Hormones secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND including those from the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), and the ill-defined intermediate lobe. Structurally, they include small peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins. They are under the regulation of neural signals (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) or neuroendocrine signals (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) from the hypothalamus as well as feedback from their targets such as ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANDROGENS; ESTROGENS.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Structurally, they include polypeptide, protein, and glycoprotein molecules.
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
Neoplasms which arise from or metastasize to the PITUITARY GLAND. The majority of pituitary neoplasms are adenomas, which are divided into non-secreting and secreting forms. Hormone producing forms are further classified by the type of hormone they secrete. Pituitary adenomas may also be characterized by their staining properties (see ADENOMA, BASOPHIL; ADENOMA, ACIDOPHIL; and ADENOMA, CHROMOPHOBE). Pituitary tumors may compress adjacent structures, including the HYPOTHALAMUS, several CRANIAL NERVES, and the OPTIC CHIASM. Chiasmal compression may result in bitemporal HEMIANOPSIA.
Diminution or cessation of secretion of one or more hormones from the anterior pituitary gland (including LH; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; SOMATOTROPIN; and CORTICOTROPIN). This may result from surgical or radiation ablation, non-secretory PITUITARY NEOPLASMS, metastatic tumors, infarction, PITUITARY APOPLEXY, infiltrative or granulomatous processes, and other conditions.
The anterior glandular lobe of the pituitary gland, also known as the adenohypophysis. It secretes the ADENOHYPOPHYSEAL HORMONES that regulate vital functions such as GROWTH; METABOLISM; and REPRODUCTION.
A lactogenic hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). It is a polypeptide of approximately 23 kD. Besides its major action on lactation, in some species prolactin exerts effects on reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immunomodulation and osmoregulation. Prolactin receptors are present in the mammary gland, hypothalamus, liver, ovary, testis, and prostate.
Disorders involving either the ADENOHYPOPHYSIS or the NEUROHYPOPHYSIS. These diseases usually manifest as hypersecretion or hyposecretion of PITUITARY HORMONES. Neoplastic pituitary masses can also cause compression of the OPTIC CHIASM and other adjacent structures.
Hormones released from the neurohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, POSTERIOR). They include a number of peptides which are formed in the NEURONS in the HYPOTHALAMUS, bound to NEUROPHYSINS, and stored in the nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary. Upon stimulation, these peptides are released into the hypophysial portal vessel blood.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Luteinizing hormone regulates steroid production by the interstitial cells of the TESTIS and the OVARY. The preovulatory LUTEINIZING HORMONE surge in females induces OVULATION, and subsequent LUTEINIZATION of the follicle. LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.
An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX and its production of CORTICOSTEROIDS. ACTH is a 39-amino acid polypeptide of which the N-terminal 24-amino acid segment is identical in all species and contains the adrenocorticotrophic activity. Upon further tissue-specific processing, ACTH can yield ALPHA-MSH and corticotrophin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP).
A 191-amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the human adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR), also known as GH or somatotropin. Synthetic growth hormone, termed somatropin, has replaced the natural form in therapeutic usage such as treatment of dwarfism in children with growth hormone deficiency.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates GAMETOGENESIS and the supporting cells such as the ovarian GRANULOSA CELLS, the testicular SERTOLI CELLS, and LEYDIG CELLS. FSH consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Thyrotropin stimulates THYROID GLAND by increasing the iodide transport, synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE). Thyrotropin consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH; LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
Chemical substances having a specific regulatory effect on the activity of a certain organ or organs. The term was originally applied to substances secreted by various ENDOCRINE GLANDS and transported in the bloodstream to the target organs. It is sometimes extended to include those substances that are not produced by the endocrine glands but that have similar effects.
Examinations that evaluate functions of the pituitary gland.
A form of dwarfism caused by complete or partial GROWTH HORMONE deficiency, resulting from either the lack of GROWTH HORMONE-RELEASING FACTOR from the HYPOTHALAMUS or from the mutations in the growth hormone gene (GH1) in the PITUITARY GLAND. It is also known as Type I pituitary dwarfism. Human hypophysial dwarf is caused by a deficiency of HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE during development.
Surgical removal or destruction of the hypophysis, or pituitary gland. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Polypeptide hormones produced in the hypothalamus which inhibit the release of pituitary hormones. Used for PHRIH in general or for which there is no specific heading.
A decapeptide that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of both pituitary gonadotropins, LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. GnRH is produced by neurons in the septum PREOPTIC AREA of the HYPOTHALAMUS and released into the pituitary portal blood, leading to stimulation of GONADOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR) that stimulate gonadal functions in both males and females. They include FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE that stimulates germ cell maturation (OOGENESIS; SPERMATOGENESIS), and LUTEINIZING HORMONE that stimulates the production of sex steroids (ESTROGENS; PROGESTERONE; ANDROGENS).
A benign epithelial tumor with a glandular organization.
Neural tissue of the pituitary gland, also known as the neurohypophysis. It consists of the distal AXONS of neurons that produce VASOPRESSIN and OXYTOCIN in the SUPRAOPTIC NUCLEUS and the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS. These axons travel down through the MEDIAN EMINENCE, the hypothalamic infundibulum of the PITUITARY STALK, to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
A tripeptide that stimulates the release of THYROTROPIN and PROLACTIN. It is synthesized by the neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, TRH (was called TRF) stimulates the release of TSH and PRL from the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
A pituitary adenoma which secretes PROLACTIN, leading to HYPERPROLACTINEMIA. Clinical manifestations include AMENORRHEA; GALACTORRHEA; IMPOTENCE; HEADACHE; visual disturbances; and CEREBROSPINAL FLUID RHINORRHEA.
The sudden loss of blood supply to the PITUITARY GLAND, leading to tissue NECROSIS and loss of function (PANHYPOPITUITARISM). The most common cause is hemorrhage or INFARCTION of a PITUITARY ADENOMA. It can also result from acute hemorrhage into SELLA TURCICA due to HEAD TRAUMA; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; or other acute effects of central nervous system hemorrhage. Clinical signs include severe HEADACHE; HYPOTENSION; bilateral visual disturbances; UNCONSCIOUSNESS; and COMA.
A peptide of 44 amino acids in most species that stimulates the release and synthesis of GROWTH HORMONE. GHRF (or GRF) is synthesized by neurons in the ARCUATE NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, GHRF stimulates GH release by the SOMATOTROPHS in the PITUITARY GLAND.
A POU domain factor that regulates expression of GROWTH HORMONE; PROLACTIN; and THYROTROPIN-BETA in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
A 30-kDa protein synthesized primarily in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND and the HYPOTHALAMUS. It is also found in the skin and other peripheral tissues. Depending on species and tissues, POMC is cleaved by PROHORMONE CONVERTASES yielding various active peptides including ACTH; BETA-LIPOTROPIN; ENDORPHINS; MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONES; and others (GAMMA-LPH; CORTICOTROPIN-LIKE INTERMEDIATE LOBE PEPTIDE; N-terminal peptide of POMC or NPP).
A small tumor of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland whose cells stain with basic dyes. It may give rise to excessive secretion of ACTH, resulting in CUSHING SYNDROME. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Peptides, natural or synthetic, that stimulate the release of PITUITARY HORMONES. They were first isolated from the extracts of the HYPOTHALAMUS; MEDIAN EMINENCE; PITUITARY STALK; and NEUROHYPOPHYSIS. In addition, some hypophysiotropic hormones control pituitary cell differentiation, cell proliferation, and hormone synthesis. Some can act on more than one pituitary hormone.
Steroid hormones produced by the GONADS. They stimulate reproductive organs, germ cell maturation, and the secondary sex characteristics in the males and the females. The major sex steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; and TESTOSTERONE.
The beta subunit of follicle stimulating hormone. It is a 15-kDa glycopolypeptide. Full biological activity of FSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit. Mutation of the FSHB gene causes delayed puberty, or infertility.
A condition resulting from congenital malformations involving the brain. The syndrome of septo-optic dysplasia combines hypoplasia or agenesis of the SEPTUM PELLUCIDUM and the OPTIC NERVE. The extent of the abnormalities can vary. Septo-optic dysplasia is often associated with abnormalities of the hypothalamic and other diencephalic structures, and HYPOPITUITARISM.
A multi-function neuropeptide that acts throughout the body by elevating intracellular cyclic AMP level via its interaction with PACAP RECEPTORS. Although first isolated from hypothalamic extracts and named for its action on the pituitary, it is widely distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. PACAP is important in the control of endocrine and homeostatic processes, such as secretion of pituitary and gut hormones and food intake.
The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (MONOIODOTYROSINE) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (DIIODOTYROSINE) in the THYROGLOBULIN. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form TRIIODOTHYRONINE which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
Increased levels of PROLACTIN in the BLOOD, which may be associated with AMENORRHEA and GALACTORRHEA. Relatively common etiologies include PROLACTINOMA, medication effect, KIDNEY FAILURE, granulomatous diseases of the PITUITARY GLAND, and disorders which interfere with the hypothalamic inhibition of prolactin release. Ectopic (non-pituitary) production of prolactin may also occur. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1992, Ch36, pp77-8)
The main glucocorticoid secreted by the ADRENAL CORTEX. Its synthetic counterpart is used, either as an injection or topically, in the treatment of inflammation, allergy, collagen diseases, asthma, adrenocortical deficiency, shock, and some neoplastic conditions.
A peptide of about 41 amino acids that stimulates the release of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. CRH is synthesized by neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, CRH stimulates the release of ACTH from the PITUITARY GLAND. CRH can also be synthesized in other tissues, such as PLACENTA; ADRENAL MEDULLA; and TESTIS.
A subclass of LIM domain proteins that include an additional centrally-located homeodomain region that binds AT-rich sites on DNA. Many LIM-homeodomain proteins play a role as transcriptional regulators that direct cell fate.
