gram-negative bacteria, as they enable the selective transport of essential molecules while providing a barrier against harmful substances.

There are different types of porins, classified based on their structure and function. Some examples include:

1. General porins (also known as nonspecific porins): These are the most common type of porins and form large, water-filled channels that allow passive diffusion of small molecules up to 600-700 Da in size. They typically have a trimeric structure, with three identical or similar subunits forming a pore in the membrane.
2. Specific porins: These porins are more selective in the molecules they allow to pass through and often have smaller pores than general porins. They can be involved in the active transport of specific molecules or ions, requiring energy from the cell.
3. Autotransporters: While not strictly considered porins, autotransporter proteins share some structural similarities with porins and are involved in the transport of protein domains across the outer membrane. They consist of an N-terminal passenger domain and a C-terminal translocator domain, which forms a β-barrel pore in the outer membrane through which the passenger domain is transported.

Porins have attracted interest as potential targets for antibiotic development, as they play crucial roles in bacterial survival and virulence. Inhibiting porin function or blocking the pores could disrupt essential processes in gram-negative bacteria, providing a new approach to treating infections caused by these organisms.

Shigella flexneri is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is one of the four species of the genus Shigella, which are the causative agents of shigellosis, also known as bacillary dysentery.

Shigella flexneri is responsible for causing a significant proportion of shigellosis cases worldwide, particularly in developing countries with poor sanitation and hygiene practices. The bacteria can be transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water, and can cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and tenesmus (the urgent need to defecate).

The infection can lead to inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the intestines, resulting in the destruction of the epithelial cells and the formation of ulcers. In severe cases, Shigella flexneri can invade the bloodstream and cause systemic infections, which can be life-threatening for young children, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals.

The diagnosis of Shigella flexneri infection typically involves the detection of the bacteria in stool samples using culture methods or molecular techniques such as PCR. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, although resistance to multiple drugs has been reported in some strains. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, safe food handling, and access to clean water.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

I believe there may be a slight confusion in your question. The "meat-packing industry" is not a term that has a medical definition, as it pertains to the industrial process and business practice of slaughtering animals, processing their carcasses into edible meats, and packaging them for distribution and sale to consumers.

However, if you are interested in occupational health or workplace safety aspects related to this industry, there are numerous medical and epidemiological studies that discuss the potential health risks and hazards faced by workers in meat-packing plants, such as exposure to infectious diseases, musculoskeletal injuries, and chemical hazards.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. The term "hedgehogs" is commonly referred to as a small, spiny mammal found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. However, in medical terms, there is no widely accepted or recognized definition for "hedgehogs."

If you meant to ask about a different term or concept, please provide more context or clarify your question, and I would be happy to help.

Cephalosporin resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to resist the antibacterial effects of cephalosporins, a group of widely used antibiotics. These drugs work by interfering with the bacterial cell wall synthesis, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth and reproduction. However, some bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive in the presence of cephalosporins.

There are several ways in which bacteria can become resistant to cephalosporins. One common mechanism is through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring structure of cephalosporins and other related antibiotics. This makes the drugs ineffective against the bacteria.

Another mechanism of resistance involves changes in the bacterial cell membrane or the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that prevent the binding of cephalosporins to their target sites. These changes can occur due to genetic mutations or the acquisition of new genes through horizontal gene transfer.

Cephalosporin resistance is a significant public health concern, as it can limit the treatment options for bacterial infections and increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics are major drivers of antibiotic resistance, including cephalosporin resistance. Therefore, it is essential to use these drugs judiciously and follow proper infection prevention and control measures to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.

