Rotation. Medical search

The rotation of linearly polarized light as it passes through various media.

The distance and direction to which a bone joint can be extended. Range of motion is a function of the condition of the joints, muscles, and connective tissues involved. Joint flexibility can be improved through appropriate MUSCLE STRETCHING EXERCISES.

A reflex wherein impulses are conveyed from the cupulas of the SEMICIRCULAR CANALS and from the OTOLITHIC MEMBRANE of the SACCULE AND UTRICLE via the VESTIBULAR NUCLEI of the BRAIN STEM and the median longitudinal fasciculus to the OCULOMOTOR NERVE nuclei. It functions to maintain a stable retinal image during head rotation by generating appropriate compensatory EYE MOVEMENTS.

The properties, processes, and behavior of biological systems under the action of mechanical forces.

Voluntary or involuntary motion of head that may be relative to or independent of body; includes animals and humans.

An abnormal twisting or rotation of a bodily part or member on its axis.

The act, process, or result of passing from one place or position to another. It differs from LOCOMOTION in that locomotion is restricted to the passing of the whole body from one place to another, while movement encompasses both locomotion but also a change of the position of the whole body or any of its parts. Movement may be used with reference to humans, vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and microorganisms. Differentiate also from MOTOR ACTIVITY, movement associated with behavior.

An oval, bony chamber of the inner ear, part of the bony labyrinth. It is continuous with bony COCHLEA anteriorly, and SEMICIRCULAR CANALS posteriorly. The vestibule contains two communicating sacs (utricle and saccule) of the balancing apparatus. The oval window on its lateral wall is occupied by the base of the STAPES of the MIDDLE EAR.

The articulation between the head of the HUMERUS and the glenoid cavity of the SCAPULA.

Three long canals (anterior, posterior, and lateral) of the bony labyrinth. They are set at right angles to each other and are situated posterosuperior to the vestibule of the bony labyrinth (VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH). The semicircular canals have five openings into the vestibule with one shared by the anterior and the posterior canals. Within the canals are the SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS.

A twisting deformation of a solid body about an axis. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

The rotational force about an axis that is equal to the product of a force times the distance from the axis where the force is applied.

Voluntary or reflex-controlled movements of the eye.

A whiplike motility appendage present on the surface cells. Prokaryote flagella are composed of a protein called FLAGELLIN. Bacteria can have a single flagellum, a tuft at one pole, or multiple flagella covering the entire surface. In eukaryotes, flagella are threadlike protoplasmic extensions used to propel flagellates and sperm. Flagella have the same basic structure as CILIA but are longer in proportion to the cell bearing them and present in much smaller numbers. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)

Involuntary rhythmical movements of the eyes in the normal person. These can be naturally occurring as in end-position (end-point, end-stage, or deviational) nystagmus or induced by the optokinetic drum (NYSTAGMUS, OPTOKINETIC), caloric test, or a rotating chair.

A gelatinous membrane overlying the acoustic maculae of SACCULE AND UTRICLE. It contains minute crystalline particles (otoliths) of CALCIUM CARBONATE and protein on its outer surface. In response to head movement, the otoliths shift causing distortion of the vestibular hair cells which transduce nerve signals to the BRAIN for interpretation of equilibrium.

An increase in the rate of speed.

Part of the body in humans and primates where the arms connect to the trunk. The shoulder has five joints; ACROMIOCLAVICULAR joint, CORACOCLAVICULAR joint, GLENOHUMERAL joint, scapulathoracic joint, and STERNOCLAVICULAR joint.

The vestibular part of the 8th cranial nerve (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE). The vestibular nerve fibers arise from neurons of Scarpa's ganglion and project peripherally to vestibular hair cells and centrally to the VESTIBULAR NUCLEI of the BRAIN STEM. These fibers mediate the sense of balance and head position.

The position or attitude of the body.

Awareness of oneself in relation to time, place and person.

Applies to movements of the forearm in turning the palm forward or upward. When referring to the foot, a combination of adduction and inversion movements of the foot.

Also called the shoulder blade, it is a flat triangular bone, a pair of which form the back part of the shoulder girdle.

Proteins that are involved in or cause CELL MOVEMENT such as the rotary structures (flagellar motor) or the structures whose movement is directed along cytoskeletal filaments (MYOSIN; KINESIN; and DYNEIN motor families).

The upper part of the human body, or the front or upper part of the body of an animal, typically separated from the rest of the body by a neck, and containing the brain, mouth, and sense organs.

A dead body, usually a human body.

The central part of the body to which the neck and limbs are attached.

Lack of stability of a joint or joint prosthesis. Factors involved are intra-articular disease and integrity of extra-articular structures such as joint capsule, ligaments, and muscles.

An appreciable lateral deviation in the normally straight vertical line of the spine. (Dorland, 27th ed)

Physical motion, i.e., a change in position of a body or subject as a result of an external force. It is distinguished from MOVEMENT, a process resulting from biological activity.

The process of generating three-dimensional images by electronic, photographic, or other methods. For example, three-dimensional images can be generated by assembling multiple tomographic images with the aid of a computer, while photographic 3-D images (HOLOGRAPHY) can be made by exposing film to the interference pattern created when two laser light sources shine on an object.

Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.

Applies to movements of the forearm in turning the palm backward or downward. When referring to the foot, a combination of eversion and abduction movements in the tarsal and metatarsal joints (turning the foot up and in toward the midline of the body).

Bone in humans and primates extending from the SHOULDER JOINT to the ELBOW JOINT.

Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.

Undergraduate education programs for second- , third- , and fourth-year students in health sciences in which the students receive clinical training and experience in teaching hospitals or affiliated health centers.

Sensory functions that transduce stimuli received by proprioceptive receptors in joints, tendons, muscles, and the INNER EAR into neural impulses to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Proprioception provides sense of stationary positions and movements of one's body parts, and is important in maintaining KINESTHESIA and POSTURAL BALANCE.

The four cellular masses in the floor of the fourth ventricle giving rise to a widely dispersed special sensory system. Included is the superior, medial, inferior, and LATERAL VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS. (From Dorland, 27th ed)

A competitive nine-member team sport including softball.

The joint that is formed by the articulation of the head of FEMUR and the ACETABULUM of the PELVIS.

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

The real or apparent movement of objects through the visual field.

A synovial hinge connection formed between the bones of the FEMUR; TIBIA; and PATELLA.

Diseases of the cervical (and first thoracic) roots, nerve trunks, cords, and peripheral nerve components of the BRACHIAL PLEXUS. Clinical manifestations include regional pain, PARESTHESIA; MUSCLE WEAKNESS, and decreased sensation (HYPESTHESIA) in the upper extremity. These disorders may be associated with trauma (including BIRTH INJURIES); THORACIC OUTLET SYNDROME; NEOPLASMS; NEURITIS; RADIOTHERAPY; and other conditions. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1351-2)

Sense of movement of a part of the body, such as movement of fingers, elbows, knees, limbs, or weights.

Three-dimensional representation to show anatomic structures. Models may be used in place of intact animals or organisms for teaching, practice, and study.

The musculotendinous sheath formed by the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, subscapularis, and teres minor muscles. These help stabilize the head of the HUMERUS in the glenoid fossa and allow for rotation of the SHOULDER JOINT about its longitudinal axis.

Measurements of joint flexibility (RANGE OF MOTION, ARTICULAR), usually by employing an angle-measuring device (arthrometer). Arthrometry is used to measure ligamentous laxity and stability. It is often used to evaluate the outcome of ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT replacement surgery.

Programs of training in medicine and medical specialties offered by hospitals for graduates of medicine to meet the requirements established by accrediting authorities.

Displacement of the HUMERUS from the SCAPULA.

Disorder caused by motion, as sea sickness, train sickness, car sickness, air sickness, or SPACE MOTION SICKNESS. It may include nausea, vomiting and dizziness.

The physical state of supporting an applied load. This often refers to the weight-bearing bones or joints that support the body's weight, especially those in the spine, hip, knee, and foot.

The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.

The coordination of a sensory or ideational (cognitive) process and a motor activity.

The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).

The apparent deflection (Coriolis acceleration) of a body in motion with respect to the earth, as seen by an observer on the earth, attributed to a fictitious force (Coriolis force) but actually caused by the rotation of the earth. In a medical context it refers to the physiological effects (nausea, vertigo, dizziness, etc.) felt by a person moving radially in a rotating system, as a rotating space station. (From Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed & McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

The longest and largest bone of the skeleton, it is situated between the hip and the knee.

Computer-based representation of physical systems and phenomena such as chemical processes.

Investigative technique commonly used during ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY in which a series of bright light flashes or visual patterns are used to elicit brain activity.

Fibrous cords of CONNECTIVE TISSUE that attach bones to each other and hold together the many types of joints in the body. Articular ligaments are strong, elastic, and allow movement in only specific directions, depending on the individual joint.

Making measurements by the use of stereoscopic photographs.

A new pattern of perceptual or ideational material derived from past experience.

Process whereby a cell, bodily structure, or organism (animal or plant) receives or detects a gravity stimulus. Gravity sensing plays an important role in the directional growth and development of an organism (GRAVITROPISM).

The second longest bone of the skeleton. It is located on the medial side of the lower leg, articulating with the FIBULA laterally, the TALUS distally, and the FEMUR proximally.

Pathological processes of the VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH which contains part of the balancing apparatus. Patients with vestibular diseases show instability and are at risk of frequent falls.

The awareness of the spatial properties of objects; includes physical space.

VERTEBRAE in the region of the lower BACK below the THORACIC VERTEBRAE and above the SACRAL VERTEBRAE.

Membrane-bound proton-translocating ATPases that serve two important physiological functions in bacteria. One function is to generate ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE by utilizing the energy provided by an electrochemical gradient of protons across the cellular membrane. A second function is to counteract a loss of the transmembrane ion gradient by pumping protons at the expense of adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis.

Mechanical or anoxic trauma incurred by the infant during labor or delivery.

A genus of the family CEBIDAE consisting of four species: S. boliviensis, S. orstedii (red-backed squirrel monkey), S. sciureus (common squirrel monkey), and S. ustus. They inhabit tropical rain forests in Central and South America. S. sciureus is used extensively in research studies.

Behavioral manifestations of cerebral dominance in which there is preferential use and superior functioning of either the left or the right side, as in the preferred use of the right hand or right foot.

The spinal or vertebral column.

Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Devices which are used in the treatment of orthopedic injuries and diseases.

The positioning and accommodation of eyes that allows the image to be brought into place on the FOVEA CENTRALIS of each eye.

The continuous visual field seen by a subject through space and time.

A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.

The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)

The superior part of the upper extremity between the SHOULDER and the ELBOW.

Surgical procedure by which a tendon is incised at its insertion and placed at an anatomical site distant from the original insertion. The tendon remains attached at the point of origin and takes over the function of a muscle inactivated by trauma or disease.

Perception of three-dimensionality.

Practical experience in medical and health-related services that occurs as part of an educational program wherein the professionally-trained student works outside the academic environment under the supervision of an established professional in the particular field.

A group of twelve VERTEBRAE connected to the ribs that support the upper trunk region.

A number of tests used to determine if the brain or balance portion of the inner ear are causing dizziness.

A change in, or manipulation of, gravitational force. This may be a natural or artificial effect.

Partial or total replacement of a joint.

The plan and delineation of prostheses in general or a specific prosthesis.

Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms.

A purely physical condition which exists within any material because of strain or deformation by external forces or by non-uniform thermal expansion; expressed quantitatively in units of force per unit area.

The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.

The surgical cutting of a bone. (Dorland, 28th ed)

Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.

The non-genetic biological changes of an organism in response to challenges in its ENVIRONMENT.

The use of wings or wing-like appendages to remain aloft and move through the air.

A syndrome characterized by retropatellar or peripatellar PAIN resulting from physical and biochemical changes in the patellofemoral joint. The pain is most prominent when ascending or descending stairs, squatting, or sitting with flexed knees. There is a lack of consensus on the etiology and treatment. The syndrome is often confused with (or accompanied by) CHONDROMALACIA PATELLAE, the latter describing a pathological condition of the CARTILAGE and not a syndrome.

Paralysis of an infant resulting from injury received at birth. (From Dorland, 27th ed)

The first seven VERTEBRAE of the SPINAL COLUMN, which correspond to the VERTEBRAE of the NECK.

Methods of creating machines and devices.

A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.

Products or parts of products used to detect, manipulate, or analyze light, such as LENSES, refractors, mirrors, filters, prisms, and OPTICAL FIBERS.

The selecting and organizing of visual stimuli based on the individual's past experience.

Specialized devices used in ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY to repair bone fractures.

A POSTURE in which an ideal body mass distribution is achieved. Postural balance provides the body carriage stability and conditions for normal functions in stationary position or in movement, such as sitting, standing, or walking.

The essential part of the hearing organ consists of two labyrinthine compartments: the bony labyrinthine and the membranous labyrinth. The bony labyrinth is a complex of three interconnecting cavities or spaces (COCHLEA; VESTIBULAR LABYRINTH; and SEMICIRCULAR CANALS) in the TEMPORAL BONE. Within the bony labyrinth lies the membranous labyrinth which is a complex of sacs and tubules (COCHLEAR DUCT; SACCULE AND UTRICLE; and SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS) forming a continuous space enclosed by EPITHELIUM and connective tissue. These spaces are filled with LABYRINTHINE FLUIDS of various compositions.

The neck muscles consist of the platysma, splenius cervicis, sternocleidomastoid(eus), longus colli, the anterior, medius, and posterior scalenes, digastric(us), stylohyoid(eus), mylohyoid(eus), geniohyoid(eus), sternohyoid(eus), omohyoid(eus), sternothyroid(eus), and thyrohyoid(eus).

Manner or style of walking.

A computer based method of simulating or analyzing the behavior of structures or components.

Bones that constitute each half of the pelvic girdle in VERTEBRATES, formed by fusion of the ILIUM; ISCHIUM; and PUBIC BONE.

An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.

Educational programs for medical graduates entering a specialty. They include formal specialty training as well as academic work in the clinical and basic medical sciences, and may lead to board certification or an advanced medical degree.

A neurotransmitter analogue that depletes noradrenergic stores in nerve endings and induces a reduction of dopamine levels in the brain. Its mechanism of action is related to the production of cytolytic free-radicals.

A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.

The distal extremity of the leg in vertebrates, consisting of the tarsus (ANKLE); METATARSUS; phalanges; and the soft tissues surrounding these bones.

A procedure consisting of a sequence of algebraic formulas and/or logical steps to calculate or determine a given task.

The movement of cells or organisms toward or away from a substance in response to its concentration gradient.

The space or compartment surrounded by the pelvic girdle (bony pelvis). It is subdivided into the greater pelvis and LESSER PELVIS. The pelvic girdle is formed by the PELVIC BONES and SACRUM.

Production of an image when x-rays strike a fluorescent screen.

The failure by the observer to measure or identify a phenomenon accurately, which results in an error. Sources for this may be due to the observer's missing an abnormality, or to faulty technique resulting in incorrect test measurement, or to misinterpretation of the data. Two varieties are inter-observer variation (the amount observers vary from one another when reporting on the same material) and intra-observer variation (the amount one observer varies between observations when reporting more than once on the same material).

Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of chemical processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.

The deductive study of shape, quantity, and dependence. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

The replacement of intervertebral discs in the spinal column with artificial devices. The procedure is done in the lumbar or cervical spine to relieve severe pain resulting from INTERVERTEBRAL DISC DEGENERATION.

Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).

The storing or preserving of video signals for television to be played back later via a transmitter or receiver. Recordings may be made on magnetic tape or discs (VIDEODISC RECORDING).

A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organ systems of adults.

Operative immobilization or ankylosis of two or more vertebrae by fusion of the vertebral bodies with a short bone graft or often with diskectomy or laminectomy. (From Blauvelt & Nelson, A Manual of Orthopaedic Terminology, 5th ed, p236; Dorland, 28th ed)

Internal devices used in osteosynthesis to hold the position of the fracture in proper alignment. By applying the principles of biomedical engineering, the surgeon uses metal plates, nails, rods, etc., for the correction of skeletal defects.

The joint that is formed by the inferior articular and malleolar articular surfaces of the TIBIA; the malleolar articular surface of the FIBULA; and the medial malleolar, lateral malleolar, and superior surfaces of the TALUS.

Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.

Prolonged shortening of the muscle or other soft tissue around a joint, preventing movement of the joint.

A surgical specialty which utilizes medical, surgical, and physical methods to treat and correct deformities, diseases, and injuries to the skeletal system, its articulations, and associated structures.

The blending of separate images seen by each eye into one composite image.

The time from the onset of a stimulus until a response is observed.

Relatively permanent change in behavior that is the result of past experience or practice. The concept includes the acquisition of knowledge.

The joint that occurs between facets of the interior and superior articular processes of adjacent VERTEBRAE.

A course of study offered by an educational institution.

The misinterpretation of a real external, sensory experience.

Individuals enrolled in a school of medicine or a formal educational program in medicine.

Processes and properties of the EYE as a whole or of any of its parts.

A species of the genus MACACA inhabiting India, China, and other parts of Asia. The species is used extensively in biomedical research and adapts very well to living with humans.

The distal part of the arm beyond the wrist in humans and primates, that includes the palm, fingers, and thumb.

The joint involving the CERVICAL ATLAS and axis bones.

Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.

The capability to perform acceptably those duties directly related to patient care.

The projecting part on each side of the body, formed by the side of the pelvis and the top portion of the femur.

Replacement of the knee joint.

The study of PHYSICAL PHENOMENA and PHYSICAL PROCESSES as applied to living things.

Prostheses used to partially or totally replace a human or animal joint. (from UMDNS, 1999)

The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water.

The part of a human or animal body connecting the HEAD to the rest of the body.

Proton-translocating ATPases which produce ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE in plants. They derive energy from light-driven reactions that develop high concentrations of protons within the membranous cisternae (THYLAKOIDS) of the CHLOROPLASTS.

Toxic substances isolated from various strains of Streptomyces. They are 20-membered macrolides that inhibit oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial ATPases. Venturicidins A and B are glycosides. Used mainly as tools in the study of mitochondrial function.

An abrupt voluntary shift in ocular fixation from one point to another, as occurs in reading.

Moving a patient into a specific position or POSTURE to facilitate examination, surgery, or for therapeutic purposes.

The TARSAL BONES; METATARSAL BONES; and PHALANGES OF TOES. The tarsal bones consists of seven bones: CALCANEUS; TALUS; cuboid; navicular; internal; middle; and external cuneiform bones. The five metatarsal bones are numbered one through five, running medial to lateral. There are 14 phalanges in each foot, the great toe has two while the other toes have three each.

Unilateral or bilateral pain of the shoulder. It is often caused by physical activities such as work or sports participation, but may also be pathologic in origin.

A strong ligament of the knee that originates from the posteromedial portion of the lateral condyle of the femur, passes anteriorly and inferiorly between the condyles, and attaches to the depression in front of the intercondylar eminence of the tibia.

Conceptual functions or thinking in all its forms.

The sensory discrimination of a pattern shape or outline.

Inflammation or irritation of a bursa, the fibrous sac that acts as a cushion between moving structures of bones, muscles, tendons or skin.

The sac enclosing a joint. It is composed of an outer fibrous articular capsule and an inner SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE.

Measurement of the polarization of fluorescent light from solutions or microscopic specimens. It is used to provide information concerning molecular size, shape, and conformation, molecular anisotropy, electronic energy transfer, molecular interaction, including dye and coenzyme binding, and the antigen-antibody reaction.

Compression of the rotator cuff tendons and subacromial bursa between the humeral head and structures that make up the coracoacromial arch and the humeral tuberosities. This condition is associated with subacromial bursitis and rotator cuff (largely supraspinatus) and bicipital tendon inflammation, with or without degenerative changes in the tendon. Pain that is most severe when the arm is abducted in an arc between 40 and 120 degrees, sometimes associated with tears in the rotator cuff, is the chief symptom. (From Jablonski's Dictionary of Syndromes and Eponymic Diseases, 2d ed)

Proteins found in any species of bacterium.

Displacement of bones out of line in relation to joints. It may be congenital or traumatic in origin.

The act of knowing or the recognition of a distance by recollective thought, or by means of a sensory process which is under the influence of set and of prior experience.

Any of the 23 plates of fibrocartilage found between the bodies of adjacent VERTEBRAE.

Procedures used to treat and correct deformities, diseases, and injuries to the MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM, its articulations, and associated structures.

Replacement for a knee joint.

The restriction of the MOVEMENT of whole or part of the body by physical means (RESTRAINT, PHYSICAL) or chemically by ANALGESIA, or the use of TRANQUILIZING AGENTS or NEUROMUSCULAR NONDEPOLARIZING AGENTS. It includes experimental protocols used to evaluate the physiologic effects of immobility.

A partial or complete return to the normal or proper physiologic activity of an organ or part following disease or trauma.

The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.

The selection, appointing, and scheduling of personnel.

The portion of the upper rounded extremity fitting into the glenoid cavity of the SCAPULA. (from Stedman, 27th ed)

Energy that is generated by the transfer of protons or electrons across an energy-transducing membrane and that can be used for chemical, osmotic, or mechanical work. Proton-motive force can be generated by a variety of phenomena including the operation of an electron transport chain, illumination of a PURPLE MEMBRANE, and the hydrolysis of ATP by a proton ATPase. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed, p171)

Devices or objects in various imaging techniques used to visualize or enhance visualization by simulating conditions encountered in the procedure. Phantoms are used very often in procedures employing or measuring x-irradiation or radioactive material to evaluate performance. Phantoms often have properties similar to human tissue. Water demonstrates absorbing properties similar to normal tissue, hence water-filled phantoms are used to map radiation levels. Phantoms are used also as teaching aids to simulate real conditions with x-ray or ultrasonic machines. (From Iturralde, Dictionary and Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Clinical Imaging, 1990)

Reactions of an individual or groups of individuals with relation to the immediate surrounding area including the animate or inanimate objects within that area.

The quality or state of being able to be bent or creased repeatedly. (From Webster, 3d ed)

Act of eliciting a response from a person or organism through physical contact.

Signals for an action; that specific portion of a perceptual field or pattern of stimuli to which a subject has learned to respond.

A rigorously mathematical analysis of energy relationships (heat, work, temperature, and equilibrium). It describes systems whose states are determined by thermal parameters, such as temperature, in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic parameters. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed)

The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.

The level of protein structure in which regular hydrogen-bond interactions within contiguous stretches of polypeptide chain give rise to alpha helices, beta strands (which align to form beta sheets) or other types of coils. This is the first folding level of protein conformation.

A strong ligament of the knee that originates from the anterolateral surface of the medial condyle of the femur, passes posteriorly and inferiorly between the condyles, and attaches to the posterior intercondylar area of the tibia.

Change in learning in one situation due to prior learning in another situation. The transfer can be positive (with second learning improved by first) or negative (where the reverse holds).

The planned and carefully managed manual movement of the musculoskeletal system, extremities, and spine to produce increased motion. The term is sometimes used to denote a precise sequence of movements of a joint to determine the presence of disease or to reduce a dislocation. In the case of fractures, orthopedic manipulation can produce better position and alignment of the fracture. (From Blauvelt & Nelson, A Manual of Orthopaedic Terminology, 5th ed, p264)

The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

A species of gram-negative, halophilic bacteria, in the genus VIBRIO. It is considered part of normal marine flora and commonly associated with ear infections and superficial wounds exposed to contaminated water sources.

Eye movements that are slow, continuous, and conjugate and occur when a fixed object is moved slowly.

Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.

Computer systems or networks designed to provide radiographic interpretive information.

The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.

The point of articulation between the OCCIPITAL BONE and the CERVICAL ATLAS.

A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.

Cultivated plants or agricultural produce such as grain, vegetables, or fruit. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982)

The physical characteristics and processes of biological systems.

The period of medical education in a medical school. In the United States it follows the baccalaureate degree and precedes the granting of the M.D.

The part of the pelvis that comprises the pelvic socket where the head of FEMUR joins to form HIP JOINT (acetabulofemoral joint).

Large bodies consisting of self-luminous gas held together by their own gravity. (From McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)

Improvement in the quality of an x-ray image by use of an intensifying screen, tube, or filter and by optimum exposure techniques. Digital processing methods are often employed.

Posture while lying with the head lower than the rest of the body. Extended time in this position is associated with temporary physiologic disturbances.

The method of measuring the dispersion of an optically active molecule to determine the relative magnitude of right- or left-handed components and sometimes structural features of the molecule.

Ergoline derivative LEK-8829-induced turning behavior in rats with unilateral striatal ibotenic acid lesions: interaction with bromocriptine. (1/2795)

LEK-8829 [9,10-didehydro-N-methyl-(2-propynyl)-6-methyl-8- aminomethylergoline bimaleinate] is an antagonist of dopamine D2 receptors and serotonin (5-HT)2 and 5-HT1A receptors in intact animals and a D1 receptor agonist in dopamine-depleted animals. In the present study, we used rats with unilateral striatal lesions with ibotenic acid (IA) to investigate the dopamine receptor activities of LEK-8829 in a model with innervated dopamine receptors. The IA-lesioned rats circled ipsilaterally when challenged with apomorphine, the mixed agonist on D1/D2 receptors. LEK-8829 induced a dose-dependent contralateral turning that was blocked by D1 receptor antagonist SCH-23390. The treatment with D1 receptor agonist SKF-82958 induced ipsilateral turning, whereas the treatment with D2 receptor antagonist haloperidol induced contralateral posture. The combined treatment with SKF-82958 and haloperidol resulted in a weak contralateral turning, indicating the possible receptor mechanism of contralateral turning induced by LEK-8829. Bromocriptine induced a weak ipsilateral turning that was blocked by haloperidol. The ipsilateral turning induced by bromocriptine was significantly potentiated by the coadministration of a low dose but not by a high dose of LEK-8829. The potentiation of turning was blocked either by SCH-23390 or by haloperidol. The potentiation of ipsilateral turning suggests the costimulation of D2 and D1 receptors by bromocriptine and LEK-8829, respectively, whereas the lack of potentiation by the highest dose of LEK-8829 may be explained by the opposing activity of LEK-8829 and bromocriptine at D2 receptors. We propose that the D2 and 5HT2 receptor-blocking and D1 receptor-stimulating profile of LEK-8829 is promising for the treatment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia. (+info)

3D angiography. Clinical interest. First applications in interventional neuroradiology. (2/2795)

3D angiography is a true technical revolution that allows improvement in the quality and safety of diagnostic and endovascular treatment procedures. 3D angiography images are obtained by reconstruction of a rotational angiography acquisition done on a C-arm (GE Medical Systems) spinning at 40 degrees per second. The carotid or vertebral selective injection of a total of 15 ml of non-ionic contrast media at 3 ml/sec over 5 seconds allows the selection of the "arterial phase". Four hundred sixty 3D angiographic studies were performed from December 1996 to September 1998 on 260 patients and have been analyzed in MIP (Maximum Intensity Projection) and SSD (Shaded Surface Display) views. The exploration of intracranial aneurysms is simplified and only requires, for each vascular axis, a biplane PA and Lateral run followed by a single rotational angiography run. The 3D angiography image is available on the workstation's screen (Advantage Workstation 3.1, GE Medical Systems) in less than 10 minutes after the acquisition of the rotational run. It therefore allows one to analyze, during the intervention, the aneurysm's angioarchitecture, in particular the neck, and select the best therapeutic technique. When endovascular treatment is the best indication, 3D angiography allows one to define the optimal angle of view and accurately select the microcoils dimensions. 3D angiography replaces the multiple oblique views that used to be required to analyze the complex aneurysms and therefore allows a reduction of the total contrast medium quantity, the patient X-ray dose and the length of the intervention time which is a safety factor. Also, in particular for complex cases, it brings additional elements complementing the results of standard 2D DSA and rotational angiograms. In the cervical vascular pathology, 3D angiography allows for a better assessment of the stenosis level and of dissection lesions. Our current research activities focus on the matching without stereotactic frame between 3D X-ray angiography and volumetric MR acquisition, which should allow us to improve the treatment of intracerebral arterio-venous malformations (AVMs). (+info)

Recovery of the vestibulocolic reflex after aminoglycoside ototoxicity in domestic chickens. (3/2795)

Avian auditory and vestibular hair cells regenerate after damage by ototoxic drugs, but until recently there was little evidence that regenerated vestibular hair cells function normally. In an earlier study we showed that the vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) is eliminated with aminoglycoside antibiotic treatment and recovers as hair cells regenerate. The VOR, which stabilizes the eye in the head, is an open-loop system that is thought to depend largely on regularly firing afferents. Recovery of the VOR is highly correlated with the regeneration of type I hair cells. In contrast, the vestibulocolic reflex (VCR), which stabilizes the head in space, is a closed-loop, negative-feedback system that seems to depend more on irregularly firing afferent input and is thought to be subserved by different circuitry than the VOR. We examined whether this different reflex also of vestibular origin would show similar recovery after hair cell regeneration. Lesions of the vestibular hair cells of 10-day-old chicks were created by a 5-day course of streptomycin sulfate. One day after completion of streptomycin treatment there was no measurable VCR gain, and total hair cell density was approximately 35% of that in untreated, age-matched controls. At 2 wk postlesion there was significant recovery of the VCR; at this time two subjects showed VCR gains within the range of control chicks. At 3 wk postlesion all subjects showed VCR gains and phase shifts within the normal range. These data show that the VCR recovers before the VOR. Unlike VOR gain, recovering VCR gain correlates equally well with the density of regenerating type I and type II vestibular hair cells, except at high frequencies. Several factors other than hair cell regeneration, such as length of stereocilia, reafferentation of hair cells, and compensation involving central neural pathways, may be involved in behavioral recovery. Our data suggest that one or more of these factors differentially affect the recovery of these two vestibular reflexes. (+info)

Projections and firing properties of down eye-movement neurons in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the cat. (4/2795)

To clarify the role of the interstitial nucleus of Cajal (INC) in the control of vertical eye movements, projections of burst-tonic and tonic neurons in and around the INC were studied. This paper describes neurons with downward ON directions. We examined, by antidromic activation, whether these down INC (d-INC) neurons contribute to two pathways: a commissural pathway to the contralateral (c-) INC and a descending pathway to the ipsilateral vestibular nucleus (i-VN). Stimulation of the two pathways showed that as many as 74% of neurons were activated antidromically from one of the pathways. Of 113 d-INC neurons tested, 44 were activated from the commissural pathway and 40 from the descending pathway. No neurons were activated from both pathways. We concluded that commissural and descending pathways from the INC originate from two separate groups of neurons. Tracking of antidromic microstimulation in the two nuclei revealed multiple low-threshold sites and varied latencies; this was interpreted as a sign of existence of axonal arborization. Neurons with commissural projections tended to be located more dorsally than those with descending projections. Neurons with descending projections had significantly greater eye-position sensitivity and smaller saccadic sensitivity than neurons with commissural projections. The two groups of INC neurons increased their firing rate in nose-up head rotations and responded best to the rotation in the plane of contralateral posterior/ipsilateral anterior canal pair. Neurons with commissural projections showed a larger phase lag of response to sinusoidal rotation (54.6 +/- 7.6 degrees ) than neurons with descending projections (45.0 +/- 5.5 degrees ). Most neurons with descending projections received disynaptic excitation from the contralateral vestibular nerve. Neurons with commissural projections rarely received such disynaptic input. We suggest that downward-position-vestibular (DPV) neurons in the VN and VN-projecting d-INC neurons form a loop, together with possible commissural loops linking the bilateral VNs and the bilateral INCs. By comparing the quantitative measures of d-INC neurons with those of DPV neurons, we further suggest that integration of head velocity signals proceeds from DPV neurons to d-INC neurons with descending projections and then to d-INC neurons with commissural projections, whereas saccadic velocity signals are processed in the reverse order. (+info)

Modified Bankart procedure for recurrent anterior dislocation and subluxation of the shoulder in athletes. (5/2795)

