A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-TRYPTOPHAN. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator.
A serotonin receptor subtype found widely distributed in peripheral tissues where it mediates the contractile responses of variety of tissues that contain SMOOTH MUSCLE. Selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonists include KETANSERIN. The 5-HT2A subtype is also located in BASAL GANGLIA and CEREBRAL CORTEX of the BRAIN where it mediates the effects of HALLUCINOGENS such as LSD.
A serotonin receptor subtype found distributed through the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM where they are involved in neuroendocrine regulation of ACTH secretion. The fact that this serotonin receptor subtype is particularly sensitive to SEROTONIN RECEPTOR AGONISTS such as BUSPIRONE suggests its role in the modulation of ANXIETY and DEPRESSION.
Cell-surface proteins that bind SEROTONIN and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Several types of serotonin receptors have been recognized which differ in their pharmacology, molecular biology, and mode of action.
A serotonin receptor subtype found at high levels in the BASAL GANGLIA and the frontal cortex. It plays a role as a terminal autoreceptor that regulates the rate of SEROTONIN release from nerve endings. This serotonin receptor subtype is closely related to and has similar drug binding properties as the 5-HT1D RECEPTOR. It is particularly sensitive to the agonist SUMATRIPTAN and may be involved in mediating the drug's antimigraine effect.
A serotonin receptor subtype found primarily in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and the CHOROID PLEXUS. This receptor subtype is believed to mediate the anorectic action of SEROTONIN, while selective antagonists of the 5-HT2C receptor appear to induce ANXIETY. Several isoforms of this receptor subtype exist, due to adenine deaminase editing of the receptor mRNA.
A subclass of G-protein coupled SEROTONIN receptors that couple preferentially to GI-GO G-PROTEINS resulting in decreased intracellular CYCLIC AMP levels.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of serotonergic neurons. They are different than SEROTONIN RECEPTORS, which signal cellular responses to SEROTONIN. They remove SEROTONIN from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS. Regulates signal amplitude and duration at serotonergic synapses and is the site of action of the SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
Drugs that bind to but do not activate serotonin receptors, thereby blocking the actions of serotonin or SEROTONIN RECEPTOR AGONISTS.
A subclass of serotonin receptors that form cation channels and mediate signal transduction by depolarizing the cell membrane. The cation channels are formed from 5 receptor subunits. When stimulated the receptors allow the selective passage of SODIUM; POTASSIUM; and CALCIUM.
Compounds that specifically inhibit the reuptake of serotonin in the brain.
Drugs that bind to but do not activate SEROTONIN 5-HT2 RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of SEROTONIN or SEROTONIN 5-HT2 RECEPTOR AGONISTS. Included under this heading are antagonists for one or more specific 5-HT2 receptor subtypes.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that bind to and activate SEROTONIN RECEPTORS. Many serotonin receptor agonists are used as ANTIDEPRESSANTS; ANXIOLYTICS; and in the treatment of MIGRAINE DISORDERS.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that specifically stimulate SEROTONIN 5-HT2 RECEPTORS. Included under this heading are agonists for one or more of the specific 5-HT2 receptor subtypes.
Drugs used for their effects on serotonergic systems. Among these are drugs that affect serotonin receptors, the life cycle of serotonin, and the survival of serotonergic neurons.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that specifically stimulate SEROTONIN 5-HT1 RECEPTORS. Included under this heading are agonists for one or more of the specific 5-HT1 receptor subtypes.
A serotonin receptor subtype found in the BRAIN; HEART; LUNGS; PLACENTA and DIGESTIVE SYSTEM organs. A number of functions have been attributed to the action of the 5-HT2B receptor including the development of cardiac myocytes (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) and the contraction of SMOOTH MUSCLE.
A subclass of G-protein coupled SEROTONIN receptors that couple preferentially to the GQ-G11 G-PROTEINS resulting in increased intracellular levels of INOSITOL PHOSPHATES and free CALCIUM.
Drugs that bind to but do not activate SEROTONIN 5-HT1 RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of SEROTONIN 5-HT1 RECEPTOR AGONISTS. Included under this heading are antagonists for one or more of the specific 5-HT1 receptor subtypes.
An adverse drug interaction characterized by altered mental status, autonomic dysfunction, and neuromuscular abnormalities. It is most frequently caused by use of both serotonin reuptake inhibitors and monoamine oxidase inhibitors, leading to excess serotonin availability in the CNS at the serotonin 1A receptor.
A serotonin receptor subtype that is localized to the CAUDATE NUCLEUS; PUTAMEN; the NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; the HIPPOCAMPUS, and the RAPHE NUCLEI. It plays a role as a terminal autoreceptor that regulates the rate of SEROTONIN release from nerve endings. This serotonin receptor subtype is closely related to and has similar drug binding properties as the 5-HT1B RECEPTOR, but is expressed at low levels. It is particularly sensitive to the agonist SUMATRIPTAN and may be involved in mediating the drug's antimigrane effect.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydroxylation of TRYPTOPHAN to 5-HYDROXYTRYPTOPHAN in the presence of NADPH and molecular oxygen. It is important in the biosynthesis of SEROTONIN.
Drugs that bind to but do not activate SEROTONIN 5-HT3 RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of SEROTONIN or SEROTONIN 5-HT3 RECEPTOR AGONISTS.
A subtype of G-protein-coupled SEROTONIN receptors that preferentially couple to GS STIMULATORY G-PROTEINS resulting in increased intracellular CYCLIC AMP. Several isoforms of the receptor exist due to ALTERNATIVE SPLICING of its mRNA.
A selective serotonin receptor antagonist with weak adrenergic receptor blocking properties. The drug is effective in lowering blood pressure in essential hypertension. It also inhibits platelet aggregation. It is well tolerated and is particularly effective in older patients.
Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) is a major metabolite of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, formed by the action of monoamine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, and its measurement in urine is often used as a biomarker for serotonin synthesis in clinical and research settings.
A serotonin 1A-receptor agonist that is used experimentally to test the effects of serotonin.
Human colonic ADENOCARCINOMA cells that are able to express differentiation features characteristic of mature intestinal cells such as the GOBLET CELLS.
Collections of small neurons centrally scattered among many fibers from the level of the TROCHLEAR NUCLEUS in the midbrain to the hypoglossal area in the MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
The first highly specific serotonin uptake inhibitor. It is used as an antidepressant and often has a more acceptable side-effects profile than traditional antidepressants.
The immediate precursor in the biosynthesis of SEROTONIN from tryptophan. It is used as an antiepileptic and antidepressant.
Neurons whose primary neurotransmitter is SEROTONIN.
A furancarbonitrile that is one of the SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITORS used as an antidepressant. The drug is also effective in reducing ethanol uptake in alcoholics and is used in depressed patients who also suffer from tardive dyskinesia in preference to tricyclic antidepressants, which aggravate this condition.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that specifically stimulate SEROTONIN 5-HT3 RECEPTORS.
Endogenous compounds and drugs that specifically stimulate SEROTONIN 5-HT4 RECEPTORS.
An ergot derivative that is a congener of LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE. It antagonizes the effects of serotonin in blood vessels and gastrointestinal smooth muscle, but has few of the properties of other ergot alkaloids. Methysergide is used prophylactically in migraine and other vascular headaches and to antagonize serotonin in the carcinoid syndrome.
Drugs that bind to but do not activate SEROTONIN 5-HT4 RECEPTORS, thereby blocking the actions of SEROTONIN or SEROTONIN RECEPTOR AGONISTS.
A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is effective in the treatment of depression.
A selective and irreversible inhibitor of tryptophan hydroxylase, a rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of serotonin (5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE). Fenclonine acts pharmacologically to deplete endogenous levels of serotonin.
Biogenic amines having only one amine moiety. Included in this group are all natural monoamines formed by the enzymatic decarboxylation of natural amino acids.
Analogs or derivatives of AMPHETAMINE. Many are sympathomimetics and central nervous system stimulators causing excitation, vasopressin, bronchodilation, and to varying degrees, anorexia, analepsis, nasal decongestion, and some smooth muscle relaxation.
Tryptamine substituted with two hydroxyl groups in positions 5 and 7. It is a neurotoxic serotonin analog that destroys serotonergic neurons preferentially and is used in neuropharmacology as a tool.
A centrally active drug that apparently both blocks serotonin uptake and provokes transport-mediated serotonin release.
Decarboxylated monoamine derivatives of TRYPTOPHAN.
A selective and potent serotonin-2 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of a variety of syndromes related to anxiety and depression. The drug also improves the subjective quality of sleep and decreases portal pressure.
Mood-stimulating drugs used primarily in the treatment of affective disorders and related conditions. Several MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS are useful as antidepressants apparently as a long-term consequence of their modulation of catecholamine levels. The tricyclic compounds useful as antidepressive agents (ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS, TRICYCLIC) also appear to act through brain catecholamine systems. A third group (ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS, SECOND-GENERATION) is a diverse group of drugs including some that act specifically on serotonergic systems.
A serotonin receptor antagonist in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM used as an antipsychotic.
Piperazines are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds containing a seven-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 4, often used in pharmaceuticals as smooth muscle relaxants, antipsychotics, antidepressants, and antihistamines, but can also be found as recreational drugs with stimulant and entactogen properties.
Semisynthetic derivative of ergot (Claviceps purpurea). It has complex effects on serotonergic systems including antagonism at some peripheral serotonin receptors, both agonist and antagonist actions at central nervous system serotonin receptors, and possibly effects on serotonin turnover. It is a potent hallucinogen, but the mechanisms of that effect are not well understood.
An N-substituted amphetamine analog. It is a widely abused drug classified as a hallucinogen and causes marked, long-lasting changes in brain serotonergic systems. It is commonly referred to as MDMA or ecstasy.
One of the catecholamine NEUROTRANSMITTERS in the brain. It is derived from TYROSINE and is the precursor to NOREPINEPHRINE and EPINEPHRINE. Dopamine is a major transmitter in the extrapyramidal system of the brain, and important in regulating movement. A family of receptors (RECEPTORS, DOPAMINE) mediate its action.
A serotonin antagonist with limited antihistaminic, anticholinergic, and immunosuppressive activity.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
A structurally and mechanistically diverse group of drugs that are not tricyclics or monoamine oxidase inhibitors. The most clinically important appear to act selectively on serotonergic systems, especially by inhibiting serotonin reuptake.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
An anxiolytic agent and serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the BENZODIAZAPINES, but it has an efficacy comparable to DIAZEPAM.
A serotonin antagonist and a histamine H1 blocker used as antipruritic, appetite stimulant, antiallergic, and for the post-gastrectomy dumping syndrome, etc.
A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor that is used in the treatment of DEPRESSION and a variety of ANXIETY DISORDERS.
Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of molecules across a biological membrane. Included in this broad category are proteins involved in active transport (BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT, ACTIVE), facilitated transport and ION CHANNELS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidative deamination of naturally occurring monoamines. It is a flavin-containing enzyme that is localized in mitochondrial membranes, whether in nerve terminals, the liver, or other organs. Monoamine oxidase is important in regulating the metabolic degradation of catecholamines and serotonin in neural or target tissues. Hepatic monoamine oxidase has a crucial defensive role in inactivating circulating monoamines or those, such as tyramine, that originate in the gut and are absorbed into the portal circulation. (From Goodman and Gilman's, The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p415) EC 1.4.3.4.
Substances that contain a fused three-ring moiety and are used in the treatment of depression. These drugs block the uptake of norepinephrine and serotonin into axon terminals and may block some subtypes of serotonin, adrenergic, and histamine receptors. However the mechanism of their antidepressant effects is not clear because the therapeutic effects usually take weeks to develop and may reflect compensatory changes in the central nervous system.
A technique for measuring extracellular concentrations of substances in tissues, usually in vivo, by means of a small probe equipped with a semipermeable membrane. Substances may also be introduced into the extracellular space through the membrane.
The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention-deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group.
A group of naturally occurring amines derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of the natural amino acids. Many have powerful physiological effects (e.g., histamine, serotonin, epinephrine, tyramine). Those derived from aromatic amino acids, and also their synthetic analogs (e.g., amphetamine), are of use in pharmacology.
A tricyclic antidepressant similar to IMIPRAMINE that selectively inhibits the uptake of serotonin in the brain. It is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to form its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
An essential amino acid that is necessary for normal growth in infants and for NITROGEN balance in adults. It is a precursor of INDOLE ALKALOIDS in plants. It is a precursor of SEROTONIN (hence its use as an antidepressant and sleep aid). It can be a precursor to NIACIN, albeit inefficiently, in mammals.
Serotonin derivative proposed as potentiator for hypnotics and sedatives.
Non-nucleated disk-shaped cells formed in the megakaryocyte and found in the blood of all mammals. They are mainly involved in blood coagulation.
Transmitter receptors on or near presynaptic terminals (or varicosities) which are sensitive to the transmitter(s) released by the terminal itself. Receptors for the hormones released by hormone-releasing cells are also included.
A chemically heterogeneous group of drugs that have in common the ability to block oxidative deamination of naturally occurring monoamines. (From Gilman, et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p414)
Drugs that block the transport of adrenergic transmitters into axon terminals or into storage vesicles within terminals. The tricyclic antidepressants (ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS, TRICYCLIC) and amphetamines are among the therapeutically important drugs that may act via inhibition of adrenergic transport. Many of these drugs also block transport of serotonin.
A selective serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used in the treatment of depression.
A spiro butyrophenone analog similar to HALOPERIDOL and other related compounds. It has been recommended in the treatment of SCHIZOPHRENIA.
Drugs capable of inducing illusions, hallucinations, delusions, paranoid ideations, and other alterations of mood and thinking. Despite the name, the feature that distinguishes these agents from other classes of drugs is their capacity to induce states of altered perception, thought, and feeling that are not experienced otherwise.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of noradrenergic neurons. They remove NOREPINEPHRINE from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS. It regulates signal amplitude and duration at noradrenergic synapses and is the target of ADRENERGIC UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
Compounds with a six membered aromatic ring containing NITROGEN. The saturated version is PIPERIDINES.
Changes in the amounts of various chemicals (neurotransmitters, receptors, enzymes, and other metabolites) specific to the area of the central nervous system contained within the head. These are monitored over time, during sensory stimulation, or under different disease states.
A serotonin agonist that acts selectively at 5HT1 receptors. It is used in the treatment of MIGRAINE DISORDERS.
Benzopyrroles with the nitrogen at the number one carbon adjacent to the benzyl portion, in contrast to ISOINDOLES which have the nitrogen away from the six-membered ring.
An alpha-adrenergic sympathomimetic amine, biosynthesized from tyramine in the CNS and platelets and also in invertebrate nervous systems. It is used to treat hypotension and as a cardiotonic. The natural D(-) form is more potent than the L(+) form in producing cardiovascular adrenergic responses. It is also a neurotransmitter in some invertebrates.
A family of hexahydropyridines.
Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.
A subtype of enteroendocrine cells found in the gastrointestinal MUCOSA, particularly in the glands of PYLORIC ANTRUM; DUODENUM; and ILEUM. These cells secrete mainly SEROTONIN and some neuropeptides. Their secretory granules stain readily with silver (argentaffin stain).
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
Chlorinated analog of AMPHETAMINE. Potent neurotoxin that causes release and eventually depletion of serotonin in the CNS. It is used as a research tool.
Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Pyridines substituted in any position with an amino group. May be hydrogenated, but must retain at least one double bond.
A competitive serotonin type 3 receptor antagonist. It is effective in the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs, including cisplatin, and has reported anxiolytic and neuroleptic properties.
'Fluorobenzenes' are aromatic hydrocarbons consisting of a benzene ring substituted with one or more fluorine atoms, characterized by the presence of the highly electronegative fluorine atom(s) that influence the compound's chemical reactivity and physical properties.
N-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octanes best known for the ones found in PLANTS.
A tetracyclic compound with antidepressant effects. It may cause drowsiness and hematological problems. Its mechanism of therapeutic action is not well understood, although it apparently blocks alpha-adrenergic, histamine H1, and some types of serotonin receptors.
The S-isomer of FENFLURAMINE. It is a serotonin agonist and is used as an anorectic. Unlike fenfluramine, it does not possess any catecholamine agonist activity.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
Tryptamine substituted with two hydroxyl groups in positions 5 and 6. It is a neurotoxic serotonin analog that destroys serotonergic neurons preferentially and is used in neuropharmacologic research.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
Monohydroxy derivatives of cyclohexanes that contain the general formula R-C6H11O. They have a camphorlike odor and are used in making soaps, insecticides, germicides, dry cleaning, and plasticizers.
Biguanides are a class of oral hypoglycemic agents, including metformin, which primarily reduce blood glucose levels by decreasing hepatic gluconeogenesis and increasing insulin sensitivity, but not by stimulating insulin secretion, and they are commonly used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
A serotonin receptor (5HT-3 selective) antagonist that has been used as an antiemetic for cancer chemotherapy patients.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A family of vesicular amine transporter proteins that catalyze the transport and storage of CATECHOLAMINES and indolamines into SECRETORY VESICLES.
An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent.
An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake.
5-Hydroxy-indole-3-ethanol.
A dopamine agonist and serotonin antagonist. It has been used similarly to BROMOCRIPTINE as a dopamine agonist and also for MIGRAINE DISORDERS therapy.
The rostral part of the frontal lobe, bounded by the inferior precentral fissure in humans, which receives projection fibers from the MEDIODORSAL NUCLEUS OF THE THALAMUS. The prefrontal cortex receives afferent fibers from numerous structures of the DIENCEPHALON; MESENCEPHALON; and LIMBIC SYSTEM as well as cortical afferents of visual, auditory, and somatic origin.
A tricyclic dibenzazepine compound that potentiates neurotransmission. Desipramine selectively blocks reuptake of norepinephrine from the neural synapse, and also appears to impair serotonin transport. This compound also possesses minor anticholinergic activity, through its affinity to muscarinic receptors.
Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of dopaminergic neurons. They remove DOPAMINE from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS and are the target of DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS.
Drugs that inhibit the transport of neurotransmitters into axon terminals or into storage vesicles within terminals. For many transmitters, uptake determines the time course of transmitter action so inhibiting uptake prolongs the activity of the transmitter. Blocking uptake may also deplete available transmitter stores. Many clinically important drugs are uptake inhibitors although the indirect reactions of the brain rather than the acute block of uptake itself is often responsible for the therapeutic effects.
The communication from a NEURON to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a SYNAPSE. In chemical synaptic transmission, the presynaptic neuron releases a NEUROTRANSMITTER that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific synaptic receptors, activating them. The activated receptors modulate specific ion channels and/or second-messenger systems in the postsynaptic cell. In electrical synaptic transmission, electrical signals are communicated as an ionic current flow across ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES.
Behavior which may be manifested by destructive and attacking action which is verbal or physical, by covert attitudes of hostility or by obstructionism.
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
A monoamine oxidase inhibitor with antihypertensive properties.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in invertebrates. Invertebrate ganglia may also contain neuronal processes and non-neuronal supporting cells. Many invertebrate ganglia are favorable subjects for research because they have small numbers of functional neuronal types which can be identified from one animal to another.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
A series of structurally-related alkaloids that contain the ergoline backbone structure.
'Ethylamines' are organic compounds containing an ethyl group (two carbon atoms) bonded to an amino group (-NH2), which can vary in their complexity and properties, playing a role in various biological processes or utilized in the synthesis of numerous pharmaceuticals and chemicals.
A light-sensitive neuroendocrine organ attached to the roof of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain. The pineal gland secretes MELATONIN, other BIOGENIC AMINES and NEUROPEPTIDES.
An activity in which the body is propelled through water by specific movement of the arms and/or the legs. Swimming as propulsion through water by the movement of limbs, tail, or fins of animals is often studied as a form of PHYSICAL EXERTION or endurance.
Agents that control agitated psychotic behavior, alleviate acute psychotic states, reduce psychotic symptoms, and exert a quieting effect. They are used in SCHIZOPHRENIA; senile dementia; transient psychosis following surgery; or MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION; etc. These drugs are often referred to as neuroleptics alluding to the tendency to produce neurological side effects, but not all antipsychotics are likely to produce such effects. Many of these drugs may also be effective against nausea, emesis, and pruritus.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Depressive states usually of moderate intensity in contrast with major depression present in neurotic and psychotic disorders.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
A reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase type A; (RIMA); (see MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS) that has antidepressive properties.
An amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of HISTIDINE. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter.
Marked depression appearing in the involution period and characterized by hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and agitation.
A FENFLURAMINE analog that inhibits serotonin uptake and may provoke release of serotonin. It is used as an appetite depressant and an experimental tool in animal studies.
Homovanillic acid (HVA) is a major metabolite of dopamine, formed in the body through the catabolic breakdown of this neurotransmitter by the enzyme catechol-O-methyltransferase and then further metabolized in the liver before excretion in urine.
A tricylic dibenzodiazepine, classified as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It binds several types of central nervous system receptors, and displays a unique pharmacological profile. Clozapine is a serotonin antagonist, with strong binding to 5-HT 2A/2C receptor subtype. It also displays strong affinity to several dopaminergic receptors, but shows only weak antagonism at the dopamine D2 receptor, a receptor commonly thought to modulate neuroleptic activity. Agranulocytosis is a major adverse effect associated with administration of this agent.
The making of a radiograph of an object or tissue by recording on a photographic plate the radiation emitted by radioactive material within the object. (Dorland, 27th ed)
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use.
The physiological narrowing of BLOOD VESSELS by contraction of the VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE.
A psychedelic phenyl isopropylamine derivative, commonly called DOM, whose mood-altering effects and mechanism of action may be similar to those of LSD.
An antidepressive agent and monoamine oxidase inhibitor related to PARGYLINE.
A hallucinogenic serotonin analog found in frog or toad skins, mushrooms, higher plants, and mammals, especially in the brains, plasma, and urine of schizophrenics. Bufotenin has been used as a tool in CNS studies and misused as a psychedelic.
The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
Feeling or emotion of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster but not disabling as with ANXIETY DISORDERS.
Drugs that block the transport of DOPAMINE into axon terminals or into storage vesicles within terminals. Most of the ADRENERGIC UPTAKE INHIBITORS also inhibit dopamine uptake.
A group of compounds consisting in part of two rings sharing one atom (usually a carbon) in common.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Cell-surface proteins that bind dopamine with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells.
The tendency to explore or investigate a novel environment. It is considered a motivation not clearly distinguishable from curiosity.
Oxadiazoles are heterocyclic organic compounds consisting of a five-membered ring containing two carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom, and two oxygen atoms (one as a part of the oxadiazole ring and the other as a substituent or part of a larger molecule), which can exist in various isomeric forms and are known for their versatile biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, and antitumor properties.
1,4-Diethylene dioxides. Industrial solvents. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985), dioxane itself may "reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen." (Merck Index, 11th ed)
Striped GRAY MATTER and WHITE MATTER consisting of the NEOSTRIATUM and paleostriatum (GLOBUS PALLIDUS). It is located in front of and lateral to the THALAMUS in each cerebral hemisphere. The gray substance is made up of the CAUDATE NUCLEUS and the lentiform nucleus (the latter consisting of the GLOBUS PALLIDUS and PUTAMEN). The WHITE MATTER is the INTERNAL CAPSULE.
The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.
A biogenic amine that is found in animals and plants. In mammals, melatonin is produced by the PINEAL GLAND. Its secretion increases in darkness and decreases during exposure to light. Melatonin is implicated in the regulation of SLEEP, mood, and REPRODUCTION. Melatonin is also an effective antioxidant.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.
The study of the generation and behavior of electrical charges in living organisms particularly the nervous system and the effects of electricity on living organisms.
An amphetamine derivative that inhibits uptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters. It is a hallucinogen. It is less toxic than its methylated derivative but in sufficient doses may still destroy serotonergic neurons and has been used for that purpose experimentally.
Toluenes in which one hydrogen of the methyl group is substituted by an amino group. Permitted are any substituents on the benzene ring or the amino group.
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
Pinched-off nerve endings and their contents of vesicles and cytoplasm together with the attached subsynaptic area of the membrane of the post-synaptic cell. They are largely artificial structures produced by fractionation after selective centrifugation of nervous tissue homogenates.
The attachment of PLATELETS to one another. This clumping together can be induced by a number of agents (e.g., THROMBIN; COLLAGEN) and is part of the mechanism leading to the formation of a THROMBUS.
An acetyltransferase with specificity towards the amine group of aromatic alkylamines (arylalkylamines) such as SEROTONIN. This enzyme is also referred to as serotonin acetylase despite the fact that serotonin acetylation can also occur through the action of broad specificity acetyltransferases such as ARYLAMINE N-ACETYLTRANSFERASE.
Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Quantitative determination of receptor (binding) proteins in body fluids or tissue using radioactively labeled binding reagents (e.g., antibodies, intracellular receptors, plasma binders).
The forcible expulsion of the contents of the STOMACH through the MOUTH.
A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism whereby actin filaments slide inward among the myosin filaments.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Agents that alleviate ANXIETY, tension, and ANXIETY DISORDERS, promote sedation, and have a calming effect without affecting clarity of consciousness or neurologic conditions. ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS are commonly used in the symptomatic treatment of anxiety but are not included here.
Abrupt changes in the membrane potential that sweep along the CELL MEMBRANE of excitable cells in response to excitation stimuli.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A deaminated metabolite of LEVODOPA.
A symptom complex associated with CARCINOID TUMOR and characterized by attacks of severe flushing of the skin, diarrheal watery stools, bronchoconstriction, sudden drops in blood pressure, edema, and ascites. The carcinoid tumors are usually located in the gastrointestinal tract and metastasize to the liver. Symptoms are caused by tumor secretion of serotonin, prostaglandins, and other biologically active substances. Cardiac manifestations constitute CARCINOID HEART DISEASE. (Dorland, 27th ed; Stedman, 25th ed)
An imaging technique using compounds labelled with short-lived positron-emitting radionuclides (such as carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15 and fluorine-18) to measure cell metabolism. It has been useful in study of soft tissues such as CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; and brain. SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY is closely related to positron emission tomography, but uses isotopes with longer half-lives and resolution is lower.
Movement or the ability to move from one place or another. It can refer to humans, vertebrate or invertebrate animals, and microorganisms.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
An electrophysiologic technique for studying cells, cell membranes, and occasionally isolated organelles. All patch-clamp methods rely on a very high-resistance seal between a micropipette and a membrane; the seal is usually attained by gentle suction. The four most common variants include on-cell patch, inside-out patch, outside-out patch, and whole-cell clamp. Patch-clamp methods are commonly used to voltage clamp, that is control the voltage across the membrane and measure current flow, but current-clamp methods, in which the current is controlled and the voltage is measured, are also used.
Agents that are used to suppress appetite.
The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).
Stress wherein emotional factors predominate.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
A moderately lipophilic beta blocker (ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS). It is non-cardioselective and has intrinsic sympathomimetic actions, but little membrane-stabilizing activity. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmocopoeia, 30th ed, p638)
An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are the intrusive ideas, thoughts, or images that are experienced as senseless or repugnant. Compulsions are repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior which the individual generally recognizes as senseless and from which the individual does not derive pleasure although it may provide a release from tension.