The alpha chain of pituitary glycoprotein hormones (THYROTROPIN; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; LUTEINIZING HORMONE) and the placental CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Within a species, the alpha subunits of these four hormones are identical; the distinct functional characteristics of these glycoprotein hormones are determined by the unique beta subunits. Both subunits, the non-covalently bound heterodimers, are required for full biologic activity.
A collection of NEURONS, tracts of NERVE FIBERS, endocrine tissue, and blood vessels in the HYPOTHALAMUS and the PITUITARY GLAND. This hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal circulation provides the mechanism for hypothalamic neuroendocrine (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) regulation of pituitary function and the release of various PITUITARY HORMONES into the systemic circulation to maintain HOMEOSTASIS.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
A benign pituitary-region neoplasm that originates from Rathke's pouch. The two major histologic and clinical subtypes are adamantinous (or classical) craniopharyngioma and papillary craniopharyngioma. The adamantinous form presents in children and adolescents as an expanding cystic lesion in the pituitary region. The cystic cavity is filled with a black viscous substance and histologically the tumor is composed of adamantinomatous epithelium and areas of calcification and necrosis. Papillary craniopharyngiomas occur in adults, and histologically feature a squamous epithelium with papillations. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1998, Ch14, p50)
A bony prominence situated on the upper surface of the body of the sphenoid bone. It houses the PITUITARY GLAND.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
A potent androgenic steroid and major product secreted by the LEYDIG CELLS of the TESTIS. Its production is stimulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE from the PITUITARY GLAND. In turn, testosterone exerts feedback control of the pituitary LH and FSH secretion. Depending on the tissues, testosterone can be further converted to DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE or ESTRADIOL.
Conditions in which the production of adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS falls below the requirement of the body. Adrenal insufficiency can be caused by defects in the ADRENAL GLANDS, the PITUITARY GLAND, or the HYPOTHALAMUS.
A benign tumor, usually found in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, whose cells stain with acid dyes. Such pituitary tumors may give rise to excessive secretion of growth hormone, resulting in gigantism or acromegaly. A specific type of acidophil adenoma may give rise to nonpuerperal galactorrhea. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Congenital or acquired cysts of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges which may remain stable in size or undergo progressive enlargement.
Condition resulting from deficient gonadal functions, such as GAMETOGENESIS and the production of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES. It is characterized by delay in GROWTH, germ cell maturation, and development of secondary sex characteristics. Hypogonadism can be due to a deficiency of GONADOTROPINS (hypogonadotropic hypogonadism) or due to primary gonadal failure (hypergonadotropic hypogonadism).
Therapeutic use of hormones to alleviate the effects of hormone deficiency.
A genetic or acquired polyuric disorder caused by a deficiency of VASOPRESSINS secreted by the NEUROHYPOPHYSIS. Clinical signs include the excretion of large volumes of dilute URINE; HYPERNATREMIA; THIRST; and polydipsia. Etiologies include HEAD TRAUMA; surgeries and diseases involving the HYPOTHALAMUS and the PITUITARY GLAND. This disorder may also be caused by mutations of genes such as ARVP encoding vasopressin and its corresponding neurophysin (NEUROPHYSINS).
Pathological processes of the ENDOCRINE GLANDS, and diseases resulting from abnormal level of available HORMONES.
A syndrome that results from abnormally low secretion of THYROID HORMONES from the THYROID GLAND, leading to a decrease in BASAL METABOLIC RATE. In its most severe form, there is accumulation of MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES in the SKIN and EDEMA, known as MYXEDEMA.
Cell surface proteins that bind pituitary hormones with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Since many pituitary hormones are also released by neurons as neurotransmitters, these receptors are also found in the nervous system.
Neoplastic, inflammatory, infectious, and other diseases of the hypothalamus. Clinical manifestations include appetite disorders; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; SLEEP DISORDERS; behavioral symptoms related to dysfunction of the LIMBIC SYSTEM; and neuroendocrine disorders.
Specific high affinity binding proteins for THYROID HORMONES in target cells. They are usually found in the nucleus and regulate DNA transcription. These receptors are activated by hormones that leads to transcription, cell differentiation, and growth suppression. Thyroid hormone receptors are encoded by two genes (GENES, ERBA): erbA-alpha and erbA-beta for alpha and beta thyroid hormone receptors, respectively.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
A pituitary tumor that secretes GROWTH HORMONE. In humans, excess HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE leads to ACROMEGALY.
A mobile, very volatile, highly flammable liquid used as an inhalation anesthetic and as a solvent for waxes, fats, oils, perfumes, alkaloids, and gums. It is mildly irritating to skin and mucous membranes.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the CORPUS LUTEUM and the PLACENTA. Progesterone acts on the UTERUS, the MAMMARY GLANDS and the BRAIN. It is required in EMBRYO IMPLANTATION; PREGNANCY maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for MILK production. Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.
A disease of the PITUITARY GLAND characterized by the excess amount of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE secreted. This leads to hypersecretion of cortisol (HYDROCORTISONE) by the ADRENAL GLANDS resulting in CUSHING SYNDROME.
Labile proteins on or in prolactin-sensitive cells that bind prolactin initiating the cells' physiological response to that hormone. Mammary casein synthesis is one of the responses. The receptors are also found in placenta, liver, testes, kidneys, ovaries, and other organs and bind and respond to certain other hormones and their analogs and antagonists. This receptor is related to the growth hormone receptor.
A pituitary adenoma which secretes ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN, leading to CUSHING DISEASE.
Methods and procedures for the diagnosis of diseases or dysfunction of the endocrine glands or demonstration of their physiological processes.
A genetic or pathological condition that is characterized by short stature and undersize. Abnormal skeletal growth usually results in an adult who is significantly below the average height.
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
The reproductive organ (GONADS) in female animals. In vertebrates, the ovary contains two functional parts: the OVARIAN FOLLICLE for the production of female germ cells (OOGENESIS); and the endocrine cells (GRANULOSA CELLS; THECA CELLS; and LUTEAL CELLS) for the production of ESTROGENS and PROGESTERONE.
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
The surgical removal of one or both ovaries.
A group of acidic proteins that are major components of SECRETORY GRANULES in the endocrine and neuroendocrine cells. They play important roles in the aggregation, packaging, sorting, and processing of secretory protein prior to secretion. They are cleaved to release biologically active peptides. There are various types of granins, usually classified by their sources.
Achievement of full sexual capacity in animals and in humans.
Receptors with a 6-kDa protein on the surfaces of cells that secrete LUTEINIZING HORMONE or FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE, usually in the adenohypophysis. LUTEINIZING HORMONE-RELEASING HORMONE binds to these receptors, is endocytosed with the receptor and, in the cell, triggers the release of LUTEINIZING HORMONE or FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE by the cell. These receptors are also found in rat gonads. INHIBINS prevent the binding of GnRH to its receptors.
A well-characterized basic peptide believed to be secreted by the liver and to circulate in the blood. It has growth-regulating, insulin-like, and mitogenic activities. This growth factor has a major, but not absolute, dependence on GROWTH HORMONE. It is believed to be mainly active in adults in contrast to INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR II, which is a major fetal growth factor.
Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.
Hormones that stimulate gonadal functions such as GAMETOGENESIS and sex steroid hormone production in the OVARY and the TESTIS. Major gonadotropins are glycoproteins produced primarily by the adenohypophysis (GONADOTROPINS, PITUITARY) and the placenta (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN). In some species, pituitary PROLACTIN and PLACENTAL LACTOGEN exert some luteotropic activities.
A system of NEURONS that has the specialized function to produce and secrete HORMONES, and that constitutes, in whole or in part, an ENDOCRINE SYSTEM or organ.
Compounds that interact with ESTROGEN RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of ESTRADIOL. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female SEX CHARACTERISTICS. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds.
Proteins encoded by homeobox genes (GENES, HOMEOBOX) that exhibit structural similarity to certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins. Homeodomain proteins are involved in the control of gene expression during morphogenesis and development (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, DEVELOPMENTAL).
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
A highly vascularized endocrine gland consisting of two lobes joined by a thin band of tissue with one lobe on each side of the TRACHEA. It secretes THYROID HORMONES from the follicular cells and CALCITONIN from the parafollicular cells thereby regulating METABOLISM and CALCIUM level in blood, respectively.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
Deviations from the average values for a specific age and sex in any or all of the following: height, weight, skeletal proportions, osseous development, or maturation of features. Included here are both acceleration and retardation of growth.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
An adrenocortical steroid that has modest but significant activities as a mineralocorticoid and a glucocorticoid. (From Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1437)
Cell surface receptors that bind the hypothalamic hormones regulating pituitary cell differentiation, proliferation, and hormone synthesis and release, including the pituitary-releasing and release-inhibiting hormones. The pituitary hormone-regulating hormones are also released by cells other than hypothalamic neurons, and their receptors also occur on non-pituitary cells, especially brain neurons, where their role is less well understood. Receptors for dopamine, which is a prolactin release-inhibiting hormone as well as a common neurotransmitter, are not included here.
Anterior pituitary cells that can produce both FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE and LUTEINIZING HORMONE.
A gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by the PLACENTA. Similar to the pituitary LUTEINIZING HORMONE in structure and function, chorionic gonadotropin is involved in maintaining the CORPUS LUTEUM during pregnancy. CG consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is virtually identical to the alpha subunits of the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN).