Thirty-four athletes (34 shoulders) with recurrent anterior glenohumeral instability were treated with a modified Bankart procedure, using a T-shaped capsular incision in the anterior capsule. The inferior flap was advanced medially and/or superiorly and rigidly fixed at the point of the Bankart lesion by a small cancellous screw and a spike-washer. The superior flap was advanced inferiority and sutured over the inferior flap. Twenty-five athletes (median age: 22) were evaluated over a mean period of follow-up of 65 months. The clinical results were graded, according to Rowe, as 22 (88%) excellent, 3 (12%) good, and none as fair or poor. The mean postoperative range of movement was 92 degrees of external rotation in 90 degrees of abduction. Elevation and internal rotation was symmetrical with the opposite side. Twenty-four patients returned to active sport, 22 at their previous level. This modified Bankart procedure is an effective treatment for athletes with recurrent anterior glenohumeral instability. (+info)

Transport of colloidal particles in lymphatics and vasculature after subcutaneous injection. (6/2795)

This study was designed to determine the transport of subcutaneously injected viral-size colloid particles into the lymph and the vascular system in the hind leg of the dog. Transport of two colloid particles, with average size approximately 1 and 0.41 microm, respectively, and with and without leg rotation, was tested. Leg rotation serves to enhance the lymph flow rates. The right femoral vein, lymph vessel, and left femoral artery were cannulated while the animal was under anesthesia, and samples were collected at regular intervals after subcutaneous injection of the particles at the right knee level. The number of particles in the samples were counted under fluorescence microscopy by using a hemocytometer. With and without leg rotation, both particle sets were rapidly taken up into the venous blood and into the lymph fluid. The number of particles carried away from the injection site within the first 5 min was <5% of the injected pool. Particles were also seen in arterial blood samples; this suggests reflow and a prolonged residence time in the blood. These results show that particles the size of viruses are rapidly taken up into the lymphatics and blood vessels after subcutaneous deposition. (+info)

Hip moments during level walking, stair climbing, and exercise in individuals aged 55 years or older. (7/2795)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Low bone mass of the proximal femur is a risk factor for hip fractures. Exercise has been shown to reduce bone loss in older individuals; however, the exercises most likely to influence bone mass of the proximal femur have not been identified. Net moments of force at the hip provide an indication of the mechanical load on the proximal femur. The purpose of this study was to examine various exercises to determine which exercises result in the greatest magnitude and rate of change in moments of force at the hip in older individuals. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Walking and exercise patterns were analyzed for 30 subjects (17 men, 13 women) who were 55 years of age or older (X = 65.4, SD = 6.02, range = 55-75) and who had no identified musculoskeletal or neurological impairment. Kinematic and kinetic data were obtained with an optoelectronic system and a force platform. Results. Of the exercises investigated, only ascending stairs generated peak moments higher than those obtained during level walking and only in the transverse plane. Most of the exercises generated moments and rate of change in moments with magnitudes similar to or lower than those obtained during gait. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: Level walking and exercises that generated moments with magnitudes comparable to or higher than those obtained during gait could be combined in an exercise program designed to maintain or increase bone mass at the hip. (+info)

Orientation-tuned spatial filters for texture-defined form. (8/2795)

Detection threshold for an orientation-texture-defined (OTD) test grating was elevated after adapting to an OTD grating of high orientation contrast. Threshold elevation was greatest for a test grating parallel to the adapting grating, and fell to zero for a test grating perpendicular to the adapting grating. We conclude that the human visual system contains an orientation-tuned neural mechanism sensitive to OTD form, and propose a model for this mechanism. We further propose that orientation discrimination for OTD bars and gratings is determined by the relative activity of these filters for OTD form. (+info)

Types of torsion abnormalities include:

1. Ovarian torsion: This is a condition where the ovary twists around its own axis, cutting off blood supply to the ovary. It can cause severe pain and is a medical emergency.
2. Testicular torsion: Similar to ovarian torsion, this is a condition where the testicle twists, cutting off blood supply to the testicle. It can also cause severe pain and is an emergency situation.
3. Intestinal torsion: This is a condition where the intestine twists, leading to bowel obstruction and potentially life-threatening complications.
4. Twisting of the spleen or liver: These are rare conditions where the spleen or liver twists, causing various symptoms such as pain and difficulty breathing.

Symptoms of torsion abnormalities can include:

1. Severe pain in the affected area
2. Swelling and redness
3. Difficulty breathing (in severe cases)
4. Nausea and vomiting
5. Abdominal tenderness

Treatment of torsion abnormalities usually involves surgery to release or repair the twisted structure and restore blood flow. In some cases, emergency surgery may be necessary to prevent serious complications such as loss of the affected organ or tissue. Prompt medical attention is essential to prevent long-term damage and improve outcomes.

In medicine, cadavers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Anatomy education: Medical students and residents learn about the human body by studying and dissecting cadavers. This helps them develop a deeper understanding of human anatomy and improves their surgical skills.
2. Research: Cadavers are used in scientific research to study the effects of diseases, injuries, and treatments on the human body. This helps scientists develop new medical techniques and therapies.
3. Forensic analysis: Cadavers can be used to aid in the investigation of crimes and accidents. By examining the body and its injuries, forensic experts can determine cause of death, identify suspects, and reconstruct events.
4. Organ donation: After death, cadavers can be used to harvest organs and tissues for transplantation into living patients. This can improve the quality of life for those with organ failure or other medical conditions.
5. Medical training simulations: Cadavers can be used to simulate real-life medical scenarios, allowing healthcare professionals to practice their skills in a controlled environment.

In summary, the term "cadaver" refers to the body of a deceased person and is used in the medical field for various purposes, including anatomy education, research, forensic analysis, organ donation, and medical training simulations.

There are several types of joint instability, including:

1. Ligamentous laxity: A condition where the ligaments surrounding a joint become stretched or torn, leading to instability.
2. Capsular laxity: A condition where the capsule, a thin layer of connective tissue that surrounds a joint, becomes stretched or torn, leading to instability.
3. Muscular imbalance: A condition where the muscles surrounding a joint are either too weak or too strong, leading to instability.
4. Osteochondral defects: A condition where there is damage to the cartilage and bone within a joint, leading to instability.
5. Post-traumatic instability: A condition that develops after a traumatic injury to a joint, such as a dislocation or fracture.

Joint instability can be caused by various factors, including:

1. Trauma: A sudden and forceful injury to a joint, such as a fall or a blow.
2. Overuse: Repeated stress on a joint, such as from repetitive motion or sports activities.
3. Genetics: Some people may be born with joint instability due to inherited genetic factors.
4. Aging: As we age, our joints can become less stable due to wear and tear on the cartilage and other tissues.
5. Disease: Certain diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis or osteoarthritis, can cause joint instability.

Symptoms of joint instability may include:

1. Pain: A sharp, aching pain in the affected joint, especially with movement.
2. Stiffness: Limited range of motion and stiffness in the affected joint.
3. Swelling: Swelling and inflammation in the affected joint.
4. Instability: A feeling of looseness or instability in the affected joint.
5. Crepitus: Grinding or crunching sensations in the affected joint.

Treatment for joint instability depends on the underlying cause and may include:

1. Rest and ice: Resting the affected joint and applying ice to reduce pain and swelling.
2. Physical therapy: Strengthening the surrounding muscles to support the joint and improve stability.
3. Bracing: Using a brace or splint to provide support and stability to the affected joint.
4. Medications: Anti-inflammatory medications, such as ibuprofen or naproxen, to reduce pain and inflammation.
5. Surgery: In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or reconstruct the damaged tissues and improve joint stability.

* Thoracic scoliosis: affects the upper back (thoracic spine)
* Cervical scoliosis: affects the neck (cervical spine)
* Lumbar scoliosis: affects the lower back (lumbar spine)

Scoliosis can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Genetics: inherited conditions that affect the development of the spine
* Birth defects: conditions that are present at birth and affect the spine
* Infections: infections that affect the spine, such as meningitis or tuberculosis
* Injuries: injuries to the spine, such as those caused by car accidents or falls
* Degenerative diseases: conditions that affect the spine over time, such as osteoporosis or arthritis

Symptoms of scoliosis can include:

* An uneven appearance of the shoulders or hips
* A difference in the height of the shoulders or hips
* Pain or discomfort in the back or legs
* Difficulty standing up straight or maintaining balance

Scoliosis can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including:

* X-rays: images of the spine that show the curvature
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): images of the spine and surrounding tissues
* Computed tomography (CT) scans: detailed images of the spine and surrounding tissues

Treatment for scoliosis depends on the severity of the condition and can include:

* Observation: monitoring the condition regularly to see if it progresses
* Bracing: wearing a brace to support the spine and help straighten it
* Surgery: surgical procedures to correct the curvature, such as fusing vertebrae together or implanting a metal rod.

It is important for individuals with scoliosis to receive regular monitoring and treatment to prevent complications and maintain proper spinal alignment.

Brachial plexus neuropathies refer to a group of disorders that affect the brachial plexus, a network of nerves that run from the neck and shoulder down to the hand and fingers. These disorders can cause a range of symptoms including weakness, numbness, and pain in the arm and hand.

The brachial plexus is a complex network of nerves that originates in the spinal cord and branches off into several nerves that supply the shoulder, arm, and hand. Brachial plexus neuropathies can occur due to a variety of causes such as injury, trauma, tumors, cysts, infections, autoimmune disorders, and genetic mutations.

There are several types of brachial plexus neuropathies, including:

1. Erb's palsy: A condition that affects the upper roots of the brachial plexus and can cause weakness or paralysis of the arm and hand.
2. Klumpke's palsy: A condition that affects the lower roots of the brachial plexus and can cause weakness or paralysis of the hand and wrist.
3. Brachial neuritis: An inflammatory condition that causes sudden weakness and pain in the arm and hand.
4. Thoracic outlet syndrome: A condition where the nerves and blood vessels between the neck and shoulder become compressed, leading to pain and weakness in the arm and hand.
5. Neurodegenerative conditions such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and peripheral neuropathy.

The symptoms of brachial plexus neuropathies can vary depending on the type and severity of the condition, but may include:

* Weakness or paralysis of the arm and hand
* Numbness or loss of sensation in the arm and hand
* Pain or aching in the arm and hand
* Muscle wasting or atrophy
* Limited range of motion in the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints
* Decreased grip strength
* Difficulty with fine motor skills such as buttoning a shirt or tying shoelaces.

Brachial plexus neuropathies can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies such as MRI or EMG, and nerve conduction studies. Treatment options vary depending on the specific condition and severity of the symptoms, but may include:

* Physical therapy to improve strength and range of motion
* Occupational therapy to improve fine motor skills and daily living activities
* Medications such as pain relievers or anti-inflammatory drugs
* Injections of corticosteroids to reduce inflammation
* Surgery to release compressed nerves or repair damaged nerve tissue.

There are two main types of shoulder dislocations:

1. Shoulder dislocation: This occurs when the ball at the top of the humerus is forced out of its socket in the scapula.
2. Multidirectional instability (MDI): This occurs when the connections between the humerus, scapula, and collarbone (clavicle) are loose or unstable, causing the shoulder to dislocate in multiple directions.

Symptoms of a shoulder dislocation may include:

* Severe pain in your shoulder
* Swelling and bruising around your shoulder
* Difficulty moving your arm or putting weight on it
* A visible deformity in your shoulder

If you suspect that you have a shoulder dislocation, it's important to seek medical attention right away. Your doctor may perform an X-ray or other imaging tests to confirm the diagnosis and determine the severity of the dislocation. Treatment options for a shoulder dislocation may include:

* Reduction: This is a procedure where your doctor manipulates the bones back into their proper position.
* Immobilization: Your arm may be immobilized in a sling or brace to allow the joint to heal.
* Physical therapy: After the initial injury has healed, physical therapy can help improve range of motion and strength in your shoulder.

In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair any damage to the surrounding tissues or to realign the bones. It's important to follow your doctor's recommendations for treatment and rehabilitation to ensure proper healing and prevent future complications.

The inner ear, brain, and sensory nerves are all involved in the development of motion sickness. The inner ear contains the vestibular system, which is responsible for maintaining balance and equilibrium. The brain processes visual, proprioceptive (position and movement), and vestibular information to determine the body's position and movement. When these signals are not in harmony, the brain can become confused and motion sickness can occur.

There are several factors that can contribute to the development of motion sickness, including:

1. Conflicting sensory input: This can occur when the visual, proprioceptive, and vestibular systems provide conflicting information about the body's position and movement. For example, if the body is moving but the eyes do not see any movement, this can confuse the brain and lead to motion sickness.
2. Movement of the body: Motion sickness can occur when the body is in motion, such as on a boat or airplane, or during a car ride. This can be particularly problematic for people who are prone to motion sickness.
3. Reading or looking at screens: Reading or looking at screens can exacerbate motion sickness, as it can provide conflicting visual and vestibular information.
4. Other medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as inner ear problems or migraines, can increase the risk of developing motion sickness.
5. Medications: Some medications, such as antidepressants and antihistamines, can increase the risk of developing motion sickness.

There are several ways to prevent and treat motion sickness, including:

1. Avoiding heavy meals before traveling: Eating a light meal before traveling can help reduce the risk of motion sickness.
2. Choosing a seat with less motion: In vehicles, choosing a seat with less motion can help reduce the risk of motion sickness.
3. Keeping the eyes on the horizon: Looking at the horizon can help reduce the conflict between visual and vestibular information.
4. Taking medication: There are several over-the-counter and prescription medications available to prevent and treat motion sickness, such as dramamine and scopolamine patches.
5. Using wristbands: Sea bands or wristbands that apply pressure to a specific point on the wrist have been shown to be effective in preventing motion sickness.
6. Avoiding alcohol and caffeine: Consuming these substances can exacerbate motion sickness, so it is best to avoid them before and during travel.
7. Staying hydrated: Drinking plenty of water and other fluids can help reduce the symptoms of motion sickness.
8. Getting fresh air: Fresh air can help reduce the symptoms of motion sickness, so it is best to sit near an open window or take breaks outside.

Some common examples of vestibular diseases include:

1. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV): A condition that causes brief episodes of vertigo triggered by changes in head position.
2. Labyrinthitis: An inner ear infection that causes vertigo, hearing loss, and tinnitus (ringing in the ears).
3. Vestibular migraine: A type of migraine that causes vertigo, along with headaches and other symptoms.
4. Meniere's disease: A disorder of the inner ear that causes vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss, and a feeling of fullness in the affected ear.
5. Acoustic neuroma: A benign tumor that grows on the nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain, causing symptoms such as vertigo, hearing loss, and tinnitus.
6. Superior canal dehiscence syndrome: A condition in which the bony covering of the superior canal in the inner ear is thin or absent, leading to symptoms such as vertigo, hearing loss, and sound sensitivity.
7. Perilymph fistula: A tear or defect in the membrane that separates the middle ear from the inner ear, causing symptoms such as vertigo, hearing loss, and tinnitus.
8. Ototoxicity: Damage to the inner ear caused by exposure to certain medications or chemicals, leading to symptoms such as vertigo, hearing loss, and tinnitus.

Diagnosis of vestibular diseases typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, and specialized tests such as the Electronystagmography (ENG) or Vestibular Function Tests (VFT). Treatment options vary depending on the underlying cause of the symptoms, but may include medications, vestibular rehabilitation therapy, or surgery.

Some common types of birth injuries include:

1. Brain damage: This can occur due to a lack of oxygen to the baby's brain during delivery, resulting in conditions such as cerebral palsy or hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).
2. Nerve damage: This can result from prolonged labor, use of forceps or vacuum extraction, or improper handling of the baby during delivery, leading to conditions such as brachial plexus injuries or Erb's palsy.
3. Fractures: These can occur due to improper use of forceps or vacuum extraction, or from the baby being dropped or handled roughly during delivery.
4. Cutaneous injuries: These can result from rough handling or excessive pressure during delivery, leading to conditions such as caput succedaneum (swelling of the scalp) or cephalohematoma (bleeding under the skin of the head).
5. Infections: These can occur if the baby is exposed to bacteria during delivery, leading to conditions such as sepsis or meningitis.
6. Respiratory distress syndrome: This can occur if the baby does not breathe properly after birth, resulting in difficulty breathing and low oxygen levels.
7. Shoulder dystocia: This occurs when the baby's shoulder becomes stuck during delivery, leading to injury or damage to the baby's shoulder or neck.
8. Umbilical cord prolapse: This occurs when the umbilical cord comes out of the birth canal before the baby, leading to compression or strangulation of the cord and potentially causing injury to the baby.
9. Meconium aspiration: This occurs when the baby inhales a mixture of meconium (bowel movement) and amniotic fluid during delivery, leading to respiratory distress and other complications.
10. Brachial plexus injuries: These occur when the nerves in the baby's neck and shoulder are damaged during delivery, leading to weakness or paralysis of the arm and hand.