Serotonin reduces the hyperpolarization-activated current (Ih) in ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons: involvement of 5-HT2 receptors and protein kinase C. (1/92)

Dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have been implicated in the rewarding properties of drugs of abuse and in the etiology of schizophrenia; serotonin modulation of these neurons may play a role in these phenomena. Whole cell patch-in-the-slice recording in rat brain slices was used to investigate modulation of the hyperpolarization-activated cationic current Ih by serotonin in these neurons. Serotonin (50-500 microM) reduced the amplitude of Ih in a concentration-dependent manner; this effect was reversible after prolonged washout of serotonin. This effect was mimicked by the 5-HT2 agonist alpha-methylserotonin (25 microM) and reversed by the 5-HT2 antagonist ketanserin (25 microM). Serotonin reduced the maximal Ih current and conductance (measured at -130 mV) and caused a negative shift in the voltage dependence of Ih activation. The serotonin-induced reduction in Ih amplitude was antagonized by intracellular administration of the nonspecific protein kinase inhibitor H-7 (75 microM) and the selective protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine (25 microM). The protein kinase C activator phorbol 12, 13 diacetate (PDA, 2 microM) reduced Ih amplitude; when PDA and serotonin were applied together, the effect on Ih was less than additive. These data support the conclusion that serotonin reduces Ih in dopaminergic VTA neurons by acting at serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, which activate protein kinase C. This reduction of Ih may be physiologically important, as the selective inhibitor of Ih, ZD7288, significantly increased dopamine inhibition of firing rate of dopaminergic VTA neurons, an effect that we previously demonstrated with serotonin.  (+info)

Assessment of affinities and dissociation potencies of several 5-HT2 antagonists to and from M2 muscarinic receptor in rat heart membranes. (2/92)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the binding affinities and dissociation potencies of several 5-HT(2) antagonists in M(2) muscarinic receptor of rat heart membranes using [(3)H]QNB as a radioligand. The 5-HT(2) antagonists used in this study were sarpogrelate, ketanserin and cyproheptadine. The results showed that sarpogrelate and ketanserin had very weak binding affinities to M(2) muscarinic receptor, whereas cyproheptadine had higher binding affinity to this receptor than the muscarinic receptor antagonist, atropine. All of these three 5-HT(2) antagonists as well as muscarinic receptor antagonists (atropine and pirenzepine) were readily dissociated from M(2) muscarinic receptor in rat heart membranes after washing. Therefore, the findings of the present investigation suggest that the dissociation potencies of neither 5-HT(2) antagonists nor muscarinic antagonists used correlate with their binding affinities to M(2) muscarinic receptors in rat heart.  (+info)

The modulation by 5-HT of glutamatergic inputs from the raphe pallidus to rat hypoglossal motoneurones, in vitro. (3/92)

Decreases in the activity of 5-HT-containing caudal raphe neurones during sleep are thought to be partially responsible for the resultant disfacilitation of hypoglossal motoneurones. Whilst 5-HT has a direct excitatory action on hypoglossal motoneurones as a result of activation of 5-HT2 receptors, microinjection of 5-HT2 antagonists into the hypoglossal nucleus reduces motor activity to a much lesser extent compared to the suppression observed during sleep suggesting other transmitters co-localised in caudal raphe neurones may also be involved. The aim of the present study was therefore to characterise raphe pallidus inputs to hypoglossal motoneurones. Whole cell recordings were made from hypoglossal motoneurones in vitro. 5-HT evoked a direct membrane depolarisation (8.45 +/- 3.8 mV, P < 0.001) and increase in cell input resistance (53 +/- 40 %, P < 0.001) which was blocked by the 5-HT2 antagonist, ritanserin (2.40 +/- 2.7 vs. 7.04 +/- 4.6 mV). Stimulation within the raphe pallidus evoked a monosynaptic EPSC that was significantly reduced by the AMPA/kainate antagonist, NBQX (22.8 +/- 16 % of control, P < 0.001). In contrast, the 5-HT2 antagonist, ritanserin, had no effect on the amplitude of these EPSCs (106 +/- 31 % of control, P = n.s.). 5-HT reduced these EPSCs to 50.0 +/- 13 % of control (P < 0.001), as did the 5-HT1A agonist, 8-OH-DPAT (52.5 +/- 17 %, P < 0.001) and the 5-HT1B agonist, CP 93129 (40.6 +/- 29 %, P < 0.01). 8-OH-DPAT and CP 93129 increased the paired pulse ratio (1.38 +/- 0.27 to 1.91 +/- 0.54, P < 0.05 & 1.27 +/- 0.08 to 1.44 +/- 0.13, P < 0.01 respectively) but had no effect on the postsynaptic glutamate response (99 +/- 4.4 % and 100 +/- 2.5 %, P = n.s.). They also increased the frequency (P < 0.001), but not the amplitude, of miniature glutamatergic EPSCs in hypoglossal motoneurones. These data demonstrate that raphe pallidus inputs to hypoglossal motoneurones are predominantly glutamatergic in nature, with 5-HT decreasing the release of glutamate from these projections as a result of activation of 5-HT1A and/or 5-HT1B receptors located on presynaptic terminals.  (+info)

Nordexfenfluramine causes more severe pulmonary vasoconstriction than dexfenfluramine. (4/92)

The anorectic agent dexfenfluramine (dex) causes the development of primary pulmonary hypertension in susceptible patients by an unknown mechanism. We compared the effects of dex with those of its major metabolite, nordexfenfluamine (nordex), in the isolated perfused rat lung and in isolated rings of resistance pulmonary arteries. Nordex caused a dose-dependent and more intense vasoconstriction, which can be inhibited by the nonspecific 5-hydroxytryptamine type 2 (5-HT(2)) blocker ketanserin. Similarly a rise in cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) in dispersed pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) induced by nordex could be prevented by ketanserin. Unlike prior observations with dex, nordex did not inhibit K(+) current or cause depolarization in PASMCs. Removal of Ca(2+) from the tissue bath or addition of nifedipine (1 microM) reduced ring contraction to nordex by 60 +/- 9 and 63 +/- 4%, respectively. The addition of 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), a blocker of store-operated channels and the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, caused a dose-dependent decrease in the ring contraction elicited by nordex. The combination of 2-APB (10 microM) and nifedipine (1 microM) completely ablated the nordex contraction. Likewise the release of Ca(2+) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum by cyclopiazonic acid markedly reduced the nordex contraction while leaving the KCl contraction unchanged. We conclude that nordex may be responsible for much of the vasoconstriction stimulated by dex, through the activation of 5-HT(2) receptors and that the [Ca(2+)](i) increase in rat PASMCs caused by dex/nordex is due to both influx of extracellular Ca(2+) and release of Ca(2+) from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.  (+info)

In vivo regulation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3beta) by serotonergic activity in mouse brain. (5/92)

The goal of this study was to determine if serotonergic activity, which is impaired in depression, regulates the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK3beta) in mouse brain in vivo. GSK3beta is inhibited by phosphorylation on serine-9 and is a target of the mood stabilizer lithium. Following administration to mice of d-fenfluramine to stimulate serotonin (5HT) release and reduce its reuptake, and clorgyline to inhibit 5HT catabolism, levels of phospho-Ser9-GSK3beta were 300-400% of control levels in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum. Treatment with monoamine reuptake inhibitors fluoxetine and imipramine also increased the level of phospho-Ser9-GSK3beta. Using receptor selective agonists and antagonists, 5HT1A receptors were found to mediate increases, and 5HT2 receptors decreases, in phospho-Ser9-GSK3beta levels. This indicates that serotonergic regulation of the phosphorylation of GSK3beta is achieved by a balance between the opposing actions of these 5HT receptor subtypes. These findings demonstrate for the first time that serotonergic activity regulates the phosphorylation of GSK3beta and show that this regulation occurs in mammalian brain in vivo. These results raise the possibility that impaired inhibitory control of GSK3beta may occur in conditions where serotonergic activity is dysregulated, such as in mood disorders.  (+info)

Arthropod 5-HT2 receptors: a neurohormonal receptor in decapod crustaceans that displays agonist independent activity resulting from an evolutionary alteration to the DRY motif. (6/92)

The stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) is a premiere model for studying modulation of motor pattern generation. Whereas the cellular and network responses to monoamines have been particularly well characterized electrophysiologically, the transduction mechanisms that link the different monoaminergic signals to specific intracellular responses are presently unknown in this system. To begin to elucidate monoaminergic signal transduction in pyloric neurons, we used a bioinformatics approach to predict the existence of 18 monoamine receptors in arthropods, 9 of which have been previously cloned in Drosophila and other insects. We then went on to use the two existing insect databases to clone and characterize the 10th putative arthropod receptor from the spiny lobster, Panulirus interruptus. This receptor is most homologous to the 5-HT2 subtype and shows a dose-dependent response to 5-HT but not to any of the other monoamines present in the STNS. Through a series of pharmacological experiments, we demonstrate that this newly described receptor, 5-HT2betaPan, couples with the traditional G(q) pathway when expressed in HEK293 cells, but not to G(s) or G(i/o). Moreover, it is constitutively active, because the highly conserved DRY motif in transmembrane region 3 has evolved into DRF. Site-directed mutagenesis that reverts the motif back to DRY abolishes this agonist-independent activity. We further demonstrate that this receptor most likely participates in the modulation of stomatogastric motor output, because it is found in neurites in the synaptic neuropil of the stomatogastric ganglion as well as in the axon terminals at identified pyloric neuromuscular junctions.  (+info)

Dogmas and controversies in the handling of nitrogenous wastes: 5-HT2-like receptors are involved in triggering pulsatile urea excretion in the gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. (7/92)

When injected arterially, serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) has been shown to elicit naturally sized urea pulse events in the gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta. The goal of the present study was to determine which 5-HT receptor(s) was involved in mediating this serotonergic stimulation of the pulsatile excretion mechanism. Toadfish were surgically implanted with caudal arterial catheters and intraperitoneal catheters and injected with either 8-OH-DPAT (1 micro mol kg(-1)), a selective 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist, alpha-methyl-5-HT (1 micro mol kg(-1)), a 5-HT(2) receptor agonist, or ketanserin, a 5-HT(2) receptor antagonist (0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10 micro mol kg(-1)) plus alpha-methyl-5-HT. 8-OH-DPAT injection did not mediate an increase in urea excretion, ruling out the involvement of 5-HT(1A) receptors in pulsatile excretion. However, within 5 min, alpha-methyl-5-HT injection caused an increase in the excretion of urea in >95% (N=27) of the fish injected, with an average pulse size of 652+/-102 micro mol N kg(-1) (N=26). With alpha-methyl-5-HT injection there was no corresponding increase in ammonia or [(3)H]PEG 4000 permeability. Urea pulses elicited by alpha-methyl-5-HT were inhibited in a dose-dependent fashion by the 5-HT(2) receptor antagonist ketanserin, which at low doses caused a significant inhibition of pulse size and at higher doses significantly inhibited the occurrence of pulsatile excretion altogether. However, neither 8-OH-DPAT nor alpha-methyl 5-HT injection had an effect on plasma cortisol or plasma urea concentrations. These findings suggest the involvement of a 5-HT(2)-like receptor in the regulation of pulsatile urea excretion.  (+info)

The influence of repeated administration of clozapine and haloperidol on the effects of the activation of 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(2) and 5-HT(4) receptors in rat frontal cortex. (8/92)

The effects of a repeated treatment with antipsychotic drugs, clozapine and haloperidol, on the modulation of network activity ex vivo by 5-HT receptors were examined in rat frontal cortical slices using extracellular recording. Rats were treated for 21 days with clozapine (30 mg/kg p.o.), or haloperidol (1 mg/kg p.o.). Spontaneous bursting activity was induced in slices prepared 3 days after the last drug administration by perfusion with a medium devoid of Mg(2+) ions and with added picrotoxin (30 mM). The application of 2-3 microM 8-OH-DPAT, acting through 5-HT(1A) receptors, resulted in a reversible decrease of bursting frequency. In the presence of 1 microM DOI, the 5-HT(2) agonist, or 5 microM zacopride, the 5-HT(4) agonist, bursting frequency increased. Chronic clozapine treatment resulted in an attenuation of the effect of the activation of 5-HT(2) receptors, while the effects related to 5-HT(1A) and 5-HT(4) receptor activation were unchanged. Treatment with haloperiol did not influence the reactivity to the activation of any of the three 5-HT receptor subtypes. These data are consistent with earlier findings demonstrating a selective downregulation of 5-HT(2A) receptors by clozapine and indicate that chronic clozapine selectively attenuates the 5-HT-mediated excitation in neuronal circuitry of the frontal cortex while leaving the 5-HT-mediated inhibition intact.  (+info)

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter that is found primarily in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of humans and other animals. It is produced by the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), and then to serotonin.

In the CNS, serotonin plays a role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and behavior, among other functions. It also acts as a vasoconstrictor, helping to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. In the GI tract, it is involved in peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscles that moves food through the digestive system.

Serotonin is synthesized and stored in serotonergic neurons, which are nerve cells that use serotonin as their primary neurotransmitter. These neurons are found throughout the brain and spinal cord, and they communicate with other neurons by releasing serotonin into the synapse, the small gap between two neurons.

Abnormal levels of serotonin have been linked to a variety of disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraines. Medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly used to treat these conditions.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT2A subtype (5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor), is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the cell membrane. It is activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin and plays a role in regulating various physiological processes, including mood, cognition, sleep, and sensory perception.

The 5-HT2A receptor is widely distributed throughout the central nervous system and has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraine. It is also the primary target of several psychoactive drugs, including hallucinogens like LSD and psilocybin, as well as atypical antipsychotics used to treat conditions like schizophrenia.

The 5-HT2A receptor signals through a G protein called Gq, which activates a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to the activation of phospholipase C and the production of second messengers such as inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). These second messengers then go on to modulate various cellular processes, including the release of neurotransmitters and the regulation of gene expression.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT1A subtype, is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and play important roles in regulating various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, neuronal excitability, and neuroendocrine function.

The 5-HT1A receptor is widely distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord, where it is involved in modulating mood, anxiety, cognition, memory, and pain perception. Activation of this receptor can have both inhibitory and excitatory effects on neuronal activity, depending on the location and type of neuron involved.

In addition to its role in normal physiology, the 5-HT1A receptor has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and drug addiction. As a result, drugs that target this receptor have been developed for the treatment of these conditions. These drugs include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which increase the availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft and enhance 5-HT1A receptor activation, as well as direct agonists of the 5-HT1A receptor, such as buspirone, which is used to treat anxiety disorders.

Serotonin receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT). They are widely distributed throughout the body, including the central and peripheral nervous systems, where they play important roles in regulating various physiological processes such as mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and cognition.

There are seven different classes of serotonin receptors (5-HT1 to 5-HT7), each with multiple subtypes, that exhibit distinct pharmacological properties and signaling mechanisms. These receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) or ligand-gated ion channels, which activate intracellular signaling pathways upon serotonin binding.

Serotonin receptors have been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraine. Therefore, selective serotonin receptor agonists or antagonists are used as therapeutic agents for the treatment of these conditions.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT1B receptor, is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the cell membrane. It binds to the neurotransmitter serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and plays a role in regulating various physiological functions, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and smooth muscle contraction.

The 5-HT1B receptor is widely distributed throughout the body, but it is particularly abundant in the brain, where it is involved in modulating mood, cognition, and motor control. When serotonin binds to the 5-HT1B receptor, it activates a signaling pathway that ultimately leads to the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, which reduces the production of cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) in the cell. This reduction in cAMP levels can have various effects on cellular function, depending on the specific tissue and context in which the 5-HT1B receptor is expressed.

In addition to its role as a serotonin receptor, the 5-HT1B receptor has also been identified as a target for certain drugs used in the treatment of migraine headaches, such as triptans. These medications bind to and activate the 5-HT1B receptor, which leads to vasoconstriction of cranial blood vessels and inhibition of neuropeptide release, helping to alleviate the symptoms of migraines.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT2C (5-hydroxytryptamine 2C) receptor, is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and play crucial roles in various physiological processes, including mood regulation, appetite control, sleep, and memory.

The 5-HT2C receptor is primarily located on postsynaptic neurons and can also be found on presynaptic terminals. When serotonin binds to the 5-HT2C receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately influences the electrical activity of the neuron. This receptor has been associated with several neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and eating disorders.

Pharmacological agents targeting the 5-HT2C receptor have been developed for the treatment of various diseases. For example, some antipsychotic drugs work as antagonists at this receptor to alleviate positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Additionally, agonists at the 5-HT2C receptor have shown potential in treating obesity due to their anorexigenic effects. However, further research is needed to fully understand the therapeutic and side effects of these compounds.

'Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT1' refer to a class of serotonin receptors that are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and coupled to G proteins. These receptors play a role in regulating various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and smooth muscle contraction. The 5-HT1 receptor family includes several subtypes (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1E, and 5-HT1F) that differ in their distribution, function, and signaling mechanisms. These receptors are important targets for the treatment of various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, migraine, and schizophrenia.

Serotonin plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as serotonin transporters (SERTs), are membrane-spanning proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of serotonergic neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transmission and allowing for its recycling or degradation.

Structurally, SERTs belong to the family of sodium- and chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporters and contain 12 transmembrane domains with intracellular N- and C-termini. The binding site for serotonin is located within the transmembrane domain, while the substrate-binding site is formed by residues from both the transmembrane and extracellular loops.

Serotonin transporters are important targets for various psychotropic medications, including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). These drugs act by blocking the SERT, increasing synaptic concentrations of serotonin, and enhancing serotonergic neurotransmission. Dysregulation of serotonin transporters has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and substance abuse.

Serotonin antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, at specific receptor sites in the brain and elsewhere in the body. They work by binding to the serotonin receptors without activating them, thereby preventing the natural serotonin from binding and transmitting signals.

Serotonin antagonists are used in the treatment of various conditions such as psychiatric disorders, migraines, and nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy. They can have varying degrees of affinity for different types of serotonin receptors (e.g., 5-HT2A, 5-HT3, etc.), which contributes to their specific therapeutic effects and side effect profiles.

Examples of serotonin antagonists include ondansetron (used to treat nausea and vomiting), risperidone and olanzapine (used to treat psychiatric disorders), and methysergide (used to prevent migraines). It's important to note that these medications should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as they can have potential risks and interactions with other drugs.

'Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT3' refer to a specific type of serotonin receptor called the 5-HT3 receptor, which is a ligand-gated ion channel found in the cell membrane. Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in various physiological functions, including mood regulation, appetite control, and nausea.

The 5-HT3 receptor is activated by serotonin and mediates fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the central and peripheral nervous systems. It is permeable to sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and calcium (Ca2+) ions, allowing for the rapid depolarization of neurons and the initiation of action potentials.

The 5-HT3 receptor has been a target for drug development, particularly in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, as well as irritable bowel syndrome. Antagonists of the 5-HT3 receptor, such as ondansetron and granisetron, work by blocking the receptor and preventing serotonin from activating it, thereby reducing symptoms of nausea and vomiting.

Serotonin uptake inhibitors (also known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors or SSRIs) are a class of medications primarily used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. They work by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps regulate mood, appetite, and sleep, among other functions.

SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, allowing more serotonin to be available in the synapse (the space between two neurons) for binding to postsynaptic receptors. This results in increased serotonergic neurotransmission and improved mood regulation.

Examples of SSRIs include fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), citalopram (Celexa), and escitalopram (Lexapro). These medications are generally well-tolerated, with side effects that may include nausea, headache, insomnia, sexual dysfunction, and increased anxiety or agitation. However, they can have serious interactions with other medications, so it is important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before starting an SSRI.

Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, at 5-HT2 receptors. These receptors are found in the central and peripheral nervous systems and are involved in various physiological functions such as mood regulation, cognition, appetite control, and vasoconstriction.

By blocking the action of serotonin at these receptors, serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonists can produce a range of effects depending on the specific receptor subtype that they target. For example, some serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonists are used to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and depression, while others are used to treat migraines or prevent nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy.

Some common examples of serotonin 5-HT2 receptor antagonists include risperidone, olanzapine, and paliperidone (used for the treatment of schizophrenia), mirtazapine (used for the treatment of depression), sumatriptan (used for the treatment of migraines), and ondansetron (used to prevent nausea and vomiting).

Serotonin receptor agonists are a class of medications that bind to and activate serotonin receptors in the body, mimicking the effects of the neurotransmitter serotonin. These drugs can have various effects depending on which specific serotonin receptors they act upon. Some serotonin receptor agonists are used to treat conditions such as migraines, cluster headaches, and Parkinson's disease, while others may be used to stimulate appetite or reduce anxiety. It is important to note that some serotonin receptor agonists can have serious side effects, particularly when taken in combination with other medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). This can lead to a condition called serotonin syndrome, which is characterized by symptoms such as agitation, confusion, rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, and muscle stiffness.

Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists are a class of compounds that bind to and activate the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, which are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and smooth muscle contraction.

Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists can produce a range of effects depending on the specific subtype of receptor they activate. For example, activation of 5-HT2A receptors has been associated with hallucinogenic effects, while activation of 5-HT2B receptors has been linked to cardiac valvulopathy.

These drugs are used in a variety of clinical settings, including the treatment of psychiatric disorders such as depression and schizophrenia, migraine headaches, and cluster headaches. Examples of serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists include LSD, psilocybin, ergotamine, and sumatriptan.

Serotonin agents are a class of drugs that work on the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) in the brain and elsewhere in the body. They include several types of medications such as:

1. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): These drugs block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the availability of serotonin in the synapse to interact with postsynaptic receptors. SSRIs are commonly used as antidepressants and include medications such as fluoxetine, sertraline, and citalopram.
2. Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): These drugs block the reabsorption of both serotonin and norepinephrine into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the availability of these neurotransmitters in the synapse. SNRIs are also used as antidepressants and include medications such as venlafaxine and duloxetine.
3. Serotonin Receptor Agonists: These drugs bind to and activate serotonin receptors, mimicking the effects of serotonin. They are used for various indications, including migraine prevention (e.g., sumatriptan) and Parkinson's disease (e.g., pramipexole).
4. Serotonin Receptor Antagonists: These drugs block serotonin receptors, preventing the effects of serotonin. They are used for various indications, including nausea and vomiting (e.g., ondansetron) and as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder (e.g., olanzapine).
5. Serotonin Synthesis Inhibitors: These drugs block the enzymatic synthesis of serotonin, reducing its availability in the brain. They are used as antidepressants and include medications such as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) like phenelzine and tranylcypromine.

It's important to note that while these drugs all affect serotonin, they have different mechanisms of action and are used for various indications. It's essential to consult a healthcare professional before starting any new medication.

Serotonin 5-HT1 Receptor Agonists are a class of compounds that bind to and activate the serotonin 5-HT1 receptors, which are G protein-coupled receptors found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors play important roles in regulating various physiological functions, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and hormone secretion.

Serotonin 5-HT1 Receptor Agonists are used in medical therapy to treat a variety of conditions, such as migraines, cluster headaches, depression, anxiety, and insomnia. Some examples of Serotonin 5-HT1 Receptor Agonists include sumatriptan, rizatriptan, zolmitriptan, naratriptan, and frovatriptan, which are used to treat migraines and cluster headaches by selectively activating the 5-HT1B/1D receptors in cranial blood vessels and sensory nerves.