The two known species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. S. enterica is the type species and is ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmonella. Wikispecies has information related to Salmonella. Background on Salmonella ... Salmonella as an emerging pathogen from IFAS Notes on Salmonella nomenclature Salmonella motility video Avian Salmonella ... are caused by Salmonella enterica Typhimurium or Salmonella enterica Enteritidis. A new form of Salmonella Typhimurium (ST313) ...
... is a pathogenic bacterium belonging to the genus Salmonella, and was earlier known as Salmonella subspecies ... 2011). "Salmonella bongori provides insights into the evolution of the Salmonellae". PLOS Pathogens. 7 (8): e1002191. doi: ... are found on large discrete genomic islands such as Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPIs). These Salmonella-specific ... Species of Salmonella are closely related to E. coli and they are estimated to have diverged from a common ancestor about 100 ...
... - History Anderson, Vicki (26 July 2013). "Salmonella Dub". Go, The Press. Christchurch. pp. 8-9. EMI Music - ... from the Salmonella Dub EPK "Interview with Andrew Penman from Salmonella Dub", Nice Up: Aotearoa Reggae, 30 November 2009. ... Salmonella Dub is a dub/drum n bass/reggae/roots band from New Zealand. The band was formed in 1992 by Andrew Penman, Dave ... The original Salmonella Dub line-up was formed in 1992 in Christchurch. They played their first gig in January 1993 at the ...
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmonella enterica. Notes on Salmonella nomenclature Salmonella+enterica at the U.S. ... Salmonella enterica (formerly Salmonella choleraesuis) is a rod-shaped, flagellate, facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative ... but it is now the other species in the genus Salmonella. Most of the human pathogenic Salmonella serovars belong to the ... "Salmonella enterica". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 28901. Type strain of Salmonella enterica at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity ...
... is a virus of the family Myoviridae, genus Eganvirus. As a member of the group I of the Baltimore ... The propagation of the virions includes the attaching to a host cell (a bacterium, as Salmonella virus PsP3 is a bacteriophage ... classification, Salmonella virus PsP3 is a dsDNA viruses. All the family Myoviridae members share a nonenveloped morphology ...
... is a virus of the family Myoviridae, genus Felsduovirus. As a member of the group I of the Baltimore ... The propagation of the virions includes the attaching to a host cell (a bacterium, as Salmonella virus Fels2 is a bacteriophage ... classification, Salmonella virus Fels2 is a dsDNA viruses. All the family Myoviridae members share a nonenveloped morphology ...
... known to infect species of Salmonella bacteria including Salmonella anatum.The virus is a short, tailed phage with a double- ...
... is a bacteriophage in the Podoviridae family that infects Salmonella typhimurium. Like many phages, it has ... Infection begins when the gp9 tailspike of the P22 phage binds to the O-antigen lipopolysaccharide on the surface of Salmonella ... Neal, B. L.; P. K. Brown; P. R. Reeves (November 1993). "Use of Salmonella Phage P22 for Transduction in Escherichia coli". ... P22 has been used in generalized transduction and is an important tool for investigating Salmonella genetics. P22 shares many ...
... is a virus of the family Myoviridae, genus Felsduovirus. As a member of the group I of the Baltimore ... The propagation of the virions includes the attaching to a host cell (a bacterium, as Salmonella virus SopEphi is a ... classification, Salmonella virus SopEphi is a dsDNA viruses. All the family Myoviridae members share a nonenveloped morphology ...
Salmonella Typhimurium Salmonella Centre for Disease Control "Salmonella in chicken salad kills 1, sickens 265 in 8 states". ... CDC Salmonella CDC Salmonella typhimurium Key Resources (All articles with unsourced statements, Articles with unsourced ... identifying Salmonella 2018 among others. Due to the salmonella occurring in ready-made convenience foods, prevention on the ... Treatment of salmonella infections depends on age and pre-disposition of the infected person and the severity of the symptoms. ...
Salmonella Typhi whereas, full designation for Salmonella Typhi is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Each ... Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is a subspecies of Salmonella enterica, the rod-shaped, flagellated, aerobic, Gram-negative ... "Salmonella nomenclature". March 19, 2005. Archived from the original on 2006-04-15. Brenner, F. W.; Villar, R. G.; Angulo, F. J ... "Salmonella spp. comparative sequencing". Archived from the original on 2007-11-14. Feasey NA, Dougan G, Kingsley RA, Heyderman ...
Salmonella enteritidis had grown to become a larger worldwide issue in the late 1970s and 1980s than it had been in previous ... The chance of becoming ill with salmonella was put at less than 1 in 200 million. On 3 December in the House of Lords, Robert ... The salmonella-in-eggs controversy was a political controversy in the United Kingdom caused by the Parliamentary Under- ... "Salmonella in Eggs and Poultry". Hansard. 6 December 1988. Retrieved 20 July 2022. "Currie: From Parliament to print". BBC News ...
"Salmonella besmetting neemt verder af". Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. "Salmonella in U. ... "Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella Bareilly and Salmonella Nchanga Infections Associated with a Raw Scraped Ground Tuna Product ... These people's salmonellosis (either from Salmonella Sandiego or Salmonella Newport) stemmed from contact with small turtles or ... First reported in April 2012, an outbreak of salmonellosis caused by rarer serotypes, Salmonella Bareilly and Salmonella ...
... (2006) is a collection of short stories by Japanese science fiction and metafiction writer ... A radio dramatisation of the title story, "Salmonella Men on Planet Porno", was broadcast on BBC Radio 3 on 28 February 2009.[1 ... The Last Smoker Bad for the Heart Salmonella Men on Planet Porno Rumours About Me was reproduced in the US literary magazine ...
Mercy is the sixth studio recorded album of New Zealand Dub band, Salmonella Dub released in 2004, the year after the release ... However, the album retains Salmonella Dub's distinctive style and is somewhat reminiscent of their earlier work "Longtime ( ... Salmonella Dub albums, 2004 remix albums, EMI Records remix albums, All stub articles, Reggae album stubs). ...
"Salmonella". meatpoultryfoundation.org. Archived from the original on February 3, 2021. "Campylobacter". meatpoultryfoundation. ... coli Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella Campylobacter Diet and Health Sodium Nitrite Other Food Safety Foundation, AMI. "AMI ...
"Salmonella". FDA/CFSAN Food Safety A to Z Reference Guide. FDA/Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. 2008-07-03. ... The bacterium Salmonella enterica is discovered by Theobald Smith, working under Daniel Elmer Salmon. Carl Auer von Welsbach ...
"Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella I 4,[5],12:b:- Infections Linked to Kratom Products , February 2018 , Salmonella". cdc.gov. ... On April 4, 2018, the FDA issued the first mandatory recall in its history over concerns of salmonella contamination of several ... From October 2017 to February 2018 in the United States, 28 people in 20 different states were infected with salmonella, an ... "FDA orders mandatory recall for kratom products due to risk of salmonella". Press Announcements. United States Food and Drug ...
"CDC - Signs & Symptoms - Salmonella Enteritidis Infections Linked to Ground Beef - Salmonella". www.cdc.gov. 2019-01-31. ... It has been studies that a type of cerein 8A is very effective in inhibiting the effects of the pathogenic bacteria Salmonella ... In clinical research, it was discovered that cerein 8A in combination with combination with sodium lactate killed Salmonella ... "Symptoms , Salmonella , CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2021-05-02. " ...
Salmonella infection can cause diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Infections have been linked to contact with turtles, ... "Salmonella". Centers for Disease Prevention and Control. Retrieved October 3, 2014. "Poaching May Drive These 7 Species to ...
Salmonella , CDC Company website (Articles with short description, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia ...
Salmonella). Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments found in magnetotactic bacteria that allow them to sense and align ...
Originally developed for the isolation of Salmonella typhi, it is now used mostly as a coliform medium. Most gram-negative ... Salmonella species. Endo agar typically contains (w/v): 1.0 % peptone 0.25 % dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4) 1.0 % ...
Wigley, P. (2013). "Salmonella" (PDF). Compassion in World Farming. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 16, 2017. ...
Salmonella, Shigella). Organisms that ferment lactose display "nucleated colonies"-colonies with dark centers. This medium is ...
"Salmonella" 07. "Freedom / Billium Evans" 08. "The World Is Yours / Brooklyn Zoo" (Nas / Ol' Dirty Bastard cover) 09. " ...
Yap KP, Ho WS, Gan HM, Chai LC, Thong KL (2016). "Global MLST of Salmonella Typhi Revisited in Post-genomic Era: Genetic ... In 2002, John Gunn described the ability of Salmonella sp. to form biofilms on gallstones in mice, providing a model for ... Eng SK, Pusparajah P, Ab Mutalib NS, Ser HL, Chan KG, Lee LH (June 2015). "Salmonella:A review on pathogenesis, epidemiology ... Typhoid fever, also known as typhoid, is a disease caused by Salmonella serotype Typhi bacteria. Symptoms vary from mild to ...