It is important to note that not all birth injuries can be prevented, but proper medical care and attention during pregnancy, labor, and delivery can help minimize the risk of complications. If you suspect that your baby has been injured during delivery, it is important to seek prompt medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

The exact cause of PFPS is not well understood, but several factors are thought to contribute to its development. These include:

1) Overuse or repetitive strain on the knee joint, particularly during activities that involve bending or squatting.

2) Poor alignment of the kneecap in the groove of the femur (trochlear dysplasia), which can lead to abnormal pressure on the underside of the patella.

3) Weak quadriceps muscles, which can cause excessive stress on the patellar tendon and lead to pain.

4) Tight or inflexible soft tissues, particularly the iliotibial (IT) band, which can pull the kneecap out of alignment and cause pain.

Symptoms of PFPS typically include:

1) Pain in the front of the knee, usually around the kneecap.

2) Tenderness or swelling in the patellar tendon or the kneecap.

3) Pain or stiffness when bending or straightening the knee.

4) A grinding or clicking sensation in the knee joint.

Treatment for PFPS typically involves a combination of physical therapy, bracing, and medication. Physical therapy may include exercises to strengthen the quadriceps and hamstring muscles, as well as stretching and flexibility exercises to improve patellar alignment and reduce tension in the IT band. Bracing may involve wearing a knee brace or patellar stabilizer to help realign the kneecap and reduce pressure on the patellar tendon. Medication may include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or corticosteroid injections to reduce pain and inflammation. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to realign the kneecap or repair damaged tissue.

Preventing PFPS involves taking steps to reduce stress on the patellar tendon and prevent overuse of the knee joint. This can include:

1) Warming up before exercise or athletic activity with stretching and light cardio.

2) Using proper technique and form during exercise or athletic activity.

3) Gradually increasing intensity and duration of exercise or athletic activity over time.

4) Strengthening the quadriceps and hamstring muscles through exercises like squats, lunges, and leg press.

5) Wearing properly fitting shoes with good arch support and cushioning.

There are different types of OP, including:

1. Erb's Palsy: A condition that occurs when the nerves in the neck are damaged during delivery, leading to weakness or paralysis of the arm and shoulder muscles.
2. Brachial Plexus Birth Palsy (BPBP): A condition that occurs when the nerves in the upper group of the brachial plexus (a network of nerves in the neck and shoulder) are damaged during delivery, leading to weakness or paralysis of the arm and hand muscles.
3. Posterior Cord Syndrome: A condition that occurs when the nerves in the lower back are damaged during delivery, leading to weakness or paralysis of the legs, bladder, and bowel function.
4. Central Cord Syndrome: A condition that occurs when the nerves in the spinal cord are damaged during delivery, leading to weakness or paralysis of the muscles in the trunk, arms, and legs.

The symptoms of OP can vary depending on the type and severity of the condition, but may include:

* Weakness or paralysis of specific muscle groups
* Difficulty with movement and coordination
* Loss of sensation in certain areas of the body
* Bladder and bowel dysfunction
* Decreased reflexes

OP can be diagnosed through a physical examination, nerve conduction studies, and imaging tests such as MRI or EMG. Treatment for OP typically involves physical therapy, occupational therapy, and other supportive measures to help improve muscle strength and function. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to relieve pressure on the affected nerves or to repair damaged tissue.

Preventing OP is important, and this can involve:

* Proper use of obstetric forceps or vacuum extraction during delivery
* Avoiding excessive traction or pressure on the baby's head or body during delivery
* Monitoring fetal heart rate and using appropriate interventions if there are signs of distress
* Encouraging a safe and healthy pregnancy and delivery, with proper prenatal care and avoiding risk factors such as smoking, alcohol use, and high blood pressure.

There are different types of contractures, including:

1. Scar contracture: This type of contracture occurs when a scar tissue forms and tightens, causing a loss of movement in the affected area.
2. Neurogenic contracture: This type of contracture is caused by nerve damage and can occur after an injury or surgery.
3. Post-burn contracture: This type of contracture occurs after a burn injury and is caused by scarring and tightening of the skin and underlying tissues.
4. Congenital contracture: This type of contracture is present at birth and can be caused by genetic or environmental factors.

Signs and symptoms of contractures may include:

1. Limited range of motion
2. Pain or stiffness in the affected area
3. Skin tightening or shrinkage
4. Deformity of the affected area

Treatment options for contractures depend on the severity and cause of the condition, and may include:

1. Physical therapy to improve range of motion and strength
2. Bracing to support the affected area and prevent further tightening
3. Surgery to release or lengthen the scar tissue or tendons
4. Injections of botulinum toxin or other medications to relax the muscle and improve range of motion.

1. A false or misleading sensory experience, such as seeing a shape or color that is not actually present.
2. A delusion or mistaken belief that is not based on reality or evidence.
3. A symptom that is perceived by the patient but cannot be detected by medical examination or testing.
4. A feeling of being drugged, dizzy, or disoriented, often accompanied by hallucinations or altered perceptions.
5. A temporary and harmless condition caused by a sudden change in bodily functions or sensations, such as a hot flash or a wave of dizziness.
6. A false or mistaken belief about one's own health or medical condition, often resulting from misinterpretation of symptoms or self-diagnosis.
7. A psychological phenomenon in which the patient experiences a feeling of being in a different body or experiencing a different reality, such as feeling like one is in a dream or a parallel universe.
8. A neurological condition characterized by disturbances in sensory perception, such as seeing things that are not there ( hallucinations) or perceiving sensations that are not real.
9. A type of hysteria or conversion disorder in which the patient experiences physical symptoms without any underlying medical cause, such as numbness or paralysis of a limb.
10. A condition in which the patient has a false belief that they have a serious medical condition, often accompanied by excessive anxiety or fear.

ILLUSIONS IN MEDICINE

Illusions can be a significant challenge in medicine, as they can lead to misdiagnosis, mismanagement of symptoms, and unnecessary treatment. Here are some examples of how illusions can manifest in medical settings:

1. Visual illusions: A patient may see something that is not actually there, such as a shadow or a shape, which can be misinterpreted as a sign of a serious medical condition.
2. Auditory illusions: A patient may hear sounds or noises that are not real, such as ringing in the ears (tinnitus) or hearing voices.
3. Tactile illusions: A patient may feel sensations on their skin that are not real, such as itching or crawling sensations.
4. Olfactory illusions: A patient may smell something that is not there, such as a strange odor or a familiar scent that is not actually present.
5. Gustatory illusions: A patient may taste something that is not there, such as a metallic or bitter taste.
6. Proprioceptive illusions: A patient may feel sensations of movement or position changes that are not real, such as feeling like they are spinning or floating.
7. Interoceptive illusions: A patient may experience sensations in their body that are not real, such as feeling like their heart is racing or their breathing is shallow.
8. Cognitive illusions: A patient may have false beliefs about their medical condition or treatment, such as believing they have a serious disease when they do not.

THE NEUROSCIENCE OF ILLUSIONS

Illusions are the result of complex interactions between the brain and the sensory systems. Here are some key factors that contribute to the experience of illusions:

1. Brain processing: The brain processes sensory information and uses past experiences and expectations to interpret what is being perceived. This can lead to misinterpretation and the experience of illusions.
2. Sensory integration: The brain integrates information from multiple senses, such as vision, hearing, and touch, to create a unified perception of reality. Imbalances in sensory integration can contribute to the experience of illusions.
3. Attention: The brain's attention system plays a critical role in determining what is perceived and how it is interpreted. Attention can be directed towards certain stimuli or away from others, leading to the experience of illusions.
4. Memory: Past experiences and memories can influence the interpretation of current sensory information, leading to the experience of illusions.
5. Emotion: Emotional states can also affect the interpretation of sensory information, leading to the experience of illusions. For example, a person in a state of fear may interpret ambiguous sensory information as threatening.

THE TREATMENT OF ILLUSIONS

Treatment for illusions depends on the underlying cause and can vary from case to case. Some possible treatment options include:

1. Sensory therapy: Sensory therapy, such as vision or hearing therapy, may be used to improve sensory processing and reduce the experience of illusions.
2. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): CBT can help individuals identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors that contribute to the experience of illusions.
3. Mindfulness training: Mindfulness training can help individuals develop greater awareness of their sensory experiences and reduce the influence of illusions.
4. Medication: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to treat underlying conditions that are contributing to the experience of illusions, such as anxiety or depression.
5. Environmental modifications: Environmental modifications, such as changing the lighting or reducing noise levels, may be made to reduce the stimulus intensity and improve perception.

CONCLUSION

Illusions are a common experience that can have a significant impact on our daily lives. Understanding the causes of illusions and seeking appropriate treatment can help individuals manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life. By working with a healthcare professional, individuals can develop a personalized treatment plan that addresses their specific needs and helps them overcome the challenges of illusions.

The shoulder is a complex joint that consists of several bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments, which work together to provide a wide range of motion and stability. Any disruption in this delicate balance can cause pain and dysfunction.

Some common causes of shoulder pain include:

1. Rotator cuff injuries: The rotator cuff is a group of muscles and tendons that surround the shoulder joint, providing stability and mobility. Injuries to the rotator cuff can cause pain and weakness in the shoulder.
2. Bursitis: Bursae are small fluid-filled sacs that cushion the joints and reduce friction between the bones, muscles, and tendons. Inflammation of the bursae (bursitis) can cause pain and swelling in the shoulder.
3. Tendinitis: Tendinitis is inflammation of the tendons, which connect the muscles to the bones. Tendinitis in the shoulder can cause pain and stiffness.
4. Dislocations: A dislocation occurs when the ball of the humerus (upper arm bone) is forced out of the shoulder socket. This can cause severe pain, swelling, and limited mobility.
5. Osteoarthritis: Osteoarthritis is a degenerative condition that affects the joints, including the shoulder. It can cause pain, stiffness, and limited mobility.
6. Frozen shoulder: Also known as adhesive capsulitis, frozen shoulder is a condition where the connective tissue in the shoulder joint becomes inflamed and scarred, leading to pain and stiffness.
7. Labral tears: The labrum is a cartilage ring that surrounds the shoulder socket, providing stability and support. Tears to the labrum can cause pain and instability in the shoulder.
8. Fractures: Fractures of the humerus, clavicle, or scapula (shoulder blade) can cause pain, swelling, and limited mobility.
9. Rotator cuff tears: The rotator cuff is a group of muscles and tendons that provide stability and support to the shoulder joint. Tears to the rotator cuff can cause pain and weakness in the shoulder.
10. Impingement syndrome: Impingement syndrome occurs when the tendons of the rotator cuff become pinched or compressed as they pass through the shoulder joint, leading to pain and inflammation.

These are just a few examples of common shoulder injuries and conditions. If you're experiencing shoulder pain or stiffness, it's important to see a doctor for proper diagnosis and treatment.

There are several types of bursitis, including:

1. Subacromial bursitis: This type occurs on the underside of the acromion (a bony projection on the shoulder blade) and is common among athletes who throw or perform repetitive overhead motions.
2. Retrocalcaneal bursitis: This type affects the heel of the foot and is caused by excessive standing or walking, poorly fitting shoes, or injury to the ankle or heel.
3. Prepatellar bursitis: This type affects the front of the kneecap and can be caused by direct trauma, repetitive kneeling, or inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Olecranal bursitis: This type affects the elbow and is often caused by repetitive flexion and extension of the arm.
5. Trochanteric bursitis: This type affects the thigh bone and is common among older adults or those with hip arthritis.

Bursitis can be diagnosed through physical examination, imaging tests like X-rays or ultrasound, and aspiration of fluid from the affected bursa. Treatment options for bursitis depend on the severity of the condition and may include rest, ice, compression, elevation (RICE), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and physical therapy exercises to improve range of motion and strength. In severe cases or those that do not respond to conservative treatment, surgical drainage or removal of the affected bursa may be necessary.

Treatment for shoulder impingement syndrome may include rest, physical therapy, anti-inflammatory medications, and corticosteroid injections. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to remove bone spurs or inflamed tissue.

Symptoms of shoulder impingement syndrome may include:

* Pain in the shoulder, especially when lifting the arm or performing overhead activities
* Stiffness and limited mobility in the shoulder joint
* Crepitus (a grinding or cracking sensation) when moving the shoulder
* Weakness or fatigue in the shoulder muscles
* Decreased range of motion in the shoulder joint.

Diagnosis of shoulder impingement syndrome is typically made through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as X-rays or MRIs, and patient history. Treatment is tailored to the individual case and may involve a combination of non-surgical and surgical interventions.

In conclusion, shoulder impingement syndrome is a common condition that can cause pain, stiffness, and limited mobility in the shoulder joint. Treatment options range from rest and physical therapy to surgery, and are tailored to the individual case. Early diagnosis and treatment can help to improve outcomes for patients with this condition.

Bone malalignment can occur in any bone of the body but is most common in the long bones of the arms and legs. There are several types of bone malalignment, including:

* Angular deformity: A deviation from the normal alignment of two bones meeting at a joint.
* Bowing or bending of a bone: A deviation from the normal straight line of a bone.
* Rotational deformity: A twisting or rotating of a bone around its long axis.
* Growth plate deformity: Abnormal growth or development of the growth plates in children and adolescents, leading to misalignment of the bones.

Bone malalignment can cause symptoms such as pain, stiffness, limited mobility, and difficulty performing daily activities. Treatment options for bone malalignment depend on the type and severity of the condition and may include:

* Bracing or casting to help align the bones
* Physical therapy to improve range of motion and strength
* Medications to manage pain and inflammation
* Surgery to correct the deformity and realign the bones.

The syndrome is named after the American neurologist Dr. Arthur Dandy and British pediatrician Dr. Norman Walker, who first described it in the early 20th century. It is also known as hydrocephalus type I or cerebellar hydrocephalus.

DWS typically affects children, usually girls, between 3 and 18 months of age. The symptoms can vary in severity and may include:

* Enlarged skull
* Abnormal posture and gait
* Delayed development of motor skills
* Intellectual disability
* Seizures
* Vision problems

The exact cause of Dandy-Walker Syndrome is not known, but it is believed to be related to genetic mutations or environmental factors during fetal development. It can occur as an isolated condition or in combination with other congenital anomalies.

There is no cure for DWS, but treatment options may include:

* Shunts to drain excess CSF
* Physical therapy and occupational therapy
* Speech and language therapy
* Seizure medication
* Monitoring with regular imaging studies

The prognosis for children with Dandy-Walker Syndrome varies depending on the severity of the condition and the presence of other medical issues. Some individuals may experience significant developmental delays and intellectual disability, while others may have milder symptoms. With appropriate treatment and support, many individuals with DWS can lead fulfilling lives.

Some common causes of secondary Parkinson disease include:

1. Medication side effects: Certain medications, such as dopamine antagonists, can cause parkinsonian symptoms as a side effect.
2. Head trauma: A head injury can cause damage to the brain that leads to parkinsonian symptoms.
3. Infections: Certain infections, such as encephalitis or meningitis, can cause inflammation of the brain that leads to parkinsonian symptoms.
4. Other neurological conditions: Conditions such as progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and multiple system atrophy (MSA) can cause parkinsonian symptoms similar to those of primary Parkinson disease.
5. Stroke: A stroke can damage the brain and lead to parkinsonian symptoms.
6. Brain tumors: Tumors in the brain, such as a glioblastoma, can cause parkinsonian symptoms.
7. Neurodegenerative diseases: Conditions such as Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia can cause parkinsonian symptoms.

Secondary Parkinson disease is often treated with medications that are similar to those used for primary Parkinson disease, such as dopamine agonists and MAO-B inhibitors. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to treat symptoms such as tremors or rigidity. It is important to note that secondary Parkinson disease can have a different progression and response to treatment compared to primary Parkinson disease.