Other Serotonin 5-HT1 Receptor Agonists, such as buspirone, are used to treat anxiety disorders and depression by acting on the 5-HT1A receptors in the brain. These drugs work by increasing serotonergic neurotransmission, which helps to regulate mood, cognition, and behavior.

Overall, Serotonin 5-HT1 Receptor Agonists are a valuable class of drugs that have shown efficacy in treating various neurological and psychiatric conditions. However, like all medications, they can have side effects and potential drug interactions, so it is important to use them under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT2B receptor, is a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that binds to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). These receptors are located on the cell membrane of certain cells, including neurons and other cell types in various organs.

The 5-HT2B receptor is involved in a variety of physiological functions, such as regulating mood, appetite, sleep, and sensory perception. In the cardiovascular system, activation of 5-HT2B receptors can lead to the proliferation of cardiac fibroblasts and changes in the extracellular matrix, which may contribute to heart valve abnormalities.

In the central nervous system, 5-HT2B receptors have been implicated in several neurological conditions, including migraine, depression, and schizophrenia. However, their precise roles in these disorders are not yet fully understood.

Pharmacologically targeting 5-HT2B receptors has led to the development of drugs for various indications, such as antimigraine medications (e.g., telcagepant) and potential treatments for heart failure (e.g., mavacamten). However, some 5-HT2B receptor agonists have also been associated with serious side effects, such as valvular heart disease, which has limited their clinical use.

'Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2' refer to a specific family of serotonin receptors that are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). These receptors are G protein-coupled receptors and are further divided into several subtypes, including 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, and 5-HT2C. They are widely distributed throughout the body, including the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, and respiratory system.

The 5-HT2 receptors play a role in various physiological processes, such as neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, smooth muscle contraction, and cell growth regulation. They are also involved in several pathophysiological conditions, including psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, schizophrenia), migraine, cardiovascular diseases, and pulmonary hypertension.

The 5-HT2 receptors have been a focus of drug development for various therapeutic areas. For example, atypical antipsychotics used to treat schizophrenia work by blocking the 5-HT2A receptor, while certain migraine medications act as agonists at the 5-HT1B/1D and 5-HT2C receptors. However, drugs targeting these receptors must be carefully designed to avoid unwanted side effects, as activation or blockade of these receptors can have significant impacts on various physiological processes.

Serotonin 5-HT1 receptor antagonists are a class of pharmaceutical drugs that block the activation of serotonin 5-HT1 receptors. Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in various physiological functions, including mood regulation, appetite control, and sensory perception. The 5-HT1 receptor family includes several subtypes (5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT1E, and 5-HT1F) that are widely distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems.

When serotonin binds to these receptors, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that can have excitatory or inhibitory effects on neuronal activity. By blocking the interaction between serotonin and 5-HT1 receptors, antagonists modulate the downstream consequences of receptor activation.

Serotonin 5-HT1 receptor antagonists are used in various clinical contexts to treat or manage a range of conditions:

1. Migraine prevention: Some 5-HT1B/1D receptor antagonists, such as sumatriptan and rizatriptan, are highly effective in aborting migraine attacks by constricting dilated cranial blood vessels and reducing the release of pro-inflammatory neuropeptides.
2. Nausea and vomiting: Certain 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, like ondansetron and granisetron, are used to prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting by blocking the activation of emetic circuits in the brainstem.
3. Psychiatric disorders: Although not widely used, some 5-HT1A receptor antagonists have shown promise in treating depression and anxiety disorders due to their ability to modulate serotonergic neurotransmission.
4. Neuroprotection: Preclinical studies suggest that 5-HT1A receptor agonists may have neuroprotective effects in various neurological conditions, such as Parkinson's disease and stroke. However, further research is needed to establish their clinical utility.

In summary, serotonin 5-HT1 receptor antagonists are a diverse group of medications with applications in migraine prevention, nausea and vomiting management, psychiatric disorders, and potential neuroprotection. Their unique pharmacological profiles enable them to target specific pathophysiological mechanisms underlying various conditions, making them valuable tools in modern therapeutics.

Serotonin syndrome is a potentially life-threatening condition that arises from excessive serotonergic activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system. It is typically caused by the interaction of medications, illicit substances, or dietary supplements that increase serotonin levels or enhance serotonin receptor sensitivity.

The diagnostic criteria for serotonin syndrome include:

1. Presence of a serotonergic medication or drug known to cause the syndrome
2. Development of neuromuscular abnormalities, such as hyperreflexia, myoclonus, tremor, rigidity, or akathisia
3. Autonomic dysfunction, including diaphoresis, tachycardia, hypertension, dilated pupils, and hyperthermia
4. Mental status changes, such as agitation, confusion, hallucinations, or coma
5. Symptoms that develop rapidly, usually within hours of a change in serotonergic medication or dosage

Serotonin syndrome can range from mild to severe, with the most severe cases potentially leading to respiratory failure, rhabdomyolysis, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and death. Treatment typically involves discontinuation of the offending agent(s), supportive care, and pharmacologic interventions such as cyproheptadine or cooling measures for hyperthermia.

A serotonin receptor, specifically the 5-HT1D subtype, is a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and play important roles in regulating various physiological functions, including neurotransmission, vasoconstriction, and nociception (pain perception).

The 5-HT1D receptor subtype is further divided into several subtypes, including 5-HT1Dฮฑ, 5-HT1Dฮฒ, and 5-HT1Dฮต. These receptors are widely distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord, where they modulate neurotransmission by inhibiting adenylyl cyclase activity and reducing cAMP levels in neurons.

In addition to their role in regulating neurotransmission, 5-HT1D receptors have also been implicated in a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including migraine, depression, anxiety, and addiction. As a result, drugs that target these receptors have been developed for the treatment of these conditions. For example, triptans, which are commonly used to treat migraines, work by selectively activating 5-HT1D receptors in the brain and constricting blood vessels in the meninges, thereby reducing the inflammation and pain associated with migraines.

Tryptophan hydroxylase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and hormones, including serotonin and melatonin. It catalyzes the conversion of the essential amino acid tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), which is then further converted to serotonin. This enzyme exists in two isoforms, TPH1 and TPH2, with TPH1 primarily located in peripheral tissues and TPH2 mainly found in the brain. The regulation of tryptophan hydroxylase activity has significant implications for mood, appetite, sleep, and pain perception.

Serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonists are a class of medications that work by blocking the serotonin 5-HT3 receptors, which are found in the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. These receptors play a role in regulating nausea and vomiting, among other functions.

When serotonin binds to these receptors, it can trigger a series of events that lead to nausea and vomiting, particularly in response to chemotherapy or surgery. By blocking the 5-HT3 receptors, serotonin cannot bind to them and therefore cannot trigger these events, which helps to reduce nausea and vomiting.

Examples of 5-HT3 receptor antagonists include ondansetron (Zofran), granisetron (Kytril), palonosetron (Aloxi), and dolasetron (Anzemet). These medications are commonly used to prevent and treat nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery.

'Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT4' refer to a specific type of serotonin receptor found in various parts of the body, including the central and peripheral nervous systems. These receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) and play an essential role in regulating several physiological functions, such as gastrointestinal motility, cognition, mood, and memory.

The 5-HT4 receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), which means it consists of seven transmembrane domains that span the cell membrane. When serotonin binds to the 5-HT4 receptor, it activates a signaling cascade within the cell, leading to various downstream effects.

The 5-HT4 receptor has been a target for drug development, particularly in treating gastrointestinal disorders such as constipation and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Additionally, some evidence suggests that 5-HT4 receptors may play a role in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and cognitive impairment. However, further research is needed to fully understand the therapeutic potential of targeting this receptor.

Ketanserin is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called serotonin antagonists. It works by blocking the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain, on certain types of receptors. Ketanserin is primarily used for its blood pressure-lowering effects and is also sometimes used off-label to treat anxiety disorders and alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

It's important to note that ketanserin is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States, but it may be available in other countries as a prescription medication. As with any medication, ketanserin should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider and should be taken exactly as prescribed.

Hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5HIAA) is a major metabolite of the neurotransmitter serotonin, formed in the body through the enzymatic degradation of serotonin by monoamine oxidase and aldehyde dehydrogenase. 5HIAA is primarily excreted in the urine and its measurement can be used as a biomarker for serotonin synthesis and metabolism in the body.

Increased levels of 5HIAA in the cerebrospinal fluid or urine may indicate conditions associated with excessive serotonin production, such as carcinoid syndrome, while decreased levels may be seen in certain neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease. Therefore, measuring 5HIAA levels can have diagnostic and therapeutic implications for these conditions.

HT-29 is a human colon adenocarcinoma cell line that is commonly used in research. These cells are derived from a colorectal cancer tumor and have the ability to differentiate into various cell types found in the intestinal mucosa, such as absorptive enterocytes and mucus-secreting goblet cells. HT-29 cells are often used to study the biology of colon cancer, including the effects of drugs on cancer cell growth and survival, as well as the role of various genes and signaling pathways in colorectal tumorigenesis.

It is important to note that when working with cell lines like HT-29, it is essential to use proper laboratory techniques and follow established protocols to ensure the integrity and reproducibility of experimental results. Additionally, researchers should regularly authenticate their cell lines to confirm their identity and verify that they are free from contamination with other cell types.

The Raphe Nuclei are clusters of neurons located in the brainstem, specifically in the midline of the pons, medulla oblongata, and mesencephalon (midbrain). These neurons are characterized by their ability to synthesize and release serotonin, a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating various functions such as mood, appetite, sleep, and pain perception.

The Raphe Nuclei project axons widely throughout the central nervous system, allowing serotonin to modulate the activity of other neurons. There are several subdivisions within the Raphe Nuclei, each with distinct connections and functions. Dysfunction in the Raphe Nuclei has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, and chronic pain.

Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication that is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, bulimia nervosa, panic disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder. It works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance.

Fluoxetine is available under the brand name Prozac and is also available as a generic medication. It comes in various forms, including capsules, tablets, delayed-release capsules, and liquid solution. The typical starting dose for adults with depression is 20 mg per day, but the dosage may be adjusted based on individual patient needs and response to treatment.

Fluoxetine has a relatively long half-life, which means it stays in the body for an extended period of time. This can be beneficial for patients who may have difficulty remembering to take their medication daily, as they may only need to take it once or twice a week. However, it also means that it may take several weeks for the full effects of the medication to become apparent.

As with any medication, fluoxetine can cause side effects, including nausea, dry mouth, sleepiness, insomnia, dizziness, and headache. In some cases, it may also increase the risk of suicidal thoughts or behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults, particularly during the initial stages of treatment. It is important for patients to discuss any concerns about side effects with their healthcare provider.

5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) is a chemical compound that is produced by the body as a precursor to serotonin, a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood, appetite, sleep, and pain sensation. 5-HTP is not present in food but can be derived from the amino acid tryptophan, which is found in high-protein foods such as turkey, chicken, milk, and cheese.

5-HTP supplements are sometimes used to treat conditions related to low serotonin levels, including depression, anxiety, insomnia, migraines, and fibromyalgia. However, the effectiveness of 5-HTP for these conditions is not well established, and it can have side effects and interact with certain medications. Therefore, it's important to consult a healthcare provider before taking 5-HTP supplements.

Serotonergic neurons are specialized types of nerve cells (neurons) that produce, synthesize, and release the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). These neurons have their cell bodies located in specific brainstem nuclei, such as the dorsal raphe nucleus and median raphe nucleus. They project and innervate various regions of the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and other brain areas. Serotonergic neurons play crucial roles in regulating numerous physiological functions, such as mood, appetite, sleep, memory, cognition, and sensorimotor activities. Alterations in serotonergic neurotransmission have been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and neurodevelopmental conditions.

Citalopram is a type of antidepressant known as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). It works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance. Citalopram is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder and is also sometimes used to treat anxiety disorders, such as panic disorder or social anxiety disorder.

The medical definition of Citalopram can be described as follows:

Citalopram (brand name Celexa) is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant that is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder. It works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance. Citalopram may also be used off-label for the treatment of anxiety disorders, such as panic disorder or social anxiety disorder.

Common side effects of citalopram include nausea, dry mouth, increased sweating, sleepiness, fatigue, and insomnia. More serious side effects can include an increased risk of suicidal thoughts or behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults, as well as an increased risk of bleeding, particularly if taken with other medications that increase the risk of bleeding. Citalopram should be used with caution in patients with a history of heart disease, liver disease, or seizure disorders. It is important to follow the dosage instructions provided by your healthcare provider and to inform them of any other medications you are taking, as well as any medical conditions you have, before starting citalopram.

Serotonin 5-HT3 receptor agonists are a class of drugs that selectively bind to and activate the 5-HT3 subtype of serotonin receptors. These receptors are located in the central and peripheral nervous system, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract, chemoreceptor trigger zone, and vagus nerve.

The activation of 5-HT3 receptors by these agonists can lead to various effects, depending on the location of the receptors. In the gastrointestinal tract, 5-HT3 receptor agonists can increase intestinal motility and secretion, which can be useful in treating conditions such as chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.

Examples of 5-HT3 receptor agonists include ondansetron, granisetron, palonosetron, and dolasetron. These drugs are commonly used to prevent and treat nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery.

Serotonin 5-HT4 receptor agonists are a class of medications that selectively bind to and activate serotonin 5-HT4 receptors. These receptors are found in various parts of the body, including the gastrointestinal tract, brain, and heart.

When serotonin 5-HT4 receptor agonists bind to these receptors, they stimulate a range of physiological responses, such as increasing gastrointestinal motility, improving cognitive function, and regulating cardiac function. These drugs have been used in the treatment of various conditions, including constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, and depression.

Examples of serotonin 5-HT4 receptor agonists include prucalopride, cisapride, mosapride, and tegaserod. However, some of these drugs have been withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns, such as cardiac arrhythmias. Therefore, it is essential to use these medications under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Methysergide is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called ergot alkaloids. It is primarily used for the prophylaxis (prevention) of migraine headaches. Methysergide works by narrowing blood vessels around the brain, which is thought to help prevent migraines.

The medical definition of Methysergide is:
A semisynthetic ergot alkaloid derivative used in the prophylaxis of migraine and cluster headaches. It has both agonist and antagonist properties at serotonin receptors, and its therapeutic effects are thought to be related to its ability to block the binding of serotonin to its receptors. However, methysergide can have serious side effects, including fibrotic reactions in various organs, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys, so it is usually used only for short periods of time and under close medical supervision.

Serotonin 5-HT4 receptor antagonists are a class of pharmaceutical drugs that block the action of serotonin at 5-HT4 receptors. Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a neurotransmitter involved in various physiological functions, including mood regulation, gastrointestinal motility, and cognition.

The 5-HT4 receptor is one of several subtypes of serotonin receptors found throughout the body, particularly in the brain, gastrointestinal tract, and cardiovascular system. These receptors are involved in regulating various physiological processes, including gastrointestinal motility, cognition, and mood regulation.

Serotonin 5-HT4 receptor antagonists work by binding to these receptors and preventing serotonin from activating them. This action can have various therapeutic effects, depending on the specific drug and its intended use. For example, some 5-HT4 receptor antagonists are used to treat gastrointestinal disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and gastroparesis, as they help slow down gastrointestinal motility and reduce symptoms such as diarrhea and abdominal pain.

Examples of 5-HT4 receptor antagonists include drugs such as alosetron, cisapride (now withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns), and prucalopride. These drugs are typically administered orally and have varying degrees of selectivity for the 5-HT4 receptor subtype.

It's important to note that while 5-HT4 receptor antagonists can have therapeutic effects, they can also have side effects, including constipation, nausea, and headache. Additionally, some of these drugs may interact with other medications or have potentially serious adverse effects, so it's essential to use them under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Paroxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) medication that is primarily used to treat major depressive disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. It works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance, leading to an improvement in mood and other symptoms associated with these conditions.

Paroxetine is available under various brand names, such as Paxil and Seroxat, and it comes in different forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid solutions. The medication is typically taken once daily, although the dosage may vary depending on the individual's needs and the specific condition being treated.

As with any medication, paroxetine can have side effects, such as nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, and sleep disturbances. In some cases, it may also cause more serious side effects, including increased risk of suicidal thoughts or behaviors in children, adolescents, and young adults, as well as an increased risk of bleeding and hyponatremia (low sodium levels).

It is important to consult with a healthcare provider before starting paroxetine or any other medication, and to follow their instructions carefully regarding dosage, timing, and potential interactions with other drugs or medical conditions.

Fenclonine is not a commonly used medical term or a medication in clinical practice. It's possible that you may have encountered this term in the context of research or scientific studies. Fenclonine is an experimental drug that has been investigated for its potential role as an inhibitor of bacterial enzymes, specifically the D-alanine:D-alanine ligase (DD-transpeptidase) involved in bacterial cell wall biosynthesis.

Inhibiting this enzyme can disrupt the integrity and growth of bacteria, making fenclonine a potential antibiotic agent. However, further research is required to establish its safety, efficacy, and therapeutic applications. As such, it's not currently used as a standard treatment option in human medicine.

For accurate information regarding medical definitions or treatments, consult with healthcare professionals or refer to reputable medical resources.

Biogenic monoamines are a type of neurotransmitter, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. They are called "biogenic" because they are derived from biological substances, and "monoamines" because they contain one amine group (-NH2) and are derived from the aromatic amino acids: tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine.

Examples of biogenic monoamines include:

1. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT): synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan and plays a crucial role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, memory, and learning.
2. Dopamine: formed from tyrosine and is involved in reward, motivation, motor control, and reinforcement of behavior.
3. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): also derived from tyrosine and functions as a neurotransmitter and hormone that modulates attention, arousal, and stress responses.
4. Epinephrine (adrenaline): synthesized from norepinephrine and serves as a crucial hormone and neurotransmitter in the body's fight-or-flight response to stress or danger.
5. Histamine: produced from the amino acid histidine, it acts as a neurotransmitter and mediates allergic reactions, immune responses, and regulates wakefulness and appetite.

Imbalances in biogenic monoamines have been linked to various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, Parkinson's disease, and schizophrenia. Therefore, medications that target these neurotransmitters, like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for depression or levodopa for Parkinson's disease, are often used in the treatment of these conditions.

Amphetamines are a type of central nervous system stimulant drug that increases alertness, wakefulness, and energy levels. They work by increasing the activity of certain neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain, such as dopamine and norepinephrine. Amphetamines can be prescribed for medical conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, but they are also commonly abused for their ability to produce euphoria, increase confidence, and improve performance in tasks that require sustained attention.

Some common examples of amphetamines include:

* Adderall: a combination of amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy
* Dexedrine: a brand name for dextroamphetamine, used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy
* Vyvanse: a long-acting formulation of lisdexamfetamine, a prodrug that is converted to dextroamphetamine in the body, used to treat ADHD

Amphetamines can be taken orally, snorted, smoked, or injected. Long-term use or abuse of amphetamines can lead to a number of negative health consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, malnutrition, mental health disorders, and memory loss.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine is a chemical compound that is a derivative of the neurotransmitter serotonin. It is formed by the hydroxylation of serotonin at the 5 and 7 positions of its indole ring. This compound is not typically found in significant concentrations in the body, but it can be synthesized and used for research purposes.

In the laboratory, 5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine has been used as a tool to study the role of serotonin in various physiological processes. For example, researchers have used this compound to selectively destroy serotonergic neurons in animal models, allowing them to investigate the functions of these neurons and their contributions to behavior and brain function.

It is important to note that 5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine is not a medication or therapeutic agent, and it should only be used in research settings under the guidance of trained professionals.

Fenfluramine is a drug that was previously used for the short-term treatment of obesity. It works by suppressing appetite and increasing the feeling of fullness. Fenfluramine is an amphetamine derivative and stimulates the release of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps regulate mood, appetite, and sleep.

Fenfluramine was commonly prescribed in combination with phentermine, another appetite suppressant, under the brand name Fen-Phen. However, in 1997, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a public health warning about the potential risk of serious heart valve damage associated with the use of fenfluramine and withdrew its approval for the drug's use. Since then, fenfluramine has not been approved for medical use in many countries, including the United States.

Tryptamines are a class of organic compounds that contain a tryptamine skeleton, which is a combination of an indole ring and a ethylamine side chain. They are commonly found in nature and can be synthesized in the lab. Some tryptamines have psychedelic properties and are used as recreational drugs, such as dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and psilocybin. Others have important roles in the human body, such as serotonin, which is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. Tryptamines can also be found in some plants and animals, including certain species of mushrooms, toads, and catnip.

Ritanserin is a medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as serotonin antagonists. It works by blocking the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain, which helps to reduce anxiety and improve mood. Ritanserin was initially developed for the treatment of depression and schizophrenia, but its development was discontinued due to its side effects.

The medical definition of Ritanserin is:

A piperazine derivative and a serotonin antagonist that has been used in the treatment of depression and schizophrenia. Its therapeutic effect is thought to be related to its ability to block the action of serotonin at 5HT2 receptors. However, development of ritanserin was discontinued due to its side effects, including orthostatic hypotension, dizziness, and sedation. It has also been studied for its potential in treating cocaine addiction and alcohol withdrawal syndrome.

Antidepressive agents are a class of medications used to treat various forms of depression and anxiety disorders. They act on neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers in the brain, to restore the balance that has been disrupted by mental illness. The most commonly prescribed types of antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). These medications can help alleviate symptoms such as low mood, loss of interest in activities, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and thoughts of death or suicide. It is important to note that antidepressants may take several weeks to reach their full effectiveness and may cause side effects, so it is essential to work closely with a healthcare provider to find the right medication and dosage.

Methiothepin is a non-selective, irreversible antagonist of serotonin (5-HT) receptors, particularly 5-HT1, 5-HT2, and 5-HT3 receptors. It has also been found to act as an antagonist at dopamine D2 receptors and histamine H1 receptors. Methiothepin has been used in research to study the roles of serotonin and other neurotransmitters in various physiological processes, but it is not commonly used clinically due to its lack of selectivity and potential for causing severe side effects.

Piperazines are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a seven-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 4. They have the molecular formula N-NRR' where R and R' can be alkyl or aryl groups. Piperazines have a wide range of uses in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and as building blocks in organic synthesis.

In a medical context, piperazines are used in the manufacture of various drugs, including some antipsychotics, antidepressants, antihistamines, and anti-worm medications. For example, the antipsychotic drug trifluoperazine and the antidepressant drug nefazodone both contain a piperazine ring in their chemical structure.

However, it's important to note that some piperazines are also used as recreational drugs due to their stimulant and euphoric effects. These include compounds such as BZP (benzylpiperazine) and TFMPP (trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine), which have been linked to serious health risks, including addiction, seizures, and death. Therefore, the use of these substances should be avoided.

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is defined in medical terms as a powerful synthetic hallucinogenic drug. It is derived from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on grains such as rye. LSD is typically distributed as a liquid, tablets, or thin squares of gelatin (commonly known as window panes). It is odorless, colorless, and has a slightly bitter taste.

LSD is considered one of the most potent mood-changing chemicals. Its effects, often called a "trip," can be stimulating, pleasurable, and mind-altering or they can lead to an unpleasant, sometimes terrifying experience called a "bad trip." The effects of LSD are unpredictable depending on factors such as the user's personality, mood, expectations, and the environment in which the drug is used.

In the medical field, LSD has been studied for its potential benefits in treating certain mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening illnesses, but further research is needed to establish its safety and efficacy. It's important to note that the use of LSD outside of approved medical settings and supervision is not legal in most countries and can lead to serious legal consequences.

N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (also known as MDA) is a synthetic psychoactive drug that belongs to the class of amphetamines. It acts as a central nervous system stimulant and hallucinogen. Chemically, it is a derivative of amphetamine with an additional methylenedioxy ring attached to the 3,4 positions on the aromatic ring. MDA is known for its empathogenic effects, meaning that it can produce feelings of empathy, emotional openness, and euphoria in users. It has been used recreationally as a party drug and at raves, but it also has potential therapeutic uses. However, MDA can have serious side effects, including increased heart rate and blood pressure, hyperthermia, dehydration, and in some cases, serotonin syndrome. As with other psychoactive drugs, MDA should only be used under medical supervision and with a clear understanding of its potential risks and benefits.

Dopamine is a type of neurotransmitter, which is a chemical messenger that transmits signals in the brain and nervous system. It plays several important roles in the body, including:

* Regulation of movement and coordination
* Modulation of mood and motivation
* Control of the reward and pleasure centers of the brain
* Regulation of muscle tone
* Involvement in memory and attention

Dopamine is produced in several areas of the brain, including the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area. It is released by neurons (nerve cells) and binds to specific receptors on other neurons, where it can either excite or inhibit their activity.

Abnormalities in dopamine signaling have been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric conditions, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and addiction.

Cinanserin is a serotonin antagonist, which is a type of drug that blocks the action of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain. Cinanserin has been investigated for its potential use as a treatment for various conditions, including anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia. However, it is not currently approved for use in clinical practice.