The beta subunit of luteinizing hormone. It is a 15-kDa glycopolypeptide with structure similar to the beta subunit of the placental chorionic gonadatropin (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN) except for the additional 31 amino acids at the C-terminal of CG-beta. Full biological activity of LH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit. Mutation of the LHB gene causes HYPOGONADISM and infertility.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A condition caused by prolonged exposure to excessive HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE in adults. It is characterized by bony enlargement of the FACE; lower jaw (PROGNATHISM); hands; FEET; HEAD; and THORAX. The most common etiology is a GROWTH HORMONE-SECRETING PITUITARY ADENOMA. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1992, Ch36, pp79-80)
A benign tumor of the anterior pituitary in which the cells do not stain with acidic or basic dyes.
Anterior pituitary cells which produce GROWTH HORMONE.
Proteins obtained from species of fish (FISHES).
A family of G-protein-coupled receptors that share significant homology with GLUCAGON RECEPTORS. They bind PITUITARY ADENYLATE CYCLASE ACTIVATING POLYPEPTIDE with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes that influence the behavior of CELLS.
Peptide hormones produced by NEURONS of various regions in the HYPOTHALAMUS. They are released into the pituitary portal circulation to stimulate or inhibit PITUITARY GLAND functions. VASOPRESSIN and OXYTOCIN, though produced in the hypothalamus, are not included here for they are transported down the AXONS to the POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY before being released into the portal circulation.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Peptides with the ability to stimulate pigmented cells MELANOCYTES in mammals and MELANOPHORES in lower vertebrates. By stimulating the synthesis and distribution of MELANIN in these pigmented cells, they increase coloration of skin and other tissue. MSHs, derived from pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), are produced by MELANOTROPHS in the INTERMEDIATE LOBE OF PITUITARY; CORTICOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY, and the hypothalamic neurons in the ARCUATE NUCLEUS OF HYPOTHALAMUS.
Compounds, either natural or synthetic, which block development of the growing insect.
A pair of glands located at the cranial pole of each of the two KIDNEYS. Each adrenal gland is composed of two distinct endocrine tissues with separate embryonic origins, the ADRENAL CORTEX producing STEROIDS and the ADRENAL MEDULLA producing NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
Radiation therapy used to treat the PITUITARY GLAND.
The discharge of an OVUM from a rupturing follicle in the OVARY.
Hormones synthesized from amino acids. They are distinguished from INTERCELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS in that their actions are systemic.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
The male gonad containing two functional parts: the SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES for the production and transport of male germ cells (SPERMATOGENESIS) and the interstitial compartment containing LEYDIG CELLS that produce ANDROGENS.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. It shows considerable size variation among the species, small in humans, and large in amphibians and lower vertebrates. This lobe produces mainly MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONES and other peptides from post-translational processing of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC).
Hormones produced by the GONADS, including both steroid and peptide hormones. The major steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL and PROGESTERONE from the OVARY, and TESTOSTERONE from the TESTIS. The major peptide hormones include ACTIVINS and INHIBINS.
Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide, Type I (PAC1R) are G protein-coupled receptors that regulate various physiological processes in the body, including stress response, pain perception, and appetite.
Chemical substances which inhibit the function of the endocrine glands, the biosynthesis of their secreted hormones, or the action of hormones upon their specific sites.
An anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRB gene (also known as NR1A2, THRB1, or ERBA2 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing. Mutations in the THRB gene cause THYROID HORMONE RESISTANCE SYNDROME.
Cell surface receptors that bind thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. Activated TRH receptors in the anterior pituitary stimulate the release of thyrotropin (thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH); TRH receptors on neurons mediate neurotransmission by TRH.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A glycoprotein that causes regression of MULLERIAN DUCTS. It is produced by SERTOLI CELLS of the TESTES. In the absence of this hormone, the Mullerian ducts develop into structures of the female reproductive tract. In males, defects of this hormone result in persistent Mullerian duct, a form of MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
The distance from the sole to the crown of the head with body standing on a flat surface and fully extended.
Surgical removal or artificial destruction of gonads.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Anterior pituitary cells that produce ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE.
HORMONES secreted by the gastrointestinal mucosa that affect the timing or the quality of secretion of digestive enzymes, and regulate the motor activity of the digestive system organs.
Anterior pituitary cells that produce PROLACTIN.
A semisynthetic ergotamine alkaloid that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It suppresses prolactin secretion.
Cell surface proteins that bind GROWTH HORMONE with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Activation of growth hormone receptors regulates amino acid transport through cell membranes, RNA translation to protein, DNA transcription, and protein and amino acid catabolism in many cell types. Many of these effects are mediated indirectly through stimulation of the release of somatomedins.
Proteins released by sensitized LYMPHOCYTES and possibly other cells that inhibit the migration of MACROPHAGES away from the release site. The structure and chemical properties may vary with the species and type of releasing cell.
Glycoproteins that inhibit pituitary FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE secretion. Inhibins are secreted by the Sertoli cells of the testes, the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles, the placenta, and other tissues. Inhibins and ACTIVINS are modulators of FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE secretions; both groups belong to the TGF-beta superfamily, as the TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA. Inhibins consist of a disulfide-linked heterodimer with a unique alpha linked to either a beta A or a beta B subunit to form inhibin A or inhibin B, respectively
A condition caused by prolonged exposure to excess levels of cortisol (HYDROCORTISONE) or other GLUCOCORTICOIDS from endogenous or exogenous sources. It is characterized by upper body OBESITY; OSTEOPOROSIS; HYPERTENSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HIRSUTISM; AMENORRHEA; and excess body fluid. Endogenous Cushing syndrome or spontaneous hypercortisolism is divided into two groups, those due to an excess of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN and those that are ACTH-independent.
Securin is involved in the control of the metaphase-anaphase transition during MITOSIS. It promotes the onset of anaphase by blocking SEPARASE function and preventing proteolysis of cohesin and separation of sister CHROMATIDS. Overexpression of securin is associated with NEOPLASTIC CELL TRANSFORMATION and tumor formation.
Anterior pituitary cells that produce THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE.
An irregular unpaired bone situated at the SKULL BASE and wedged between the frontal, temporal, and occipital bones (FRONTAL BONE; TEMPORAL BONE; OCCIPITAL BONE). Sphenoid bone consists of a median body and three pairs of processes resembling a bat with spread wings. The body is hollowed out in its inferior to form two large cavities (SPHENOID SINUS).
Hormones produced by the placenta include CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, and PLACENTAL LACTOGEN as well as steroids (ESTROGENS; PROGESTERONE), and neuropeptide hormones similar to those found in the hypothalamus (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES).
The interactions between the anterior pituitary and adrenal glands, in which corticotropin (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex and adrenal cortical hormones suppress the production of corticotropin by the anterior pituitary.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
The beta subunit of thyroid stimulating hormone, thyrotropin. It is a 112-amino acid glycopolypeptide of about 16 kD. Full biological activity of TSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRA gene (also known as NR1A1, THRA1, ERBA or ERBA1 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing.
Peptide hormones secreted into the blood by cells in the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS of the pancreas. The alpha cells secrete glucagon; the beta cells secrete insulin; the delta cells secrete somatostatin; and the PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
One of the three major groups of endogenous opioid peptides. They are large peptides derived from the PRO-OPIOMELANOCORTIN precursor. The known members of this group are alpha-, beta-, and gamma-endorphin. The term endorphin is also sometimes used to refer to all opioid peptides, but the narrower sense is used here; OPIOID PEPTIDES is used for the broader group.
Hormones secreted by insects. They influence their growth and development. Also synthetic substances that act like insect hormones.
Hormones produced in the testis.
One of the paired air spaces located in the body of the SPHENOID BONE behind the ETHMOID BONE in the middle of the skull. Sphenoid sinus communicates with the posterosuperior part of NASAL CAVITY on the same side.
The surgical removal of one or both testicles.
A mutation in which a codon is mutated to one directing the incorporation of a different amino acid. This substitution may result in an inactive or unstable product. (From A Dictionary of Genetics, King & Stansfield, 5th ed)
The period in the ESTROUS CYCLE associated with maximum sexual receptivity and fertility in non-primate female mammals.
Hormones produced by invertebrates, usually insects, mollusks, annelids, and helminths.
A 31-amino acid peptide that is the C-terminal fragment of BETA-LIPOTROPIN. It acts on OPIOID RECEPTORS and is an analgesic. Its first four amino acids at the N-terminal are identical to the tetrapeptide sequence of METHIONINE ENKEPHALIN and LEUCINE ENKEPHALIN.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A disease that is characterized by frequent urination, excretion of large amounts of dilute URINE, and excessive THIRST. Etiologies of diabetes insipidus include deficiency of antidiuretic hormone (also known as ADH or VASOPRESSIN) secreted by the NEUROHYPOPHYSIS, impaired KIDNEY response to ADH, and impaired hypothalamic regulation of thirst.
A highly basic, 28 amino acid neuropeptide released from intestinal mucosa. It has a wide range of biological actions affecting the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and respiratory systems and is neuroprotective. It binds special receptors (RECEPTORS, VASOACTIVE INTESTINAL PEPTIDE).
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
A 90-amino acid peptide derived from post-translational processing of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) in the PITUITARY GLAND and the HYPOTHALAMUS. It is the C-terminal fragment of POMC with lipid-mobilizing activities, such as LIPOLYSIS and steroidogenesis. Depending on the species and the tissue sites, beta-LPH may be further processed to yield active peptides including GAMMA-LIPOTROPIN; BETA-MSH; and ENDORPHINS.
An adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH.
A hemeprotein that catalyzes the oxidation of the iodide radical to iodine with the subsequent iodination of many organic compounds, particularly proteins. EC 1.11.1.8.