Salmonella sp., Serratia sp., Yersinia sp., and Rhizobium sp. The Indole test is one of the four tests of the IMViC series, ...
It is especially active against Shigella species., Salmonella sp., Escherichia coli, Branhamella catarrhalis, Haemophilus ...
2015-2016 - Cucumber Salmonella outbreak: Investigators found Salmonella in cucumbers grown in Baja, Mexico and distributed by ... 2008 - King Nut Peanut Butter Salmonella outbreak: The King Nut creamy peanut butter was a source of salmonella outbreak ... "Investigation Information for Outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium Infections, 2008-2009 , Salmonella CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2019-01- ... The bacteria and viruses that cause most of the food-borne illnesses are Salmonella, E.coli, Listeria, Norovirus, Campylobacter ...
As of January 15, 2009, 43 states reported more than 400 individuals who were infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella ...
Salmonella is a group of bacteria that is a common cause of foodborne illness. Learn the symptoms. Know when to, and who should ... Salmonella (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) * Salmonella Questions and Answers (Department of Agriculture, Food ... Salmonella is the name of a group of bacteria. In the United States, it is a common cause of foodborne illness. Salmonella ... Salmonella Diagnosis and Treatment (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) * Stool Tests (Nemours Foundation) Also in ...
The genus Salmonella, which belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae, was named after Daniel E. ... Serotypes Salmonella Typhimurium, Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella newport, and Salmonella heidelberg most often are ... The genus Salmonella also contains the species Salmonella bongori and Salmonella subterranean, which was recognized in 2005. [3 ... The genus Salmonella is named after Daniel E. Salmon, an American veterinarian who first isolated Salmonella choleraesuis from ...
This report presents the first documented outbreak of Salmonella originating in tofu, highlighting the need for awareness of ... An Outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium Infections Linked to Ready-To-Eat Tofu in Multiple Health Districts. Ontario, Canada, May ... Salmonella Typhimurium is a serovar commonly implicated in foodborne illnesses linked to animal product consumption. ... Tofu has not been previously linked to nontyphoidal Salmonella outbreaks. Public health communications to consumers and food ...
Salmonella enteritidis Infection. How Eggs Become Contaminated. Who Can Be Infected. What is the Risk. What You Can Do to ... Most types of Salmonella live in the intestinal tracts of animals and birds and are transmitted to humans by contaminated foods ... A bacterium, Salmonella enteritidis, can be inside perfectly normal-appearing eggs, and if the eggs are eaten raw or ... Salmonella enteritis Infection National Center for Infectious Diseases, Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases Publication ...
... salmonella - Sharing our stories on preparing for and responding to public health events ... Tags fda, investigation, outbreaknet, salmonella Salmonella Saintpaul Outbreak: Epilogue. Ive spent many years roaming this ... Tags epi curve, outbreak, salmonella Produce Strikes Back: Salmonella Saintpaul Outbreak. McDonalds stopped serving sliced ... During the recent investigation of the outbreak of Salmonella Saintpaul, CDC often mentioned that the overall "outbreak ...
The two known species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. S. enterica is the type species and is ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmonella. Wikispecies has information related to Salmonella. Background on Salmonella ... Salmonella as an emerging pathogen from IFAS Notes on Salmonella nomenclature Salmonella motility video Avian Salmonella ... are caused by Salmonella enterica Typhimurium or Salmonella enterica Enteritidis. A new form of Salmonella Typhimurium (ST313) ...
Learn about a Salmonella outbreak linked to flour. ... Symptoms of Salmonella. *Most people infected with Salmonella ... Salmonella Infections Linked to Pre-Cut Melon, 2018plus icon *Salmonella Infections Linked to Pre-Cut Melon en Español ... Salmonella Infections Linked to Pet Guinea Pigs, 2018plus icon *Salmonella Infections Linked to Pet Guinea Pigs en Español ... Human Salmonella Infections Linked to Small Turtles, 2015plus icon *Human Salmonella Infections Linked to Small Turtles en ...
Information about salmonella, including outbreaks, symptoms and diagnosis ... Salmonella Infections Linked to Pre-Cut Melon, 2018plus icon *Salmonella Infections Linked to Pre-Cut Melon en Español ... Salmonella Infections Linked to Pet Guinea Pigs, 2018plus icon *Salmonella Infections Linked to Pet Guinea Pigs en Español ... Human Salmonella Infections Linked to Small Turtles, 2015plus icon *Human Salmonella Infections Linked to Small Turtles en ...
Salmonella infections can cause diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, belly cramps, fever, and headache. ... Infecciones por Salmonella. What Is Salmonella?. Salmonella is a bacteria (type of germ). Someone with a Salmonella infection ( ... How Are Salmonella Infections Diagnosed?. If a child has diarrhea, doctors can do a stool test to check for Salmonella bacteria ... How Are Salmonella Infections Treated?. Kids with a Salmonella infection should drink lots of fluids so that they dont get ...
Dried Egg and Salmonella Br Med J 1947; 1 :898 doi:10.1136/bmj.1.4511.898-a ... Dried Egg and Salmonella. Br Med J 1947; 1 doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.4511.898-a (Published 21 June 1947) Cite this as ...
Keeping salmonella out of chicken A recent salmonella outbreak linked to Foster Farms sickened more than 300 people, most of ... Nothing is shipped from a facility where salmonella has been found until all animals are inspected and declared salmonella-free ... The USDA refused to close the plants on the grounds that, unlike certain strains of E. coli, salmonella is not an adulterant, a ... And even in this country, a 2010 Consumers Union study found no salmonella in the organic store-brand chickens it tested. ...
... John Kobayashi johnk at u.washington.edu Sun Aug 20 09:12:09 EST 2000 *Previous message: Salmonella Alachua ... Richard Oefner , CSU San Marcos USA , , HeC wrote: , , , Hi group , , does anyone know something about Salmonella Alachua ? ...
Sick with salmonella from turtles. Turtles carry salmonella, it seems-originating in their feces, according to a recent MSNBC ... Pet Turtles, Salmonella and the Ban No One Knows About. October 30th, 2009. By Hunter West. Theres a ban on small pet turtles ... Posts Tagged Salmonella . Contaminated Chicken â€" Not a Paltry Affair. December 7th, 2009. By LucyC. Heres some rather ... As most of us are no doubt aware by now given the seemingly endless number of food recalls, salmonella, campylobacter, E. coli ...
Salmonella bacteria require glucose to survive during infection, according to new research ... They mutated the Salmonella genes so that the bacteria were not able to transport or use glucose. They saw that the Salmonella ... there was a 322-fold decrease in the number of mutated Salmonella bacteria as compared to the number of normal Salmonella ... Previous Salmonella research has focused on trying to figure out how the bacteria cause illness and which genes are responsible ...
Salmonella and Salmonellosis. Salmonella bacteria are the most frequently reported cause of foodborne illness. The Salmonella ... Two types, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium are the most common in the United States and account for half of ... Reducing Salmonella in Poultry * Pilot Projects: Salmonella Control Strategies * Proposed Regulatory Framework to Reduce ... 10,250.1 Salmonella and Campylobacter Verification Program for Raw Poultry Products *Salmonella Analysis-Collecting Raw Meat ...
... the CDC announced it was investigating a multistate salmonella outbreak that has so far resulted in 73 illnesses with 15 ... that the recalled products were part of the agencys traceback investigation into an ongoing Salmonella Thompson outbreak. On ... Gills Onions has voluntarily recalled a selection of its fresh diced onion products following reports of salmonella poisoning ... Gills Onions recall linked to multistate salmonella outbreak, CDC says originally appeared on goodmorningamerica.com ...
A Nevada company, Basic Food Flavors Inc, manufactured the bad additive, The Food and Drug Administration reported. It can unfold into one of the bigger recalls.
Salmonella can cause pets to get sick, as well as people who come into contact with substances contaminated by the bacteria. ... The most recent recall is one of half a dozen this year in the US of pet food found to contain salmonella or potentially ... Salmonella bacteria causes an estimated 1.3 million infections in Americans every year, and leads to more than 26,000 ... Pets infected with salmonella may be lethargic and have diarrhea or bloody diarrhea, fever and vomiting. Other signs include ...
In a PhD project, new methods of characterizing and dectecting foodborne illness-causing Salmonella in pork meat processing and ... Detecting Salmonella in pork meat processing: New methods. Date:. July 24, 2014. Source:. Technical University of Denmark (DTU) ... 3, 2020 Salmonella is a key cause of foodborne gastroenteritis around the world, with most outbreaks linked to eggs, poultry ... Current Poultry Food Safety Guidelines Do Not Stop Salmonella Outbreaks. Aug. 26, 2020 Current poultry food safety guidelines ...
Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium str. LT2. Mutation(s): 1 Gene Names: nanH, STM0928. EC: 3.2.1.18. ... An Enzyme at Atomic Resolution: The 1.05 A Structure of Salmonella Typhimurium Neuraminidase (Sialidase). Garman, E.F., Wouters ... SIALIDASE FROM SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM. *PDB DOI: https://doi.org/10.2210/pdb3SIL/pdb ...
Salmonella Facts & Trivia: Food Reference culinary, cooking history, trivia, kitchen & cooking tips & facts, recipes, quotes, ... Salmonella Enteriditis. Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium, occurring in many animals, especially poultry and swine. In ... Salmonella Enteriditis bacteria may be found in the intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry, dogs, cats and other warm-blooded ... This strain is only one of about 2,000 kinds of Salmonella bacteria; it is often associated with poultry and shell eggs .. ...
Salmonella accounts for more than 1 million illnesses and 450 deaths in the United States annually. According to the Centers ... What are the symptoms of salmonella infection?. According to the CDC, people infected with salmonella have fever, diarrhea and ... How can I prevent salmonella infection?. Thoroughly cooking and the pasteurization of food kills salmonella. Eating raw or ... Salmonella accounts for more than 1 million illnesses and 450 deaths in the United States annually. According to the Centers ...
A Salmonella outbreak in the United Kingdom linked to pork from Romania has sickened 24 people, bringing the total impacted to ... Salmonella and STEC behind most outbreaks in Scotland. By News Desk on July 16, 2020. ... People ill in UK from rare Salmonella strain in pork from Romania. By Joe Whitworth on August 9, 2019. ... At least 42 people in 20 states have fallen ill with Salmonella in the outbreak linked to peanut butter made by Sunland Inc. in ...
Identifying and solving weak spots in the food chain for Salmonella is the aim of a newly-appointed molecular microbiologist at ... Institute for Food Research tackles Salmonella. Identifying and solving weak spots in the food chain for Salmonella is the aim ... Salmonella behaviour focus for IFR. By Joseph James Whitworth 11-Feb-2014. - Last updated on 11-Feb-2014 at 09:13. GMT ... "Salmonella has all kinds of routes of entry into the food chain eggs had been a main route but that has been controlled to a ...
Myprotein is recalling more than 10 products from multiple countries due to Salmonella. ... Myprotein: Salmonella recall isolated incident caused by 3rd party supplier. By Joseph James Whitworth 04-Sep-2017. - Last ... The firm refused to tell us what Salmonella strain was found, what ingredient was contaminated or if it would continue working ... Salmonella was not detected in other independent tests and we have received no customer complaints.​ ...
Tag: salmonella. Some gut bacteria protect against Salmonella, new research suggests Propionate molecules made by intestinal ... Propionate molecules made by intestinal bacteria inhibits growth of Salmonella and may be a promising new treatment for gut ... bacteria inhibits growth of Salmonella and may be a promising new treatment for gut infections. ...
  • As of January 15, 2009, 43 states reported more than 400 individuals who were infected with the outbreak strain of Salmonella Typhimurium. (cdc.gov)
  • From May to mid-August 2021, the Ontario, Canada provincial public health agency, Public Health Ontario, in collaboration with local public health authorities and federal food safety partners, investigated a spatiotemporal cluster of 38 patients with Salmonella Typhimurium infections across multiple public health districts in Ontario. (medscape.com)
  • Salmonella Typhimurium is a serovar commonly implicated in foodborne illnesses linked to animal product consumption. (medscape.com)
  • enterica serotype Typhimurium, but can be abbreviated to Salmonella Typhimurium. (wikipedia.org)
  • Two types, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium are the most common in the United States and account for half of all human infections. (usda.gov)
  • It is not unusual for both cats and wild birds to become infected with Salmonella Typhimurium at this time of the year. (sva.se)
  • A rise in Salmonella typhimurium has prompted food safety organisations to issue guidance to the public on the safe handling and storage of raw meat, particularly lamb and mutton. (cieh.org)
  • PHE National Infection Service deputy director, Nick Phin, said: 'The likely cause of the increased numbers of this specific strain of Salmonella typhimurium is considered to be meat or cross-contamination with meat from affected sheep. (cieh.org)
  • Phin added: 'People can be infected with Salmonella typhimurium in a number of ways, such as not cooking their meat properly, not washing hands thoroughly after handling raw meat, or through cross-contamination with other food, surfaces and utensils in the kitchen. (cieh.org)
  • FSA chief operating officer, Colin Sullivan, said: 'We are advising that care should be taken in preparing all meat, including lamb and mutton, to reduce the likelihood of becoming ill with Salmonella typhimurium. (cieh.org)
  • Consumption of food contaminated with Salmonella typhimurium, whether eggs, ground meat, or chicken, can lead to severe food poisoning. (labmanager.com)
  • Analyzing cryo-electron microscopy images of top views of NCs or NC substructures from Salmonella typhimurium revealed a 24-fold symmetry for the inner rings and a 15-fold symmetry for the outer rings, giving an overall C3 symmetry. (nih.gov)
  • As the wheels of investigation turn, the CDC is still involved with the Salmonella Typhimurium Outbreak in Peanuts. (science20.com)
  • Salmonella Agona, Salmonella Brandenburg, Salmonella Enteritidis ST11, Salmonella Monophasic Typhimurium ST34, and Salmonella Typhimurium ST568 (2.2%, 2.2%, 2.2%, 0% and 24.4%, respectively, in July 2022 vs. 7.5% in July 2023) were the most common serotypes confirmed this month. (cri.nz)
  • Salmonella Typhimurium ST19 (20.4% in June 2022 vs 19.1% in June 2023) was the most common serotype confirmed this month. (cri.nz)
  • Salmonella Typhimurium ST19 (26.2% in May 2022 vs 16.5% in May 2023) was the most common type confirmed this month. (cri.nz)
  • In September 2015, the South Western Sydney (SWS) Public Health Unit was notified of a cluster of Salmonella Typhimurium (STm) cases with a common multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeats analysis (MLVA) pattern. (who.int)
  • Salmonella Typhimurium (STm) is the most common serovar in Australia. (who.int)
  • Salmonella Typhimurium multiple-locus-variable number tandem repeats analysis (MLVA) type 3-10-8-9-523 was identified in 95.9% (47/49) of stool samples. (who.int)
  • Norton S, Huhtinen E, Conaty S, Hope K, Campbell B, Tegel M, Boyd R, Cullen B. A large point-source outbreak of Salmonella Typhimurium linked to chicken, pork and salad rolls from a Vietnamese bakery in Sydney. (who.int)
  • A bacterium, Salmonella enteritidis, can be inside perfectly normal-appearing eggs, and if the eggs are eaten raw or undercooked, the bacterium can cause illness. (cdc.gov)
  • A person infected with the Salmonella enteritidis bacterium usually has fever, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea beginning 12 to 72 hours after consuming a contaminated food or beverage. (cdc.gov)
  • The reason for this is that Salmonella enteritidis silently infects the ovaries of healthy appearing hens and contaminates the eggs before the shells are formed. (cdc.gov)
  • Most of the deaths caused by Salmonella enteritidis have occurred among the elderly in nursing homes. (cdc.gov)
  • A healthy person's risk for infection by Salmonella enteritidis is low, even in the northeastern United States, if individually prepared eggs are properly cooked, or foods are made from pasteurized eggs. (cdc.gov)
  • May 24, 2004 (CIDRAP News) The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned consumers to check the source of any raw almonds in their possession in the light of a recall based on a possible link to recent Salmonella enteritidis infections. (umn.edu)
  • On July 9, 2010, FDA new Final Rule titled "Prevention of Salmonella enteritidis in Shell Eggs During Production, Storage, and Transportation" went into effect. (iastate.edu)
  • The rule requires that measures designed to prevent Salmonella enteritidis be adopted by virtually all egg producers with 3,000 or more laying hens whose shell eggs are not processed with a treatment, such as pasteurization, to ensure their safety. (iastate.edu)
  • Have and implement a written Salmonella enteritidis prevention plan and document compliance. (iastate.edu)
  • Buy only pullets tested for Salmonella enteritidis contamination or raise pullets under monitored conditions. (iastate.edu)
  • Clean and disinfect poultry houses with positive Salmonella enteritidis test results. (iastate.edu)
  • Conduct environmental tests for Salmonella enteritidis and test eggs following positive environmental tests. (iastate.edu)
  • At the Iowa State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (ISU VDL), we are making every effort to assist you in complying with the requirement for Salmonella enteritidis testing mandated by the Food and Drug Administration. (iastate.edu)
  • Recently, Singapore has recalled eggs imported from Lay Hong Bhd Layer Farm Jeram and Linggi Agriculture Sdn Bhd from Malaysia due to the presence of Salmonella Enteritidis (SE). (ukm.my)
  • US company Aspen Foods, is recalling 1,978,680 pounds of frozen, raw, stuffed and breaded chicken that may be contaminated with salmonella enteritidis. (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • It's especially jarring considering that the Consumers Union's testing found rates of salmonella contamination in Foster Farms chicken to be higher than in other major brands: 29%, compared with 6% for Perdue and 7% for Tyson. (latimes.com)