Serotonin antagonists like cinanserin work by blocking the action of serotonin at certain receptors in the brain. This can help to reduce the symptoms of various conditions, such as anxiety and depression, by altering the way that neurons communicate with each other. However, the exact mechanism of action of cinanserin is not fully understood, and more research is needed to determine its potential therapeutic uses.

While cinanserin has shown promise in some studies, it has also been associated with a number of side effects, including dizziness, drowsiness, and dry mouth. Additionally, there is some evidence to suggest that cinanserin may increase the risk of certain types of heart problems, such as irregular heart rhythms. As a result, further research is needed to determine the safety and efficacy of this drug before it can be approved for use in clinical practice.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Second-generation antidepressants (SGAs) are a class of medications used primarily for the treatment of depression, although they are also used for other psychiatric and medical conditions. They are called "second-generation" because they were developed after the first generation of antidepressants, which include tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).

SGAs are also known as atypical antidepressants or novel antidepressants. They work by affecting the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. However, they have a different chemical structure and mechanism of action than first-generation antidepressants.

Some examples of second-generation antidepressants include:

* Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and citalopram (Celexa)
* Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) such as venlafaxine (Effexor) and duloxetine (Cymbalta)
* Norepinephrine and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) such as bupropion (Wellbutrin)
* Atypical antidepressants such as mirtazapine (Remeron), trazodone, and vortioxetine (Brintellix)

SGAs are generally considered to have a more favorable side effect profile than first-generation antidepressants. They are less likely to cause anticholinergic effects such as dry mouth, constipation, and blurred vision, and they are less likely to cause cardiac conduction abnormalities or orthostatic hypotension. However, SGAs may still cause side effects such as nausea, insomnia, sexual dysfunction, and weight gain.

It's important to note that the choice of antidepressant medication should be individualized based on the patient's specific symptoms, medical history, and other factors. It may take some trial and error to find the most effective and well-tolerated medication for a given patient.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Buspirone is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called azapirones, which are used to treat anxiety disorders. It works by affecting the neurotransmitters in the brain, specifically serotonin and dopamine, to produce a calming effect. Buspirone is often used as an alternative to benzodiazepines because it is not habit-forming and has less severe side effects.

The medical definition of buspirone is:

A piperidine derivative and azapirone analogue, with anxiolytic properties. It is believed to work by selectively binding to 5-HT1A receptors and modulating serotonin activity in the brain. Buspirone is used for the management of anxiety disorders and has a lower potential for abuse and dependence than benzodiazepines.

Cyproheptadine is an antihistamine and anticholinergic medication that is primarily used to treat symptoms of allergies, such as runny nose, sneezing, and itching. It works by blocking the action of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic reactions.

Cyproheptadine also has other uses, including the treatment of migraines and cluster headaches, appetite stimulation in people with certain medical conditions, and as a sedative in some cases. It is available in various forms, such as tablets, capsules, and syrup.

Like all medications, cyproheptadine can have side effects, including drowsiness, dry mouth, dizziness, and blurred vision. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and talk to a healthcare provider if you experience any bothersome or persistent side effects.

Fluvoxamine is a type of antidepressant known as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). It works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance. Fluvoxamine is primarily used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and may also be prescribed for other conditions such as depression, panic disorder, or social anxiety disorder.

The medical definition of Fluvoxamine can be stated as:

Fluvoxamine maleate, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), is a psychotropic medication used primarily in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It functions by increasing the availability of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, which subsequently modulates neurotransmission and helps restore emotional balance. Fluvoxamine may also be employed off-label for managing other conditions, such as depression, panic disorder, or social anxiety disorder, subject to clinical judgment and patient needs.

Membrane transport proteins are specialized biological molecules, specifically integral membrane proteins, that facilitate the movement of various substances across the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and regulated transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, and other molecules into and out of cells, as well as within different cellular compartments. These proteins can be categorized into two main types: channels and carriers (or pumps). Channels provide a passive transport mechanism, allowing ions or small molecules to move down their electrochemical gradient, while carriers actively transport substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy usually in the form of ATP. Membrane transport proteins play a crucial role in maintaining cell homeostasis, signaling processes, and many other physiological functions.

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) is an enzyme found on the outer membrane of mitochondria in cells throughout the body, but primarily in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and central nervous system. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism of neurotransmitters and dietary amines by catalyzing the oxidative deamination of monoamines. This enzyme exists in two forms: MAO-A and MAO-B, each with distinct substrate preferences and tissue distributions.

MAO-A preferentially metabolizes serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, while MAO-B is mainly responsible for breaking down phenethylamines and benzylamines, as well as dopamine in some cases. Inhibition of these enzymes can lead to increased neurotransmitter levels in the synaptic cleft, which has implications for various psychiatric and neurological conditions, such as depression and Parkinson's disease. However, MAO inhibitors must be used with caution due to their potential to cause serious adverse effects, including hypertensive crises, when combined with certain foods or medications containing dietary amines or sympathomimetic agents.

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are a class of medications that were commonly used to treat depression. The name "tricyclic" comes from the chemical structure of these drugs, which contain three rings in their molecular makeup. TCAs were first developed in the 1950s and remained a popular choice for treating depression until the introduction of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in the late 1980s.

TCAs work by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, in the brain. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between nerve cells. By increasing the levels of these neurotransmitters, TCAs can help to improve mood and alleviate symptoms of depression.

Some common examples of tricyclic antidepressants include amitriptyline, imipramine, and nortriptyline. While TCAs are effective in treating depression, they can have significant side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and drowsiness. In addition, TCAs can be dangerous in overdose and may increase the risk of suicide in some individuals. As a result, they are typically used as a last resort when other treatments have failed.

Overall, tricyclic antidepressants are a class of medications that were commonly used to treat depression but have largely been replaced by newer drugs due to their side effects and potential risks.

Microdialysis is a minimally invasive technique used in clinical and research settings to continuously monitor the concentration of various chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, drugs, or metabolites, in biological fluids (e.g., extracellular fluid of tissues, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid). This method involves inserting a small, flexible catheter with a semipermeable membrane into the region of interest. A physiological solution is continuously perfused through the catheter, allowing molecules to diffuse across the membrane based on their concentration gradient. The dialysate that exits the catheter is then collected and analyzed for target compounds using various analytical techniques (e.g., high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry).

In summary, microdialysis is a valuable tool for monitoring real-time changes in chemical concentrations within biological systems, enabling better understanding of physiological processes or pharmacokinetic properties of drugs.

Imipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) medication that is primarily used to treat depression. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, in the brain. Imipramine has been found to be effective in treating various types of depression, including major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and depression that is resistant to other treatments.

In addition to its antidepressant effects, imipramine is also used off-label for the treatment of several other conditions, such as anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), enuresis (bedwetting), and chronic pain.

Imipramine was first synthesized in the 1950s and has been widely used since then. It is available in various forms, including immediate-release tablets, extended-release capsules, and liquid solutions. As with all medications, imipramine can have side effects, which may include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, and sedation. In rare cases, it can cause more serious side effects, such as cardiac arrhythmias or seizures.

It is important to use imipramine under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, as dosages may need to be adjusted based on individual patient needs and responses to treatment. Additionally, imipramine should not be stopped abruptly, as doing so can lead to withdrawal symptoms or a recurrence of depression.

Biogenic amines are organic compounds that are derived from the metabolic pathways of various biological organisms, including humans. They are formed by the decarboxylation of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Some examples of biogenic amines include histamine, serotonin, dopamine, and tyramine.

Histamine is a biogenic amine that plays an important role in the immune system's response to foreign invaders, such as allergens. It is also involved in regulating stomach acid production and sleep-wake cycles. Serotonin is another biogenic amine that acts as a neurotransmitter, transmitting signals between nerve cells in the brain. It is involved in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep.

Dopamine is a biogenic amine that functions as a neurotransmitter and is involved in reward and pleasure pathways in the brain. Tyramine is a biogenic amine that is found in certain foods, such as aged cheeses and fermented soy products. It can cause an increase in blood pressure when consumed in large quantities.

Biogenic amines can have various effects on the body, depending on their type and concentration. In general, they play important roles in many physiological processes, but high levels of certain biogenic amines can be harmful and may cause symptoms such as headache, nausea, and hypertension.

Clomipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant drug that is primarily used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, in the brain. These neurotransmitters are involved in regulating mood and behavior.

Clomipramine is also used off-label to treat other conditions, including panic disorder, depression, chronic pain, and sleep disorders. It is available as a tablet or capsule and is typically taken one to three times a day. Common side effects of clomipramine include dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, dizziness, and drowsiness.

As with all medications, clomipramine should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, who can monitor its effectiveness and potential side effects. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and to report any unusual symptoms or concerns to the healthcare provider promptly.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Tryptophan is an essential amino acid, meaning it cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources. Its chemical formula is C11H12N2O2. Tryptophan plays a crucial role in various biological processes as it serves as a precursor to several important molecules, including serotonin, melatonin, and niacin (vitamin B3). Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, appetite control, and sleep-wake cycles, while melatonin is a hormone that regulates sleep-wake patterns. Niacin is essential for energy production and DNA repair.

Foods rich in tryptophan include turkey, chicken, fish, eggs, cheese, milk, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. In some cases, tryptophan supplementation may be recommended to help manage conditions related to serotonin imbalances, such as depression or insomnia, but this should only be done under the guidance of a healthcare professional due to potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

5-Methoxytryptamine is a psychedelic tryptamine that is found in some plants and animals, as well as being produced synthetically. It is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin and is known for its ability to alter perception, thought, and mood. 5-Methoxytryptamine is also referred to as "mexamine" or "O-methylated tryptamine." It is a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States, making it illegal to possess or distribute without a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).

In the medical field, 5-Methoxytryptamine does not have a specific use as a medication. However, it has been used in some research settings to study its effects on the brain and behavior. It is important to note that the use of 5-Methoxytryptamine or any other psychedelic substance should only be done under the supervision of trained medical professionals in a controlled setting due to the potential risks associated with their use.

Blood platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that play an essential role in normal blood clotting. They are formed in the bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes and circulate in the blood in an inactive state until they are needed to help stop bleeding. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets become activated and change shape, releasing chemicals that attract more platelets to the site of injury. These activated platelets then stick together to form a plug, or clot, that seals the wound and prevents further blood loss. In addition to their role in clotting, platelets also help to promote healing by releasing growth factors that stimulate the growth of new tissue.

Autoreceptors are a type of receptor found on the surface of neurons or other cells that are activated by neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) released by the same cell that is expressing the autoreceptor. In other words, they are receptors that a neuron has for its own neurotransmitter.

Autoreceptors play an important role in regulating the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal (the end of the neuron that releases the neurotransmitter). When a neurotransmitter binds to its autoreceptor, it can inhibit or excite the further release of that same neurotransmitter. This negative feedback mechanism helps maintain a balance in the concentration of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft (the space between two neurons where neurotransmission occurs).

Examples of autoreceptors include dopamine D2 receptors on dopaminergic neurons, serotonin 5-HT1A receptors on serotonergic neurons, and acetylcholine M2 receptors on cholinergic neurons. Dysregulation of autoreceptor function has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of drugs that work by blocking the action of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme found in the brain and other organs of the body. This enzyme is responsible for breaking down certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which are chemicals that transmit signals in the brain.

By inhibiting the action of monoamine oxidase, MAOIs increase the levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain, which can help to alleviate symptoms of depression and other mood disorders. However, MAOIs also affect other chemicals in the body, including tyramine, a substance found in some foods and beverages, as well as certain medications. As a result, MAOIs can have serious side effects and interactions with other substances, making them a less commonly prescribed class of antidepressants than other types of drugs.

MAOIs are typically used as a last resort when other treatments for depression have failed, due to their potential for dangerous interactions and side effects. They require careful monitoring and dosage adjustment by a healthcare provider, and patients must follow strict dietary restrictions while taking them.

Adrenergic uptake inhibitors are a class of medications that work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine and dopamine, into the presynaptic neuron. This results in an increase in the amount of neurotransmitter available to bind to postsynaptic receptors, leading to an enhancement of adrenergic transmission.

These medications are used in the treatment of various medical conditions, including depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and narcolepsy. Some examples of adrenergic uptake inhibitors include:

* Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs): These medications, such as imipramine and amitriptyline, were developed in the 1950s and are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and chronic pain.
* Selective serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): These medications, such as venlafaxine and duloxetine, were developed in the 1990s and are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and chronic pain.
* Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs): These medications, such as bupropion, are used to treat depression and ADHD.

It's important to note that these medications can have side effects and should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider.

Sertraline is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is primarily used to treat depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety disorder, and in some cases, premenstrual dysphoric disorder.

Sertraline works by increasing the levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain that helps maintain mental balance, in the synaptic cleft (the space between two nerve cells where neurotransmitters are released and received). By inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, sertraline enhances the signal strength and duration of action of this neurotransmitter, which can help alleviate symptoms associated with various mental health conditions.

It is important to note that sertraline should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as it may have side effects and potential interactions with other medications. Always consult a medical provider for personalized advice regarding medication use.

Spiperone is an antipsychotic drug that belongs to the chemical class of diphenylbutylpiperidines. It has potent dopamine D2 receptor blocking activity and moderate serotonin 5-HT2A receptor affinity. Spiperone is used primarily in research settings for its ability to bind to and block dopamine receptors, which helps scientists study the role of dopamine in various physiological processes.

In clinical practice, spiperone has been used off-label to treat chronic schizophrenia, but its use is limited due to its significant side effects, including extrapyramidal symptoms (involuntary muscle movements), tardive dyskinesia (irregular, jerky movements), and neuroleptic malignant syndrome (a rare but potentially fatal complication characterized by fever, muscle rigidity, and autonomic instability).

It's important to note that spiperone is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the United States. Its use is more common in research settings or in countries where it may be approved for specific indications.

Hallucinogens are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and thought, often causing hallucinations, which are profound distortions in a person's perceptions of reality. These substances work by disrupting the normal functioning of the brain, particularly the parts that regulate mood, sensory perception, sleep, hunger, and sexual behavior.

Hallucinogens can be found in various forms, including plants, mushrooms, and synthetic compounds. Some common examples of hallucinogens include LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (found in certain species of mushrooms), DMT (dimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca (a plant-based brew from South America).

The effects of hallucinogens can vary widely depending on the specific substance, the dose, the individual's personality, mood, and expectations, and the environment in which the drug is taken. These effects can range from pleasant sensory experiences and heightened emotional awareness to terrifying hallucinations and overwhelming feelings of anxiety or despair.

It's important to note that hallucinogens can be dangerous, particularly when taken in high doses or in combination with other substances. They can also cause long-term psychological distress and may trigger underlying mental health conditions. As such, they should only be used under the guidance of a trained medical professional for therapeutic purposes.

Norepinephrine plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as norepinephrine transporters (NET), are membrane-bound proteins that play a crucial role in the regulation of neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transmission and preventing excessive stimulation of postsynaptic receptors.

The norepinephrine transporter is a member of the sodium-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family and functions as an antiporter, exchanging one intracellular sodium ion for two extracellular sodium ions along with the transport of norepinephrine. This sodium gradient provides the energy required for the active transport process.

Dysregulation of norepinephrine plasma membrane transport proteins has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of these transporters is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pyridines" is not a medical term. It is a chemical term that refers to a class of organic compounds with the chemical structure of a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom and five carbon atoms (heterocyclic aromatic compound).

In a biological or medical context, pyridine derivatives can be found in various natural and synthetic substances. For example, some medications contain pyridine rings as part of their chemical structure. However, "Pyridines" itself is not a medical term or condition.

Brain chemistry refers to the chemical processes that occur within the brain, particularly those involving neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neuropeptides. These chemicals are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain, allowing for various cognitive, emotional, and physical functions.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse (the tiny gap between two neurons). Examples of neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), and glutamate. Each neurotransmitter has a specific role in brain function, such as regulating mood, motivation, attention, memory, and movement.

Neuromodulators are chemicals that modify the effects of neurotransmitters on neurons. They can enhance or inhibit the transmission of signals between neurons, thereby modulating brain activity. Examples of neuromodulators include acetylcholine, histamine, and substance P.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators. They play a role in various physiological functions, such as pain perception, stress response, and reward processing. Examples of neuropeptides include endorphins, enkephalins, and oxytocin.

Abnormalities in brain chemistry can lead to various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Understanding brain chemistry is crucial for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Sumatriptan is a selective serotonin receptor agonist, specifically targeting the 5-HT1D and 5-HT1B receptors. It is primarily used to treat migraines and cluster headaches. Sumatriptan works by narrowing blood vessels around the brain and reducing inflammation that leads to migraine symptoms.

The medication comes in various forms, including tablets, injectables, and nasal sprays. Common side effects of sumatriptan include feelings of warmth or hotness, tingling, tightness, pressure, heaviness, pain, or burning in the neck, throat, jaw, chest, or arms.

It is important to note that sumatriptan should not be used if a patient has a history of heart disease, stroke, or uncontrolled high blood pressure. Additionally, it should not be taken within 24 hours of using another migraine medication containing ergotamine or similar drugs such as dihydroergotamine, methysergide, or caffeine-containing analgesics.

Indole is not strictly a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that can be found in the human body and has relevance to medical and biological research. Indoles are organic compounds that contain a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring.

In the context of medicine, indoles are particularly relevant due to their presence in certain hormones and other biologically active molecules. For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin contains an indole ring, as does the hormone melatonin. Indoles can also be found in various plant-based foods, such as cruciferous vegetables (e.g., broccoli, kale), and have been studied for their potential health benefits.

Some indoles, like indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, are found in these vegetables and can have anti-cancer properties by modulating estrogen metabolism, reducing inflammation, and promoting cell death (apoptosis) in cancer cells. However, it is essential to note that further research is needed to fully understand the potential health benefits and risks associated with indoles.

Octopamine is not primarily used in medical definitions, but it is a significant neurotransmitter in invertebrates, including insects. It is the equivalent to noradrenaline (norepinephrine) in vertebrates and has similar functions related to the "fight or flight" response, arousal, and motivation. Insects use octopamine for various physiological processes such as learning, memory, regulation of heart rate, and modulation of muscle contraction. It also plays a role in the social behavior of insects like aggression and courtship.

Piperidines are not a medical term per se, but they are a class of organic compounds that have important applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Medically relevant piperidines include various drugs such as some antihistamines, antidepressants, and muscle relaxants.

A piperidine is a heterocyclic amine with a six-membered ring containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. The structure can be described as a cyclic secondary amine. Piperidines are found in some natural alkaloids, such as those derived from the pepper plant (Piper nigrum), which gives piperidines their name.

In a medical context, it is more common to encounter specific drugs that belong to the class of piperidines rather than the term itself.

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or physical activity. It plays a crucial role in the "fight-or-flight" response by preparing the body for action through increasing heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and glucose availability.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is involved in regulating various functions of the nervous system, including attention, perception, motivation, and arousal. It also plays a role in modulating pain perception and responding to stressful or emotional situations.

In medical settings, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor medication to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) that can occur during septic shock, anesthesia, or other critical illnesses. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to improve blood pressure and perfusion of vital organs.

Enterochromaffin cells, also known as Kulchitsky cells or enteroendocrine cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract. These cells are responsible for producing and secreting a variety of hormones and neuropeptides that play important roles in regulating gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and sensation.

Enterochromaffin cells are named for their ability to take up chromaffin stains, which contain silver salts and oxidizing agents that react with the catecholamines stored within the cells. These cells can be further classified based on their morphology, location within the gastrointestinal tract, and the types of hormones they produce.

Some examples of hormones produced by enterochromaffin cells include serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), histamine, gastrin, somatostatin, and cholecystokinin. Serotonin is one of the most well-known hormones produced by these cells, and it plays a critical role in regulating gastrointestinal motility and secretion, as well as mood and cognition.

Abnormalities in enterochromaffin cell function have been implicated in a number of gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), functional dyspepsia, and gastroparesis. Additionally, mutations in genes associated with enterochromaffin cells have been linked to several inherited cancer syndromes, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) and neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

P-Chloroamphetamine, also known as PCA or 4-chloroamphetamine, is a synthetic stimulant drug that has been used in scientific research but is not commonly used medically. It is a derivative of amphetamine and has similar effects, such as increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness. However, it also has hallucinogenic properties and can cause psychological disturbances.

PCA acts as a releasing agent for the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which are involved in regulating mood, appetite, and other physiological processes. It is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States due to its high potential for abuse and lack of accepted medical use.

It's important to note that PCA is not approved for any medical use in humans and should only be used in a controlled research setting with appropriate safety measures in place.

Neurotransmitter agents are substances that affect the synthesis, storage, release, uptake, degradation, or reuptake of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron to another. These agents can be either agonists, which mimic the action of a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor, or antagonists, which block the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor without activating it. They are used in medicine to treat various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Aminopyridines are a group of organic compounds that contain an amino group (-NH2) attached to a pyridine ring, which is a six-membered aromatic heterocycle containing one nitrogen atom. Aminopyridines have various pharmacological properties and are used in the treatment of several medical conditions.

The most commonly used aminopyridines in medicine include:

1. 4-Aminopyridine (also known as Fampridine): It is a potassium channel blocker that is used to improve walking ability in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and other neurological disorders. It works by increasing the conduction of nerve impulses in demyelinated nerves, thereby improving muscle strength and coordination.
2. 3,4-Diaminopyridine: It is a potassium channel blocker that is used to treat Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by muscle weakness. It works by increasing the release of acetylcholine from nerve endings, thereby improving muscle strength and function.
3. 2-Aminopyridine: It is an experimental drug that has been studied for its potential use in treating various neurological disorders, including MS, Parkinson's disease, and stroke. It works by increasing the release of neurotransmitters from nerve endings, thereby improving neuronal communication.

Like all medications, aminopyridines can have side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms, headache, dizziness, and in rare cases, seizures. It is important to use these drugs under the supervision of a healthcare provider and follow their dosage instructions carefully.

Ondansetron is a medication that is primarily used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery. It is a selective antagonist of 5-HT3 receptors, which are found in the brain and gut and play a role in triggering the vomiting reflex. By blocking these receptors, ondansetron helps to reduce the frequency and severity of nausea and vomiting.

The drug is available in various forms, including tablets, oral solution, and injection, and is typically administered 30 minutes before chemotherapy or surgery, and then every 8 to 12 hours as needed. Common side effects of ondansetron include headache, constipation, and diarrhea.

It's important to note that ondansetron should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, and its use may be contraindicated in certain individuals, such as those with a history of allergic reactions to the drug or who have certain heart conditions.

Fluorobenzenes are a group of organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring (a cyclic structure with six carbon atoms in a hexagonal arrangement) substituted with one or more fluorine atoms. The general chemical formula for a fluorobenzene is C6H5F, but this can vary depending on the number of fluorine atoms present in the molecule.

Fluorobenzenes are relatively stable and non-reactive compounds due to the strong carbon-fluorine bond. They are used as starting materials in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and other specialty chemicals. Some fluorobenzenes also have potential applications as refrigerants, fire extinguishing agents, and solvents.

It is worth noting that while fluorobenzenes themselves are not considered to be particularly hazardous, some of their derivatives can be toxic or environmentally harmful, so they must be handled with care during production and use.

Tropane alkaloids are a class of naturally occurring compounds that contain a tropane ring in their chemical structure. This ring is composed of a seven-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms, one of which is part of a piperidine ring. Tropane alkaloids are found in various plants, particularly those in the Solanaceae family, which includes nightshade, belladonna, and datura. Some well-known tropane alkaloids include atropine, scopolamine, and cocaine. These compounds have diverse pharmacological activities, such as anticholinergic, local anesthetic, and central nervous system stimulant effects.

Mianserin is a tetracyclic antidepressant (TCA) that is primarily used to treat major depressive disorders. It functions by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and noradrenaline, thereby increasing their availability in the brain and helping to alleviate symptoms of depression.

Mianserin also has additional properties, including antihistamine and anti-cholinergic effects, which can help reduce some side effects commonly associated with other antidepressants, such as insomnia and agitation. However, these same properties can also lead to side effects such as drowsiness, dry mouth, and orthostatic hypotension (a drop in blood pressure upon standing).

It's important to note that mianserin is not commonly prescribed due to its narrow therapeutic index and the risk of serious side effects, including agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cells), which can increase the risk of infection. As with any medication, it should only be taken under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Dexfenfluramine is a medication that was previously used as an appetite suppressant for weight loss. It is a stereoisomer (enantiomer) of fenfluramine, which is another appetite suppressant. Dexfenfluramine works by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain, which helps to reduce appetite and promote weight loss.

However, dexfenfluramine was withdrawn from the market in 1997 due to concerns about its safety. Studies found that long-term use of dexfenfluramine was associated with an increased risk of primary pulmonary hypertension, a rare but serious condition that can lead to heart failure. Additionally, when dexfenfluramine was used in combination with phentermine (a different appetite suppressant), there was an increased risk of valvular heart disease.

Therefore, dexfenfluramine is no longer available for medical use and its prescription is not recommended due to these safety concerns.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine is a chemical compound that is classified as a derivative of tryptamine. Tryptamine is a naturally occurring amine that is formed from the essential amino acid, tryptophan. 5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine is formed by the hydroxylation of tryptamine at the 5th and 6th carbon atoms of its indole ring structure.