The term "leg length inequality" is used in the medical field to describe a condition where one leg is shorter than the other, resulting in an imbalance and potential discomfort or pain. The condition can be caused by various factors, such as genetics, injury, or uneven muscle development.

There are several different types of leg length inequality, including:

1. Congenital leg length inequality: This is a condition that is present at birth and is caused by genetic or environmental factors during fetal development.
2. Acquired leg length inequality: This type of inequality is caused by an injury or condition that affects the bones or muscles in one leg, such as a fracture or tendonitis.
3. Neurological leg length inequality: This type of inequality is caused by a neurological condition, such as cerebral palsy, that affects the development of the muscles and bones in one leg.

The symptoms of leg length inequality can vary depending on the severity of the condition, but may include:

1. Pain or discomfort in the lower back, hips, or legs
2. Difficulty walking or standing for long periods of time
3. A noticeable difference in the length of the legs
4. Muscle spasms or cramps in the legs
5. Difficulty maintaining balance or stability

Treatment options for leg length inequality will depend on the severity of the condition and may include:

1. Shoe lifts or inserts to raise the shorter leg
2. Orthotics or braces to support the affected leg
3. Physical therapy to strengthen the muscles and improve balance and coordination
4. Surgery to lengthen the shorter leg, either by cutting the bone and inserting a device to lengthen it or by fusion of the vertebrae to realign the spine.
5. In some cases, a combination of these treatments may be necessary to effectively address the condition.

It is important to note that early diagnosis and treatment of leg length inequality can help prevent further progression of the condition and reduce the risk of complications. If you suspect you or your child may have leg length inequality, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and treatment.

1. Osteoarthritis: A degenerative condition that causes the breakdown of cartilage in the joints, leading to pain, stiffness, and loss of mobility.
2. Rheumatoid arthritis: An autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in the joints, leading to pain, swelling, and deformity.
3. Gout: A condition caused by the buildup of uric acid in the joints, leading to sudden and severe attacks of pain, inflammation, and swelling.
4. Bursitis: Inflammation of the bursae, small fluid-filled sacs that cushion the joints and reduce friction between tendons and bones.
5. Tendinitis: Inflammation of the tendons, which connect muscles to bones.
6. Synovitis: Inflammation of the synovial membrane, a thin lining that covers the joints and lubricates them with fluid.
7. Periarthritis: Inflammation of the tissues around the joints, such as the synovial membrane, tendons, and ligaments.
8. Spondyloarthritis: A group of conditions that affect the spine and sacroiliac joints, leading to inflammation and pain in these areas.
9. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: A condition that affects children and causes inflammation and pain in the joints.
10. Systemic lupus erythematosus: An autoimmune disease that can affect many parts of the body, including the joints.

These are just a few examples of the many types of joint diseases that exist. Each type has its own unique symptoms and causes, and they can be caused by a variety of factors such as genetics, injury, infection, or age-related wear and tear. Treatment options for joint diseases can range from medication and physical therapy to surgery, depending on the severity of the condition and its underlying cause.

FAI is a common cause of hip pain in young adults and athletes who participate in high-impact activities such as running or jumping. It can also occur in older individuals as a result of wear and tear on the joint over time. The condition is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as X-rays or MRIs, and patient history.

FAI can be classified into three types based on the location and severity of the impingement:

1. Cam impingement: This occurs when the femur is not properly positioned in the socket, causing the head of the femur to jam against the rim of the acetabulum.
2. Pincer impingement: This occurs when the acetabulum is too deep and covers the femur head, causing it to be pinched between the bone and soft tissue.
3. Combination impingement: This occurs when both cam and pincer impingements are present.

Treatment for FAI typically involves a combination of non-surgical and surgical options, depending on the severity of the condition and the individual patient's needs. Non-surgical treatment may include physical therapy to improve strength and range of motion, medication to reduce pain and inflammation, and lifestyle modifications such as avoiding activities that exacerbate the condition. Surgical options may include hip arthroscopy to remove any bone spurs or repair damaged tissue, or hip replacement surgery if the joint is severely damaged.

It is important to identify and address prosthesis failure early to prevent further complications and restore the functionality of the device. This may involve repairing or replacing the device, modifying the design, or changing the materials used in its construction. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to correct issues related to the implantation of the prosthetic device.

Prosthesis failure can occur in various types of prosthetic devices, including joint replacements, dental implants, and orthotic devices. The causes of prosthesis failure can range from manufacturing defects to user error or improper maintenance. It is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to prosthesis failure to develop effective solutions and improve patient outcomes.

In conclusion, prosthesis failure is a common issue that can significantly impact the quality of life of individuals who rely on prosthetic devices. Early identification and addressing of prosthesis failure are crucial to prevent further complications and restore functionality. A comprehensive understanding of the causes of prosthesis failure is necessary to develop effective solutions and improve patient outcomes.

There are several types of tendon injuries, including:

1. Tendinitis: Inflammation of a tendon, often caused by repetitive strain or overuse.
2. Tendon rupture: A complete tear of a tendon, which can be caused by trauma or degenerative conditions such as rotator cuff tears in the shoulder.
3. Tendon strain: A stretch or tear of a tendon, often caused by acute injury or overuse.
4. Tendon avulsion: A condition where a tendon is pulled away from its attachment point on a bone.

Symptoms of tendon injuries can include pain, swelling, redness, and limited mobility in the affected area. Treatment options depend on the severity of the injury and may include rest, physical therapy, medication, or surgery. Preventive measures such as proper warm-up and cool-down exercises, stretching, and using appropriate equipment can help reduce the risk of tendon injuries.

Types of Shoulder Fractures:

1. Humeral Fractures: These are fractures that occur in the upper arm bone (humerus). They can be classified into diaphyseal fractures (fractures in the shaft of the humerus), metaphyseal fractures (fractures at the ends of the humerus), and subtrochanteric fractures (fractures between the upper and lower ends of the humerus).
2. Scapular Fractures: These are fractures that occur in the shoulder blade (scapula). They can be classified into avulsion fractures (fractures where a small piece of bone is pulled away from the main body of the scapula) and stress fractures (fractures that occur due to repetitive trauma or overuse).
3. Clavicular Fractures: These are fractures that occur in the collarbone (clavicle). They can be classified into midshaft fractures (fractures in the middle of the clavicle) and distal fractures (fractures at the end of the clavicle).

Causes of Shoulder Fractures:

1. Trauma: Trauma is the most common cause of shoulder fractures. This can include falls, car accidents, sports injuries, and direct blows to the shoulder.
2. Osteoporosis: Osteoporosis is a condition that causes bones to become weak and brittle, making them more susceptible to fractures.
3. Overuse: Overuse injuries can also cause shoulder fractures, especially in athletes who participate in sports that involve repetitive movements of the shoulder joint.

Symptoms of Shoulder Fractures:

1. Pain: The most common symptom of a shoulder fracture is pain. The pain may be severe and worsen with movement or weight-bearing activities.
2. Swelling and bruising: There may be swelling and bruising around the affected area.
3. Limited mobility: A shoulder fracture can cause limited mobility in the arm and shoulder, making it difficult to move the arm or perform everyday activities.
4. Deformity: In some cases, a shoulder fracture may cause a visible deformity, such as a bone that is visibly out of place.

Diagnosis of Shoulder Fractures:

1. X-rays: X-rays are the most common diagnostic tool for shoulder fractures. They can help to identify the type and severity of the fracture.
2. CT scans: CT scans may be used in some cases to provide a more detailed view of the fracture.
3. MRI scans: MRI scans may be used to evaluate soft tissue injuries, such as ligament sprains or tears.

Treatment of Shoulder Fractures:

1. Immobilization: The affected arm is immobilized in a sling or brace for several weeks to allow the fracture to heal.
2. Medication: Pain medication, such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen, may be prescribed to manage pain and inflammation.
3. Physical therapy: Once the fracture has healed, physical therapy may be recommended to improve strength, flexibility, and range of motion in the shoulder.
4. Surgery: In some cases, surgery may be necessary to realign the bones or repair damaged soft tissue. Common surgical procedures for shoulder fractures include:

a. Shoulder joint replacement: This is a procedure where the damaged joint is replaced with an artificial one.

b. Osteotomy: This is a procedure where the surgeon cuts and realigns the bone to improve its alignment.

c. Internal fixation: This is a procedure where the surgeon uses screws, plates, or rods to hold the bones in place while they heal.

d. External fixation: This is a procedure where the surgeon attaches a device to the outside of the arm and shoulder to hold the bones in place while they heal.

It's important to note that the specific treatment plan will depend on the severity and type of fracture, as well as the individual's overall health and medical history. A healthcare professional should be consulted for proper evaluation and treatment.

Note: A malunited fracture is sometimes also referred to as a "nonunion fracture" or "fracture nonunion".

Examples:

1. A ruptured Achilles tendon occurs when the tendon that connects the calf muscle to the heel bone is stretched too far and tears.
2. A ruptured appendix occurs when the appendix suddenly bursts, leading to infection and inflammation.
3. A ruptured aneurysm occurs when a weakened blood vessel bulges and bursts, leading to bleeding in the brain.
4. A ruptured eardrum occurs when there is sudden pressure on the eardrum, such as from an explosion or a blow to the head, which causes it to tear.
5. A ruptured ovarian cyst occurs when a fluid-filled sac on the ovary bursts, leading to pain and bleeding.

Symptoms of rupture can include sudden and severe pain, swelling, bruising, and bleeding. Treatment for rupture depends on the location and severity of the injury and may include surgery, medication, or other interventions.

Pathological nystagmus can be diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination, including a visual acuity test, refraction test, cover test, and eyer movements assessment. Imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans may also be ordered to rule out other possible causes of the symptoms.

Treatment for pathological nystagmus depends on the underlying cause of the condition. In some cases, treatment may involve correcting refractive errors or addressing any underlying brain disorders through medication, physical therapy, or surgery. Other treatments may include eye exercises, prisms, or specialized glasses to help improve eye movement and reduce the symptoms of nystagmus.

In summary, pathological nystagmus is an abnormal and involuntary movement of the eyeballs that can be caused by various neurological disorders. Diagnosis is through a comprehensive eye examination and imaging studies, and treatment depends on the underlying cause of the condition.

1. Meniscal tears: The meniscus is a cartilage structure in the knee joint that can tear due to twisting or bending movements.
2. Ligament sprains: The ligaments that connect the bones of the knee joint can become stretched or torn, leading to instability and pain.
3. Torn cartilage: The articular cartilage that covers the ends of the bones in the knee joint can tear due to wear and tear or trauma.
4. Fractures: The bones of the knee joint can fracture as a result of a direct blow or fall.
5. Dislocations: The bones of the knee joint can become dislocated, causing pain and instability.
6. Patellar tendinitis: Inflammation of the tendon that connects the patella (kneecap) to the shinbone.
7. Iliotibial band syndrome: Inflammation of the iliotibial band, a ligament that runs down the outside of the thigh and crosses the knee joint.
8. Osteochondritis dissecans: A condition in which a piece of cartilage and bone becomes detached from the end of a bone in the knee joint.
9. Baker's cyst: A fluid-filled cyst that forms behind the knee, usually as a result of a tear in the meniscus or a knee injury.

Symptoms of knee injuries can include pain, swelling, stiffness, and limited mobility. Treatment for knee injuries depends on the severity of the injury and may range from conservative measures such as physical therapy and medication to surgical intervention.

Dislocation is a term used in medicine to describe the displacement of a bone or joint from its normal position, often due to injury or disease. This can cause pain, limited mobility, and potentially lead to long-term complications if left untreated.

There are several types of dislocations that can occur in different parts of the body, including:

1. Shoulder dislocation: The upper arm bone (humerus) is forced out of the shoulder socket.
2. Hip dislocation: The femur (thigh bone) is forced out of the hip socket.
3. Knee dislocation: The kneecap (patella) is forced out of its normal position in the knee joint.
4. Ankle dislocation: The bones of the ankle are forced out of their normal position.
5. Elbow dislocation: The humerus is forced out of the elbow joint.
6. Wrist dislocation: The bones of the wrist are forced out of their normal position.
7. Finger dislocation: One or more of the bones in a finger are forced out of their normal position.
8. Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) dislocation: The jawbone is forced out of its normal position, which can cause pain and difficulty opening the mouth.

Dislocations can be caused by a variety of factors, including sports injuries, car accidents, falls, and certain medical conditions such as osteoporosis or degenerative joint disease. Treatment for dislocations often involves reducing the displaced bone or joint back into its normal position, either through manual manipulation or surgery. In some cases, physical therapy may be necessary to help restore strength and range of motion in the affected area.

Vertigo can cause a range of symptoms, including:

* A feeling of spinning or swaying
* Dizziness or lightheadedness
* Blurred vision
* Nausea and vomiting
* Abnormal eye movements
* Unsteadiness or loss of balance

To diagnose vertigo, a healthcare professional will typically conduct a physical examination and ask questions about the patient's symptoms and medical history. They may also perform tests such as the head impulse test or the electronystagmography (ENG) test to assess the function of the inner ear and balance systems.

Treatment for vertigo depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications such as anticholinergics, antihistamines, or benzodiazepines, as well as vestibular rehabilitation therapy (VRT) to help the body adapt to the balance problems. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to treat the underlying cause of vertigo.

In summary, vertigo is a symptom characterized by a false sense of spinning or movement of the surroundings, and can be caused by various conditions affecting the inner ear, brain, or nervous system. Diagnosis and treatment depend on the underlying cause, but may include medications, VRT, and in some cases, surgery.

The exact cause of clubfoot is not known, but it is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors during fetal development. Clubfoot can occur on either foot, but it is more common in the right foot. Boys are slightly more likely to be affected than girls.

There are several types of clubfoot, including:

1. Idiopathic clubfoot: This is the most common type and has no known cause.
2. Familial clubfoot: This type runs in families and is associated with other congenital anomalies.
3. Neurological clubfoot: This type is caused by a neurological condition, such as spina bifida or cerebral palsy.
4. Traumatic clubfoot: This type is caused by injury to the foot or ankle.

Symptoms of clubfoot can include:

1. A visible deformity of the foot and ankle
2. Difficulty walking or standing
3. Pain in the foot or ankle
4. Limited range of motion in the foot or ankle
5. Skin irritation or blisters due to shoe pressure

Clubfoot can be diagnosed through a physical examination and imaging tests such as X-rays or ultrasound. Treatment options include:

1. Casting and bracing: The foot is cast or braced in a correct position to help straighten the ankle and foot.
2. Surgery: In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to realign the bones of the foot and ankle.
3. Physical therapy: To improve range of motion and strength in the foot and ankle.
4. Orthotics: Custom-made shoe inserts or braces can help support the foot and ankle.

Early treatment is important to achieve the best possible outcomes, and to prevent complications such as arthritis and limited mobility. It's important to seek medical attention if you notice any signs of clubfoot in your child. With proper treatment, most children with clubfoot can grow up to have normal, healthy feet.

The causes of LBP can be broadly classified into two categories:

1. Mechanical causes: These include strains, sprains, and injuries to the soft tissues (such as muscles, ligaments, and tendons) or bones in the lower back.
2. Non-mechanical causes: These include medical conditions such as herniated discs, degenerative disc disease, and spinal stenosis.

The symptoms of LBP can vary depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Common symptoms include:

* Pain that may be localized to one side or both sides of the lower back
* Muscle spasms or stiffness
* Limited range of motion in the lower back
* Difficulty bending, lifting, or twisting
* Sciatica (pain that radiates down the legs)
* Weakness or numbness in the legs

The diagnosis of LBP is based on a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI.

Treatment for LBP depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition, but may include:

* Medications such as pain relievers, muscle relaxants, or anti-inflammatory drugs
* Physical therapy to improve strength and flexibility in the lower back
* Chiropractic care to realign the spine and relieve pressure on the joints and muscles
* Injections of corticosteroids or hyaluronic acid to reduce inflammation and relieve pain
* Surgery may be considered for severe or chronic cases that do not respond to other treatments.

Prevention strategies for LBP include:

* Maintaining a healthy weight to reduce strain on the lower back
* Engaging in regular exercise to improve muscle strength and flexibility
* Using proper lifting techniques to avoid straining the lower back
* Taking regular breaks to stretch and move around if you have a job that involves sitting or standing for long periods
* Managing stress through relaxation techniques such as meditation or deep breathing.