Long term orexigenic effect of a novel melanocortin 4 receptor selective antagonist. (1/206)

1. We designed and synthesized several novel cyclic MSH analogues and tested their affinities for cells expressing the MC1, MC3, MC4 and MC5 receptors. 2. One of the substances HS028 (cyclic [AcCys11, dichloro-D-phenylalanine14, Cys18, Asp-NH2(22)]-beta-MSH11-22) showed high affinity (Ki of 0.95nM) and high (80 fold) MC4 receptor selectivity over the MC3 receptor. HS028 thus shows both higher affinity and higher selectivity for the MC4 receptor compared to the earlier first described MC4 receptor selective substance HS014. 3. HS028 antagonised a alpha-MSH induced increase in cyclic AMP production in transfected cells expressing the MC3 and MC4 receptors, whereas it seemed to be a partial agonist for the MC1 and MC5 receptors. 4. Chronic intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) administration of HS028 by osmotic minipumps significantly increased both food intake and body weight in a dose dependent manner without tachyphylaxis for a period of 7 days. 5. This is the first report demonstrating that an MC4 receptor antagonist can increase food intake and body weight during chronic administration providing further evidence that the MC4 receptor is an important mediator of long term weight homeostasis.  (+info)

alpha-MSH and its receptors in regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by human monocyte/macrophages. (2/206)