This compound is not typically found in significant quantities in biological systems under normal conditions. However, it can be synthesized and has been studied for its potential pharmacological properties. Like other tryptamines, 5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine has an affinity for various serotonin receptors, and it has been found to act as a full agonist at the 5-HT1A receptor.

It is worth noting that 5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine should not be confused with 5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan) or serotonin (5-HT), which are also tryptamine derivatives but have different structures and functions in the body.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

Cyclohexanols are a class of organic compounds that contain a cyclohexane ring (a six-carbon saturated ring) with a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to it. The hydroxyl group makes these compounds alcohols, and the cyclohexane ring provides a unique structure that can adopt different conformations.

The presence of the hydroxyl group in cyclohexanols allows them to act as solvents, intermediates in chemical synthesis, and starting materials for the production of other chemicals. They are used in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and polymers.

Cyclohexanols can exist in different forms, such as cis- and trans-isomers, depending on the orientation of the hydroxyl group relative to the cyclohexane ring. The physical and chemical properties of these isomers can differ significantly due to their distinct structures and conformations.

Examples of cyclohexanols include cyclohexanol itself (C6H11OH), as well as its derivatives, such as methylcyclohexanol (C7H13OH) and phenylcyclohexanol (C12H15OH).

Biguanides are a class of oral hypoglycemic agents used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. The primary mechanism of action of biguanides is to decrease hepatic glucose production and increase insulin sensitivity, which leads to reduced fasting glucose levels and improved glycemic control.

The most commonly prescribed biguanide is metformin, which has been widely used for several decades due to its efficacy and low risk of hypoglycemia. Other biguanides include phenformin and buformin, but these are rarely used due to their association with a higher risk of lactic acidosis, a potentially life-threatening complication.

In addition to their glucose-lowering effects, biguanides have also been shown to have potential benefits on cardiovascular health and weight management, making them a valuable treatment option for many individuals with type 2 diabetes. However, they should be used with caution in patients with impaired renal function or other underlying medical conditions that may increase the risk of lactic acidosis.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Granisetron is a medication that is primarily used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery. It belongs to a class of drugs known as serotonin antagonists, which work by blocking the action of serotonin, a chemical in the brain that can trigger nausea and vomiting.

Granisetron is available in several forms, including oral tablets, oral solution, and injectable solutions. It is usually taken or administered about an hour before chemotherapy or radiation therapy, or shortly before surgery. The medication may also be given as needed to manage nausea and vomiting that occur after these treatments.

Common side effects of granisetron include headache, constipation, dizziness, and tiredness. In rare cases, it can cause more serious side effects such as irregular heartbeat, seizures, or allergic reactions. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and inform your healthcare provider if you experience any unusual symptoms while taking granisetron.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Vesicular Monoamine Transporter Proteins (VMATs) are a type of transmembrane protein that play a crucial role in the packaging and transport of monoamines, such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, into synaptic vesicles within neurons. There are two main isoforms of VMATs, VMAT1 and VMAT2, which differ in their distribution and function.

VMAT1 (also known as SLC18A1) is primarily found in neuroendocrine cells and is responsible for transporting monoamines into large dense-core vesicles. VMAT2 (also known as SLC18A2), on the other hand, is mainly expressed in presynaptic neurons and is involved in the transport of monoamines into small synaptic vesicles.

Both VMAT1 and VMAT2 are integral membrane proteins that utilize a proton gradient to drive the uptake of monoamines against their concentration gradient, allowing for their storage and subsequent release during neurotransmission. Dysregulation of VMAT function has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease and depression.

A depressive disorder is a mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure in activities. It can also include changes in sleep, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem, as well as thoughts of death or suicide. Depressive disorders can vary in severity and duration, with some people experiencing mild and occasional symptoms, while others may have severe and chronic symptoms that interfere with their ability to function in daily life.

There are several types of depressive disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), persistent depressive disorder (PDD), and postpartum depression. MDD is characterized by symptoms that interfere significantly with a person's ability to function and last for at least two weeks, while PDD involves chronic low-grade depression that lasts for two years or more. Postpartum depression occurs in women after childbirth and can range from mild to severe.

Depressive disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy (talk therapy), and lifestyle changes.

Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant drug derived from the leaves of the coca plant (Erythroxylon coca). It is a powerful central nervous system stimulant that affects the brain and body in many ways. When used recreationally, cocaine can produce feelings of euphoria, increased energy, and mental alertness; however, it can also cause serious negative consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, seizures, and death.

Cocaine works by increasing the levels of dopamine in the brain, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and reward. This leads to the pleasurable effects that users seek when they take the drug. However, cocaine also interferes with the normal functioning of the brain's reward system, making it difficult for users to experience pleasure from natural rewards like food or social interactions.

Cocaine can be taken in several forms, including powdered form (which is usually snorted), freebase (a purer form that is often smoked), and crack cocaine (a solid form that is typically heated and smoked). Each form of cocaine has different risks and potential harms associated with its use.

Long-term use of cocaine can lead to a number of negative health consequences, including addiction, heart problems, malnutrition, respiratory issues, and mental health disorders like depression or anxiety. It is important to seek help if you or someone you know is struggling with cocaine use or addiction.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hydroxytryptophol" is not a recognized or established term in medicine or biochemistry. It seems like it might be a combination of "hydroxytryptophan," which is a naturally occurring amino acid, and "-ol," which is a suffix often used to denote an alcohol. However, I can't find any scientific literature or studies referring to a compound named "Hydroxytryptophol." It's possible there might be a spelling mistake or a misunderstanding in the term. If you have more context or information, I'd be happy to help further!

Methysergide, commonly known as methylergometrine or metergoline, is not typically considered a medication in the medical field. It is actually a derivative of ergot alkaloids, which are fungal metabolites that have been used in medicine for their vasoconstrictive and oxytocic properties.

Methysergide has been used in the past as a migraine prophylaxis medication due to its ability to block serotonin receptors in the brain. However, its use is now limited due to its potential to cause serious side effects such as fibrotic reactions in various organs, including the heart, lungs, and kidneys.

Therefore, methysergide/metergoline is not commonly used in modern medical practice, and its use is typically reserved for highly specific cases under close medical supervision.

The prefrontal cortex is the anterior (frontal) part of the frontal lobe in the brain, involved in higher-order cognitive processes such as planning complex cognitive behavior, personality expression, decision making, and moderating social behavior. It also plays a significant role in working memory and executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is divided into several subregions, each associated with specific cognitive and emotional functions. Damage to the prefrontal cortex can result in various impairments, including difficulties with planning, decision making, and social behavior regulation.

Desipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA) that is primarily used to treat depression. It works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine and serotonin, in the brain. These neurotransmitters are important for maintaining mood, emotion, and behavior.

Desipramine is also sometimes used off-label to treat other conditions, such as anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is available in oral form and is typically taken one to three times a day.

Like all medications, desipramine can cause side effects, which can include dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, and drowsiness. More serious side effects are rare but can include heart rhythm problems, seizures, and increased suicidal thoughts or behavior in some people, particularly children and adolescents.

It is important to take desipramine exactly as prescribed by a healthcare provider and to report any bothersome or unusual symptoms promptly. Regular follow-up appointments with a healthcare provider are also recommended to monitor the effectiveness and safety of the medication.

Dopamine plasma membrane transport proteins, also known as dopamine transporters (DAT), are a type of protein found in the cell membrane that play a crucial role in the regulation of dopamine neurotransmission. They are responsible for the reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, thereby terminating the signal transduction of dopamine and regulating the amount of dopamine available for further release.

Dopamine transporters belong to the family of sodium-dependent neurotransmitter transporters and are encoded by the SLC6A3 gene in humans. Abnormalities in dopamine transporter function have been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and substance use disorders.

In summary, dopamine plasma membrane transport proteins are essential for the regulation of dopamine neurotransmission by mediating the reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron.

Neurotransmitter uptake inhibitors are a class of drugs that work by blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, into the presynaptic neuron after they have been released into the synapse. This results in an increased concentration of these neurotransmitters in the synapse, which can enhance their signal transduction and lead to therapeutic effects.

These drugs are commonly used in the treatment of various psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). They include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs).

It's important to note that while neurotransmitter uptake inhibitors can be effective in treating certain conditions, they may also have potential side effects and risks. Therefore, it is essential to use them under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare professional.

Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another cell, such as another neuron or a muscle cell, across a junction called a synapse. It involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, leading to changes in the electrical or chemical properties of the target cell. This process is critical for the transmission of signals within the nervous system and for controlling various physiological functions in the body.

Aggression is defined in medical terms as behavior that is intended to cause harm or damage to another individual or their property. It can take the form of verbal or physical actions and can be a symptom of various mental health disorders, such as intermittent explosive disorder, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and dementia. Aggression can also be a side effect of certain medications or a result of substance abuse. It is important to note that aggression can have serious consequences, including physical injury, emotional trauma, and legal repercussions. If you or someone you know is experiencing problems with aggression, it is recommended to seek help from a mental health professional.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. They are integral components of biological membranes, spanning the lipid bilayer and playing crucial roles in various cellular processes.

The glycosylation of these proteins occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus during protein folding and trafficking. The attached glycans can vary in structure, length, and composition, which contributes to the diversity of membrane glycoproteins.

Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types based on their orientation within the lipid bilayer:

1. Type I (N-linked): These glycoproteins have a single transmembrane domain and an extracellular N-terminus, where the oligosaccharides are predominantly attached via asparagine residues (Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequon).
2. Type II (C-linked): These glycoproteins possess two transmembrane domains and an intracellular C-terminus, with the oligosaccharides linked to tryptophan residues via a mannose moiety.

Membrane glycoproteins are involved in various cellular functions, such as:

* Cell adhesion and recognition
* Receptor-mediated signal transduction
* Enzymatic catalysis
* Transport of molecules across membranes
* Cell-cell communication
* Immunological responses

Some examples of membrane glycoproteins include cell surface receptors (e.g., growth factor receptors, cytokine receptors), adhesion molecules (e.g., integrins, cadherins), and transporters (e.g., ion channels, ABC transporters).

Pargyline is an antihypertensive drug and a irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) of type B. It works by blocking the breakdown of certain chemicals in the brain, such as neurotransmitters, which can help improve mood and behavior in people with depression.

Pargyline is not commonly used as a first-line treatment for depression due to its potential for serious side effects, including interactions with certain foods and medications that can lead to dangerously high blood pressure. It is also associated with a risk of serotonin syndrome when taken with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or other drugs that increase serotonin levels in the brain.

Pargyline is available only through a prescription and should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

In invertebrate biology, ganglia are clusters of neurons that function as a centralized nervous system. They can be considered as the equivalent to a vertebrate's spinal cord and brain. Ganglia serve to process sensory information, coordinate motor functions, and integrate various neural activities within an invertebrate organism.

Invertebrate ganglia are typically found in animals such as arthropods (insects, crustaceans), annelids (earthworms), mollusks (snails, squids), and cnidarians (jellyfish). The structure of the ganglia varies among different invertebrate groups.

For example, in arthropods, the central nervous system consists of a pair of connected ganglia called the supraesophageal ganglion or brain, and the subesophageal ganglion, located near the esophagus. The ventral nerve cord runs along the length of the body, containing pairs of ganglia that control specific regions of the body.

In mollusks, the central nervous system is composed of several ganglia, which can be fused or dispersed, depending on the species. In cephalopods (such as squids and octopuses), the brain is highly developed and consists of several lobes that perform various functions, including learning and memory.

Overall, invertebrate ganglia are essential components of the nervous system that allow these animals to respond to environmental stimuli, move, and interact with their surroundings.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Ergolines are a group of ergot alkaloids that have been widely used in the development of various pharmaceutical drugs. These compounds are known for their ability to bind to and stimulate specific receptors in the brain, particularly dopamine receptors. As a result, they have been explored for their potential therapeutic benefits in the treatment of various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as Parkinson's disease, migraine, and depression.

However, ergolines can also have significant side effects, including hallucinations, nausea, and changes in blood pressure. In addition, some ergot alkaloids have been associated with a rare but serious condition called ergotism, which is characterized by symptoms such as muscle spasms, vomiting, and gangrene. Therefore, the use of ergolines must be carefully monitored and managed to ensure their safety and effectiveness.

Some specific examples of drugs that contain ergolines include:

* Dihydroergotamine (DHE): used for the treatment of migraine headaches
* Pergolide: used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease
* Cabergoline: used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease and certain types of hormonal disorders

It is important to note that while ergolines have shown promise in some therapeutic areas, they are not without their risks. As with any medication, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before using any drug containing ergolines to ensure that it is safe and appropriate for an individual's specific needs.

Ethylamines are organic compounds that contain a primary amino group (-NH2) attached to an ethyl group (-C2H5). In other words, they have the formula R-CH2-CH2-NH2, where R is a carbon-containing group. Ethylamines are derivatives of ammonia (NH3), in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an ethyl group.

Ethylamines can be found in various natural and synthetic substances. They are used as building blocks in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and other industrial chemicals. Some ethylamines also have psychoactive properties and are used as recreational drugs or abused for their mind-altering effects.

It is important to note that some ethylamines can be toxic or harmful to human health, especially at high concentrations or with prolonged exposure. Therefore, they should be handled with care and used only under controlled conditions.

The pineal gland, also known as the epiphysis cerebri, is a small endocrine gland located in the brain. It is shaped like a pinecone, hence its name, and is situated near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, attached to the third ventricle. The primary function of the pineal gland is to produce melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms in response to light and darkness. Additionally, it plays a role in the onset of puberty and has been suggested to have other functions related to cognition, mood, and reproduction, although these are not as well understood.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "swimming" is not typically considered a medical term. It refers to the act of moving through water using your arms and legs in a rhythmic pattern, often as a form of exercise, recreation, or competition. However, if you're referring to a medical condition related to swimming, such as "swimmer's ear" (otitis externa), I would be happy to provide a definition for that.

Swimmer's ear is a type of outer ear infection caused by water remaining in the ear after swimming or bathing, creating a moist environment that can lead to bacterial growth. It can also be caused by scratching or damaging the lining of the ear canal through the use of cotton swabs or other objects. Symptoms may include itching, redness, pain, and sometimes discharge from the ear. If left untreated, swimmer's ear can lead to more serious complications, such as hearing loss or damage to the inner ear.

Antipsychotic agents are a class of medications used to manage and treat psychosis, which includes symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, paranoia, disordered thought processes, and agitated behavior. These drugs work by blocking the action of dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the brain that is believed to play a role in the development of psychotic symptoms. Antipsychotics can be broadly divided into two categories: first-generation antipsychotics (also known as typical antipsychotics) and second-generation antipsychotics (also known as atypical antipsychotics).

First-generation antipsychotics, such as chlorpromazine, haloperidol, and fluphenazine, were developed in the 1950s and have been widely used for several decades. They are generally effective in reducing positive symptoms of psychosis (such as hallucinations and delusions) but can cause significant side effects, including extrapyramidal symptoms (EPS), such as rigidity, tremors, and involuntary movements, as well as weight gain, sedation, and orthostatic hypotension.

Second-generation antipsychotics, such as clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, and aripiprazole, were developed more recently and are considered to have a more favorable side effect profile than first-generation antipsychotics. They are generally effective in reducing both positive and negative symptoms of psychosis (such as apathy, anhedonia, and social withdrawal) and cause fewer EPS. However, they can still cause significant weight gain, metabolic disturbances, and sedation.

Antipsychotic agents are used to treat various psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder with psychotic features, delusional disorder, and other conditions that involve psychosis or agitation. They can be administered orally, intramuscularly, or via long-acting injectable formulations. The choice of antipsychotic agent depends on the individual patient's needs, preferences, and response to treatment, as well as the potential for side effects. Regular monitoring of patients taking antipsychotics is essential to ensure their safety and effectiveness.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Depression is a mood disorder that is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities. It can also cause significant changes in sleep, appetite, energy level, concentration, and behavior. Depression can interfere with daily life and normal functioning, and it can increase the risk of suicide and other mental health disorders. The exact cause of depression is not known, but it is believed to be related to a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. There are several types of depression, including major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, postpartum depression, and seasonal affective disorder. Treatment for depression typically involves a combination of medication and psychotherapy.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Moclobemide is a type of antidepressant known as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA). It works by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain, such as serotonin and noradrenaline, which helps to improve mood and alleviate symptoms of depression.

Moclobemide is specifically designed to inhibit only monoamine oxidase A, which metabolizes neurotransmitters in the brain, and not monoamine oxidase B, which is found in other parts of the body. This selectivity reduces the risk of serious side effects associated with non-selective monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), such as hypertensive crisis caused by interactions with tyramine-rich foods or certain medications.

Moclobemide is used to treat major depressive disorders and may also be used off-label for other conditions, such as social anxiety disorder or panic disorder. It is available in various forms, including tablets and oral solution, and is typically taken two to three times a day. As with any medication, moclobemide should be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, who will determine the appropriate dosage and monitor for potential side effects.

Histamine is defined as a biogenic amine that is widely distributed throughout the body and is involved in various physiological functions. It is derived primarily from the amino acid histidine by the action of histidine decarboxylase. Histamine is stored in granules (along with heparin and proteases) within mast cells and basophils, and is released upon stimulation or degranulation of these cells.

Once released into the tissues and circulation, histamine exerts a wide range of pharmacological actions through its interaction with four types of G protein-coupled receptors (H1, H2, H3, and H4 receptors). Histamine's effects are diverse and include modulation of immune responses, contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle, increased vascular permeability, stimulation of gastric acid secretion, and regulation of neurotransmission.

Histamine is also a potent mediator of allergic reactions and inflammation, causing symptoms such as itching, sneezing, runny nose, and wheezing. Antihistamines are commonly used to block the actions of histamine at H1 receptors, providing relief from these symptoms.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), also simply referred to as depression, is a serious mental health condition characterized by the presence of one or more major depressive episodes. A major depressive episode is a period of at least two weeks during which an individual experiences a severely depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities, accompanied by at least four additional symptoms such as significant changes in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

MDD can significantly impair an individual's ability to function in daily life, and it is associated with increased risks of suicide, substance abuse, and other mental health disorders. The exact cause of MDD is not fully understood, but it is believed to result from a complex interplay of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of psychotherapy (such as cognitive-behavioral therapy) and medication (such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or tricyclic antidepressants).

Norfenfluramine is not a medication that is currently used in medical practice. It is a serotonin agonist, meaning it binds to and activates serotonin receptors in the body. Norfenfluramine was previously used as an appetite suppressant for the treatment of obesity, but it was withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns. Specifically, it was found to be associated with an increased risk of heart valve damage and primary pulmonary hypertension, a rare but serious lung condition.

The chemical structure of norfenfluramine is similar to that of fenfluramine, another appetite suppressant that was also withdrawn from the market due to safety concerns. Both drugs were found to increase levels of serotonin in the body, which can have harmful effects on the heart and lungs. Norfenfluramine is still occasionally used in research settings to study the effects of serotonin agonists on various physiological processes, but it is not used as a medication.

Homovanillic acid (HVA) is a major metabolite of dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the human body. It is formed in the body when an enzyme called catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) breaks down dopamine. HVA can be measured in body fluids such as urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and plasma to assess the activity of dopamine and the integrity of the dopaminergic system. Increased levels of HVA are associated with certain neurological disorders, including Parkinson's disease, while decreased levels may indicate dopamine deficiency or other conditions affecting the nervous system.

Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic medication that is primarily used to treat schizophrenia in patients who have not responded to other antipsychotic treatments. It is also used off-label for the treatment of severe aggression, suicidal ideation, and self-injurious behavior in individuals with developmental disorders.

Clozapine works by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, particularly the D4 receptor, which is thought to be involved in the development of schizophrenia. It also has a strong affinity for serotonin receptors, which contributes to its unique therapeutic profile.

Clozapine is considered a medication of last resort due to its potential side effects, which can include agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cell count), myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle), seizures, orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure upon standing), and weight gain. Because of these risks, patients taking clozapine must undergo regular monitoring of their blood counts and other vital signs.

Despite its potential side effects, clozapine is often effective in treating treatment-resistant schizophrenia and has been shown to reduce the risk of suicide in some patients. It is available in tablet and orally disintegrating tablet formulations.

Autoradiography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize and localize the distribution of radioactively labeled compounds within tissues or organisms. In this process, the subject is first exposed to a radioactive tracer that binds to specific molecules or structures of interest. The tissue is then placed in close contact with a radiation-sensitive film or detector, such as X-ray film or an imaging plate.

As the radioactive atoms decay, they emit particles (such as beta particles) that interact with the film or detector, causing chemical changes and leaving behind a visible image of the distribution of the labeled compound. The resulting autoradiogram provides information about the location, quantity, and sometimes even the identity of the molecules or structures that have taken up the radioactive tracer.

Autoradiography has been widely used in various fields of biology and medical research, including pharmacology, neuroscience, genetics, and cell biology, to study processes such as protein-DNA interactions, gene expression, drug metabolism, and neuronal connectivity. However, due to the use of radioactive materials and potential hazards associated with them, this technique has been gradually replaced by non-radioactive alternatives like fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or immunofluorescence techniques.

Reserpine is an alkaloid derived from the Rauwolfia serpentina plant, which has been used in traditional medicine for its sedative and hypotensive effects. In modern medicine, reserpine is primarily used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure) due to its ability to lower both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Reserpine works by depleting catecholamines, including norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, from nerve terminals in the sympathetic nervous system. This leads to a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance and heart rate, ultimately resulting in reduced blood pressure.

Reserpine is available in various forms, such as tablets or capsules, and is typically administered orally. Common side effects include nasal congestion, dizziness, sedation, and gastrointestinal disturbances like diarrhea and nausea. Long-term use of reserpine may also lead to depression in some individuals. Due to its potential for causing depression, other antihypertensive medications are often preferred over reserpine when possible.

Vasoconstriction is a medical term that refers to the narrowing of blood vessels due to the contraction of the smooth muscle in their walls. This process decreases the diameter of the lumen (the inner space of the blood vessel) and reduces blood flow through the affected vessels. Vasoconstriction can occur throughout the body, but it is most noticeable in the arterioles and precapillary sphincters, which control the amount of blood that flows into the capillary network.

The autonomic nervous system, specifically the sympathetic division, plays a significant role in regulating vasoconstriction through the release of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Various hormones and chemical mediators, such as angiotensin II, endothelin-1, and serotonin, can also induce vasoconstriction.

Vasoconstriction is a vital physiological response that helps maintain blood pressure and regulate blood flow distribution in the body. However, excessive or prolonged vasoconstriction may contribute to several pathological conditions, including hypertension, stroke, and peripheral vascular diseases.

2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Methylamphetamine (also known as DOM) is a psychoactive drug that belongs to the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is a synthetic compound that is not found naturally in any plant or animal sources.

DOM is a potent hallucinogen, with effects similar to those of LSD. It can cause profound changes in perception, thought, and mood, and may also cause physical symptoms such as increased heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. The effects of DOM can last up to 24 hours or more, and the drug is considered to have a high potential for abuse and psychological dependence.

It's important to note that the possession, sale, and use of DOM are illegal in many countries, including the United States, due to its potential for abuse and lack of accepted medical use. Therefore, it should only be used under the supervision of trained medical professionals in a controlled research setting.

Clorgyline is a type of medication known as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). It works by blocking the action of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase, which helps to break down certain chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters. This leads to an increase in the levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain, which can help to improve mood and alleviate symptoms of depression.

Clorgyline is not commonly used as a first-line treatment for depression due to its potential for serious side effects and interactions with certain foods and other medications. It may be used in some cases where other treatments have been unsuccessful, or in research settings to study the role of monoamine oxidase in various physiological processes.

It's important to note that MAOIs like clorgyline require careful monitoring by a healthcare provider and should only be used under close medical supervision due to the risk of serious side effects and interactions.

Bufotenin is a naturally occurring psychoactive compound that can be found in certain plants and animals, including some species of toads. Its chemical name is 5-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine (5-HO-DMT) and it is a type of tryptamine alkaloid.

Bufotenin has been used in various traditional medicinal and shamanic practices for its psychoactive effects, which can include altered states of consciousness, changes in perception, and feelings of euphoria or relaxation. However, it can also have adverse effects such as nausea, agitation, and increased heart rate.

In the medical field, bufotenin is sometimes studied for its potential therapeutic uses, such as in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and potential benefits and risks.

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem controls many vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory and motor information between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body. Additionally, several cranial nerves originate from the brainstem, including those that control eye movements, facial movements, and hearing.

Anxiety: A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome. In a medical context, anxiety refers to a mental health disorder characterized by feelings of excessive and persistent worry, fear, or panic that interfere with daily activities. It can also be a symptom of other medical conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, or substance abuse disorders. Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and phobias.

Dopamine uptake inhibitors are a class of medications that work by blocking the reuptake of dopamine, a neurotransmitter, into the presynaptic neuron. This results in an increased concentration of dopamine in the synapse, leading to enhanced dopaminergic transmission and activity.