  • NEW YORK (AP) - A unit of Hain Celestial Group Inc. is recalling some peanut and almond butter because of possible salmonella contamination. (salon.com)
  • Irish company Dawn Farm Foods has withdrawn some cooked bacon products following concerns over possible salmonella contamination. (foodnavigator.com)
  • Nearby chickens and cows contributed to the contamination of peaches that led to a large outbreak of salmonella. (popsci.com)
  • The FDA says that during the three-year period, 749 shipments of spice were refused entry into the United States because of salmonella contamination while 238 other shipments were denied because of the presence of what the FDA calls "filth" - insects, excrement, hair, or other materials. (csmonitor.com)
  • Also, "The FDA intends to examine current pistachio industry practices and issue guidance to the industry that provides additional information on measures to be taken to prevent Salmonella contamination. (science20.com)
  • Is Ground Turkey Prone to Salmonella Contamination? (dane101.com)
  • Shewa Frozen Dough Industries issued a recall of several products due to possible salmonella contamination on Thursday. (jpost.com)
  • Frustrated that salmonella infections have held stubbornly steady at more than 1 million cases annually for the past two decades, USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service is rethinking how and where it tests for contamination, potentially expanding its. (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • Salmonella bacteria are excreted in the feces of infected animals and people, leading to contamination. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Environmental swabs detected widespread contamination with Salmonella at the premises. (who.int)
  • Below are select communication materials that support general prevention efforts aimed at reducing Salmonella infections. (cdc.gov)
  • This website is an excellent resource for Education materials and other information about Outbreaks , Animals , and Places where Salmonella infections can spread from animals to people. (cdc.gov)
  • How Do People Get Salmonella Infections? (kidshealth.org)
  • Salmonella (sal-meh-NEL-uh) infections usually happen because someone ate or drank something contaminated with the feces (poop) from an infected animal. (kidshealth.org)
  • How Are Salmonella Infections Diagnosed? (kidshealth.org)
  • How Are Salmonella Infections Treated? (kidshealth.org)
  • Can Salmonella Infections Be Prevented? (kidshealth.org)
  • Some precautions can help prevent Salmonella infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • A recent salmonella outbreak linked to Foster Farms sickened more than 300 people, most of them in California, and sent close to half to hospitals with antibiotic-resistant infections. (latimes.com)
  • Yet that wasn't the attitude of Foster Farms and the U.S. Department of Agriculture in response to the recent salmonella outbreak that sickened more than 300 people, most of them in California, and sent close to half to hospitals with antibiotic-resistant infections. (latimes.com)
  • Salmonella bacteria causes an estimated 1.3 million infections in Americans every year , and leads to more than 26,000 hospitalizations and 400 deaths each year. (yahoo.com)
  • July 2, 2019 Salmonella and listeria are among the most widely distributed and deadliest causes of foodborne infections. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Before the foodborne disease outbreak two years ago that spread Salmonella Bredeney infections to 20 states, Portales, NM, could brag about Sunland Inc. being the nation's largest producer of organic peanut butter. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • Propionate molecules made by intestinal bacteria inhibits growth of Salmonella and may be a promising new treatment for gut infections. (stanford.edu)
  • Infections caused by Salmonella spp are common in cats worldwide with the exception of the Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, and Finland) where the incidence is low. (sva.se)
  • In fact, between 2009 and 2011, Salmonella isolates -cultures of microorganisms - with resistance to five or more antibiotics accounted for 66,000 infections in the United States! (healthline.com)
  • Natural product dephostatin is an effective partner for the antibiotic colistin in treating infections caused by the bacteria Salmonella. (newswise.com)
  • Although the S almonella family has about 2,500 different strains, a mere ten of them might be the cause of most known salmonella infections at this time. (science20.com)
  • But salmonella can cause serious and sometimes fatal infections in young children, frail or elderly people, as well as those with weakened immune systems. (wrdw.com)
  • Antibiotics are usually not helpful for people who have Salmonella intestinal infections, but antibiotics are helpful for people who are at risk of or have bacteremia. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Salmonella is a frequently implicated organism and is responsible for the majority of hospitalizations and deaths attributable to foodborne infections. (who.int)
  • The Salmonella infection cycle starts after the ingestion of microbes. (medscape.com)
  • Infection with salmonellae is characterized by attachment of the bacteria by fimbriae or pili to cells lining the intestinal lumen. (medscape.com)
  • Someone with a Salmonella infection (or salmonellosis ) might have diarrhea , vomiting , fever, and cramps. (kidshealth.org)
  • It is not common for someone to get a Salmonella infection from another person, but it can happen. (kidshealth.org)
  • What Are the Signs & Symptoms of Salmonella Infection? (kidshealth.org)
  • Kids with a Salmonella infection typically have diarrhea (sometimes with blood in it), fever, and belly pain. (kidshealth.org)
  • Kids with a Salmonella infection should drink lots of fluids so that they don't get dehydrated. (kidshealth.org)
  • Salmonella is a bacteria that makes people sick from an infection called salmonellosis. (ajc.com)
  • How can I prevent salmonella infection? (ajc.com)
  • Eating raw or undercooked food increases the risk of getting a salmonella infection. (ajc.com)
  • More information on preventing salmonella infection is at the CDC website . (ajc.com)
  • Food produced in Sweden rarely causes salmonella infection in animals or humans. (sva.se)
  • Some small birds are infected with salmonella and when large numbers of small birds in late winter and early spring gather around bird tables they may facilitate the spread of infection. (sva.se)
  • Since the first observed outbreak in 1999, salmonella infection has been detected frequently in cats during late winter-early spring. (sva.se)
  • The severity of clinical symptoms of salmonella infection in cats varies. (sva.se)
  • There is always a risk of false negative result since salmonella can be excreted intermittently, particularly in the later stages of infection. (sva.se)
  • Typical symptoms of salmonella infection are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain. (salon.com)
  • While anyone can become ill from exposure to salmonella, health officials say the risk of infection is particularly high for children, the elderly and those with weakened immune systems. (salon.com)
  • Salmonella is a type of bacteria that causes an infection of your gastrointestinal (GI) tract. (healthline.com)
  • Although most people recover from a Salmonella infection without treatment, it's possible to become very ill or even die from it. (healthline.com)
  • The CDC estimates that Salmonella infection causes 23,000 hospitalizations and 450 deaths in the United States each year. (healthline.com)
  • Who's most at risk from Salmonella infection? (healthline.com)
  • You can get a Salmonella infection through consuming food or drinks that have been contaminated with the bacteria. (healthline.com)
  • The symptoms of Salmonella typically appear within 3 days of infection. (healthline.com)
  • There are several complications that can occur due to Salmonella infection. (healthline.com)
  • Sometimes Salmonella bacteria can leave the GI tract and enter another part of the body, causing a potentially serious or life-threatening infection. (healthline.com)
  • However, when paired together, dephostatin allowed for drastically lower concentrations of colistin in a treatment regimen for Salmonella infection in mice that maintained the antibiotic's effectiveness. (newswise.com)
  • The World Health Organization has classified antibiotic-resistant Salmonella , which can cause infection from eating contaminated foods, as a high-priority pathogen. (newswise.com)
  • Instead, dephostatin prevents Salmonella from causing infection in two ways: It blocks its ability to resist being killed by immune cells and it enhances its sensitivity to colistin. (newswise.com)
  • While the initial findings were done using a method of experimentation called high-throughput screening, the researchers were excited to find that co-administering dephostatin and colistin in mice with a lethal Salmonella infection significantly prolonged animal survival and used a lower concentration of colistin than is normally required for treatment, thereby reducing its toxic effect. (newswise.com)
  • Salmonella infection usually clears up on its own without treatment within four to seven days. (dane101.com)
  • In short, ground turkey is liable to salmonella infection and it's no wonder that the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has been continuously warning people about it for years . (dane101.com)
  • Salmonellosis is an uncommon bacterial infection in guinea pigs, usually the result of ingestion of the salmonella bacterium. (petmd.com)