The symptoms of situs inversus totalis can vary depending on the severity of the condition and the specific organs involved. Some common symptoms include:

* Chest pain or discomfort
* Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
* Abdominal pain or discomfort
* Nausea and vomiting
* Fatigue or weakness
* Swelling in the legs or feet
* Pale or blue-tinged skin

The exact cause of situs inversus totalis is not known, but it is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The condition is usually diagnosed during fetal development, and it can be detected through ultrasound imaging.

Treatment for situs inversus totalis typically involves surgery to correct the inverted organs. In some cases, a heart-lung transplant may be necessary. Medications such as antibiotics and pain relievers may also be prescribed to manage symptoms.

The prognosis for situs inversus totalis varies depending on the severity of the condition and the specific organs involved. In general, early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and reduce the risk of complications. However, the condition can be life-threatening, and some individuals with situs inversus totalis may not survive beyond infancy or childhood.

In summary, situs inversus totalis is a rare congenital condition where all the major organs in the chest and abdomen are inverted or mirrored from their normal positions. Symptoms can include chest pain, shortness of breath, abdominal pain, nausea, and fatigue. Treatment typically involves surgery to correct the inverted organs, and medications may be prescribed to manage symptoms. The prognosis varies depending on the severity of the condition and the specific organs involved.

There are several common types of hip injuries that can occur, including:

1. Hip fractures: A break in the femur (thigh bone) or pelvis that can be caused by a fall or direct blow to the hip.
2. Muscle strains and tears: Injuries to the muscles and tendons surrounding the hip joint, often caused by overuse or sudden movement.
3. Ligament sprains: Injuries to the ligaments that connect bones together in the hip joint, often caused by twisting or bending movements.
4. Dislocations: When the ball of the femur becomes dislodged from the socket in the pelvis, causing pain and limited mobility.
5. Labral tears: Injuries to the cartilage that lines the edge of the hip joint, often caused by repetitive motion or trauma.
6. Osteonecrosis: Death of bone tissue due to a lack of blood supply, often caused by a condition called avascular necrosis.
7. Hip impingement: When the ball of the femur and the socket of the pelvis do not fit together properly, causing friction and pain.
8. Hip bursitis: Inflammation of the fluid-filled sacs (bursae) that cushion the joints and reduce friction, often caused by repetitive motion or trauma.

Symptoms of hip injuries can include pain, stiffness, limited mobility, swelling, and difficulty walking or standing. Treatment for hip injuries can range from conservative measures such as physical therapy, bracing, and medication to surgical interventions such as hip replacement or repair.

Symptoms of lordosis may include back pain, stiffness, and difficulty standing up straight. In severe cases, it can also lead to nerve compression and other complications.

Treatment for lordosis typically involves a combination of physical therapy, bracing, and medication to address any associated pain or discomfort. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to correct the underlying structural issues.

Treatment options for entropion include:

* Eyelid hygiene and warm compresses to reduce inflammation and clean the eyelids
* Prescription medications such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatory eye drops or ointments, or steroids to reduce swelling and infection
* Surgical procedures like eyelid surgery (blepharoplasty) or entropion repair to correct the position of the eyelid and remove any damaged tissue.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of entropion, as it can lead to complications such as corneal ulcers or vision loss if left untreated. A comprehensive diagnosis and appropriate treatment plan from an eye care professional are necessary for effective management of this condition.

The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint that connects the thigh bone (femur) to the pelvis. In a healthy hip joint, the smooth cartilage on the ends of the bones allows for easy movement and reduced friction. However, when the cartilage wears down due to age or injury, the bones can rub together, causing pain and stiffness.

Hip OA is a common condition that affects millions of people worldwide. It is more common in older adults, but it can also occur in younger people due to injuries or genetic factors. Women are more likely to develop hip OA than men, especially after the age of 50.

The symptoms of hip OA can vary, but they may include:

* Pain or stiffness in the groin or hip area
* Limited mobility or range of motion in the hip joint
* Cracking or grinding sounds when moving the hip joint
* Pain or discomfort when walking, standing, or engaging in other activities

If left untreated, hip OA can lead to further joint damage and disability. However, there are several treatment options available, including medications, physical therapy, and surgery, that can help manage the symptoms and slow down the progression of the disease.

Example sentences:

1. The patient was diagnosed with a trochlear nerve disease that caused her eyes to drift apart, making it difficult for her to read or focus on objects.
2. The doctor specialized in treating trochlear nerve diseases and had seen many patients with similar symptoms but different causes.
3. The surgery was successful in repairing the damage to the trochlear nerve and restoring the patient's vision.

Note: Trochlear nerve diseases can be caused by various factors, including trauma, tumors, stroke, multiple sclerosis, and more. They can also be inherited or congenital.

Definition:
The movement of teeth towards the midline of the jaw is known as mesial movement of teeth or mesial shift. This movement occurs when the teeth on one side of the dental arch move closer to each other, resulting in a crowded or overlapping appearance. Mesial movement can occur due to various factors such as malocclusion, improper biting habits, or genetic predisposition.

Etymology:
The term "mesial" refers to the front or anterior part of the dental arch, while "movement" refers to the change in position of the teeth. Together, mesial movement of teeth means a shift towards the front or midline of the jaw.

Origins:
The concept of mesial movement of teeth has been described in dental literature for over a century. The term "mesial" was first introduced by the German anatomist Johann Friedrich Meckel in 1802, and it has since become a widely accepted term in dentistry.

Purpose:
The purpose of mesial movement is to ensure proper alignment of teeth and adequate space for eruption of new teeth. When teeth are crowded or overlapping, they can cause various dental problems such as tooth decay, gum disease, and difficulty chewing or speaking. Mesial movement helps to correct these issues by creating more space between the teeth and ensuring proper alignment.

Types:
There are two main types of mesial movement: physiological and pathological. Physiological mesial movement occurs naturally as the teeth erupt and shift towards the midline, while pathological mesial movement is caused by factors such as malocclusion or poor oral hygiene.

Symptoms:
The symptoms of mesial movement can include crowding or overlapping of teeth, difficulty chewing or speaking, tooth decay, and gum disease. In some cases, there may be no visible symptoms, but a dentist can detect the movement during an examination.

Treatment:
Treatment for mesial movement typically involves orthodontic procedures such as braces or aligners to straighten and align the teeth. In some cases, extraction of one or more teeth may be necessary to create space for proper alignment. Regular dental check-ups and good oral hygiene practices are also important to prevent further movement and maintain a healthy smile.

In conclusion, mesial movement is a common dental phenomenon that can cause various dental problems if left untreated. Understanding the purpose, types, symptoms, and treatment options for mesial movement can help individuals take proactive steps towards maintaining good oral health and preventing malocclusion.

1. Infection: Bacterial or viral infections can develop after surgery, potentially leading to sepsis or organ failure.
2. Adhesions: Scar tissue can form during the healing process, which can cause bowel obstruction, chronic pain, or other complications.
3. Wound complications: Incisional hernias, wound dehiscence (separation of the wound edges), and wound infections can occur.
4. Respiratory problems: Pneumonia, respiratory failure, and atelectasis (collapsed lung) can develop after surgery, particularly in older adults or those with pre-existing respiratory conditions.
5. Cardiovascular complications: Myocardial infarction (heart attack), cardiac arrhythmias, and cardiac failure can occur after surgery, especially in high-risk patients.
6. Renal (kidney) problems: Acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease can develop postoperatively, particularly in patients with pre-existing renal impairment.
7. Neurological complications: Stroke, seizures, and neuropraxia (nerve damage) can occur after surgery, especially in patients with pre-existing neurological conditions.
8. Pulmonary embolism: Blood clots can form in the legs or lungs after surgery, potentially causing pulmonary embolism.
9. Anesthesia-related complications: Respiratory and cardiac complications can occur during anesthesia, including respiratory and cardiac arrest.
10. delayed healing: Wound healing may be delayed or impaired after surgery, particularly in patients with pre-existing medical conditions.

It is important for patients to be aware of these potential complications and to discuss any concerns with their surgeon and healthcare team before undergoing surgery.

The most common Parkinsonian disorder is Parkinson's disease, which affects approximately 1% of the population over the age of 60. Other Parkinsonian disorders include:

1. Dystonia: A movement disorder that causes involuntary muscle contractions and spasms.
2. Huntington's disease: An inherited disorder that causes progressive damage to the brain, leading to movement, cognitive, and psychiatric problems.
3. Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP): A rare degenerative disorder that affects movement, balance, and eye movements.
4. Multiple system atrophy (MSA): A rare degenerative disorder that affects the autonomic nervous system, leading to symptoms such as tremors, rigidity, and difficulty with movement and coordination.
5. Corticobasal degeneration: A rare progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition, and behavior.

Parkinsonian disorders can be difficult to diagnose, as the symptoms can be similar to other conditions such as essential tremor or dystonia. However, certain features can help distinguish one condition from another. For example, Parkinson's disease is characterized by a characteristic resting tremor, bradykinesia, and rigidity, while dystonia is characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions that can cause abnormal postures or movements.

There is no cure for Parkinsonian disorders, but various medications and therapies can help manage the symptoms. These may include dopaminergic drugs to replace lost dopamine, muscle relaxants to reduce rigidity, and physical therapy to improve movement and coordination. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to regulate abnormal brain activity or to implant a deep brain stimulator to deliver electrical impulses to specific areas of the brain.

Overall, Parkinsonian disorders can have a significant impact on quality of life, but with proper diagnosis and treatment, many people are able to manage their symptoms and maintain their independence.

There are several types of kyphosis, including:

1. Postural kyphosis: This type of kyphosis is caused by poor posture and is often seen in teenagers.
2. Scheuermann's kyphosis: This type of kyphosis is caused by a structural deformity of the spine and is most common during adolescence.
3. Degenerative kyphosis: This type of kyphosis is caused by degenerative changes in the spine, such as osteoporosis or degenerative disc disease.
4. Neuromuscular kyphosis: This type of kyphosis is caused by neuromuscular disorders such as cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy.

Symptoms of kyphosis can include:

* An abnormal curvature of the spine
* Back pain
* Difficulty breathing
* Difficulty maintaining posture
* Loss of height
* Tiredness or fatigue

Kyphosis can be diagnosed through a physical examination, X-rays, and other imaging tests. Treatment options for kyphosis depend on the type and severity of the condition and can include:

* Physical therapy
* Bracing
* Medication
* Surgery

It is important to seek medical attention if you or your child is experiencing any symptoms of kyphosis, as early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent further progression of the condition and improve quality of life.

Example Sentences:

1. The star quarterback suffered a serious athletic injury during last night's game and is out for the season.
2. The athlete underwent surgery to repair a torn ACL, one of the most common athletic injuries in high-impact sports.
3. The coach emphasized the importance of proper technique to prevent athletic injuries among his team members.
4. After suffering a minor sprain, the runner was advised to follow the RICE method to recover and return to competition as soon as possible.

Also known as: Class II malocclusion, overbite.

Symptoms:

* Overlapping of the upper teeth over the lower teeth
* Limited opening of the mouth
* Difficulty chewing or biting food
* Tooth wear on the upper teeth
* Gum disease
* Jaw pain

Causes:

* Genetics (inheritance)
* Poor oral hygiene
* Thumb sucking or pacifier use beyond age 3
* Premature loss of baby teeth
* Tongue thrust
* Large overbite in primary dentition
* Crossbites
* Overjet
* Incorrect swallowing pattern

Treatment:

* Orthodontic treatment (braces, aligners) to move teeth into proper position
* Jaw surgery (if necessary)
* Dental restorations (fillings, crowns) to repair damaged teeth
* Oral hygiene instructions to prevent gum disease
* Dietary changes to avoid chewing on hard objects

Note: This is a general definition and the specifics may vary depending on the source. It's important to consult with a medical professional for an accurate diagnosis and treatment plan.

There are several different types of pain, including:

1. Acute pain: This type of pain is sudden and severe, and it usually lasts for a short period of time. It can be caused by injuries, surgery, or other forms of tissue damage.
2. Chronic pain: This type of pain persists over a long period of time, often lasting more than 3 months. It can be caused by conditions such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, or nerve damage.
3. Neuropathic pain: This type of pain results from damage to the nervous system, and it can be characterized by burning, shooting, or stabbing sensations.
4. Visceral pain: This type of pain originates in the internal organs, and it can be difficult to localize.
5. Psychogenic pain: This type of pain is caused by psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, or depression.

The medical field uses a range of methods to assess and manage pain, including:

1. Pain rating scales: These are numerical scales that patients use to rate the intensity of their pain.
2. Pain diaries: These are records that patients keep to track their pain over time.
3. Clinical interviews: Healthcare providers use these to gather information about the patient's pain experience and other relevant symptoms.
4. Physical examination: This can help healthcare providers identify any underlying causes of pain, such as injuries or inflammation.
5. Imaging studies: These can be used to visualize the body and identify any structural abnormalities that may be contributing to the patient's pain.
6. Medications: There are a wide range of medications available to treat pain, including analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and muscle relaxants.
7. Alternative therapies: These can include acupuncture, massage, and physical therapy.
8. Interventional procedures: These are minimally invasive procedures that can be used to treat pain, such as nerve blocks and spinal cord stimulation.

It is important for healthcare providers to approach pain management with a multi-modal approach, using a combination of these methods to address the physical, emotional, and social aspects of pain. By doing so, they can help improve the patient's quality of life and reduce their suffering.

The risk of developing osteoarthritis of the knee increases with age, obesity, and previous knee injuries or surgery. Symptoms of knee OA can include:

* Pain and stiffness in the knee, especially after activity or extended periods of standing or sitting
* Swelling and redness in the knee
* Difficulty moving the knee through its full range of motion
* Crunching or grinding sensations when the knee is bent or straightened
* Instability or a feeling that the knee may give way

Treatment for knee OA typically includes a combination of medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle modifications. Medications such as pain relievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, and corticosteroids can help manage symptoms, while physical therapy can improve joint mobility and strength. Lifestyle modifications, such as weight loss, regular exercise, and avoiding activities that exacerbate the condition, can also help slow the progression of the disease. In severe cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace the damaged joint.

The term "cumulative" refers to the gradual buildup of damage over time, as opposed to a single traumatic event that causes immediate harm. The damage can result from repetitive motions, vibrations, compressive forces, or other forms of stress that accumulate and lead to tissue injury and inflammation.

Some common examples of CTDs include:

1. Carpal tunnel syndrome: A condition that affects the wrist and hand, caused by repetitive motion and compression of the median nerve.
2. Tendinitis: Inflammation of a tendon, often caused by repetitive motion or overuse.
3. Bursitis: Inflammation of a bursa, a fluid-filled sac that cushions joints and reduces friction between tissues.
4. Tennis elbow: A condition characterized by inflammation of the tendons on the outside of the elbow, caused by repetitive gripping or twisting motions.
5. Plantar fasciitis: Inflammation of the plantar fascia, a band of tissue that runs along the bottom of the foot, caused by repetitive strain and overuse.
6. Repetitive stress injuries: A broad category of injuries caused by repetitive motion, such as typing or using a computer mouse.
7. Occupational asthma: A condition caused by inhaling allergens or irritants in the workplace, leading to inflammation and narrowing of the airways.
8. Hearing loss: Damage to the inner ear or auditory nerve caused by exposure to loud noises over time.
9. Vibration white finger: A condition that affects the hands, causing whiteness or loss of blood flow in the fingers due to exposure to vibrating tools.
10. Carpal tunnel syndrome: Compression of the median nerve in the wrist, leading to numbness, tingling, and weakness in the hand and arm.

It's important to note that these conditions can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, ability to work, and overall well-being. If you are experiencing any of these conditions, it is important to seek medical attention to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

1. Dislocation of the femoral head: This occurs when the ball-shaped head of the femur (thigh bone) is forced out of the socket of the pelvis.
2. Dislocation of the acetabulum: This occurs when the cup-shaped socket of the pelvis is forced out of its normal position.

Hip dislocation can cause severe pain, swelling, and difficulty moving the affected leg. Treatment options for hip dislocation vary depending on the severity of the condition and may include:

1. Reduction: This involves manually putting the bones back into their proper position.
2. Surgery: This may be necessary to repair or replace damaged tissues or bones.
3. Physical therapy: This can help improve mobility and strength in the affected limb.
4. Medications: These may be prescribed to manage pain, inflammation, and other symptoms.