The hypothesis that macrophages contain an autocrine circuit based on melanocortin [ACTH and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH)] peptides has major implications for neuroimmunomodulation research and inflammation therapy. To test this hypothesis, cells of the THP-1 human monocyte/macrophage line were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence and absence of alpha-MSH. The inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha was inhibited in relation to alpha-MSH concentration. Similar inhibitory effects on TNF-alpha were observed with ACTH peptides that contain the alpha-MSH amino acid sequence and act on melanocortin receptors. Nuclease protection assays indicated that expression of the human melanocortin-1 receptor subtype (hMC-1R) occurs in THP-1 cells; Southern blots of RT-PCR product revealed that additional subtypes, hMC-3R and hMC-5R, also occur. Incubation of resting macrophages with antibody to hMC-1R increased TNF-alpha concentration; the antibody also markedly reduced the inhibitory influence of alpha-MSH on TNF-alpha in macrophages treated with LPS. These results in cells known to produce alpha-MSH at rest and to increase secretion of the peptide when challenged are consistent with an endogenous regulatory circuit based on melanocortin peptides and their receptors. Targeting of this neuroimmunomodulatory circuit in inflammatory diseases in which myelomonocytic cells are prominent should be beneficial.  (+info)

Regulation of basal expression of catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme genes by PACAP. (3/206)

We have previously reported that the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) pathway is important in the gene regulation of both induction and basal expressions of the catecholamine synthesizing enzymes tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH). The neuropeptide pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) has been shown to activate the intracellular cAMP/PKA pathway. In the present study, using primary cultured bovine adrenal medullary cells, we determined whether the basal activity of the PACAP receptor might play a role in the maintenance of the basal expression of these enzyme genes via the cAMP/PKA pathway. The potent PACAP receptor antagonist PACAP (6-38) caused a reduction of TH and DBH mRNA levels in a dose dependent manner as well as their enzyme activities and TH protein level. The effects of PACAP (6-38) and the PKA inhibitor H-89 exhibited generally similar trends, and were not additive in the reduction of TH and DBH gene expression and activities, suggesting that they take a common intracellular signaling pathway. The antagonist also caused decreases in the intracellular norepinephrine and epinephrine levels similar to the effect of H-89. Taken together, the data suggests that PACAP is involved in the regulation of maintenance of the catecholamine synthesizing enzymes TH and DBH by utilizing the cAMP/PKA pathway.  (+info)

Enhanced expression of melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1-R) in normal human keratinocytes during differentiation: evidence for increased expression of POMC peptides near suprabasal layer of epidermis. (4/206)

Immunohistochemical staining of human skin specimen showed the stronger localization of proopiomelanocortin peptides near the suprabasal layer of the epidermis, where keratinocytes are mostly differentiated. To test the possibilities of whether the production of proopiomelanocortin peptides or their receptor-binding activity or both is increased during differentiation of keratinocytes, we treated the cells in culture with Ca2+ to induce their differentiation. The production of proopiomelanocortin peptides and its gene expression were not induced significantly, but the binding ability of melanocortin receptor, as well as its gene expression were stimulated by Ca2+. Ultraviolet B irradiation, an inducer of differentiation, stimulated both proopiomelanocortin production and melanocortin receptor expression. These data show that normal human keratinocytes express melanocortin receptor similar to melanocytes, and that it is induced during differentiation.  (+info)

Expression, pharmacological, and functional evidence for PACAP/VIP receptors in human lung. (5/206)

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) type 1 (PAC(1)) and common PACAP/vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) type 1 and 2 (VPAC(1) and VPAC(2), respectively) receptors were detected in the human lung by RT-PCR. The proteins were identified by immunoblotting at 72, 67, and 68 kDa, respectively. One class of PACAP receptors was defined from (125)I-labeled PACAP-27 binding experiments (dissociation constant = 5.2 nM; maximum binding capacity = 5.2 pmol/mg protein) with a specificity: PACAP-27 approximately VIP > helodermin approximately peptide histidine-methionine (PHM) >> secretin. Two classes of VIP receptors were established with (125)I-VIP (dissociation constants of 5.4 and 197 nM) with a specificity: VIP approximately helodermin approximately PACAP-27 >> PHM >> secretin. PACAP-27 and VIP were equipotent on adenylyl cyclase stimulation (EC(50) = 1.6 nM), whereas other peptides showed lower potency (helodermin > PHM >> secretin). PACAP/VIP antagonists supported that PACAP-27 acts in the human lung through either specific receptors or common PACAP/VIP receptors. The present results are the first demonstration of the presence of PAC(1) receptors and extend our knowledge of common PACAP/VIP receptors in the human lung.  (+info)

High-voltage-activated calcium current and its modulation by dopamine D4 and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide receptors in cerebellar granule cells. (6/206)

Cerebellar granule cells were a good mold for electrophysiologic studies at the single neuron level. Two distinct types of high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channels were present in cerebellar granule cells. These calcium channels change their expression, gating, and pharmacological properties during development, suggesting that calcium channel must be related to the processes of granule cell maturation and excitability. Dopamine inhibited L-type calcium current by activating D4 receptor, and this effect might involve another signaling system with the exception of cAMP system. The functional D4 receptor discovered in cerebellum not only gave a possibility to find other antipsychotics, but also supported the existence of a dopaminergic system in the granule cell involving the D4 receptor. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) could increase intracellular Ca2+ content by activation of Ca2+ channel and mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ stores. The effects were also cAMP-independent. Activating Ca2+ currents might be an important and necessary role of PACAP as a neurotropic factor involved in the control of multiplication, differentiation, and migration of granule cells.  (+info)

Functional characterization of structural alterations in the sequence of the vasodilatory peptide maxadilan yields a pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide type 1 receptor-specific antagonist. (7/206)

Maxadilan is a vasodilatory peptide derived from sand flies that is an agonist at the pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) type 1 receptor. Surprisingly, maxadilan does not share significant sequence homology with PACAP. To examine the relationship between structure and activity of maxadilan, several amino acid substitutions and deletions were made in the peptide. These peptides were examined in vitro for binding to crude membranes derived from rabbit brain, a tissue that expresses PACAP type 1 receptors; and induction of cAMP was determined in PC12 cells, a line that expresses these receptors. The peptides were examined in vivo for their ability to induce erythema in rabbit skin. Substitution of the individual cysteines at positions 1 and 5 or deletion of this ring structure had little effect on activity. Substitution of either cysteine at position 14 or 51 eliminated activity. Deletion of the 19 amino acids between positions 24 and 42 resulted in a peptide with binding, but no functional activity. The capacity of this deletion mutant to interact with COS cells transfected with the PACAP type 1 receptor revealed that this peptide was a specific antagonist to the PACAP type 1 receptor.  (+info)

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptides directly stimulate sympathetic neuron neuropeptide Y release through PAC(1) receptor isoform activation of specific intracellular signaling pathways. (8/206)

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptides (PACAP) have potent regulatory and neurotrophic activities on superior cervical ganglion (SCG) sympathetic neurons with pharmacological profiles consistent for the PACAP-selective PAC(1) receptor. Multiple PAC(1) receptor isoforms are suggested to determine differential peptide potency and receptor coupling to multiple intracellular signaling pathways. The current studies examined rat SCG PAC(1) receptor splice variant expression and coupling to intracellular signaling pathways mediating PACAP-stimulated peptide release. PAC(1) receptor mRNA was localized in over 90% of SCG neurons, which correlated with the cells expressing receptor protein. The neurons expressed the PAC(1)(short)HOP1 receptor but not VIP/PACAP-nonselective VPAC(1) receptors; low VPAC(2) receptor mRNA levels were restricted to ganglionic nonneuronal cells. PACAP27 and PACAP38 potently and efficaciously stimulated both cAMP and inositol phosphate production; inhibition of phospholipase C augmented PACAP-stimulated cAMP production, but inhibition of adenylyl cyclase did not alter stimulated inositol phosphate production. Phospholipase C inhibition blunted neuron peptide release, suggesting that the phosphatidylinositol pathway was a prominent component of the secretory response. These studies demonstrate preferential sympathetic neuron expression of PACAP-selective receptor variants contributing to regulation of autonomic function.  (+info)

Pituitary hormones are a group of hormones produced by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls the function of many other endocrine glands in the body. There are several types of pituitary hormones, including: 1. Growth hormone (GH): This hormone stimulates growth and cell reproduction in the body. 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): This hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): This hormone stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress. 4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): These hormones regulate the function of the ovaries and testes, including the production of sex hormones and the development of eggs and sperm. 5. Prolactin: This hormone stimulates milk production in the mammary glands. 6. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): This hormone regulates the body's water balance by controlling the amount of water that is reabsorbed by the kidneys. 7. Oxytocin: This hormone stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding. Pituitary hormones play a critical role in regulating many bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and water balance. Imbalances in pituitary hormone levels can lead to a variety of health problems, including dwarfism, thyroid disorders, adrenal insufficiency, infertility, and diabetes insipidus.