  • While infection is typically related to the ingestion of food and water that is contaminated with infected feces, urine and bedding material, salmonellosis infection can also be acquired by direct contact with infected guinea pigs, or contact with wild mice or rats that carry the salmonella bacteria. (petmd.com)
  • Salmonellosis is caused by infection with the salmonella bacterium, which is typically transmitted via ingestion of contaminated food or water. (petmd.com)
  • Additionally, infected guinea pigs can spread salmonella infection to humans through direct contact. (petmd.com)
  • It is important to keep in mind that the salmonella infection can be transmitted not only to other animals, but to the infected animal's human handlers as well. (petmd.com)
  • Salmonella typically cause diarrhea and sometimes cause a more serious infection, typhoid fever. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Salmonella bacteria cause several types of infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Because stomach acid tends to destroy Salmonella , a large number of these bacteria must be consumed for infection to develop, unless people have a deficiency of stomach acid. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Phages for treatment of Salmonella spp infection. (bvsalud.org)
  • Tofu has not been previously linked to nontyphoidal Salmonella outbreaks. (medscape.com)
  • The 1,000 or more reported outbreaks that happen each year reveal familiar culprits- Salmonella and other common germs. (cdc.gov)
  • It's true that thorough cooking kills the bacteria, but if the response to antibiotic-resistant salmonella in chicken is "just cook it," why bother to track outbreaks that can and do cause serious illness and even death? (latimes.com)
  • Aug. 26, 2020 Current poultry food safety guidelines for Salmonella, the leading cause of foodborne illness outbreaks, are inadequate. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Feb. 3, 2020 Salmonella is a key cause of foodborne gastroenteritis around the world, with most outbreaks linked to eggs, poultry meat, pork, beef, dairy, nuts and fresh produce. (sciencedaily.com)
  • There have been several major salmonella outbreaks in recent years, including infected peanuts that sickened more than 700 people in 2008 and 2009 and Foster Farms chicken that is linked to a strain of salmonella that has made more than 500 people sick over the last year and a half. (salon.com)
  • The recall comes amid outbreaks of Salmonella ​ Agona in Ireland and the UK and Food Standards Agency Ireland (FSAI) investigations are being carried out in Northern Ireland where the products have also been distributed. (foodnavigator.com)
  • About half of all salmonella outbreaks are linked to produce, as we've written before -but peaches are, according to the FDA, a new source. (popsci.com)
  • However, Salmonella outbreaks are often under-reported because some people recover on their own and don't get tested. (yahoo.com)
  • Salmonellosis is caused by all nontyphoid serotypes of the Salmonella genus except for S typhi and Salmonella paratyphi A, B, and C. Salmonellosis-causing serotypes are isolated from humans and animals, including livestock. (medscape.com)
  • There are many different Salmonella strains , and some can cause salmonellosis, a disease with symptoms including diarrhea, fever, and vomiting. (livescience.com)
  • Salmonella is a bacteria that can make people sick, and most types cause an illness called salmonellosis, according to the CDC . (yahoo.com)
  • Salmonella enterica , the bacterium that causes the illness called salmonellosis, lurks just about everywhere - on animals (including pets) and in food, water, soil, and even air. (feedstuffs.com)
  • Poultry products account for about 23% of salmonellosis cases, which is not unusual considering Salmonella is the most common zoonotic pathogen (carried by animals, but communicable to humans). (feedstuffs.com)
  • Previous research has reduced the incidence of Salmonella in meat and poultry products, but cases of salmonellosis illness have not decreased. (feedstuffs.com)
  • Typhoidal Salmonella serotypes can only be transferred between humans and can cause foodborne illness as well as typhoid and paratyphoid fever. (wikipedia.org)
  • A Vital Signs report focuses on foodborne illness , and Salmonella . (cdc.gov)
  • Salmonella bacteria are the most frequently reported cause of foodborne illness. (usda.gov)
  • In a PhD project, new methods of characterizing and dectecting foodborne illness-causing Salmonella in pork meat processing and in bacteria in water, feed and food samples were studied. (sciencedaily.com)
  • In a PhD project at the National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, new methods of characterising and dectecting foodborne illness-causing Salmonella in pork meat processing and in bacteria in water, feed and food samples were studied. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Fewer than 1% of nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) isolates are lactose-positive (pink on MacConkey agar), but most produce hydrogen sulfide, which is detectable on HE or SS agar. (medscape.com)
  • Salmonella isolates during 2002-2005 ( 11 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Of 585 isolates tested, 46 (7.9%) were resistant treatment of persons with nontyphoidal Salmonella in- to third-generation cepalosporins. (cdc.gov)
  • Salmonella isolates ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Human salmonella isolates from ESR's enteric reference laboratory. (cri.nz)
  • The Enteric Reference Laboratory confirmed 63 non-human Salmonella isolates in February 2023 compared with 55 in February 2022 .There was an increase in the number of Avian isolates (2 in 2022 versus 11 in 2023) and Ovine isolates (2 in 2022 versus 11 in 2023). (cri.nz)
  • In NSW, Salmonella isolates are referred to Pathology West - Institute for Clinical Pathology and Medical Research, the state reference laboratory, for further characterization, including serotyping and DNA sequence-based subtyping with multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeats analysis (MLVA). (who.int)
  • Only a small number of hens seem to be infected at any given time, and an infected hen can lay many normal eggs while only occasionally laying an egg contaminated with the Salmonella bacterium. (cdc.gov)
  • Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium, occurring in many animals, especially poultry and swine. (foodreference.com)
  • A specific Salmonella bacterium can also cause typhoid fever , a serious disease that's more common outside of the United States. (healthline.com)
  • This poultry product has been knowns to carry strains of Salmonellae bacterium according recent research reports. (dane101.com)
  • Gills Onions has voluntarily recalled a selection of its fresh diced onion products following reports of salmonella poisoning across 22 states that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says are linked to the company's pre-cut vegetables. (yahoo.com)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigated a Salmonella outbreak in several states, determining the source was Gold Medal flour. (yahoo.com)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention say it's linked to seven strains of Salmonella Heidelberg - some of which are antibiotic-resistant - that have contaminated chickens grown by West Coast poultry producer Foster Farms. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • The firm refused to tell us what Salmonella strain was found, what ingredient was contaminated or if it would continue working with the implicated supplier. (nutraingredients.com)
  • An increase in this strain of salmonella was detected in July last year and control measures were put in place that helped curb the number of cases. (cieh.org)
  • No deaths have been linked to this outbreak, although there was one death last year in which a different strain of salmonella was thought to be a contributing factor. (cieh.org)
  • But that investigation also leaves some outstanding questions: the investigators didn't actually find evidence of the guilty strain of salmonella on the leaves or fruits of the orchard. (popsci.com)
  • The Food and Drug Administration then found the Salmonella strain in flour at a General Mills facility. (yahoo.com)
  • Foster Farms refused to recall the suspect chicken shipped from its problem plants, saying that salmonella-tainted poultry is safe to eat if thoroughly cooked. (latimes.com)
  • At minimum, we could begin to improve food safety by declaring salmonella an adulterant so that the USDA and agricultural operations are compelled to recall infected products. (latimes.com)
  • Gills Onions said it initiated the recall after it was notified by the FDA 'that the recalled products were part of the agency's traceback investigation into an ongoing Salmonella Thompson outbreak. (yahoo.com)
  • Texas pet food manufacturer, Mid America Pet Food, said it is expanding a recall to include dozens of different types of dry dog and cat food after it was linked to seven cases of salmonella - six of which were in infants . (yahoo.com)
  • The recall comes after random sampling found traces of salmonella in pet food manufactured by Mid America Pet Food. (yahoo.com)
  • The most recent recall is one of half a dozen this year in the US of pet food found to contain salmonella or potentially harmful elevated levels of vitamins. (yahoo.com)
  • What began 18 months ago with the recall of organic peanut butter involved in a Salmonella outbreak will end later this week when the shuttered Sunland Inc. processing plant goes on the auction block. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • Food giant Axfood AB has been forced to recall two tonnes of pork, following test samples showing salmonella bacteria present in the meat. (thelocal.se)