Early diagnosis and treatment of hip dislocation are essential to prevent long-term complications and improve outcomes for patients.

The symptoms of a femoral fracture may include:

* Severe pain in the thigh or groin area
* Swelling and bruising around the affected area
* Difficulty moving or straightening the leg
* A visible deformity or bone protrusion

Femoral fractures are typically diagnosed through X-rays, CT scans, or MRIs. Treatment for these types of fractures may involve immobilization with a cast or brace, surgery to realign and stabilize the bone, or in some cases, surgical plate and screws or rods may be used to hold the bone in place as it heals.

In addition to surgical intervention, patients may also require physical therapy to regain strength and mobility in the affected leg after a femoral fracture.

Hypokinesis can be a symptom of several diseases and disorders, such as:

1. Parkinson's disease: A neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, balance, and coordination. Hypokinesis is one of the primary symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
2. Dystonia: A movement disorder that causes involuntary muscle contractions and spasms, leading to slow and abnormal movements.
3. Huntington's disease: An inherited neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition, and psychiatric functions, causing hypokinesis and other motor disturbances.
4. Progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP): A rare brain disorder that affects movement, balance, and eye movements, leading to hypokinesis and other symptoms.
5. Corticobasal degeneration: A rare neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement, cognition, and behavior, causing hypokinesis and other symptoms.
6. Basal ganglia disease: A group of disorders that affect the basal ganglia, a part of the brain responsible for movement control, leading to hypokinesis and other symptoms.
7. Brain injury or stroke: Traumatic brain injury or stroke can cause hypokinesis due to damage to the brain regions responsible for movement control.
8. Spinal cord injury: Injury to the spinal cord can disrupt the transmission of signals from the brain to the muscles, leading to hypokinesis and other motor disturbances.
9. Muscular dystrophy: A group of genetic disorders that cause progressive muscle weakness and wasting, leading to hypokinesis and other symptoms.
10. Chronic fatigue syndrome: A condition characterized by persistent fatigue, brain fog, and a range of other symptoms, including hypokinesis.

It's important to note that hypokinesis can be a symptom of many different conditions, and it's not a diagnosis in itself. To determine the underlying cause of hypokinesis, a comprehensive medical evaluation is necessary. A healthcare professional will typically take a detailed medical history, perform a physical examination, and order diagnostic tests such as imaging studies or electromyography (EMG) to help identify the underlying cause of the condition.

Some common digestive system abnormalities include:

1. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): This is a chronic condition characterized by recurring episodes of diarrhea, constipation, or both. The exact cause of IBS is not known, but it may be related to changes in gut motility, hypersensitivity to food or stress, and inflammation.
2. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): This is a group of chronic conditions that cause inflammation in the digestive tract, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. The exact cause of IBD is not known, but it may be related to an abnormal immune response.
3. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): This is a condition in which stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms such as heartburn and regurgitation. GERD can be caused by a weak or relaxed lower esophageal sphincter, obesity, pregnancy, and other factors.
4. Peptic ulcer: This is a sore on the lining of the stomach or duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). Peptic ulcers can be caused by infection with Helicobacter pylori bacteria, excessive use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and other factors.
5. Diverticulosis: This is a condition in which small pouches form in the wall of the colon. Diverticulosis can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits.
6. Diverticulitis: This is a more serious condition in which the diverticula become inflamed. Diverticulitis can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting.
7. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): This is a chronic condition characterized by recurring abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits. The exact cause of IBS is not known, but it may be related to stress, hormonal changes, and other factors.
8. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): This is a chronic condition characterized by inflammation in the digestive tract. IBD includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
9. Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs): These are conditions that affect the function of the GI system, but do not cause any visible damage to the tissues. FGIDs include IBS, functional dyspepsia, and other conditions.
10. Gastrointestinal infections: These are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites that can affect the GI system. Examples include food poisoning, salmonella infection, and giardiasis.
11. Radiologic pneumatosis intestinalis: This is a condition in which gas accumulates in the intestines, causing them to become inflated like a balloon. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, inflammatory conditions, and blockages.
12. Postoperative ileus: This is a condition that occurs after surgery on the GI system, characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.

These are just a few examples of the many different conditions that can affect the gastrointestinal system. If you are experiencing symptoms that concern you, it is important to seek medical attention to determine the cause and receive appropriate treatment.

Treatment for whiplash injuries typically involves rest, ice and heat applications, physical therapy, and medication to manage pain and inflammation. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair damaged tissue or realign the spine. It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as untreated whiplash injuries can lead to chronic pain and other complications.

Also known as: Whiplash associate disorders (WAD), Cervical acceleration-deceleration injury (CAD), Post-traumatic cervical injury (PTCI).

Examples of 'Whiplash Injuries' in a sentence:

The patient suffered a whiplash injury in the car accident and required several weeks of physical therapy to recover.

She was diagnosed with a whiplash injury after falling from her horse and experiencing neck pain and stiffness.

He developed chronic whiplash injuries as a result of repetitive head and neck movements during his career as a professional football player.

The whiplash injury caused her to experience dizziness, nausea, and blurred vision, in addition to neck pain.

The term "decerebrate" comes from the Latin word "cerebrum," which means brain. In this context, the term refers to a state where the brain is significantly damaged or absent, leading to a loss of consciousness and other cognitive functions.

Some common symptoms of the decerebrate state include:

* Loss of consciousness
* Flaccid paralysis (loss of muscle tone)
* Dilated pupils
* Lack of responsiveness to stimuli
* Poor or absent reflexes
* Inability to speak or communicate

The decerebrate state can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Severe head injury
* Stroke or cerebral vasculature disorders
* Brain tumors or cysts
* Infections such as meningitis or encephalitis
* Traumatic brain injury

Treatment for the decerebrate state is typically focused on addressing the underlying cause of the condition. This may involve medications to control seizures, antibiotics for infections, or surgery to relieve pressure on the brain. In some cases, the decerebrate state may be a permanent condition, and individuals may require long-term care and support.

Some common types of cerebellar diseases include:

1. Cerebellar atrophy: This is a condition where the cerebellum shrinks or degenerates, leading to symptoms such as tremors, muscle weakness, and difficulty with movement.
2. Cerebellar degeneration: This is a condition where the cerebellum deteriorates over time, leading to symptoms such as loss of coordination, balance problems, and difficulties with speech and language.
3. Cerebellar tumors: These are abnormal growths that develop in the cerebellum, which can cause a variety of symptoms depending on their size and location.
4. Cerebellar stroke: This is a condition where blood flow to the cerebellum is interrupted, leading to damage to the brain tissue and symptoms such as weakness or paralysis of certain muscle groups.
5. Cerebellar vasculature disorders: These are conditions that affect the blood vessels in the cerebellum, leading to symptoms such as transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or strokes.
6. Inflammatory diseases: These are conditions that cause inflammation in the cerebellum, leading to symptoms such as tremors, ataxia, and weakness.
7. Infections: Bacterial, viral, or fungal infections can affect the cerebellum and cause a range of symptoms.
8. Trauma: Head injuries or other forms of trauma can damage the cerebellum and lead to symptoms such as loss of coordination, balance problems, and memory loss.
9. Genetic disorders: Certain genetic mutations can affect the development and function of the cerebellum, leading to a range of symptoms.
10. Degenerative diseases: Conditions such as multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease can cause degeneration of the cerebellum and lead to symptoms such as tremors, ataxia, and weakness.

It's important to note that this is not an exhaustive list, and there may be other causes of cerebellar symptoms not included here. A healthcare professional can help determine the underlying cause of your symptoms based on a thorough medical history and examination.

There are many different types of ankle injuries, ranging from mild sprains and strains to more severe fractures and dislocations. Some common causes of ankle injuries include:

* Rolling or twisting the ankle
* Landing awkwardly on the foot
* Direct blows to the ankle
* Overuse or repetitive motion

Symptoms of an ankle injury can vary depending on the severity of the injury, but may include:

* Pain and tenderness in the ankle area
* Swelling and bruising
* Difficulty moving the ankle or putting weight on it
* Instability or a feeling of the ankle giving way
* Limited range of motion

Ankle injuries can be diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging tests such as X-rays or MRIs, and other diagnostic procedures. Treatment for ankle injuries may include:

* Rest and ice to reduce swelling and pain
* Compression bandages to help stabilize the ankle
* Elevation of the injured ankle to reduce swelling
* Physical therapy exercises to strengthen the muscles around the ankle and improve range of motion
* Bracing or taping to provide support and stability
* In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair damaged ligaments or bones.

It is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time, as untreated ankle injuries can lead to chronic pain, instability, and limited mobility. With proper treatment and care, however, many people are able to recover from ankle injuries and return to their normal activities without long-term complications.

Symptoms: The symptoms of Class III malocclusion can include difficulty chewing, biting, or speaking; excessive wear on the upper and lower teeth; pain in the jaw joint (TMJ); headaches; and aesthetic concerns about the appearance of the teeth and bite.

Causes: There are several factors that can contribute to the development of Class III malocclusion, including genetics, poor oral hygiene, improper diet, and certain medical conditions such as skeletal dysplasia or craniofacial disorders.

Treatment: Treatment for Class III malocclusion typically involves orthodontic therapy with braces or clear aligners to move the teeth into proper alignment and improve the bite. In some cases, jaw surgery may also be necessary to correct the underlying position of the mandible.

Prevention: Good oral hygiene practices such as regular brushing and flossing can help prevent Class III malocclusion by keeping the teeth and gums healthy and strong. Early detection and treatment of bite problems in children can also help prevent more severe issues from developing later on.

Examples of closed head injuries include:

* Concussions
* Contusions
* Cerebral edema (swelling of the brain)
* Brain hemorrhages (bleeding in the brain)

Closed head injuries can be caused by a variety of mechanisms, such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, sports injuries, and assaults.

Symptoms of closed head injuries may include:

* Headache
* Dizziness or loss of balance
* Confusion or disorientation
* Memory loss or difficulty concentrating
* Sleep disturbances
* Mood changes, such as irritability or depression
* Vision problems, such as blurred vision or sensitivity to light

Closed head injuries can be difficult to diagnose, as there may be no visible signs of injury. However, a healthcare provider may use imaging tests such as CT scans or MRI to look for evidence of damage to the brain. Treatment for closed head injuries typically involves rest, medication, and rehabilitation to help the patient recover from any cognitive, emotional, or physical symptoms. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to relieve pressure on the brain or repair damaged blood vessels.

Early diagnosis and treatment of torticollis are crucial to prevent long-term complications and improve quality of life. In children, torticollis can be treated with positioning and exercises, while adults may require more intensive physical therapy and pain management.

The exact cause of vestibular neuronitis is not known, but it is believed to be due to a viral infection that affects the inner ear. The condition typically develops suddenly and can resolve on its own within a few days or weeks. However, some cases may persist for longer periods of time, and treatment may be necessary to manage the symptoms.

Treatment for vestibular neuronitis usually involves medications that help to reduce dizziness and nausea, such as anticholinergics, antihistamines, and benzodiazepines. In severe cases, physical therapy and balance training may be recommended to help improve balance and reduce the risk of falls.

In conclusion, vestibular neuronitis is an inner ear disorder that can cause vertigo, nausea, and imbalance. While the exact cause is not known, it is believed to be due to a viral infection, and treatment typically involves medication and balance training. The condition may resolve on its own within a few days or weeks, but some cases may persist for longer periods of time and require continued treatment.

Example sentences:

1. The patient was diagnosed with a Class I malocclusion, which was causing discomfort and difficulty chewing.
2. The dentist recommended braces to correct the Class I malocclusion and improve the alignment of the teeth.
3. TheClass I malocclusion was treated with a combination of orthodontic therapy and minor oral surgery to achieve optimal results.

Some common types of spinal diseases include:

1. Degenerative disc disease: This is a condition where the discs between the vertebrae in the spine wear down over time, leading to pain and stiffness in the back.
2. Herniated discs: This occurs when the gel-like center of a disc bulges out through a tear in the outer layer, putting pressure on nearby nerves and causing pain.
3. Spinal stenosis: This is a narrowing of the spinal canal, which can put pressure on the spinal cord and nerve roots, causing pain, numbness, and weakness in the legs.
4. Spondylolisthesis: This is a condition where a vertebra slips out of place, either forward or backward, and can cause pressure on nearby nerves and muscles.
5. Scoliosis: This is a curvature of the spine that can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, injury, or disease.
6. Spinal infections: These are infections that can affect any part of the spine, including the discs, vertebrae, and soft tissues.
7. Spinal tumors: These are abnormal growths that can occur in the spine, either primary ( originating in the spine) or metastatic (originating elsewhere in the body).
8. Osteoporotic fractures: These are fractures that occur in the spine as a result of weakened bones due to osteoporosis.
9. Spinal cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that can form in the spine, either as a result of injury or as a congenital condition.
10. Spinal degeneration: This is a general term for any type of wear and tear on the spine, such as arthritis or disc degeneration.

If you are experiencing any of these conditions, it is important to seek medical attention to receive an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Intractable pain can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, affecting their ability to perform daily activities, sleep, and overall well-being. Treatment for intractable pain often involves a combination of medications and alternative therapies such as physical therapy, acupuncture, or cognitive behavioral therapy.

Some common symptoms of intractable pain include:

* Chronic and persistent pain that does not respond to treatment
* Pain that is severe and debilitating
* Pain that affects daily activities and quality of life
* Pain that is burning, shooting, stabbing, or cramping in nature
* Pain that is localized to a specific area of the body or widespread
* Pain that is accompanied by other symptoms such as fatigue, anxiety, or depression.

Intractable pain can be caused by a variety of factors, including:

* Nerve damage or nerve damage from injury or disease
* Inflammation or swelling in the body
* Chronic conditions like arthritis, fibromyalgia, or migraines
* Infections such as shingles or Lyme disease
* Cancer or its treatment
* Neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis or Parkinson's disease.

Managing intractable pain can be challenging and may involve a multidisciplinary approach, including:

* Medications such as pain relievers, anti-inflammatory drugs, or muscle relaxants
* Alternative therapies such as physical therapy, acupuncture, or cognitive behavioral therapy
* Lifestyle changes such as regular exercise, stress management techniques, and a healthy diet
* Interventional procedures such as nerve blocks or spinal cord stimulation.

It is important to work closely with a healthcare provider to find the most effective treatment plan for managing intractable pain. With the right combination of medications and alternative therapies, many people are able to manage their pain and improve their quality of life.

There are several potential causes of LVD, including:

1. Coronary artery disease: The buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries can lead to a heart attack, which can damage the left ventricle and impair its ability to function properly.
2. Heart failure: When the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, it can lead to LVD.
3. Cardiomyopathy: This is a condition where the heart muscle becomes weakened or enlarged, leading to impaired function of the left ventricle.
4. Heart valve disease: Problems with the heart valves can disrupt the normal flow of blood and cause LVD.
5. Hypertension: High blood pressure can cause damage to the heart muscle and lead to LVD.
6. Genetic factors: Some people may be born with genetic mutations that predispose them to developing LVD.
7. Viral infections: Certain viral infections, such as myocarditis, can inflame and damage the heart muscle, leading to LVD.
8. Alcohol or drug abuse: Substance abuse can damage the heart muscle and lead to LVD.
9. Nutritional deficiencies: A diet lacking essential nutrients can lead to damage to the heart muscle and increase the risk of LVD.

Diagnosis of LVD typically involves a physical exam, medical history, and results of diagnostic tests such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), echocardiograms, and stress tests. Treatment options for LVD depend on the underlying cause, but may include medications to improve cardiac function, lifestyle changes, and in severe cases, surgery or other procedures.

Preventing LVD involves taking steps to maintain a healthy heart and reducing risk factors such as high blood pressure, smoking, and obesity. This can be achieved through a balanced diet, regular exercise, stress management, and avoiding substance abuse. Early detection and treatment of underlying conditions that increase the risk of LVD can also help prevent the condition from developing.