The anterior pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, and it is responsible for producing and secreting several hormones that play important roles in regulating various bodily functions. The hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland include: 1. Growth hormone (GH): This hormone stimulates growth and cell reproduction in the body. 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): This hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): This hormone stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol, which helps the body respond to stress. 4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): This hormone stimulates the ovaries or testes to produce sex hormones and eggs or sperm. 5. Luteinizing hormone (LH): This hormone stimulates the ovaries or testes to produce sex hormones and trigger ovulation or sperm production. 6. Prolactin (PRL): This hormone stimulates milk production in the mammary glands. These hormones are essential for maintaining normal bodily functions, and imbalances in their production or secretion can lead to various health problems.

Pituitary neoplasms are tumors that develop in the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and regulating various hormones in the body, and when a tumor develops, it can disrupt the normal functioning of the gland and lead to a variety of symptoms. There are several types of pituitary neoplasms, including: 1. Pituitary adenomas: These are the most common type of pituitary neoplasm and are usually benign (non-cancerous). They can produce excessive amounts of hormones, leading to symptoms such as headaches, vision problems, and hormonal imbalances. 2. Pituitary carcinomas: These are rare and aggressive forms of pituitary neoplasms that can spread to other parts of the body. 3. Pituitary macroadenomas: These are larger tumors that can cause symptoms such as hormonal imbalances, headaches, and vision problems. 4. Pituitary microadenomas: These are smaller tumors that may not cause any symptoms, but can still be detected through imaging tests. Treatment for pituitary neoplasms may include surgery, radiation therapy, and medication to manage symptoms and hormone levels. The specific treatment approach will depend on the type and size of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health and symptoms.

Hypopituitarism is a medical condition in which the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain, fails to produce one or more of its hormones or does not produce them in sufficient quantities. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. Hypopituitarism can be caused by a variety of factors, including tumors, head injuries, infections, radiation therapy, and certain medications. Symptoms of hypopituitarism can vary depending on which hormones are affected, but may include fatigue, weight loss, decreased appetite, cold intolerance, decreased sexual desire, infertility, and mood changes. Treatment for hypopituitarism typically involves hormone replacement therapy to replace the hormones that are not being produced by the pituitary gland. The specific hormones that need to be replaced will depend on which hormones are affected and the severity of the deficiency. In some cases, surgery or radiation therapy may be necessary to treat the underlying cause of the hypopituitarism.

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in the development and function of the mammary glands in both males and females, but it is particularly important for lactation in females. In females, prolactin stimulates the production of milk in the mammary glands after childbirth. It also plays a role in regulating the menstrual cycle and fertility. In males, prolactin helps to regulate the production of sperm and testosterone. Prolactin levels can be affected by a variety of factors, including stress, sleep, and certain medications. Abnormal levels of prolactin can lead to a condition called hyperprolactinemia, which can cause a range of symptoms including breast tenderness, infertility, and sexual dysfunction.

Pituitary diseases refer to disorders that affect the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction, through the production and release of hormones. Pituitary diseases can be classified into two main categories: functional and non-functional. Functional pituitary diseases occur when the pituitary gland produces too much or too little of a hormone, leading to imbalances in the body's hormonal system. Examples of functional pituitary diseases include: 1. Hyperpituitarism: This occurs when the pituitary gland produces too much of one or more hormones, leading to symptoms such as excessive growth, weight gain, and irregular menstrual periods in women. 2. Hypopituitarism: This occurs when the pituitary gland produces too little of one or more hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and infertility. Non-functional pituitary diseases, on the other hand, occur when the pituitary gland does not produce enough hormones or when there is a problem with the gland itself. Examples of non-functional pituitary diseases include: 1. Pituitary adenoma: This is a benign tumor that develops in the pituitary gland, causing hormonal imbalances and potentially leading to headaches, vision problems, and hormonal symptoms. 2. Sheehan's syndrome: This occurs when the pituitary gland is damaged due to childbirth or other causes, leading to hormonal imbalances and symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and infertility. Treatment for pituitary diseases depends on the specific type and severity of the condition. Treatment options may include medication, surgery, radiation therapy, or hormone replacement therapy.

Pituitary hormones, posterior refers to a group of hormones produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain. The posterior lobe is responsible for producing and releasing two hormones: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). ACTH stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress and regulates metabolism. TSH, on the other hand, stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth, and development. Abnormalities in the production or secretion of these hormones can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including Cushing's disease (caused by excessive ACTH production), Addison's disease (caused by insufficient ACTH production), and hypothyroidism (caused by insufficient TSH production).

Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating the reproductive system in both males and females. In females, LH stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone, which are essential for the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. It also triggers ovulation, the release of a mature egg from the ovary. In males, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and the production of sperm. LH levels can be measured in the blood or urine to diagnose and monitor various reproductive disorders, such as infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and hypogonadism. It is also used in fertility treatments, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), to stimulate ovulation and increase the chances of conception.

Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating growth and development in humans and other animals. GH stimulates the liver to produce insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), which promotes the growth of bones, muscles, and other tissues. In children, GH is essential for normal growth and development. It stimulates the growth plates in bones to lengthen, leading to increased height. In adults, GH is involved in maintaining muscle mass, bone density, and overall body composition. GH deficiency can lead to a variety of health problems, including short stature in children, decreased muscle mass and strength, increased body fat, and decreased bone density. GH replacement therapy is sometimes used to treat GH deficiency, particularly in children with growth disorders. In addition to its role in growth and development, GH has been studied for its potential therapeutic effects in a variety of conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and aging. However, the use of GH as a performance-enhancing drug is banned by most sports organizations due to its potential to increase muscle mass and strength.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress and regulates metabolism, immune function, and blood pressure. ACTH is also involved in the regulation of other hormones, such as aldosterone, which helps regulate blood pressure and electrolyte balance, and androgens, which are male sex hormones. In the medical field, ACTH is often used to diagnose and treat disorders related to the adrenal glands, such as Cushing's disease, which is caused by an overproduction of cortisol, and Addison's disease, which is caused by a deficiency of cortisol. ACTH is also used to stimulate the adrenal glands to produce cortisol in cases where the glands are not producing enough of the hormone on their own.

Human Growth Hormone (HGH) is a peptide hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating growth and development in children and adolescents, as well as maintaining various bodily functions in adults. In children, HGH stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other tissues, and helps to regulate metabolism. It also plays a role in the development of the brain and the immune system. In adults, HGH is involved in maintaining muscle mass, bone density, and overall body composition. It also plays a role in regulating metabolism and energy levels, and may help to improve cognitive function and mood. HGH deficiency can occur due to various factors, including genetic disorders, pituitary gland tumors, and aging. Treatment for HGH deficiency typically involves hormone replacement therapy, which involves administering synthetic HGH to replace the naturally occurring hormone in the body.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in the development and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. In females, FSH stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles, which contain eggs. As the follicles mature, they release estrogen, which causes the lining of the uterus to thicken in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, the levels of estrogen and FSH decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and the start of a new menstrual cycle. In males, FSH stimulates the production of sperm in the testes. It also plays a role in the development of the prostate gland and the regulation of testosterone levels. FSH levels can be measured in the blood to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and hypogonadism.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating the function of the thyroid gland, which is responsible for producing hormones that control metabolism in the body. TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones, including thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones regulate the body's metabolism, affecting how the body uses energy and how quickly it burns calories. In the medical field, TSH is often measured as part of routine blood tests to assess thyroid function. Abnormal levels of TSH can indicate a variety of thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid) and hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid). TSH levels can also be affected by other medical conditions, such as pituitary tumors or certain medications.