These drugs are used in various medical conditions where dopamine is implicated, such as depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and neurological disorders like Parkinson's disease. They can also be used to treat substance abuse disorders, such as cocaine addiction, by blocking the reuptake of dopamine and reducing the rewarding effects of the drug.

Examples of dopamine uptake inhibitors include:

* Bupropion (Wellbutrin), which is used to treat depression and ADHD
* Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), which is used to treat ADHD
* Amantadine (Symmetrel), which is used to treat Parkinson's disease and also has antiviral properties.

It's important to note that dopamine uptake inhibitors can have side effects, including increased heart rate, blood pressure, and anxiety. They may also have the potential for abuse and dependence, particularly in individuals with a history of substance abuse. Therefore, these medications should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

"Spiro compounds" are not specifically classified as medical terms, but they are a concept in organic chemistry. However, I can provide a general definition:

Spiro compounds are a type of organic compound that contains two or more rings, which share a single common atom, known as the "spiro center." The name "spiro" comes from the Greek word for "spiral" or "coiled," reflecting the three-dimensional structure of these molecules.

The unique feature of spiro compounds is that they have at least one spiro atom, typically carbon, which is bonded to four other atoms, two of which belong to each ring. This arrangement creates a specific geometry where the rings are positioned at right angles to each other, giving spiro compounds distinctive structural and chemical properties.

While not directly related to medical terminology, understanding spiro compounds can be essential in medicinal chemistry and pharmaceutical research since these molecules often exhibit unique biological activities due to their intricate structures.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Dopamine receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor that bind to and respond to the neurotransmitter dopamine. There are five subtypes of dopamine receptors (D1-D5), which are classified into two families based on their structure and function: D1-like (D1 and D5) and D2-like (D2, D3, and D4).

Dopamine receptors play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including movement, motivation, reward, cognition, emotion, and neuroendocrine regulation. They are widely distributed throughout the central nervous system, with high concentrations found in the basal ganglia, limbic system, and cortex.

Dysfunction of dopamine receptors has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), drug addiction, and depression. Therefore, drugs targeting dopamine receptors have been developed for the treatment of these conditions.

Exploratory behavior refers to the actions taken by an individual to investigate and gather information about their environment. This type of behavior is often driven by curiosity and a desire to understand new or unfamiliar situations, objects, or concepts. In a medical context, exploratory behavior may refer to a patient's willingness to learn more about their health condition, try new treatments, or engage in self-care activities. It can also refer to the behaviors exhibited by young children as they explore their world and develop their cognitive and motor skills. Exploratory behavior is an important aspect of learning and development, and it can have a positive impact on overall health and well-being.

Oxadiazoles are heterocyclic compounds containing a five-membered ring consisting of two carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom, and two oxygen atoms in an alternating sequence. There are three possible isomers of oxadiazole, depending on the position of the nitrogen atom: 1,2,3-oxadiazole, 1,2,4-oxadiazole, and 1,3,4-oxadiazole. These compounds have significant interest in medicinal chemistry due to their diverse biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer properties. Some oxadiazoles also exhibit potential as contrast agents for medical imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).

Dioxanes are a group of chemical compounds that contain two oxygen atoms and four carbon atoms, linked together in a cyclic structure. The most common dioxane is called 1,4-dioxane, which is often used as a solvent or as a stabilizer in various industrial and consumer products, such as cosmetics, cleaning agents, and paint strippers.

In the medical field, 1,4-dioxane has been classified as a likely human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and as a possible human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Exposure to high levels of 1,4-dioxane has been linked to an increased risk of cancer in laboratory animals, and there is some evidence to suggest that it may also pose a cancer risk to humans.

It's worth noting that the use of 1,4-dioxane in cosmetics and other personal care products has been controversial, as some studies have found detectable levels of this chemical in these products. However, the levels of exposure from these sources are generally low, and it is unclear whether they pose a significant cancer risk to humans. Nonetheless, some organizations and experts have called for stricter regulations on the use of 1,4-dioxane in consumer products to minimize potential health risks.

The corpus striatum is a part of the brain that plays a crucial role in movement, learning, and cognition. It consists of two structures called the caudate nucleus and the putamen, which are surrounded by the external and internal segments of the globus pallidus. Together, these structures form the basal ganglia, a group of interconnected neurons that help regulate voluntary movement.

The corpus striatum receives input from various parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and other brainstem nuclei. It processes this information and sends output to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, which then project to the thalamus and back to the cerebral cortex. This feedback loop helps coordinate and fine-tune movements, allowing for smooth and coordinated actions.

Damage to the corpus striatum can result in movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and dystonia. These conditions are characterized by abnormal involuntary movements, muscle stiffness, and difficulty initiating or controlling voluntary movements.

"Competitive binding" is a term used in pharmacology and biochemistry to describe the behavior of two or more molecules (ligands) competing for the same binding site on a target protein or receptor. In this context, "binding" refers to the physical interaction between a ligand and its target.

When a ligand binds to a receptor, it can alter the receptor's function, either activating or inhibiting it. If multiple ligands compete for the same binding site, they will compete to bind to the receptor. The ability of each ligand to bind to the receptor is influenced by its affinity for the receptor, which is a measure of how strongly and specifically the ligand binds to the receptor.

In competitive binding, if one ligand is present in high concentrations, it can prevent other ligands with lower affinity from binding to the receptor. This is because the higher-affinity ligand will have a greater probability of occupying the binding site and blocking access to the other ligands. The competition between ligands can be described mathematically using equations such as the Langmuir isotherm, which describes the relationship between the concentration of ligand and the fraction of receptors that are occupied by the ligand.

Competitive binding is an important concept in drug development, as it can be used to predict how different drugs will interact with their targets and how they may affect each other's activity. By understanding the competitive binding properties of a drug, researchers can optimize its dosage and delivery to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing unwanted side effects.

Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland in the brain. It helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and is often referred to as the "hormone of darkness" because its production is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Melatonin plays a key role in synchronizing the circadian rhythm, the body's internal clock that regulates various biological processes over a 24-hour period.

Melatonin is primarily released at night, and its levels in the blood can rise and fall in response to changes in light and darkness in an individual's environment. Supplementing with melatonin has been found to be helpful in treating sleep disorders such as insomnia, jet lag, and delayed sleep phase syndrome. It may also have other benefits, including antioxidant properties and potential uses in the treatment of certain neurological conditions.

It is important to note that while melatonin supplements are available over-the-counter in many countries, they should still be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as their use can have potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

"Newborn animals" refers to the very young offspring of animals that have recently been born. In medical terminology, newborns are often referred to as "neonates," and they are classified as such from birth until about 28 days of age. During this time period, newborn animals are particularly vulnerable and require close monitoring and care to ensure their survival and healthy development.

The specific needs of newborn animals can vary widely depending on the species, but generally, they require warmth, nutrition, hydration, and protection from harm. In many cases, newborns are unable to regulate their own body temperature or feed themselves, so they rely heavily on their mothers for care and support.

In medical settings, newborn animals may be examined and treated by veterinarians to ensure that they are healthy and receiving the care they need. This can include providing medical interventions such as feeding tubes, antibiotics, or other treatments as needed to address any health issues that arise. Overall, the care and support of newborn animals is an important aspect of animal medicine and conservation efforts.

Electrophysiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the electrical activities of the body, particularly the heart. In a medical context, electrophysiology studies (EPS) are performed to assess abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) and to evaluate the effectiveness of certain treatments, such as medication or pacemakers.

During an EPS, electrode catheters are inserted into the heart through blood vessels in the groin or neck. These catheters can record the electrical activity of the heart and stimulate it to help identify the source of the arrhythmia. The information gathered during the study can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

In addition to cardiac electrophysiology, there are also other subspecialties within electrophysiology, such as neuromuscular electrophysiology, which deals with the electrical activity of the nervous system and muscles.

3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) is a psychoactive drug that belongs to the amphetamine class. It is also known as "ecstasy" or "molly." MDA acts as a stimulant, hallucinogen, and entactogen, which means it can produce feelings of increased energy, emotional warmth, and empathy.

MDA is illegal in many countries, including the United States, due to its potential for abuse and the risk of serious adverse effects. Some of the negative consequences associated with MDA use include nausea, vomiting, muscle tension, teeth grinding, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and hyperthermia (elevated body temperature). In high doses or when used in combination with other substances, MDA can cause seizures, coma, and even death.

It is important to note that the use of illegal drugs like MDA carries significant legal and health risks. If you are concerned about your own or someone else's drug use, it is recommended that you seek help from a qualified healthcare professional.

Benzylamines are a class of organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring attached to an amine group. The amine group (-NH2) can be primary, secondary, or tertiary, depending on the number of hydrogen atoms bonded to the nitrogen atom. Benzylamines are used in the synthesis of various pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and other organic compounds. They have a variety of biological activities and can act as central nervous system depressants, local anesthetics, and muscle relaxants. However, some benzylamines can also be toxic or carcinogenic, so they must be handled with care.

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, characterized by its intricate folded structure and wrinkled appearance. It is a region of great importance as it plays a key role in higher cognitive functions such as perception, consciousness, thought, memory, language, and attention. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, each containing four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. These areas are responsible for different functions, with some regions specializing in sensory processing while others are involved in motor control or associative functions. The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, which contains neuronal cell bodies, and is covered by a layer of white matter that consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers.

Synaptosomes are subcellular structures that can be isolated from the brain tissue. They are formed during the fractionation process of brain homogenates and consist of intact presynaptic terminals, including the synaptic vesicles, mitochondria, and cytoskeletal elements. Synaptosomes are often used in neuroscience research to study the biochemical properties and functions of neuronal synapses, such as neurotransmitter release, uptake, and metabolism.

Platelet aggregation is the clumping together of platelets (thrombocytes) in the blood, which is an essential step in the process of hemostasis (the stopping of bleeding) after injury to a blood vessel. When the inner lining of a blood vessel is damaged, exposure of subendothelial collagen and tissue factor triggers platelet activation. Activated platelets change shape, become sticky, and release the contents of their granules, which include ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

ADP then acts as a chemical mediator to attract and bind additional platelets to the site of injury, leading to platelet aggregation. This forms a plug that seals the damaged vessel and prevents further blood loss. Platelet aggregation is also a crucial component in the formation of blood clots (thrombosis) within blood vessels, which can have pathological consequences such as heart attacks and strokes if they obstruct blood flow to vital organs.

Arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the regulation of melatonin synthesis in the body. It catalyzes the acetylation of serotonin to produce N-acetylserotonin, which is then converted to melatonin by the enzyme acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase (ASMT).

Melatonin is a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and other physiological processes in the body. The activity of AANAT is influenced by light exposure, with higher levels of activity occurring in darkness and lower levels during light exposure. This allows melatonin production to be synchronized with the day-night cycle, contributing to the regulation of circadian rhythms.

Genetic variations in the AANAT gene have been associated with differences in sleep patterns, mood regulation, and other physiological processes. Dysregulation of AANAT activity has been implicated in various conditions, including insomnia, depression, and seasonal affective disorder.

Afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, are a type of nerve cell that conducts impulses or signals from peripheral receptors towards the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. These neurons are responsible for transmitting sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, sound, and light to the CNS for processing and interpretation. Afferent neurons have specialized receptor endings that detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the CNS via synapses with other neurons. Once the signals reach the CNS, they are processed and integrated with other information to produce a response or reaction to the stimulus.

A radioligand assay is a type of in vitro binding assay used in molecular biology and pharmacology to measure the affinity and quantity of a ligand (such as a drug or hormone) to its specific receptor. In this technique, a small amount of a radioactively labeled ligand, also known as a radioligand, is introduced to a sample containing the receptor of interest. The radioligand binds competitively with other unlabeled ligands present in the sample for the same binding site on the receptor. After allowing sufficient time for binding, the reaction is stopped, and the amount of bound radioligand is measured using a technique such as scintillation counting. The data obtained from this assay can be used to determine the dissociation constant (Kd) and maximum binding capacity (Bmax) of the receptor-ligand interaction, which are important parameters in understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs and other ligands.

Vomiting is defined in medical terms as the forceful expulsion of stomach contents through the mouth. It is a violent, involuntary act that is usually accompanied by strong contractions of the abdominal muscles and retching. The body's vomiting reflex is typically triggered when the brain receives signals from the digestive system that something is amiss.

There are many potential causes of vomiting, including gastrointestinal infections, food poisoning, motion sickness, pregnancy, alcohol consumption, and certain medications or medical conditions. In some cases, vomiting can be a symptom of a more serious underlying condition, such as a brain injury, concussion, or chemical imbalance in the body.

Vomiting is generally not considered a serious medical emergency on its own, but it can lead to dehydration and other complications if left untreated. If vomiting persists for an extended period of time, or if it is accompanied by other concerning symptoms such as severe abdominal pain, fever, or difficulty breathing, it is important to seek medical attention promptly.

Muscle contraction is the physiological process in which muscle fibers shorten and generate force, leading to movement or stability of a body part. This process involves the sliding filament theory where thick and thin filaments within the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscles) slide past each other, facilitated by the interaction between myosin heads and actin filaments. The energy required for this action is provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary, and they play a crucial role in various bodily functions such as locomotion, circulation, respiration, and posture maintenance.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Anti-anxiety agents, also known as anxiolytics, are a class of medications used to manage symptoms of anxiety disorders. These drugs work by reducing the abnormal excitement in the brain and promoting relaxation and calmness. They include several types of medications such as benzodiazepines, azapirone, antihistamines, and beta-blockers.

Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety agents. They work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which results in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. Examples of benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), and clonazepam (Klonopin).

Azapirones are a newer class of anti-anxiety agents that act on serotonin receptors in the brain. Buspirone (Buspar) is an example of this type of medication, which has fewer side effects and less potential for abuse compared to benzodiazepines.

Antihistamines are medications that are primarily used to treat allergies but can also have anti-anxiety effects due to their sedative properties. Examples include hydroxyzine (Vistaril, Atarax) and diphenhydramine (Benadryl).

Beta-blockers are mainly used to treat high blood pressure and heart conditions but can also help manage symptoms of anxiety such as rapid heartbeat, tremors, and sweating. Propranolol (Inderal) is an example of a beta-blocker used for this purpose.

It's important to note that anti-anxiety agents should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have side effects and potential for dependence or addiction. Additionally, these medications are often used in combination with psychotherapy and lifestyle modifications to manage anxiety disorders effectively.

An action potential is a brief electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a nerve cell (neuron) or muscle cell. It is initiated by a rapid, localized change in the permeability of the cell membrane to specific ions, such as sodium and potassium, resulting in a rapid influx of sodium ions and a subsequent efflux of potassium ions. This ion movement causes a brief reversal of the electrical potential across the membrane, which is known as depolarization. The action potential then propagates along the cell membrane as a wave, allowing the electrical signal to be transmitted over long distances within the body. Action potentials play a crucial role in the communication and functioning of the nervous system and muscle tissue.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic Acid (3,4-DOPAC) is a major metabolite of dopamine, which is a neurotransmitter in the brain. Dopamine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to form dihydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, which is then further metabolized to 3,4-DOPAC by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase.

3,4-DOPAC is found in the urine and can be used as a marker for dopamine turnover in the brain. Changes in the levels of 3,4-DOPAC have been associated with various neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Additionally, 3,4-DOPAC has been shown to have antioxidant properties and may play a role in protecting against oxidative stress in the brain.

Malignant carcinoid syndrome is a complex of symptoms that occur in some people with malignant tumors (carcinoids) that secrete large amounts of hormone-like substances, particularly serotonin. These symptoms can include flushing of the face and upper body, diarrhea, rapid heartbeat, difficulty breathing, and abdominal pain and distention. In addition, these individuals may have chronic inflammation of the heart valves (endocarditis) leading to heart failure. It is important to note that not all people with carcinoid tumors will develop malignant carcinoid syndrome, but those who do require specific treatment for their symptoms and hormonal imbalances.

Positron-Emission Tomography (PET) is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses small amounts of radioactive material, called a radiotracer, to produce detailed, three-dimensional images. This technique measures metabolic activity within the body, such as sugar metabolism, to help distinguish between healthy and diseased tissue, identify cancerous cells, or examine the function of organs.

During a PET scan, the patient is injected with a radiotracer, typically a sugar-based compound labeled with a positron-emitting radioisotope, such as fluorine-18 (^18^F). The radiotracer accumulates in cells that are metabolically active, like cancer cells. As the radiotracer decays, it emits positrons, which then collide with electrons in nearby tissue, producing gamma rays. A special camera, called a PET scanner, detects these gamma rays and uses this information to create detailed images of the body's internal structures and processes.

PET is often used in conjunction with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to provide both functional and anatomical information, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment planning. Common applications include detecting cancer recurrence, staging and monitoring cancer, evaluating heart function, and assessing brain function in conditions like dementia and epilepsy.

Locomotion, in a medical context, refers to the ability to move independently and change location. It involves the coordinated movement of the muscles, bones, and nervous system that enables an individual to move from one place to another. This can include walking, running, jumping, or using assistive devices such as wheelchairs or crutches. Locomotion is a fundamental aspect of human mobility and is often assessed in medical evaluations to determine overall health and functioning.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Patch-clamp techniques are a group of electrophysiological methods used to study ion channels and other electrical properties of cells. These techniques were developed by Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1991 for their work. The basic principle of patch-clamp techniques involves creating a high resistance seal between a glass micropipette and the cell membrane, allowing for the measurement of current flowing through individual ion channels or groups of channels.

There are several different configurations of patch-clamp techniques, including:

1. Cell-attached configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is attached to the outer surface of the cell membrane, and the current flowing across a single ion channel can be measured. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of individual channels in their native environment.
2. Whole-cell configuration: Here, the micropipette breaks through the cell membrane, creating a low resistance electrical connection between the pipette and the inside of the cell. This configuration allows for the measurement of the total current flowing across all ion channels in the cell membrane.
3. Inside-out configuration: In this configuration, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the inner surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in isolation from other cellular components.
4. Outside-out configuration: Here, the micropipette is pulled away from the cell after establishing a seal, resulting in the exposure of the outer surface of the cell membrane to the solution in the pipette. This configuration allows for the study of the properties of ion channels in their native environment, but with the ability to control the composition of the extracellular solution.

Patch-clamp techniques have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of ion channel function and have contributed to numerous breakthroughs in neuroscience, pharmacology, and physiology.

Appetite depressants are medications or substances that reduce or suppress feelings of hunger and appetite. They can be prescribed to treat various medical conditions, such as obesity or binge eating disorder, where weight loss is a recommended treatment goal. Some common appetite depressants include:

1. Phentermine: This medication works by stimulating the release of certain neurotransmitters in the brain that help suppress appetite and increase metabolism. It is often prescribed for short-term use (up to 12 weeks) as part of a comprehensive weight loss plan.

2. Diethylpropion: Similar to phentermine, diethylpropion stimulates the release of neurotransmitters that suppress appetite and increase metabolism. It is also prescribed for short-term use in treating obesity.

3. Naltrexone-bupropion (Contrave): This combination medication helps manage weight by reducing appetite and increasing feelings of fullness. Naltrexone is an opioid antagonist that blocks the rewarding effects of food, while bupropion is an antidepressant that can help reduce cravings for high-calorie foods.

4. Lorcaserin (Belviq): This medication works by selectively activating serotonin receptors in the brain, which helps promote satiety and reduce appetite. It was withdrawn from the US market in 2020 due to concerns about its potential link to an increased risk of cancer.

5. Topiramate (Topamax): Although primarily used as an anticonvulsant, topiramate has also been found to have appetite-suppressing effects. It is often combined with phentermine in a single formulation (Qsymia) for the treatment of obesity.

6. Cannabis: Some studies suggest that cannabinoids, the active compounds in marijuana, may help reduce hunger and promote weight loss by interacting with the endocannabinoid system in the body. However, more research is needed to fully understand its potential as an appetite depressant.

It's important to note that appetite suppressants should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional and as part of a comprehensive weight management plan. These medications can have side effects and potential risks, so it's crucial to discuss their use with your doctor before starting any new treatment regimen.

Membrane potential is the electrical potential difference across a cell membrane, typically for excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells. It is the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell, created by the selective permeability of the cell membrane to different ions. The resting membrane potential of a typical animal cell is around -70 mV, with the interior being negative relative to the exterior. This potential is generated and maintained by the active transport of ions across the membrane, primarily through the action of the sodium-potassium pump. Membrane potentials play a crucial role in many physiological processes, including the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle cells.

Psychological stress is the response of an individual's mind and body to challenging or demanding situations. It can be defined as a state of emotional and physical tension resulting from adversity, demand, or change. This response can involve a variety of symptoms, including emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physiological components.

Emotional responses may include feelings of anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or frustration. Cognitive responses might involve difficulty concentrating, racing thoughts, or negative thinking patterns. Behaviorally, psychological stress can lead to changes in appetite, sleep patterns, social interactions, and substance use. Physiologically, the body's "fight-or-flight" response is activated, leading to increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and other symptoms.

Psychological stress can be caused by a wide range of factors, including work or school demands, financial problems, relationship issues, traumatic events, chronic illness, and major life changes. It's important to note that what causes stress in one person may not cause stress in another, as individual perceptions and coping mechanisms play a significant role.

Chronic psychological stress can have negative effects on both mental and physical health, increasing the risk of conditions such as anxiety disorders, depression, heart disease, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, it's essential to identify sources of stress and develop effective coping strategies to manage and reduce its impact.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Pindolol is a non-selective beta blocker that is used in the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) and certain types of arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms). It works by blocking the action of certain hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline on the heart, which helps to reduce the heart rate, contractility, and conduction velocity, leading to a decrease in blood pressure.

Pindolol is also a partial agonist at beta-2 receptors, which means that it can stimulate these receptors to some extent, reducing the likelihood of bronchospasm (a side effect seen with other non-selective beta blockers). However, pindolol may still cause bronchospasm in patients with a history of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), so it should be used with caution in these populations.

Pindolol is available in immediate-release and extended-release formulations, and the dosage is typically individualized based on the patient's response to therapy. Common side effects of pindolol include dizziness, fatigue, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and diarrhea.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are intrusive, unwanted, and often distressing. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rigid rules, and which are aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or situation. These obsessions and/or compulsions cause significant distress, take up a lot of time (an hour or more a day), and interfere with the individual's daily life, including social activities, relationships, and work or school performance. OCD is considered a type of anxiety disorder and can also co-occur with other mental health conditions.