  • CNN) - The U.S. Food and Drug Administration is warning consumers about another cantaloupe recall due to the risk of salmonella. (wrdw.com)
  • Diamond Pet Foods expands its voluntary recall after salmonella found in Chicken Soup for the Pet Lover's Soul Adult Light formula dry dog food -- racking up two recalls within a single month. (dogster.com)
  • According to a company press release dated April 26, "One bag of the product has tested positive for Salmonella , and the recall of the four production codes is being conducted as a precautionary measure. (dogster.com)
  • Typhoid fever, a more serious disease caused by Salmonella, is not common in the United States. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Typhoid fever is caused by typhoidal Salmonella invading the bloodstream, as well as spreading throughout the body, invading organs, and secreting endotoxins (the septic form). (wikipedia.org)
  • However, in sub-Saharan Africa, nontyphoidal Salmonella can be invasive and cause paratyphoid fever, which requires immediate antibiotic treatment. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most people infected with Salmonella experience diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps. (cdc.gov)
  • Pets infected with salmonella may be lethargic and have diarrhea or bloody diarrhea, fever and vomiting. (yahoo.com)
  • Acute symptoms of the illness caused by the Salmonella species include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headache and fever. (foodreference.com)
  • According to the CDC, people infected with salmonella have fever, diarrhea and abdominal cramps between 12 and 72 hours after being infected. (ajc.com)
  • FSAI's Reilly noted that while Salmonella ​ Agona is not life threatening for most people older people, young children, pregnant women and people who are already sick with weakened immune systems, may suffer more severe symptoms such as diarrhoea, stomach cramps, vomiting and fever. (foodnavigator.com)
  • Different types of salmonella cause different diseases, including typhoid fever. (popsci.com)
  • This outbreak involved the more common presentation colloquially known as salmonella , which involves several days of diarrhea and fever. (popsci.com)
  • Animals infected with salmonella might have decreased appetite, fever, and abdominal pain. (dogster.com)
  • Healthy people infected with Salmonella should monitor themselves for some or all of the following symptoms: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramping and fever. (dogster.com)
  • Typhoid Fever Typhoid fever is caused by certain types of the gram-negative bacteria Salmonella . (msdmanuals.com)
  • The mice that were infected with normal Salmonella showed signs of severe illness, while the mice that received the mutated bacteria did not have any symptoms. (livescience.com)
  • Since the mutated Salmonella still prompt an immune response but do not cause symptoms, the researchers think these bacteria could be used for a vaccine that would protect against food poisoning . (livescience.com)
  • In humans, salmonella poisoning can cause similar symptoms. (yahoo.com)
  • If you or someone you know has severe Salmonella symptoms, call a healthcare provider. (yahoo.com)
  • Currently, Salmonella species have the serologically defined names appended as serovars or serotypes. (medscape.com)
  • Salmonella species are intracellular pathogens, of which certain serotypes cause illness. (wikipedia.org)
  • Nontyphoidal Salmonella serotypes are zoonotic and can be transferred from animals and between humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • Graphs are presented for non-typhoidal Salmonella (all and select serotypes) and other select pathogens. (cdc.gov)
  • The Salmonella family includes over 2,300 serotypes of bacteria which are one-celled organisms too small to be seen without a microscope. (usda.gov)
  • Several different virulence mechanisms have been identified in salmonella bacteria and the pathogenicity may vary between different serotypes. (sva.se)
  • Uncommon serotypes confirmed this month was Salmonella Kedougou (15 human cases since it was first confirmed in New Zealand in 1996) and Salmonella Muenster (13 human cases since it was first confirmed in New Zealand in 1994).An isolate was typed as Subsp. (cri.nz)
  • Pathogenic Salmonella species can move using peritrichal flagellum. (medscape.com)
  • The nomenclature and classification of Salmonella species have been changed and restructured multiple times. (medscape.com)
  • Traditionally, Salmonella species were named in accordance with the Kaufmann-White typing system, defined by different combinations of somatic O, surface Vi, and flagellar H antigens. (medscape.com)
  • In 2005, Salmonella enterica finally gained official approval as the type species of the genus Salmonella . (medscape.com)
  • The genus Salmonella also contains the species Salmonella bongori and Salmonella subterranean, which was recognized in 2005. (medscape.com)
  • The two known species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. (wikipedia.org)
  • Salmonella species are non-spore-forming, predominantly motile enterobacteria with cell diameters between about 0.7 and 1.5 μm, lengths from 2 to 5 μm, and peritrichous flagella (all around the cell body, allowing them to move). (wikipedia.org)
  • However, this species - Salmonella typhi - is different from the ones that cause gastroenteritis. (healthline.com)
  • The assay is based on a novel nucleic acid probe that is cleaved by an RNase enzyme specific to the salmonella species. (labmanager.com)
  • Other species of Salmonella normally reside in the digestive tract of many wild and domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, fowl, and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, and turtles). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Laboratories are required to report positive culture results of Salmonella species to NSW Health. (who.int)
  • Once there, salmonellae induce an influx of macrophages (typhoidal strains) or neutrophils (nontyphoidal strains). (medscape.com)
  • Historically, salmonellae have been clinically categorized as invasive (typhoidal) or noninvasive (nontyphoidal salmonellae) based on host preference and disease manifestations in humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • Salmonellae are intracellular facultative pathogens that may survive in variable conditions. (medscape.com)
  • As most of us are no doubt aware by now given the seemingly endless number of food recalls , salmonella, campylobacter, E. coli, and Listeria monocytogenes , to name the more common pathogens, can make us seriously ill. (lawyersandsettlements.com)
  • He said that a lot of research has been done on Salmonella as it is a traditional organism in which to study host-pathogen interactions, since is more genetically amenable in the laboratory than many other pathogens. (foodnavigator.com)
  • The agency said that some of the spices that were found contaminated at the border were later cooked or treated during routine processing to eliminate possible pathogens, so much of the salmonella was likely gone by the time the spices were eaten. (csmonitor.com)
  • Ground turkey does contain Salmonella as one if its many pathogens. (dane101.com)
  • Turtles carry salmonella, it seems-originating in their feces, according to a recent MSNBC report. (lawyersandsettlements.com)
  • Dersom Salmonella isoleres fra ulike prøvematerialer (for eksempel feces, blod eller urin), bør førstegangsisolatet fra «det klinisk mest alvorlige» materialet sendes inn. (fhi.no)
  • The recent salmonella outbreak has been connected to yet another popular pantry item. (mentalfloss.com)
  • [ 6 ] Although the infectious dose varies among Salmonella strains, a large inoculum is thought to be necessary to overcome stomach acidity and to compete with normal intestinal flora. (medscape.com)
  • Most types of Salmonella live in the intestinal tracts of animals and birds and are transmitted to humans by contaminated foods of animal origin. (cdc.gov)
  • Salmonella Enteriditis bacteria may be found in the intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry, dogs, cats and other warm-blooded animals. (foodreference.com)
  • Salmonella is mainly an intestinal pathogen, but can also cause systemic disease and can then be isolated from blood and various organs. (sva.se)
  • Salmonella bacteria may persist for a long period of time in intestinal epithelium and lymph nodes. (sva.se)
  • In these persons, a relatively small number of Salmonella bacteria can cause severe illness. (cdc.gov)
  • The larger the number of Salmonella present in the egg, the more likely it is to cause illness. (cdc.gov)
  • Previous Salmonella research has focused on trying to figure out how the bacteria cause illness and which genes are responsible for virulence. (livescience.com)
  • Salmonella causes an illness called gastroenteritis , which you may be familiar with as " food poisoning . (healthline.com)
  • Salmonella can cause serious and sometimes fatal illness in young children, frail or elderly people, and others with weak immune systems, the FDA noted. (umn.edu)
  • According to the UK Food Standards Agency (FSA), about 110 cases of illness caused by this type of salmonella have been reported in Ireland and the UK, mainly affecting young adults. (foodnavigator.com)
  • Salmonella is a type of bacteria that can cause illness in humans and animals. (dane101.com)
  • Dry dog and cat food has been linked to at least six cases of salmonella in children . (yahoo.com)
  • However, suspected cases of salmonella are usually only confirmed several days later, when the bacteria are detected in microbiology laboratories by growing them in culture. (labmanager.com)