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate various bodily functions. They are transported through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they bind to specific receptors and trigger a response. Hormones play a crucial role in regulating growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and other essential processes in the body. Examples of hormones include insulin, thyroid hormones, estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. Imbalances in hormone levels can lead to a range of medical conditions, including diabetes, thyroid disorders, infertility, and mood disorders.

Dwarfism, Pituitary is a medical condition characterized by short stature due to a deficiency of growth hormone (GH) or other hormones produced by the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating growth and development in the body. In individuals with dwarfism, pituitary, the pituitary gland fails to produce enough GH, which is necessary for normal growth and development. This can result in a variety of symptoms, including short stature, delayed puberty, and other physical and developmental abnormalities. Dwarfism, pituitary can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, tumors, or damage to the pituitary gland. Treatment for dwarfism, pituitary typically involves hormone replacement therapy to replace the missing hormones and promote normal growth and development. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove tumors or other abnormalities that are causing the deficiency in hormones.

Pituitary Hormone Release Inhibiting Hormones (PIRHs) are hormones that regulate the production and release of other hormones from the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction. PIRHs are produced by other endocrine glands, such as the hypothalamus, and act on the pituitary gland to inhibit the production and release of other hormones. For example, the hypothalamus produces a hormone called thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). However, the pituitary gland also produces a PIRH called thyroid-stimulating hormone-releasing hormone (TSHR), which inhibits the production and release of TSH. Similarly, the hypothalamus produces a hormone called gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce and release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). However, the pituitary gland also produces PIRHs called luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-inhibiting hormone (LHRH-I) and follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing hormone-inhibiting hormone (FSHR-I), which inhibit the production and release of LH and FSH. PIRHs play a critical role in maintaining hormonal balance in the body and ensuring that the appropriate hormones are produced and released at the appropriate times. Disruptions in the production or function of PIRHs can lead to various hormonal imbalances and disorders, such as hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, and infertility.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is a hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that regulates various bodily functions, including reproductive processes. GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating the production of sex hormones by the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males). In females, GnRH stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are essential for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy. In males, GnRH stimulates the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics, sperm production, and muscle mass. GnRH is also used in medical treatments, such as infertility, menopause, and prostate cancer. It is administered as a medication to stimulate the production of FSH and LH, which can help to induce ovulation in women or stimulate sperm production in men. In menopause, GnRH is used to reduce the production of estrogen and testosterone, which can help to alleviate symptoms such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness. In prostate cancer, GnRH is used to reduce the production of testosterone, which can slow the growth of cancer cells.

Gonadotropins, Pituitary are hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland that regulate the function of the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females). These hormones are responsible for controlling the production of sex hormones and the development of secondary sexual characteristics. There are two main types of gonadotropins: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in males and estrogen and progesterone in females. It also triggers ovulation in females. FSH, on the other hand, stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. Gonadotropins, Pituitary are often used in medical treatments to stimulate ovulation in women who are having difficulty conceiving or to treat infertility. They may also be used to treat certain types of cancer, such as prostate cancer or breast cancer.

An adenoma is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor that develops from glandular cells. It is a type of neoplasm, which is an abnormal growth of cells. Adenomas can occur in various parts of the body, including the colon, rectum, breast, thyroid gland, and prostate gland. In the colon and rectum, adenomas are commonly referred to as polyps. They can vary in size and shape and may or may not cause symptoms. However, some adenomas can develop into cancer if left untreated, which is why they are often removed during a colonoscopy or other screening tests. In other parts of the body, adenomas may cause symptoms depending on their location and size. For example, an adenoma in the thyroid gland may cause a goiter, while an adenoma in the prostate gland may cause difficulty urinating. Treatment for adenomas depends on their size, location, and whether they are causing symptoms. Small adenomas may not require treatment, while larger ones may be removed through surgery or other procedures. In some cases, medication may be used to shrink the adenoma or prevent it from growing back.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced by the thyroid gland, a small gland located in the neck. There are two main types of thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones play a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. Thyroxine (T4) is the primary thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It is converted into triiodothyronine (T3) in the body, which is the more active thyroid hormone. T3 and T4 are responsible for regulating the body's metabolism, which is the process by which the body converts food into energy. They also play a role in regulating the body's growth and development, as well as the function of the heart and nervous system. Thyroid hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, which are located in the brain. The hypothalamus produces a hormone called thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce T4 and T3. Abnormal levels of thyroid hormones can lead to a variety of health problems, including hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid hormone), hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone), and thyroid nodules or cancer. Treatment for thyroid disorders typically involves medication to regulate the levels of thyroid hormones in the body.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, and development. TRH is responsible for stimulating the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Thyroid hormones are essential for regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. They help to regulate the body's energy levels, maintain body temperature, and support the growth and development of tissues and organs. TRH is also involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, appetite, and mood. It is often used in medical treatments for conditions such as hypothyroidism, which is a condition characterized by low levels of thyroid hormones, and for disorders of the sleep-wake cycle, such as insomnia.

A prolactinoma is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor that develops in the pituitary gland, which is a small gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland produces several hormones, including prolactin, which is responsible for stimulating milk production in the breasts of women who are breastfeeding or pregnant. Prolactinomas are the most common type of pituitary tumor, accounting for about 40% of all pituitary tumors. They are usually slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body. However, they can cause a variety of symptoms, depending on their size and location. The main symptom of a prolactinoma is an overproduction of prolactin, which can cause irregular menstrual periods, infertility, and breast milk production in women who are not pregnant or breastfeeding. In men, an overproduction of prolactin can cause erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, and infertility. Treatment for prolactinomas typically involves medication to lower prolactin levels and shrink the tumor. In some cases, surgery or radiation therapy may be necessary if the tumor is large or causing severe symptoms.

Pituitary apoplexy is a medical emergency that occurs when there is a sudden and severe disruption of blood flow to the pituitary gland, which is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. This disruption can cause the gland to swell and burst, leading to a variety of symptoms and complications. The most common cause of pituitary apoplexy is a blood clot that forms in the blood vessels that supply blood to the gland. Other possible causes include bleeding within the gland itself, tumors, and head injuries. Symptoms of pituitary apoplexy can include severe headache, nausea and vomiting, double vision, loss of consciousness, and changes in hormone levels. Treatment typically involves surgery to remove the affected portion of the gland, as well as medications to manage symptoms and prevent further complications.

Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) is a peptide hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that regulates various bodily functions, including growth and metabolism. GHRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce and release growth hormone (GH), which is responsible for promoting growth and development in children and maintaining muscle mass and bone density in adults. GHRH is a 44-amino acid peptide that is synthesized and secreted by the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. It acts on the pituitary gland by binding to specific receptors on the surface of the somatotroph cells, which are responsible for producing GH. Once bound to the receptors, GHRH triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the synthesis and release of GH from the pituitary gland. GHRH is also involved in regulating other hormones, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which are also produced by the anterior pituitary gland. In addition, GHRH has been shown to have effects on appetite, metabolism, and body composition. Abnormalities in GHRH production or signaling can lead to various medical conditions, including growth hormone deficiency, acromegaly, and gigantism. Treatment for these conditions may involve the use of GH replacement therapy or medications that target the GHRH signaling pathway.