The binding profiles of various TeCAs in terms of their affinities (Ki, nM) for various receptors and transporters are as ... With the exception of amoxapine, TeCAs do not inhibit the reuptake of serotonin[citation needed]. However, aside from ... Besides mirtazapine, they also block the ฮฑ1-adrenergic receptor[citation needed]. Conversely, whereas TCAs have relatively low ... affinity for the ฮฑ2-adrenergic receptor, mianserin and mirtazapine potently antagonize this receptor, and this action is ...
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"Serotonin (5-HT2) receptor mediated enhancement of cortical unit activity". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 70 ... Cinanserin (INN) is a 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist which was discovered in the 1960s. The molecule is an inhibitor of ... 5-HT2A antagonists, 5-HT2C antagonists, Thioethers, Anilides, Abandoned drugs, All stub articles, Nervous system drug stubs). ...
Feng J, Cai X, Zhao J, Yan Z (September 2001). "Serotonin receptors modulate GABA(A) receptor channels through activation of ... July 2014). "Serotonin 2A receptor agonist binding in the human brain with [ยนยนC]Cimbi-36". Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and ... This is the main excitatory receptor subtype among the GPCRs for serotonin, although 5-HT2A may also have an inhibitory effect ... Nefazodone operates by blocking post-synaptic serotonin type-2A receptors and to a lesser extent by inhibiting pre-synaptic ...
... interacts with serotonin, adrenergic, and dopamine receptors. It is an agonist of serotonin receptors including the ... Pytliak M, Vargovรก V, Mechรญrovรก V, Felลกรถci M (2011). "Serotonin receptors - from molecular biology to clinical applications". ... May 2014). "Quantitative phosphoproteomics unravels biased phosphorylation of serotonin 2A receptor at Ser280 by hallucinogenic ... Ergotamine is an agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2B receptor and has been associated with cardiac valvulopathy. Despite acting as ...
Of the serotonin receptors, it is an especially potent antagonist of the 5-HT2 receptors. This is thought to underlie its ... such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (and monoamine oxidase inhibitors), and in cases of high levels of serotonin in ... It is also used off-label in the management of moderate to severe cases of serotonin syndrome, a complex of symptoms associated ... Kapur S, Zipursky RB, Jones C, Wilson AA, DaSilva JD, Houle S (June 1997). "Cyproheptadine: a potent in vivo serotonin ...
ISBN 978-0-9630096-0-9. Glennon RA, Young R, Benington F, Morin RD (October 1982). "Behavioral and serotonin receptor ... Johnson MP; Hoffman AJ; Nichols DE; Mathis CA (December 1987). "Binding to the serotonin 5-HT2 receptor by the enantiomers of ... a potent serotonin 5-HT2A/2C agonist". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 37 (25): 4346-4351. doi:10.1021/jm00051a011. PMID ... 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-fluoroamphetamine (DOF) is a psychedelic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine classes. Alexander Shulgin ...
In addition to acting as an inverse agonist at the H1 receptor, chlorphenamine has been found to act as a serotonin reuptake ... H1 receptor antagonists, Local anesthetics, Muscarinic antagonists, 2-Pyridyl compounds, Serotonin reuptake inhibitors, Sigma ... a preferred ligand for in vitro and in vivo characterization of serotonin receptors". Journal of Neurochemistry. 48 (1): 115- ... has been reported to possess Kd values of 15 nM for the H1 receptor and 1,300 nM for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in ...
To be precise, SMSs simultaneously modulate one or more serotonin receptors and inhibit the reuptake of serotonin. The term was ... Almost any medication involved with serotonin regulation has the potential to cause serotonin toxicity (also known as serotonin ... namely serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or dopamine. However, serotonin in particular has been implicated, as in the serotonin ... They act by antagonizing serotonin receptors such as 5-HT2A and inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and/or ...
Serotonin receptor agonists, Benzofuran ethers at the benzene ring, All stub articles, Nervous system drug stubs). ... It is several times less potent as a serotonin agonist than 5-MeO-DMT and with relatively more activity at 5-HT1A, but still ... Dimemebfe (5-MeO-BFE) is a recreational drug and research chemical. It acts as an agonist for the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 family of ... serotonin receptors. It is related in structure to the psychedelic tryptamine derivative 5-MeO-DMT, but with the indole ...
I. Muscarinic M3 receptor binding affinity could predict the risk of antipsychotics to induce type 2 diabetes". Methods Find ... Wander TJ, Nelson A, Okazaki H, Richelson E (1987). "Antagonism by neuroleptics of serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT2 receptors of ... von Coburg Y, Kottke T, Weizel L, Ligneau X, Stark H (2009). "Potential utility of histamine H3 receptor antagonist ... Bylund DB, Snyder SH (1976). "Beta adrenergic receptor binding in membrane preparations from mammalian brain". Mol. Pharmacol. ...
... but may involve increased activation of certain serotonin receptors and the ฯƒ1 receptor. Fenfluramine was developed in the ... One mechanism used to explain this phenomenon involves heart valve serotonin receptors, which are thought to help regulate ... Since fenfluramine and its active metabolite norfenfluramine stimulate serotonin receptors, this may have led to the valvular ... Fenfluramine acts as a serotonin releasing agent, agonist of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors, and ฯƒ1 receptor positive modulator ...
Serotonin receptor agonists, Psychedelic drugs, Diisopropylamino compounds, Benzofuran ethers at the benzene ring, All stub ... It is several times less potent as a serotonin agonist than 5-MeO-DiPT and with relatively more activity at 5-HT1A, but still ... 5-MeO-DiBF is not controlled under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so thus it has a legal grey area in many ... 5-MeO-DiBF is a psychedelic that has been sold online as a designer drug and was first definitively identified in December 2015 ...
... a potential ligand for in-vivo imaging of cortical serotonin receptors". International Journal of Radiation Applications and ... "Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptors in Schizophrenia: A PET Study Using [18F]Setoperone in Neuroleptic-Naive Patients and Normal Subjects ... Receptor modulators, Thiazolopyrimidines, All stub articles, Nervous system drug stubs). ... Setoperone is a compound that is a ligand to the 5-HT2A receptor. It can be radiolabeled with the radioisotope fluorine-18 and ...
... and efficacious ocular hypotensive serotonin-2 receptor agonist". Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 23 (1): 1-13 ... "Serotonin-2 (5-HT2) receptor-mediated signal transduction in human ciliary muscle cells: role in ocular hypotension". Journal ... as centrally acting agonists for this receptor tend to be hallucinogenic and thus their medical usefulness is currently limited ... Peripherally acting 5-HT2A agonists have been a rich field of research in recent years, with potential glaucoma treatments ...
... serotonin 2A receptor agonists). LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, and PCP are drugs that cause hallucinations, which can alter a ... Certain hallucinogens, such as PCP, act through a glutamate receptor in the brain which is important for perception of pain, ... It is distributed throughout the brain and spinal cord, where the serotonin system is involved with controlling of the ... Farber NB, Kim SH, Dikranian K, Jiang XP, Heinkel C (2002). "Receptor mechanisms and circuitry underlying NMDA antagonist ...
Lin Z, Walther D, Yu XY, Drgon T, Uhl GR (Dec 2004). "The human serotonin receptor 2B: coding region polymorphisms and ... Neugebauer, Volker (2020), "Serotonin-pain modulation", Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin, Handbook of ... also known as serotonin receptor 2B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HTR2B gene. 5-HT2B is a member of the 5-HT2 ... serotonin) receptor 2B". Schmuck K, Ullmer C, Engels P, Lรผbbert H (Mar 1994). "Cloning and functional characterization of the ...
It is the only serotonin receptor as well as the only member of the large family of 7 transmembrane receptors (7TMRs) known to ... June 2007). "Serotonin activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis via serotonin 2C receptor stimulation". The Journal of ... Activation of this receptor by serotonin inhibits dopamine and norepinephrine release in certain areas of the brain. 5-HT2C ... Dysregulation Serotonin family of receptors are often linked to pathology of several human mental conditions such as ...
The 7 general serotonin receptor classes include a total of 14 known serotonin receptors. The 15th receptor 5-HT1P has been ... The serotonin receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin, which acts as their natural ligand. The serotonin ... The genes coding for serotonin receptors are expressed across the mammalian brain. Genes coding for different receptors types ... Smriga M, Torii K (December 2003). "L-Lysine acts like a partial serotonin receptor 4 antagonist and inhibits serotonin- ...
... flumazenil for GABAA receptors. (+)PHNO for D2 dopamine receptors. [11C]raclopride for D2 dopamine receptors. Binding potential ... 2007). "Reduced availability of serotonin transporters in obsessive-compulsive disorder correlates with symptom severity - a [ ... Radioligands are used for diagnosis or for research-oriented study of the receptor systems of the body, and for anti-cancer ... It binds to its receptor. When the radioactive isotope in the ligand decays it can be measured by positron emission tomography ...
It has negligible affinity for the serotonin transporter, dopamine transporter, ฮฑ2-adrenergic receptor, and muscarinic ... or serotonin receptors, or any of the monoamine transporters. Oxaprotiline is a racemic compound composed of two isomers, R ... or D2 receptors like its relative maprotiline is unclear. Levoprotiline acts as a selective H1 receptor antagonist, with no ... Dextroprotiline acts as a potent norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and H1 receptor antagonist, as well as a very weak ฮฑ1- ...
D1-receptor agonists, D2-receptor agonists, D3 receptor agonists, D4 receptor agonists, D5 receptor agonists, Erectile ... Agonist and antagonist properties at serotonin, 5-HT1 and 5-HT2, receptor subtypes". The Journal of Pharmacology and ... The members of the D2 subfamily, consisting of D2, D3, and D4 receptors, are inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors. The D4 ... Apomorphine does not work in cats, who have too few dopamine receptors. Millan MJ, Maiofiss L, Cussac D, Audinot V, Boutin JA, ...
Berend Olivier (10 July 1997). Serotonin Receptors and Their Ligands. Elsevier. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-444-82041-9. Retrieved 6 May ... Sramek JJ, Robinson RE, Suri A, Cutler NR (February 1995). "Efficacy trial of the 5-HT2 antagonist MDL 11,939 in patients with ... The first truly selective 5-HT2A ligand to be discovered, glemanserin resulted in the development of the widely used and even ... Glemanserin (INN) (developmental code name MDL-11,939) is a drug which acts as a potent and selective 5-HT2A receptor ...
Serotonin receptor agonists, Tryptamines, Heterocyclic compounds with 3 rings, All stub articles, Nervous system drug stubs). ... a rotationally restricted phenolic analog of the neurotransmitter serotonin and agonist selective for serotonin (5-HT2-type) ... receptors". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 35 (20): 3625-32. doi:10.1021/jm00098a005. PMID 1433172. May JA, Chen HH, Rusinko A ... AL-37350A AL-38022A 1-Methylpsilocin 4,5-DHP-DMT Macor JE, Fox CB, Johnson C, Koe BK, Lebel LA, Zorn SH (Oct 1992). "1-(2- ...
They act as serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents (SNDRAs) and also agonize serotonin receptors such as those in ... Many tryptamines, such as DMT, DET, DPT, DiPT, psilocin, and bufotenin, are SRAs as well as non-selective serotonin receptor ... ฮฑET and ฮฑMT, also tryptamines, are SNDRAs and non-selective serotonin receptor agonists that were originally thought to be ... A serotonin releasing agent (SRA) is a type of drug that induces the release of serotonin into the neuronal synaptic cleft. A ...
January 1988). "Preclinical pharmacology of a new serotonergic receptor antagonist, LY281067". The Journal of Pharmacology and ... is an ergoline derivative which acts as a selective antagonist of the serotonin 5-HT2 receptors. It has been used for various ... synergistic interaction between serotonin and low density lipoproteins". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 34 (5 ... Cohen ML, Parli CJ, Fuller RW (December 1989). "5-Hydroxytryptamine2 receptor antagonist activity of the acid metabolite (1- ...
Similar compounds such as fenfluramine, norfenfluramine and 4-MTA act as selective serotonin releasing agents and 5-HT2 ... receptor agonists. Fenfluramine in particular causes very similar side effects and appetite suppression at therapeutically ... 5). Giudicelli JF, Richer C, Berdeaux A (February 1976). "Preliminary assessment of flutiorex, a new anorectic drug, in man". ... 176242-84-5] (3). With the aid of iron catalyst in concentrated HCl acid there occurred FGI into 1-(3'- ...
Jensen N (2004). Tryptamines as Ligands and Modulators of the Serotonin 5-HT2A Receptor and the Isolation of Aeruginascin from ... 5-MeO-NBpBrT (5-Methoxy-N-(4-bromobenzyl)tryptamine) is a N-substituted member of the methoxytryptamine family of compounds. ... Like other such compounds it acts as an antagonist for the 5-HT2A receptor, with a claimed 100x selectivity over the closely ... While N-benzyl substitution of psychedelic phenethylamines often results in potent 5-HT2A agonists, it had been thought that N- ...
Hansen M (2011). Design and Synthesis of Selective Serotonin Receptor Agonists for Positron Emission Tomography Imaging of the ... They act as selective agonists of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. The 25-NB family is unique relative to other classes of ... Rickli A, Luethi D, Reinisch J, Buchy D, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (December 2015). "Receptor interaction profiles of novel N-2- ... Anna R, Dino L, Julia R, Daniele B, Marius H, Matthias L (December 2015). "Receptor interaction profiles of novel N-2- ...
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Substituted Amphetamines Seggel MR, Yousif MY, Lyon RA, Titeler M, Roth BL, Suba EA, Glennon RA (March 1990). " ... 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-butylamphetamine (DOBU) is a lesser-known psychedelic drug and a substituted Amphetamine. DOBU was first ... suggesting it has low efficacy and is thus an antagonist or weak partial agonist at the 5-HT2A receptor. Alternative isomers of ... 2-aminopropane at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 33 (3): 1032-6. doi:10.1021/jm00165a023. PMID ...
The human platelet 5-HT2 receptor may resemble a peripheral model of central 5-HT2 binding sites and has been linked to changes ... Therefore, evaluation of the human platelet 5-HT2 binding characteristics is important. Comparing [3H]ketanserin and [3H]LSD as ... Although mean receptor densities and affinities have been relatively constant between individuals and over time in healthy ... Receptors, Serotonin / metabolism* Substances * Blood Proteins * Ligands * Receptors, Serotonin * Lysergic Acid Diethylamide ...
The binding profiles of various TeCAs in terms of their affinities (Ki, nM) for various receptors and transporters are as ... With the exception of amoxapine, TeCAs do not inhibit the reuptake of serotonin[citation needed]. However, aside from ... Besides mirtazapine, they also block the ฮฑ1-adrenergic receptor[citation needed]. Conversely, whereas TCAs have relatively low ... affinity for the ฮฑ2-adrenergic receptor, mianserin and mirtazapine potently antagonize this receptor, and this action is ...
It also blocks serotonin receptors 5HT2 and 5HT3. Common side effects include sedation, weight gain, and dry mouth. ... It also modulates serotonin receptor activity through 5-HT1A receptor agonism and 5-HT3 receptor antagonism, although the ... Variation in the gene encoding the serotonin 2A receptor is associated with outcome of antidepressant treatment. Am J Hum Genet ... Serotonin-Dopamine Activity Modulators. Class Summary. Serotonin-dopamine activity modulators (SDAMs) act as a partial agonist ...
It also blocks serotonin receptors 5HT2 and 5HT3. Common side effects include sedation, weight gain, and dry mouth. ... It also modulates serotonin receptor activity through 5-HT1A receptor agonism and 5-HT3 receptor antagonism, although the ... Variation in the gene encoding the serotonin 2A receptor is associated with outcome of antidepressant treatment. Am J Hum Genet ... Serotonin-Dopamine Activity Modulators. Class Summary. Serotonin-dopamine activity modulators (SDAMs) act as a partial agonist ...
Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor activation prevents allergic asthma in a mouse model. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular ...
Vascular serotonin receptors. Correlation with 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 binding sites. Biochem Pharmacol 33:2349-2353. 6380502. . ... 1984; Peroutka 1984). In contrast to these receptor agonists, a high concentration of K+ bypasses receptor-signaling pathways ... A) Phenylephrine (3 x 10โˆ’8 M). (B) Serotonin (10โˆ’6 M). See "Materials and Methods" for details. Values shown are mean ยฑ SE of ... Phenylephrine and serotonin act on the ฮฑ1-adrenoceptor and the 5-HT2 serotonin receptor, respectively, on aortic smooth muscle ...
... in DRD2 and 5-HT2 receptor genes are associated with schizophrenia in North Indian population. Four hundred forty-three ... Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2 / genetics* Actions. * Search in PubMed * Search in MeSH ... Genetic polymorphisms in the dopamine-2 receptor (DRD2), dopamine-3 receptor (DRD3), and dopamine transporter (SLC6A3) genes in ... Gurjit Kaur 1 , Bir Singh Chavan 2 , Deepti Gupta 3 , Vikas Sinhmar 3 , Rajendra Prasad 4 , Adarsh Tripathi 5 , P D Garg 6 , ...
Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A/metabolism; Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2/metabolism ... Abstract: In the developing brain, serotonin (5HT) systems are among the most sensitive to disruption by organophosphates.We ... In contrast, parathion decreased 5HT1A receptors, again at doses below those required for effects on cholinesterase. The two ... and 0.1 mg/kg for parathion.Diazinon evoked up-regulation of 5HT1A and 5HT2 receptor expression even at doses devoid of effects ...
Serotonin Receptor Agonists. Serotonin Agents. Serotonin 5-HT2 Receptor Antagonists. Serotonin Antagonists. Dopamine D2 ... The global clinical evaluation is made on a 6-point scale, with 0 representing absence of symptoms and a score of 5 ... The assessment included yes or no responses for 5 questions, each related to suicidal ideation (wish to be dead, non- ... Facial and oral movements (items 1 through 4), extremity movements (items 5 and 6), and trunk movements (item 7), dyskinesias ( ...
The effects of serotonin are mediated by fourteen GPCRs. Both the the โ€ฆ ... receptors mediate a plethora of physiological phenomena in the brain and the periphery. Additionally, serotonergic dysfunction ... Impact of specific serotonin receptor modulation on behavioral flexibility. Alvarez BD, Morales CA, Amodeo DA. Alvarez BD, et ... Lorcaserin and pimavanserin: emerging selectivity of serotonin receptor subtype-targeted drugs Herbert Y Meltzer et al. J Clin ...
Linking these pathways to the antagonising effect of clozapine on dopamine and serotonin receptors, we provide insight into how ... Using receptor selective agonists and antagonists, 5HT1A receptors were found to mediate increases, and 5HT2 receptors ... Experimental antidepressant principles, including cannabinoid receptor-2 activation, opioid ฮผ receptor agonists, 5HT2 agonists ... is a process that takes place in macrophages and microglia when a toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligand binds to the TLR4 receptor ...
... including muscarinic cholinergic receptors and alpha 2-adrenergic receptors, for which these compounds exhibit relatively high ... through their actions at other serotonin recognition sites in brain, including serotonin uptake sites and 5-HT1A serotonin ... Ring-substituted psychoactive derivatives of amphetamine exhibited high affinities for a number of serotonin recognition sites ... The methylenedioxy amphetamine derivatives exhibited an inverse stereospecificity with respect to serotonin uptake sites versus ...
Indirect serotonin agonists, however, increase locomotor activity and decrease investigation of discrete stimuli in the ... Both behavioral analyses and studies with synthesis inhibitors and receptor antagonists clearly distinguish the MDMA-induced ... Recent findings, however, indicate that the release of presynaptic serotonin by indirect agonists leads to a profound locomotor ... The fact that the predominant effect of serotonin releasers is locomotor activation, apparently mediated via post-synaptic 5- ...
Serotonin mechanisms in heart valve disease II: the 5-HT2 receptor and its signaling pathway in aortic valve interstitial cells ... Hepatitis B virus polymerase inhibits RIG-I- and Toll-like receptor 3-mediated beta interferon induction in human hepatocytes ... Activity of serotonin (5-HT) receptor agonists, partial agonists and antagonists at cloned human 5-HT1A receptors that are ... Hepatitis B virus downregulates vitamin D receptor levels in hepatoma cell lines, thereby preventing vitamin D-dependent ...
Article Title: Interactions of [3H]LSD with serotonin receptors in human brain. Article Source: Eur J Pharmacol 1982 Aug 13;82( ... Article Title: Doxepin as a blocker of central serotonin receptors. Article Source: Pharmakopsychiatr Neuropsychopharmakol 1977 ... In the flexor reflex preparation, DX acted like other sero-tonin receptor blockers: By itself, it had no influence on the ... These altered responses to LSD most likely involve differential changes in central serotonin and dopamine receptor systems and ...
The G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute a large and ancient superfamily of integral cell membrane proteins that play ... 1996); octopamine receptors: Ocr (Arakawa et al. 1990; Saudou et al. 1990) and Oamb (Han et al. 1998); serotonin receptors: 5- ... 1996); octopamine receptors: Ocr (Arakawa et al. 1990; Saudou et al. 1990) and Oamb (Han et al. 1998); serotonin receptors: 5- ... Rhodopsin-like Receptor Family. The rhodopsin-like family encompasses receptors for a large variety of stimuli, such as ...
In relation to this, serotonin was found to reduce electric coupling through protein kinase C, via IP3/Ca2+ [43], and probable ... B. Rรถrig and B. Sutor, "Serotonin regulates gap junction coupling in the developing rat somatosensory cortex," European Journal ... K. Pardo-Peรฑa, L. Medina-Ceja, and A. Morales-Villagrรกn, "Serotonin modulates fast ripple activity in rats with spontaneous ... T. M. Szabo, J. S. Caplan, and M. J. Zoran, "Serotonin regulates electrical coupling via modulation of extrajunctional ...
Affinity DataIC50: 4nMAssay Description:Modulator activity at 5-HT2A receptor (unknown origin)More data for this Ligand-Target ... Affinity DataIC50: 4nMAssay Description:Modulator activity at 5-HT2A receptor (unknown origin)More data for this Ligand-Target ... hit(s) with Target = 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A and Ligand = BDBM269506 Target5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A(Homo ... Affinity DataIC50: 4nMpH: 7.4 T: 2ยฐCAssay Description:Radioligand binding assays for human 5-HT2A serotonin receptor were ...
1] โ— Medications like SSRIs, which allow for increased free serotonin, can interfere with both arousal and orgasm. Serotonin ... receptor polymorphisms which impacts all phases of the sexual response cycle (desire, excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution ... The excess serotonin can also interfere with arousal by negatively impacting sensation and inhibiting synthesis of nitric oxide ... selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and mood stabilizers often contribute further to the physiological inability ...
... the observation that both hallucinogens and N-methyl-oaspartate NMDA antagonists disrupt sensory gating in rats by acting on 5- ... hydroxytryptamine serotonin 5-HT2 receptors located in cortico-striato-thalamic circuitry these findings suggest that ...
They show a lower dopamine D2 receptor affinity and a more diverse receptor affinity profile focusing on the serotonin receptor ... Combinations of serotonin receptor agonists for treatment of movement disorders RU2563167C2 (en) 2015-09-20. Application of ... on receptors carrying the alpha. 2 and alpha. 4 subunit of the GABA receptor regardless of whether they bind to this receptor ... Ziprasidone (CP-88,059): A new antipsychotic with combined dopamine and serotonin receptor antagonist activity. J Pharmacol Exp ...
alpha adrenergic receptor. *. ? muscarinic cholinergic receptor. *. ? H1 histaminic receptor. *. ? serotonin -- 5-HT2 receptor ... Blockade of this receptor system most likely associated with akisthisia side effect of antipsychotic treatment:. *. ? ... Toxic-confusion states due to antipsychotic medication associated with effects on this receptor system ... Site(s) of chlorpromazine (Thorazine) receptor blockade:. *. ? ...
Monte has designed and synthesized several potent and selective drug molecules used to map the structural features of serotonin ... "Substituted Hexahydrobenzodipyrans as Serotonin 5-HT2A/2C Receptor Probes." Bioorg. Med. Chem., 2002, 10, 3301-3306.. Monte, ... Chem Res., 1995, 5, 651-663.. Monte, A. P.; Marona-Lewicka, D.; Kanthasamy, A.; Sanders-Bush, E.; Nichols, D. E. " ... 3. Models of 4-Substituted (2,5-Dimethoxyphenyl) alkylamine Derivatives with Rigidified Methoxy Groups." J. Med. Chem., 1996, ...
Serotonin Syndrome:. The development of a potentially life-threatening serotonin syndrome has been reported with SNRIs and ... receptors; antagonism of muscarinic, histaminergic, and alpha1-adrenergic receptors has been associated with various ... It should be noted that, in some cases, the clinical picture is consistent with serotonin syndrome (see WARNINGS: Serotonin ... Serotonin release by platelets plays an important role in hemostasis. Epidemiological studies of the case-control and cohort ...
Receptors, Serotonin S2 Receptors, Serotonin-2 S2 Receptors, Serotonin Serotonin 2 Receptors Serotonin 5 HT2 Receptors ... Receptors, Serotonin S2. Receptors, Serotonin-2. S2 Receptors, Serotonin. Serotonin 2 Receptors. Serotonin 5 HT2 Receptors. ... Serotonin S2 Receptors. Serotonin-2 Receptors. Tree number(s):. D12.776.543.750.670.800.200. D12.776.543.750.695.800.200. ... Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2 - Preferred Concept UI. M0018621. Scope note. A subclass of G-protein coupled SEROTONIN receptors ...
Serotonin S2 Receptors Serotonin-2 Receptors Registry Number. 0. Previous Indexing. Receptors, Serotonin (1983-2003). Public ... Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled [D12.776.543.750.695] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.695.800] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5- ... Receptors, Biogenic Amine [D12.776.543.750.670] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.670.800] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT1 ... Receptors, Neurotransmitter [D12.776.543.750.720] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.720.850] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5- ...
Serotonin S2 Receptors Serotonin-2 Receptors Registry Number. 0. Previous Indexing. Receptors, Serotonin (1983-2003). Public ... Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled [D12.776.543.750.695] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.695.800] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5- ... Receptors, Biogenic Amine [D12.776.543.750.670] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.670.800] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT1 ... Receptors, Neurotransmitter [D12.776.543.750.720] * Receptors, Serotonin [D12.776.543.750.720.850] * Receptors, Serotonin, 5- ...
Selective serotonin receptor agonists (eg, sumatriptan) can abort migraines. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) ... In the other family, termed metabotropic receptors (eg, serotonin, alpha- and beta-adrenergic, and dopaminergic receptors), ... 27 splice variants of the mu opioid receptor). Also, two receptors can combine (dimerize) to form a new receptor. ... Serotonin Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is generated by the raphe nucleus and midline neurons of the pons and upper ...
Serotonin Syndrome. The development of a potentially life-threatening serotonin syndrome has been reported with SNRIs and SSRIs ... receptors; antagonism of muscarinic, histaminergic, and alpha1-adrenergic receptors has been associated with various ... It should be noted that, in some cases, the clinical picture is consistent with serotonin syndrome (see WARNINGS, Serotonin ... Serotonin release by platelets plays an important role in hemostasis. Epidemiological studies of the case-control and cohort ...