A sprain is a stretch or tear of a ligament, which is a fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones and provides stability to joints. Sprains often occur when the joint is subjected to excessive stress or movement, such as during a fall or sudden twisting motion. The most common sprains are those that affect the wrist, knee, and ankle joints.

A strain, on the other hand, is a stretch or tear of a muscle or a tendon, which is a fibrous cord that connects muscles to bones. Strains can occur due to overuse, sudden movement, or injury. The most common strains are those that affect the hamstring, calf, and back muscles.

The main difference between sprains and strains is the location of the injury. Sprains affect the ligaments, while strains affect the muscles or tendons. Additionally, sprains often cause joint instability and swelling, while strains may cause pain, bruising, and limited mobility.

Treatment for sprains and strains is similar and may include rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) to reduce inflammation and relieve pain. Physical therapy exercises may also be recommended to improve strength and range of motion. In severe cases, surgery may be required to repair the damaged tissue.

Prevention is key in avoiding sprains and strains. This can be achieved by maintaining proper posture, warming up before physical activity, wearing appropriate protective gear during sports, and gradually increasing exercise intensity and duration. Proper training and technique can also help reduce the risk of injury.

Overall, while sprains and strains share some similarities, they are distinct injuries that require different approaches to treatment and prevention. Understanding the differences between these two conditions is essential for proper diagnosis, treatment, and recovery.

Some common types of movement disorders include:

1. Parkinson's disease: A degenerative disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability.
2. Dystonia: A movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions that cause abnormal postures or movements.
3. Huntington's disease: An inherited disorder that causes progressive damage to the brain, leading to involuntary movements, cognitive decline, and psychiatric symptoms.
4. Tourette syndrome: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements and vocalizations (tics).
5. Restless leg syndrome: A condition characterized by an uncomfortable sensation in the legs, often described as a creeping or crawling feeling, which is relieved by movement.
6. Chorea: A movement disorder characterized by rapid, jerky movements that can be triggered by emotional stress or other factors.
7. Ballism: Excessive, large, and often circular movements of the limbs, often seen in conditions such as Huntington's disease or drug-induced movements.
8. Athetosis: A slow, writhing movement that can be seen in conditions such as cerebral palsy or tardive dyskinesia.
9. Myoclonus: Sudden, brief muscle jerks or twitches that can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic disorders, infections, and certain medications.
10. Hyperkinesis: An excessive amount of movement, often seen in conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or hyperthyroidism.

Movement disorders can significantly impact an individual's quality of life, and treatment options vary depending on the specific condition and its underlying cause. Some movement disorders may be managed with medication, while others may require surgery or other interventions.

Overbite: This occurs when the upper teeth overlap the lower teeth too much.

Underbite: This happens when the lower teeth overlap the upper teeth too much.

Crossbite: This is when the upper teeth do not align with the lower teeth, causing them to point towards the inside of the mouth.

Open bite: This occurs when the upper and lower teeth do not meet properly, resulting in a gap or an open bite.

Overjet: This is when the upper teeth protrude too far forward, overlapping the lower teeth.

Crowding: This refers to when there is not enough space in the mouth for all the teeth to fit properly, leading to overlapping or misalignment.

Spacing: This occurs when there is too much space between the teeth, which can lead to gum problems and other issues.

Each type of malocclusion can cause a range of symptoms, including difficulty chewing, jaw pain, headaches, and difficulty opening and closing the mouth fully. Treatment options for malocclusion depend on the severity of the problem and may include orthodontic braces, aligners, or surgery to correct the bite and improve oral function and aesthetics.

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, affecting approximately 1% of the population over the age of 60. It is more common in men than women and has a higher incidence in Caucasians than in other ethnic groups.

The primary symptoms of Parkinson's disease are:

* Tremors or trembling, typically starting on one side of the body
* Rigidity or stiffness, causing difficulty with movement
* Bradykinesia or slowness of movement, including a decrease in spontaneous movements such as blinking or smiling
* Postural instability, leading to falls or difficulty with balance

As the disease progresses, symptoms can include:

* Difficulty with walking, gait changes, and freezing episodes
* Dry mouth, constipation, and other non-motor symptoms
* Cognitive changes, such as dementia, memory loss, and confusion
* Sleep disturbances, including REM sleep behavior disorder
* Depression, anxiety, and other psychiatric symptoms

The exact cause of Parkinson's disease is not known, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The disease is associated with the degradation of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, leading to a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. This deficiency disrupts the normal functioning of the basal ganglia, a group of structures involved in movement control, leading to the characteristic symptoms of the disease.

There is no cure for Parkinson's disease, but various treatments are available to manage its symptoms. These include:

* Medications such as dopaminergic agents (e.g., levodopa) and dopamine agonists to replace lost dopamine and improve motor function
* Deep brain stimulation, a surgical procedure that involves implanting an electrode in the brain to deliver electrical impulses to specific areas of the brain
* Physical therapy to improve mobility and balance
* Speech therapy to improve communication and swallowing difficulties
* Occupational therapy to improve daily functioning

It is important for individuals with Parkinson's disease to work closely with their healthcare team to develop a personalized treatment plan that addresses their specific needs and improves their quality of life. With appropriate treatment and support, many people with Parkinson's disease are able to manage their symptoms and maintain a good level of independence for several years after diagnosis.

The exact cause of osteoarthritis is not known, but it is thought to be due to a combination of factors such as genetics, wear and tear on joints over time, and injuries or trauma to the joint. Osteoarthritis can affect any joint in the body, but it most commonly affects the hands, knees, hips, and spine.

The symptoms of osteoarthritis can vary depending on the severity of the condition and which joint is affected. Common symptoms include:

* Pain or tenderness in the joint
* Stiffness, especially after periods of rest or inactivity
* Limited mobility or loss of flexibility
* Grating or crackling sensations when the joint is moved
* Swelling or redness in the affected joint
* Muscle weakness or wasting

There is no cure for osteoarthritis, but there are several treatment options available to manage the symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These include:

* Pain relief medications such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
* Physical therapy to improve mobility and strength
* Lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and avoiding activities that exacerbate the condition
* Bracing or orthotics to support the affected joint
* Corticosteroid injections or hyaluronic acid injections to reduce inflammation and improve joint function
* Joint replacement surgery in severe cases where other treatments have failed.

Early diagnosis and treatment of osteoarthritis can help manage symptoms, slow the progression of the disease, and improve quality of life for individuals with this condition.

1) They share similarities with humans: Many animal species share similar biological and physiological characteristics with humans, making them useful for studying human diseases. For example, mice and rats are often used to study diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer because they have similar metabolic and cardiovascular systems to humans.

2) They can be genetically manipulated: Animal disease models can be genetically engineered to develop specific diseases or to model human genetic disorders. This allows researchers to study the progression of the disease and test potential treatments in a controlled environment.

3) They can be used to test drugs and therapies: Before new drugs or therapies are tested in humans, they are often first tested in animal models of disease. This allows researchers to assess the safety and efficacy of the treatment before moving on to human clinical trials.

4) They can provide insights into disease mechanisms: Studying disease models in animals can provide valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of a particular disease. This information can then be used to develop new treatments or improve existing ones.

5) Reduces the need for human testing: Using animal disease models reduces the need for human testing, which can be time-consuming, expensive, and ethically challenging. However, it is important to note that animal models are not perfect substitutes for human subjects, and results obtained from animal studies may not always translate to humans.

6) They can be used to study infectious diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study infectious diseases such as HIV, TB, and malaria. These models allow researchers to understand how the disease is transmitted, how it progresses, and how it responds to treatment.

7) They can be used to study complex diseases: Animal disease models can be used to study complex diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. These models allow researchers to understand the underlying mechanisms of the disease and test potential treatments.

8) They are cost-effective: Animal disease models are often less expensive than human clinical trials, making them a cost-effective way to conduct research.

9) They can be used to study drug delivery: Animal disease models can be used to study drug delivery and pharmacokinetics, which is important for developing new drugs and drug delivery systems.

10) They can be used to study aging: Animal disease models can be used to study the aging process and age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This allows researchers to understand how aging contributes to disease and develop potential treatments.

Types of Ulna Fractures:

There are several types of ulna fractures, depending on the location and severity of the injury. These include:

1. Distal Humerus-Ulna (DHU) fracture: A break between the ulna and humerus bones near the wrist joint.
2. Mid-shaft ulna fracture: A break in the middle portion of the ulna bone.
3. Proximal ulna fracture: A break at the base of the ulna bone, nearest to the elbow joint.
4. Monteggia fracture: A combination of a proximal ulna fracture and a dislocation of the radial head (a bone in the forearm).

Symptoms of Ulna Fractures:

Patients with ulna fractures may experience pain, swelling, bruising, limited mobility and difficulty grasping objects. In some cases, there may be an audible snapping or popping sound when the injury occurs.

Diagnosis of Ulna Fractures:

Ulna fractures are typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, X-rays and imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans. In some cases, an open reduction internal fixation (ORIF) surgery may be necessary to realign and stabilize the bones.

Treatment of Ulna Fractures:

The treatment for ulna fractures depends on the severity and location of the injury. Non-surgical treatments may include immobilization with a cast or splint, pain management with medication and physical therapy to regain strength and range of motion. Surgical intervention may be necessary in more severe cases or those that do not respond to non-surgical treatment.

Complications of Ulna Fractures:

As with any fracture, there is a risk of complications with ulna fractures including infection, nerve damage, and poor healing. In some cases, the fracture may not properly align, leading to long-term functional issues such as loss of grip strength or limited mobility.

Prevention of Ulna Fractures:

While it is not possible to completely prevent ulna fractures, there are steps that can be taken to reduce the risk of injury. These include wearing protective gear during sports and physical activities, maintaining good bone density through a balanced diet and exercise, and taking steps to prevent falls such as removing tripping hazards from the home environment.

Prognosis for Ulna Fractures:

The prognosis for ulna fractures is generally good, with most patients experiencing a full recovery within 6-8 weeks. However, in some cases, complications may arise and long-term functional issues may persist. It is important to follow the treatment plan recommended by your healthcare provider and attend all scheduled follow-up appointments to ensure proper healing and minimize the risk of complications.

Conclusion:

Ulna fractures are a common injury that can occur as a result of sports, falls, or other traumatic events. The prognosis for ulna fractures is generally good, but it is important to seek medical attention if symptoms persist or worsen over time. With proper treatment and follow-up care, most patients experience a full recovery within 6-8 weeks. However, in some cases, complications may arise and long-term functional issues may persist, so it is important to be aware of the risk factors and seek medical attention if any concerns or symptoms arise.

Types of Radius Fractures:

1. Stable fracture: The bone is broken but still in place.
2. Displaced fracture: The bone is broken and out of place.
3. Comminuted fracture: The bone is broken into several pieces.
4. Hairline fracture: A thin crack in the bone.

Symptoms:

1. Pain in the arm or forearm.
2. Swelling and bruising.
3. Limited mobility or deformity of the arm.
4. Difficulty moving the arm or wrist.

Diagnosis:

1. Physical examination and medical history.
2. Imaging tests, such as X-rays or CT scans.

Treatment:

1. Minor fractures may be treated with immobilization in a cast or brace.
2. Displaced or comminuted fractures may require surgical intervention to realign and stabilize the bone.
3. Physical therapy may be necessary to regain strength and mobility in the arm.

Complications:

1. Infection.
2. Nerve damage.
3. Delayed healing.
4. Malunion or nonunion of the fracture, which can cause long-term complications.

Prevention:

1. Wear protective gear during sports and physical activities.
2. Use proper lifting techniques to avoid strain on the arm.
3. Maintain good bone density through a balanced diet and exercise.

The term "hallux valgus" comes from Latin words that mean "big toe turned away." It is estimated that about 25% of adults in the United States have some degree of hallux valgus, with women being more likely to develop the condition than men.

Hallux valgus is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, such as wearing poorly fitting shoes or having a family history of the condition. It can also be brought on by certain injuries or conditions, such as arthritis or gout.

Symptoms of hallux valgus include:

* Pain or discomfort in the big toe
* Redness and swelling around the joint
* Difficulty walking or wearing shoes
* Thickening of the skin at the base of the big toe
* Corns or calluses on the side of the foot

Treatment for hallux valgus depends on the severity of the condition and can range from conservative measures such as wearing proper footwear, using orthotics, and taking anti-inflammatory medications to surgical interventions such as bunionectomy. Early diagnosis and treatment can help alleviate symptoms and prevent complications.

1. Tooth size discrepancy: When one tooth is larger than the others, it can cause a gap to form between them.
2. Missing teeth: If a tooth is missing, it can create a space between the adjacent teeth.
3. Poor dental hygiene: Inadequate brushing and flossing can lead to a buildup of plaque and tartar, which can cause teeth to shift and form gaps.
4. Genetics: Some people may be more prone to developing diastema due to their genetic makeup.
5. Thumb-sucking or pacifier use: Prolonged thumb-sucking or use of a pacifier can push the front teeth forward and create a gap.
6. Tongue thrust: A condition where the tongue presses against the teeth, causing them to shift and form gaps.
7. Orthodontic treatment: In some cases, diastema may be intentionally created during orthodontic treatment to help straighten teeth.
8. Gum disease: Advanced gum disease can cause teeth to pull away from each other, creating a gap.
9. Bone loss: Loss of bone in the jaw can cause teeth to shift and form gaps.
10. Facial trauma: A blow to the face or jaw can cause teeth to become displaced and form gaps.

Diastema can be treated with a variety of methods, including orthodontic braces, crowns, veneers, and dental bonding. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to correct the underlying issue causing the diastema.

Anatomy52

Organisms6

Diseases24

Chemicals and Drugs11

Analytical, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques and Equipment59

Psychiatry and Psychology27

Phenomena and Processes64

Disciplines and Occupations5

Anthropology, Education, Sociology and Social Phenomena10

Technology, Industry, Agriculture4

Information Science10

Named Groups2

Health Care8

Ergoline derivative LEK-8829-induced turning behavior in rats with unilateral striatal ibotenic acid lesions: interaction with bromocriptine. (1/2795)

3D angiography. Clinical interest. First applications in interventional neuroradiology. (2/2795)

Recovery of the vestibulocolic reflex after aminoglycoside ototoxicity in domestic chickens. (3/2795)

Projections and firing properties of down eye-movement neurons in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the cat. (4/2795)

Modified Bankart procedure for recurrent anterior dislocation and subluxation of the shoulder in athletes. (5/2795)

Transport of colloidal particles in lymphatics and vasculature after subcutaneous injection. (6/2795)

Hip moments during level walking, stair climbing, and exercise in individuals aged 55 years or older. (7/2795)

Orientation-tuned spatial filters for texture-defined form. (8/2795)

Optical Rotation

Range of Motion, Articular

Reflex, Vestibulo-Ocular

Biomechanical Phenomena

Head Movements

Torsion Abnormality

Movement

Vestibule, Labyrinth

Shoulder Joint

Semicircular Canals

Torsion, Mechanical

Torque

Eye Movements

Flagella

Nystagmus, Physiologic

Otolithic Membrane

Acceleration

Shoulder

Vestibular Nerve

Posture

Orientation

Supination

Scapula

Molecular Motor Proteins

Head

Cadaver

Torso

Joint Instability

Scoliosis

Motion

Imaging, Three-Dimensional

Models, Molecular

Pronation

Humerus

Proton-Translocating ATPases

Clinical Clerkship

Proprioception

Vestibular Nuclei

Baseball

Hip Joint

Models, Biological

Motion Perception

Knee Joint

Brachial Plexus Neuropathies

Kinesthesis

Models, Anatomic

Rotator Cuff

Arthrometry, Articular

Internship and Residency

Shoulder Dislocation

Motion Sickness

Weight-Bearing

Reproducibility of Results

Psychomotor Performance

Protein Conformation

Coriolis Force

Femur

Computer Simulation

Photic Stimulation

Ligaments, Articular

Photogrammetry

Imagination

Gravity Sensing

Tibia

Vestibular Diseases

Space Perception

Lumbar Vertebrae

Bacterial Proton-Translocating ATPases

Birth Injuries

Saimiri

Functional Laterality

Spine

Time Factors

Orthopedic Fixation Devices

Fixation, Ocular

Optic Flow

Analysis of Variance

Crystallography, X-Ray

Arm

Tendon Transfer