  • Further cases of Salmonella linked to chicken products have been reported, according to the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC). (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • More than 80 different types of salmonella were detected. (csmonitor.com)
  • That's a large task because there are over 2,400 types of Salmonella bacteria. (feedstuffs.com)
  • There are over 2,500 different types of Salmonella bacteria. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Peaches are a surprising and infrequent source of salmonella. (popsci.com)
  • Fresh vegetables may be a source of salmonella bacteria. (petmd.com)
  • It was here that Atkinson described multiple new strains of salmonella, including Salmonella Adelaide, which was isolated in 1943. (wikipedia.org)
  • Must these particular strains of salmonella be heated to even higher temperatures to kill them? (latimes.com)
  • On July 30, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) confirmed the presence of salmonella Saintpaul at a farm in Mexico, both in irrigation water and on produce. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • When the gold-containing solution is then drained onto an absorbent pad with a nylon membrane, a clear red spot indicates the presence of salmonella in the sample being tested. (labmanager.com)
  • The name Salmonella was not used until 1900, when Joseph Leon Lignières proposed that the pathogen discovered by Salmon's group be called Salmonella in his honor. (wikipedia.org)
  • Academics at the University of Nevada in the US have reduced salmonella in meat products by up to 90% after research into new pathogen prevention systems. (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • Salmonella , is one of the bacterial genera having more than 2500 serogroups is one of the most prominent food borne pathogen that is capable of causing disease out breaks among humans and animals . (bvsalud.org)
  • Antibiotic resistance does occur in Salmonella . (healthline.com)
  • Dephostatin appears to knock out two important regulatory pathways that control Salmonella virulence and antibiotic resistance mechanisms," said Coombes, corresponding author and a professor in the Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences at McMaster University. (newswise.com)
  • To top it off, there's a 42-percent hospitalization rate in these cases, double what's usually associated with Salmonella, possibly because of the antibiotic resistance. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • Zoonotic diseases can cause many different illnesses in people, including Salmonella . (cdc.gov)
  • USDA is mobilizing a stronger and more comprehensive effort to reduce Salmonella illnesses related to poultry products. (usda.gov)
  • On Tuesday, the CDC announced it was investigating a multistate salmonella outbreak that has so far resulted in 73 illnesses with 15 hospitalizations. (yahoo.com)
  • Salmonella accounts for more than 1 million illnesses and 450 deaths in the United States annually. (ajc.com)
  • Salmonella is a type of bacteria and a leading cause of food-borne illnesses worldwide. (ukm.my)
  • Apparently we should be grateful for this statistic, because it is markedly better than that of two years ago when eight out of 10 chickens were found to be contaminated with bacteria, including salmonella and campylobacter. (lawyersandsettlements.com)
  • A US study assessing the potential routes of transmission for campylobacter and salmonella in breeder and market turkeys has found that poultry house pests (flies, beetles and rodents) could be potential vectors of both organisms. (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • Salmonella is a type of bacteria that causes food poisoning. (yahoo.com)
  • One type of bacteria that can be found in raw poultry is salmonella. (dane101.com)
  • Thoroughly cooking and the pasteurization of food kills salmonella. (ajc.com)
  • The FSAI reminded consumers that thorough cooking kills salmonella and advised them to cook all foods they suspected may be infected with salmonella. (foodnavigator.com)
  • A team of researchers led by Yingfu Li, Tohid Didar, and Carlos Filipe of McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada, have now developed a novel test system based on a hybrid DNA-RNA probe that specifically and rapidly detects salmonella, without the need for microbiological diagnostics or expensive analytical equipment. (labmanager.com)
  • For that matter, Costco, which sold rotisserie chickens from Foster Farms plants at its stores, recalled tens of thousands of pounds of poultry after finding salmonella even in the cooked meat. (latimes.com)
  • Trine Hansen, PhD student at the National Food Institute, has studied new methods of characterising Salmonella in pork meat processing and detecting unknown bacteria in water, feed and food samples. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The research project has given a better understanding of which factors in pork meat processing may contribute to the development of more appropriate processing environments, which can limit the occurrence of Salmonella . (sciencedaily.com)
  • The goal of the initiative is to integrate research to learn more about how and where Salmonella causes the highest risk to meat and poultry products. (feedstuffs.com)
  • That information will help better develop monitoring tools for meat and poultry producers to prevent Salmonella problems. (feedstuffs.com)
  • This teamwork will help them find on-farm strategies to reduce the risk of Salmonella in final meat and poultry products. (feedstuffs.com)
  • Brazilian authorities have re-ignited their investigation into the meat industry, with a probe into processor BRF SA as well as laboratories accused of covering up salmonella in chicken. (foodnavigator-usa.com)
  • The USDA refused to close the plants on the grounds that, unlike certain strains of E. coli , salmonella is not an adulterant, a poisonous or harmful substance. (latimes.com)
  • For instance, the current nomenclature of Salmonella typhi is S enterica serovar Typhi. (medscape.com)
  • Salmonella and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) were the most frequently reported organisms. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • Salmonella is a rod-shaped bacteria that can be found in the GI tracts of humans and animals. (healthline.com)
  • Salmonella occurs in raw poultry, eggs, beef, and sometimes on unwashed fruit and vegetables. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Keeping eggs adequately refrigerated prevents any Salmonella present in the eggs from growing to higher numbers, so eggs should be held refrigerated until they are needed. (cdc.gov)
  • Salmonella has all kinds of routes of entry into the food chain eggs had been a main route but that has been controlled to a large extent, now it is more from livestock such as pigs and cattle. (foodnavigator.com)
  • The perception is that Salmonella has been controlled in UK but while there has been a small decrease in incidence due to control in eggs, actually it remains a big problem and there has been a drop off in work. (foodnavigator.com)
  • From late June to August of last year, 101 people ended up sick with salmonella, a food-borne bacteria more commonly associated with raw cookie dough, eggs, and reptiles. (popsci.com)
  • The genus Salmonella is named after Daniel E. Salmon, an American veterinarian who first isolated Salmonella choleraesuis from pigs with hog cholera in 1884. (medscape.com)
  • If Salmonella gets into the bloodstream, it can be serious. (medlineplus.gov)
  • During the recent investigation of the outbreak of Salmonella Saintpaul, CDC often mentioned that the overall "outbreak investigation is complex and difficult. (cdc.gov)
  • Samples taken at the time later revealed that he was positive for salmonella Saintpaul. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Tests revealed that the peppers were tainted with Salmonella Saintpaul, and provided one of the first reported physical links in the three-month-long search for the source of the outbreak. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • While a government report released this week revealed that Sunland, Inc. knowingly shipped peanut and almond butters that had tested positive for Salmonella, the company adamantly denies that these findings are true. (foodsafetynews.com)
  • A team of researchers have developed an easy-to-use colorimetric assay for the detection of food contaminated with salmonella. (labmanager.com)
  • Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Salmonella is a group of gram-negative bacteria of the family Enterobacteriaceae . (sva.se)
  • According to the Centers for Disease Control, people who are more likely to be affected by Salmonella include infants, children younger than 5 years old, organ transplant patients, people with HIV/AIDS and people receiving treatment for cancer. (dogster.com)
  • In addition, Sweden does not allow poultry operations to fight salmonella with the preventive use of antibiotics, which has been linked to the rise of resistant strains. (latimes.com)
  • And even in this country, a 2010 Consumers Union study found no salmonella in the organic store-brand chickens it tested. (latimes.com)
  • Nothing is shipped from a facility where salmonella has been found until all animals are inspected and declared salmonella-free. (latimes.com)
  • The notice said no Salmonella organisms had been found in the company's products. (umn.edu)
  • Investigators found salmonella strains on trees facing both of those sites. (popsci.com)
  • In their study, researchers found that dephostatin does not kill Salmonella or stop it from growing. (newswise.com)
  • Salmonella bacteria were found in several products after an inspection by the Health Ministry's Central District Food Service. (jpost.com)