  • A series of interaction studies using the serotonin (5-HT)(1A) antagonist WAY-100635 (1.0 mg/kg), the 5-HT(2A) antagonist M100907 (1.0 mg/kg), and the 5-HT(2C) antagonist SER-082 (0.5 mg/kg) were performed to assess the respective contributions of these receptors to the behavioral effects of 5-MeO-DMT (0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mg/kg) in the BPM and PPI paradigms. (nih.gov)
  • The highly selective 5-HT2 receptor antagonist, MDL 100,907, was used to explore the role of serotonin in the stimulation of dopaminergic function produced by the amphetamine analogue 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). (erowid.org)
  • There is growing interest in N-desmethylclozapine (NDMC), the major metabolite of clozapine, as a unique antipsychotic because it acts in vitro as a 5-HT(2) antagonist and as a partial agonist to dopamine D(2) and muscarinic receptors. (nih.gov)
  • Daily injections of 5-HT 2 receptor antagonists, mianserin or ritanserin, or a 5-HT 3 receptor antagonist, Y25130, at 1700 h for 6 consecutive days significantly and dose-dependently attenuated the impairment of mealtime-associated activity on the fasting day in old rats without affecting the food intake. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We hypothesized that the selective 5-HT 2A R antagonist M100907 would reduce inherent levels of impulsivity and attenuate impulsive responding induced by cocaine in two animal models of impulsivity, the differential reinforcement of low rate (DRL) task and the one-choice serial reaction time (1-CSRT) task. (utmb.edu)
  • In order to address this question the distribution and regulation of the 125I-DOI labelled receptors will be determined and compared with the distribution and regulation of 3H-ketanserin (an antagonist) labelled 5-HT2 receptors in multiple brain regions. (grantome.com)
  • d) In order to investigate the role of the brain 5HT1A receptor systems in the actions of antidepressants and novel anxiolytics the affects of these drugs on 3H-BMY 7378 (the first 5HT1A receptor antagonist radioligand), and on the associated 5HT1A receptor-mediated inhibition of adenylate cyclase activity will be monitored. (grantome.com)
  • The 5-HT3 receptor antagonist vortioxetine (Brintellix) treats depression by affecting the activity of brain chemicals. (healthline.com)
  • It also blocks both 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 serotonin receptors and is a potent HISTAMINE H1 RECEPTOR antagonist. (nih.gov)
  • Counted among the SARI (serotonin reuptake inhibitor and antagonist), shows antagonism to serotonergic receptors (5-HT2 receptors), while an inhibitor of serotonin reuptake. (weleveluptx.com)
  • Chenu F, Guiard BP, Bourin M, Gardier AM. Antidepressant-like activity of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors combined with a NK1 receptor antagonist in the mouse forced swimming test. (ijbcp.com)
  • Skelbenz Cyclobenzaprine binds to the serotonin receptor and is considered a 5-HT2 receptor antagonist that reduces muscle tone by decreasing the activity of descending serotonergic neurons. (shreemedicalexports.com)
  • The binding profiles of various TeCAs in terms of their affinities (Ki, nM) for various receptors and transporters are as follows: The TeCAs act as antagonists or inverse agonists of the receptors and as inhibitors of the transporters. (wikipedia.org)
  • In the present study, we examined attenuating effect of serotonin (5-HT) receptor antagonists on the impairment of the time perception presented by daily scheduled feeding in old rats. (elsevierpure.com)
  • b) in order to determine the susceptibility of the 5-HT1D receptors system to sensitivity changes, 5HT transmission in rats will be altered by acute and chronic administration of serotonin neurotoxins, receptor antagonists, agonists, anxiolytics, antidepressants, and electroconvulsive shock. (grantome.com)
  • Two 5-HT2 receptor antagonists, nefazodone (Serzone) and trazodone (Oleptro) , are used to treat depression. (healthline.com)
  • One week later, animals were spinally pretreated with receptor antagonists selective for opioid, serotonin or alpha-adrenoceptors, and the ability of these agents to alter spinal morphine-induced antinociception was assessed. (omeka.net)
  • In vivo microdialysis confirmed that 5-HT2 receptor blockade with MDL 100,907 attenuated MDMA-induced increases in extracellular concentrations of striatal dopamine. (erowid.org)
  • In 1963, Carlsson first postulated that the effects of neuroleptics were secondary to dopamine receptor blockade. (psychiatrictimes.com)
  • Although there were many potential avenues to explore, we selected a combination of D2 dopamine and 5-HT2 serotonin receptor blockade, to ensure efficacy and reduce side effects, respectively. (cen-online.org)
  • Our results suggest that the blockade of 5-HT 2 and/or 5-HT 3 receptors attenuates impairment of the manifestation of mealtime-associated anticipatory activity related to temporal learning in old rats. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These results suggest that the 5-HT 2A R regulates inherent impulsivity, and that blockade of the 5-HT 2A R alleviates specific aspects of elevated levels of impulsivity induced by cocaine exposure. (utmb.edu)
  • Another side effect of ฮฑ-receptor blockade reported in the above referenced study with phenoxybenzamine is dry ejaculation (ejaculation without expulsion of the seminal fluid). (viagra-reviews.com)
  • With the exception of amoxapine, TeCAs do not inhibit the reuptake of serotonin[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • These drugs fight depression symptoms by decreasing serotonin reuptake in your brain. (healthline.com)
  • Learn more: What you should know about selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). (healthline.com)
  • Still, the initial treatment for anxiety disorders often includes drugs on the antidepressants list, like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). (medvidi.com)
  • Clomipramine is a tricyclic antidepressant, which also acts centrally at the 5-HT-2 receptor to inhibit serotonin reuptake and thus promotes serotonin activities. (viagra-reviews.com)
  • The methylenedioxy amphetamine derivatives exhibited an inverse stereospecificity with respect to serotonin uptake sites versus postsynaptic 5-HT receptors with the S(+) isomer being more potent at the presynaptic recognition site, while the R(-) isomer was more potent at the postsynaptic recognition sites. (erowid.org)
  • However, recent experiments have discovered an unexpected complexity of 5-HT neurone control, specifically in the form of postsynaptic 5-HT feedback mechanisms. (ox.ac.uk)
  • A postsynaptic feedback system that excites 5-HT neurones has also been reported. (ox.ac.uk)
  • It also blocks postsynaptic serotonin 5-HT2 and 5-HT3 receptors which reduces anxiety and insomnia and stimulates appetite. (medvidi.com)
  • In such cases, the dendrites (a neuron's receiving branches) on the postsynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters that affect receptors on the presynaptic neurons. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Conversely, whereas TCAs have relatively low affinity for the ฮฑ2-adrenergic receptor, mianserin and mirtazapine potently antagonize this receptor, and this action is thought to be involved in their antidepressant effects[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • On the other hand, in contrast to almost all TCAs, TeCAs have only low affinity for the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, and for this reason, are associated with few or no anticholinergic side effects[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • Derivatives of 2,5-DMA exhibited preferential high affinity at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors when compared to their relative affinities at 5-HT1 serotonin receptors. (erowid.org)
  • A pharmacological profile of the methylenedioxy-substituted amphetamine derivatives indicates that MDMA and MDA exhibited highest affinity for serotonin uptake sites, 5-HT2 serotonin, alpha 2-adrenergic and M-1 muscarinic receptors. (erowid.org)
  • Other behavioral, cardiovascular, and toxic effects of MDMA and related derivatives may be mediated by actions at other central and/or peripheral recognition sites, including muscarinic cholinergic receptors and alpha 2-adrenergic receptors, for which these compounds exhibit relatively high affinity. (erowid.org)
  • Ziprasidone's favorable ratio of 5-HT2 to D2 receptor affinity affords antipsychotic efficacy with low side-effect propensity, including a weight neutral profile. (cen-online.org)
  • c) Preliminary studies have demonstrated that 125I-DOI labels either alternatively, a unique 5HT2 receptor with high affinity for 5HT2 agonists or, alternatively, a unique 5HT2 receptor distinct from that labelled by 3H-ketanserin. (grantome.com)
  • It also exhibits affinity to adrenergic (?1 and ?2) and histamine (H1) receptors. (medicscientist.com)
  • Ziprasidone Drug_discovery Ziprasidone is a drug designed to have a high ratio of serotonin (5-HT2) to dopamine receptor affinity. (gp120inhibitor.com)
  • We report a multi-objective de novo design study driven by synthetic tractability and aimed at the prioritization of computer-generated 5-HT2B receptor ligands with accurately predicted target-binding affinities. (duke.edu)
  • Ring-substituted psychoactive derivatives of amphetamine exhibited high affinities for a number of serotonin recognition sites. (erowid.org)
  • There were significant correlations between the in vitro affinities of 2,5-DMA derivatives at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors and their human hallucinogenic potencies as well as with their potencies in behavioral generalization studies, suggesting the importance of 5-HT2 serotonin receptors in mediating the hallucinogenic effects of the various 2,5-DMA derivatives. (erowid.org)
  • The rank order of affinities of MDMA at various brain receptors and uptake sites are as follows: 5-HT uptake greater than alpha 2-adrenoceptors = 5-HT2 serotonin = M-1 muscarinic = H-1 histamine greater than norepinephrine uptake = M-2 muscarinic = alpha 1-adrenoceptors = beta-adrenoceptors greater than or equal to dopamine uptake = 5-HT1 serotonin much greater than D-2 dopamine greater than D-1 dopamine. (erowid.org)
  • MDMA exhibited negligible affinities (greater than 500 microM) at opioid (mu, delta and kappa), central-type benzodiazepine, and corticotropin-releasing factor receptors, and at choline uptake sites and calcium channels. (erowid.org)
  • 5-HT(2A) receptors were also expressed on dopamine cells in A10 subnuclei that project to forebrain areas that have been implicated in schizophrenia, and atypical antipsychotic drugs have high affinities for 5-HT(2A) receptors. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • Serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonists have shown efficacy in treating seizure disorders, such as epilepsy. (bioworld.com)
  • Compared to SERT +/+ mice, SERT-/- mice showed a decrease in less edited, highly functional 5-HT 2C isoforms, and an increase in more edited isoforms with reduced signaling efficiency.Conclusions: These results indicate that the 5-HT 2C R in the amygdala of SERT -/- mice has increased RNA editing, which could explain, at least in part, the decreased behavioral responses to 5-HT 2C agonists in SERT -/- mice. (princeton.edu)
  • Unlike 2,5-DMA derivatives, MDMA and MDA demonstrated little selectivity for 5-HT2 versus 5-HT1 subtypes of receptors. (erowid.org)
  • These mechanisms have the physiological effects of 5-HT autoreceptors but use additional 5-HT receptor subtypes and operate through neural inputs to 5-HT neurones. (ox.ac.uk)
  • It interacts with the D1 and D2 receptors, the apha1&2 adrenoceptor and 5-HT2 and 5-HT1A serotonin receptor subtypes are antagonized. (youdrugstore.com)
  • A piperazinoazepine tetracyclic compound that enhances the release of NOREPINEPHRINE and SEROTONIN through blockage of presynaptic ALPHA-2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS . (nih.gov)
  • SNRIs help improve serotonin and norepinephrine levels in your brain. (healthline.com)
  • They work by stopping the breakdown of norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. (healthline.com)
  • It is established that a key mechanism involved in the control of 5-HT neurones is feedback inhibition by presynaptic 5-HT autoreceptors, which are located on 5-HT cell bodies and nerve terminals. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Remeron for sleep and anxiety improve a patient's mood, increasing the levels of the feel-good neurotransmitters - noradrenaline and serotonin - in the brain by blocking presynaptic ฮฑ2 -adrenergic receptors. (medvidi.com)
  • When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, an extracellular signal is transduced into an intracellular one, causing a functional change inside target neurons. (psychiatrictimes.com)
  • Fast receptor systems, such as the GABAA receptor and the nicotinic receptor at the neuromuscular junction, involve the direct binding of a neurotransmitter to a ligand-gated channel, which opens or closes the channel. (psychiatrictimes.com)
  • C onsiderable evidence suggests that a dysfunction of the dopamine and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) neurotransmitter systems contributes to a diverse range of pathological conditions including schizophrenia, depression and drug abuse. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • The neurotransmitter 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) mediates important brain functions and contributes to the pathophysiology and successful drug treatment of many common psychiatric disorders, especially depression. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The signal may stimulate or inhibit the receiving cell, depending on the neurotransmitter and receptor involved. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Rhythm Pharmaceuticals Inc. has presented preclinical data on its new drug candidate, RM-718, a next-generation melanocortin MC4 receptor (MC4R) agonist for weekly administration with a potential development path for hypothalamic obesity. (bioworld.com)
  • Furthermore, 2,5-DMA derivatives exhibited agonist-like binding characteristics at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors with the R(-) isomer being the more potent isomer. (erowid.org)
  • Similar to the 2,5-DMA derivatives, MDMA and MDA exhibited agonist-like binding characteristics at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors. (erowid.org)
  • Coates, WJ The discovery of a selective, small molecule agonist for the MAS-related gene X1 receptor. (bindingdb.org)
  • In this study, we determined the responsiveness of 5-HT 2C R in serotonin transporter (SERT) knockout (-/-) mice, a model characterized by increased anxiety-like and stress-responsive behaviors.Results: In the three-chamber social interaction test, the 5-HT 2B/2C agonist mCPP decreased sociability and sniffing in SERT wildtype (+/+) mice, both indicative of the well-documented anxiogenic effect of mCPP. (princeton.edu)
  • Likewise, in the open field test, the selective 5-HT 2C agonist RO 60-0175 induced an anxiogenic response in SERT +/+ mice, but not in SERT -/- mice. (princeton.edu)
  • The primary psychoactive component of Cannabis, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (ฮ”9-THC), demonstrates its effects through weak partial agonist activity at Cannabinoid-1 (CB1R) and Cannabinoid-2 (CB2R) receptors. (rcsb.org)
  • At the recent American College of Neuropsychopharmacology meeting, Trevena Inc. presented preclinical data for the novel selective sphingosine 1-phosphate S1P1 receptor modulator TRV-045, being developed for the treatment of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). (bioworld.com)
  • Grifolin directly inhibits the TRPV1 receptor and the 5-HT2 serotonin receptors in the peripheral nerve tips in skin. (rahn-group.com)
  • CB1 receptors are found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, with the majority of receptors localized to the hippocampus and amygdala of the brain. (rcsb.org)
  • In contrast, CB2 receptors are mainly found peripherally in immune cells, lymphoid tissue, and peripheral nerve terminals [A32676]. (rcsb.org)
  • Some studies have suggested, however, that clomipramine increases the sensory threshold for stimuli in the genital area, possibly through the inhibition of the adrenergic receptors in the peripheral sympathetic system. (viagra-reviews.com)
  • The present study examined the effects of 5-MeO-DMT in rats using the Behavioral Pattern Monitor (BPM), which enables analyses of patterns of locomotor activity and exploration, and the prepulse inhibition of startle (PPI) paradigm. (nih.gov)
  • While the prevailing view was that the activation of 5-HT(2) receptors is solely responsible for hallucinogenic drug effects, these results support a role for 5-HT(1A) receptors in the effects of the indoleamine hallucinogen 5-MeO-DMT on locomotor activity and PPI in rats. (nih.gov)
  • Taken together, the results of the present investigation demonstrate that: a certain beta-carbolines bind at 5-HT2 receptors b that harmaline serves as a training drug at 3.0 mg/kg in drug discrimination studies with rats as subjects and that c there is some similarity between the stimulus effects produced by harmaline and DOM. (erowid.org)
  • In rats the compound, acting at D2 dopamine receptors on pituitary lactotrophic cells, decreases PRL secretion at oral doses of 3 25 mcg/kg, and in vitro at a concentration of 45 pg/ml. (cctvsukabumi.com)
  • This article discusses current knowledge of the pharmacology and physiology of these new found 5-HT feedback mechanisms and considers their possible contribution to depression pathophysiology and utility as a resource of novel antidepressant drug strategies. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Its activity is mediated through a combination of dopamine (D2) and serotonin (5-HT2) receptor antagonism. (medicscientist.com)
  • Besides mirtazapine, they also block the ฮฑ1-adrenergic receptor[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • The use of ฮฑ-adrenergic receptor blockers to delay premature ejaculation is based on the understanding that the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the peristaltic movement of the seminal fluid through the male genital tract. (viagra-reviews.com)
  • In addition, the neurotoxic, psychotomimetic, analgesic, temperature regulation, and mood-altering effects of MDMA and other methylenedioxy-substituted derivatives may be mediated, in part, through their actions at other serotonin recognition sites in brain, including serotonin uptake sites and 5-HT1A serotonin receptors. (erowid.org)
  • The first is our new paper - Enduring sexual dysfunction after treatment with antidepressants, 5ฮฑ-reductase inhibitors and isotretinoin: 300 cases . (rxisk.org)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Multidimensional de novo design reveals 5-HT2B receptor-selective ligands. (duke.edu)
  • Radionetics Oncology Inc. has patented new melanocortin MC2 receptor ligands reported to be useful for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. (bioworld.com)
  • In humans and in rodent models, there is evidence of both anxiogenic and anxiolytic actions of 5-HT 2C ligands. (princeton.edu)
  • Preclinical studies suggest that the 5-HT 2A receptor (5-HT 2A R) contributes to the regulation of impulsive behavior and also mediates some of the behavioral effects of cocaine. (utmb.edu)
  • Serotonin contributes to the spinal antinociceptive effects of morphine. (omeka.net)
  • TeCAs block the histamine H1 receptor similarly to the TCAs, but tend to be even stronger antihistamines than TCAs[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
  • Recent electrophysiological and behavioral studies suggest that 5-HT modulates dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area via activation of 5-HT(2A) receptors. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • It is currently unknown if 5-HT(2A) receptors mediate their actions on dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area via direct or indirect mechanisms. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • We discovered that 5-HT(2A) receptor-like immunoreactivity colocalized with tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker for dopamine neurons, throughout the A10 dopamine cell population. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • Though more rare, non-dopaminergic neurons also expressed 5-HT(2A) receptor immunoreactivity in the ventral tegmental area. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • The linear raphe A10 dopamine subdivisions also displayed a low degree of 5-HT(2A) receptor and tyrosine hydroxylase colocalization.These findings provide an anatomical basis for the physiological modulation of dopamine neurons in the rostral ventral tegmental area either directly, by 5-HT(2A) receptors localized on dopamine cells, or indirectly, through a non-dopaminergic mechanism. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • Interestingly, 5-HT(2A) receptors were expressed on dopamine neurons in several A10 subnuclei that project to mesolimbic forebrain regions implicated in drug addiction, and recent evidence indicates that ventral tegmental area 5-HT(2A) receptor activation may modulate reward-related behavior in rodents. (biopsychiatry.com)
  • Fanibunda SE, Vaidya VA (2020), Serotonin minting new mitochondria in cortical neurons: implications for psychopathology. (hutmentlab.com)
  • The hallucinogen 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is structurally similar to other indoleamine hallucinogens such as LSD. (nih.gov)
  • Classical hallucinogens bind at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors and these receptors are thought to play a role in their mechanism of action. (erowid.org)
  • Slower G-protein-linked receptor systems, as seen in the dopaminergic system, work through second-messenger systems, such as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), and have a longer duration of action. (psychiatrictimes.com)
  • In Phase II, combinations of sub-antidepressant dose of nifedipine (5 mg/kg) with sub-antidepressant doses of fluvoxamine (12.5 mg/kg), venlafaxine (12.5 mg/kg) and tianeptine (5 mg/kg) exhibited enhanced antidepressant activity when compared to the control group and individual drug groups after same duration of treatment. (ijbcp.com)
  • Antidepressant-like effect of venlafaxine is abolished in ยต-opioid receptor-knockout mice. (ijbcp.com)
  • Cannabinoid receptors are utilized endogenously by the body through the endocannabinoid system, which includes a group of lipid proteins, enzymes, and receptors that are involved in many physiological processes. (rcsb.org)
  • Physiological effects of using cannabis make sense in the context of its receptor activity as the hippocampus and amygdala are primarily involved with regulation of memory, fear, and emotion. (rcsb.org)
  • While both CBD and THC are used for medicinal purposes, they have different receptor activity, function, and physiological effects. (rcsb.org)
  • These alterations in 5-HT 2C R in amygdala may be relevant to humans with SERT polymorphisms that alter SERT expression, function, and emotional behaviors. (princeton.edu)
  • Alterations in the balance of functional activity within the serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] system are hypothesized to underlie impulse control. (utmb.edu)
  • Alterations in the amount of 5-HT1D receptors, the interaction of the 5HT1D receptor with its associated GTP-binding protein, and the coupling between 5HT1D receptors and brain adenylate cyclase activity due to these perturbations will be monitored. (grantome.com)
  • Relying on quantitative bioactivity models we designed and synthesized structurally novel, selective, nanomolar, and ligand-efficient 5-HT2B modulators with sustained cell-based effects. (duke.edu)
  • Trazodone is in a class of medications called serotonin modulators. (weleveluptx.com)
  • Personality disorders are also seen with diminished monoamine oxidase (MAO) and serotonin levels. (medscape.com)
  • Certain beta-carbolines are known to be hallucinogenic in humans, and several produce stimulus effects in animals similar to those of the classical hallucinogen 1-2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl-2-aminopropane DOM. (erowid.org)
  • Quetiapine blocks dopamine- and serotonin-induced animal behaviors in laboratory testing and fails to induce catalepsy at clinically relevant doses.50 Efficacy in chronic psychoses Quetiapine has a significantly greater antipsychotic action than placebo according to several controlled trials at doses of 150 to 750 mg/day.51 Moreover, it has actions equivalent to haloperidol and risperidone on positive and negative symptoms. (gp120inhibitor.com)
  • From a pharmacological perspective, Cannabis' (and CBD's) diverse receptor profile explains its potential application for such a wide variety of medical conditions. (rcsb.org)
  • Quetiapine fumarate is a salt which is used as an antipsychotic drug used in the treatment of schizophrenia , it is believed to work by mediating the activity of certain chemical receptors of serotonin and dopamine. (youdrugstore.com)
  • The relatively weak hallucinogenic effects of the methylenedioxy-substituted amphetamine derivatives (when compared to the 2,5-DMA derivatives) may be mediated through actions at 5-HT2 serotonin receptors. (erowid.org)
  • The long-term deficits in 5-HT concentrations believed to be a consequence of MDMA-induced dopamine release were also blocked by MDL 100,907 over the same dose range. (erowid.org)
  • Inositol is utilized to manufacture IP3 (inositol triphosphate) and DG (diacylglycerol), thereafter, the IP3 induces IP3 receptor binding, altering calcium concentrations. (mentalhealthdaily.com)
  • ND has also been shown to react on the Substance P system at several levels, including receptor densities, peptide concentrations, and enzymatic processing. (cctvsukabumi.com)
  • 5-MeO-DMT decreased locomotor activity, investigatory behavior, the time spent in the center of the BPM chamber, and disrupted PPI. (nih.gov)
  • A personality disorder, as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that differs markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress or impairment. (medscape.com)
  • M100907 pretreatment failed to attenuate any of these effects, while SER-082 pretreatment only antagonized the PPI disruption produced by 5-MeO-DMT. (nih.gov)
  • Background: The serotonin 5-HT 2C receptor (5-HT 2C R) is expressed in amygdala, a region involved in anxiety and fear responses and implicated in the pathogenesis of several psychiatric disorders such as acute anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder. (princeton.edu)
  • Since 5-HT 2C R pre-mRNA is adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) edited, we also evaluated the 5-HT 2C R RNA editing profiles of SERT +/+ and SERT -/- mice in amygdala. (princeton.edu)
  • To better understand the nature of the brain's 5HT receptors have been developed and will be used in conjunction with in vivo manipulations to further our understanding of the role these receptors systems play in brain function and the effects of drugs. (grantome.com)
  • These effects are largely mediated through two members of the G-protein coupled receptor family, cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2)[A32585,A32824]. (rcsb.org)
  • Side effects, mainly hypotension and epigastric pain, were experienced by about 5% of patients on active drug. (viagra-reviews.com)
  • Banerjee A, Vaidya VA (2020), Differential signaling signatures evoked by DOI versus lisuride stimulation of the 5-HT2A receptor. (hutmentlab.com)
  • There are disclosed phenethylamine compounds, the use of such compounds in the treatment of diseases associated with a serotonin 5-HT2 receptor, pharmaceutical compositions such as tablet compositions and kits containing the compounds, m. (sumobrain.com)
  • Branded Cytomel is moderately affordable, costing approximately $3 per Cytomel 5 mcg tablet. (cctvsukabumi.com)
  • There has been an explosion of interest and information regarding dopamine receptors in the human brain. (psychiatrictimes.com)
  • Altered sensitivity of multiple brain serotonin (5HT) receptors has been hypothesized in the etiology and/or treatment of anxiety, depression, sleep disorders, sexual behaviors, and psychosis. (grantome.com)
  • The roles that the multiple 5HT receptor systems play in brain function are still largely unknown, as are the neuronal mechanisms through which 5HT receptors alter cellular function. (grantome.com)
  • a) Preliminary evidence for the existence of a novel brain 5HT receptor, the 5HT1D receptors, has been uncovered. (grantome.com)
  • Detailed radioligand binding and adenylate cyclase studies of the 5HT1D receptor will be performed in various mammalian tissues including rat and human brain. (grantome.com)
  • This effect leaves more serotonin available to work in your brain. (healthline.com)
  • It works by increasing the amount of serotonin, a natural substance in the brain that helps maintain mental balance. (weleveluptx.com)
  • Cannabis contains more than 400 different chemical compounds, of which 61 are considered cannabinoids, a class of compounds that act upon endogenous cannabinoid receptors of the body [A32584]. (rcsb.org)
  • Most current research suggests that personality disorders may be differentiated by their interactions among the 5 dimensions rather than differences on any single dimension. (medscape.com)