Pit-1 is a transcription factor that plays a critical role in the development and function of several endocrine glands, including the anterior pituitary gland. It is encoded by the POU1F1 gene and is a member of the POU family of transcription factors. Pit-1 is essential for the development of the anterior pituitary gland, as it regulates the expression of several genes that are necessary for the differentiation and function of pituitary cells. It is also involved in the regulation of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) production. In addition to its role in pituitary gland development and function, Pit-1 has been implicated in the development of several diseases, including pituitary adenomas (benign tumors of the pituitary gland) and acromegaly (a disorder characterized by excessive GH production). Overall, Pit-1 is a critical transcription factor that plays a key role in the development and function of the anterior pituitary gland, and its dysregulation can lead to a variety of endocrine disorders.

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor protein that is synthesized in the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus. It is a large protein that is cleaved into several smaller peptides, including α-MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone), β-endorphin, and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). In the medical field, POMC and its cleavage products are important for regulating various physiological processes, including appetite, metabolism, stress response, and immune function. For example, α-MSH is involved in the regulation of skin pigmentation and the body's response to stress, while β-endorphin is a natural painkiller that is involved in the body's response to stress and pain. Abnormalities in the production or function of POMC and its cleavage products can lead to various medical conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and adrenal insufficiency. Therefore, POMC and its cleavage products are the subject of ongoing research in the medical field, with the goal of developing new treatments for these conditions.

Adenoma, Basophil is a type of benign (non-cancerous) tumor that arises from the cells of the endocrine glands. It is characterized by the presence of basophilic cells, which are cells that contain large amounts of a pigment called basophilic granules. Basophilic adenomas are typically small and slow-growing, and they may occur in a variety of endocrine glands, including the thyroid gland, the parathyroid gland, and the adrenal gland. They are usually asymptomatic, meaning that they do not cause any symptoms, and they are often discovered incidentally during imaging studies for other conditions. Treatment for basophilic adenomas typically involves surgical removal of the tumor. In some cases, medication may be used to manage symptoms or to shrink the tumor before surgery. Overall, basophilic adenomas are considered to be relatively benign and are not typically associated with an increased risk of cancer.

Pituitary Hormone-Releasing Hormones (PRHs) are a group of hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls many of the body's hormonal and metabolic processes. These hormones stimulate the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain, to produce and release other hormones that regulate various bodily functions. There are several different types of PRHs, including thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), and somatostatin-releasing hormone (SRH). Each of these hormones has a specific target hormone that it stimulates the pituitary gland to produce. For example, TRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. CRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol. GnRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are important for reproductive function. GHRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth hormone (GH), which is important for growth and development. SRH inhibits the production of several hormones, including GH and TSH. PRHs play a critical role in regulating many bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. Imbalances in the production or function of PRHs can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hypothyroidism, Addison's disease, hypogonadism, dwarfism, and acromegaly.

Gonadal steroid hormones are hormones produced by the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) that regulate sexual development and reproductive function. These hormones include testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial hair and a deep voice. Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone and is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and a wider pelvis. Progesterone is a hormone that helps regulate the menstrual cycle and prepare the uterus for pregnancy. Gonadal steroid hormones also play a role in other bodily functions, such as bone health, mood regulation, and immune system function. Imbalances in these hormones can lead to a variety of health problems, including infertility, menstrual disorders, and sexual dysfunction.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the menstrual cycle, sperm production, and the development of ovarian follicles. The beta subunit of FSH is a protein that is common to all glycoprotein hormones, including FSH, luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The beta subunit is responsible for binding to the specific receptors on the target cells, allowing the hormone to exert its effects.

Septo-Optic Dysplasia (SOD) is a rare congenital disorder that affects the development of the optic nerve and the septum pellucidum, which is a thin membrane that separates the left and right halves of the brain. The condition is characterized by a range of symptoms that can vary widely depending on the severity of the disorder. The most common symptoms of SOD include: 1. Abnormalities of the optic nerve, which can lead to vision loss or blindness. 2. Abnormalities of the pituitary gland, which can lead to hormonal imbalances and other health problems. 3. Abnormalities of the septum pellucidum, which can lead to hydrocephalus (an accumulation of fluid in the brain) or other neurological problems. SOD is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and genetic testing. Treatment for SOD depends on the specific symptoms and underlying causes of the disorder, and may include medications, surgery, or other interventions.

Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide that plays a role in various physiological processes in the body, including the regulation of hormone secretion, metabolism, and pain perception. It is synthesized in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream, where it acts on receptors in various tissues throughout the body. PACAP has been shown to stimulate the release of several hormones from the pituitary gland, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone (GH), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). It also has effects on the cardiovascular system, where it can cause vasodilation and lower blood pressure. In addition to its physiological effects, PACAP has been implicated in various diseases and disorders, including depression, anxiety, and pain. It is also being studied as a potential therapeutic target for these conditions.

Thyroxine, also known as T4, is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland in the neck. It plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. In the medical field, thyroxine is often prescribed to treat hypothyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones. In this case, thyroxine is given to replace the missing hormone and help restore normal metabolic function. Thyroxine is also used to treat certain types of thyroid cancer, as well as to prevent the recurrence of thyroid cancer after surgery. In some cases, thyroxine may be used to treat other conditions, such as Turner syndrome, a genetic disorder that affects females. Thyroxine is typically taken orally in the form of a tablet or liquid, and the dosage is adjusted based on the patient's individual needs and response to treatment. It is important to follow the instructions provided by a healthcare provider when taking thyroxine, as taking too much or too little can have serious consequences.

Hyperprolactinemia is a medical condition characterized by abnormally high levels of prolactin in the blood. Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating milk production in women after childbirth and in stimulating breast development in infants. In women, hyperprolactinemia can cause a variety of symptoms, including irregular menstrual periods, infertility, and galactorrhea (abnormal milk production). In men, it can cause erectile dysfunction, decreased libido, and infertility. Hyperprolactinemia can be caused by a variety of factors, including certain medications, pituitary tumors, hypothyroidism, and stress. Treatment for hyperprolactinemia depends on the underlying cause and may include medication, surgery, or radiation therapy.

Hydrocortisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone that is used in the medical field to treat a variety of conditions. It is a potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agent that can help reduce inflammation, swelling, and redness in the body. Hydrocortisone is also used to treat conditions such as allergies, asthma, eczema, and psoriasis, as well as to reduce the symptoms of adrenal insufficiency, a condition in which the body does not produce enough of the hormone cortisol. It is available in a variety of forms, including oral tablets, topical creams, and injections.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) is a peptide hormone that is produced by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in the brain. It plays a key role in the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which is responsible for the body's response to stress. CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol. Cortisol is a stress hormone that helps the body respond to physical and emotional stress by increasing blood sugar levels, suppressing the immune system, and increasing blood pressure. CRH is also involved in other physiological processes, such as the regulation of appetite, metabolism, and the sleep-wake cycle. It is synthesized and secreted in response to stress, both physical and psychological, and plays a role in the body's response to trauma, illness, and other stressful events. In the medical field, CRH is used as a diagnostic tool to evaluate the function of the HPA axis and to diagnose certain disorders, such as Cushing's disease, which is characterized by excessive cortisol production. It is also used in research to study the effects of stress on the body and to develop new treatments for stress-related disorders.

LIM-homeodomain proteins are a family of transcription factors that play important roles in the development and differentiation of various tissues and organs in the body. They are characterized by the presence of two zinc-finger domains, known as the LIM domains, which are responsible for DNA binding and protein-protein interactions. LIM-homeodomain proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including cell migration, differentiation, and proliferation. They are expressed in many different tissues and organs, including the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle, and are involved in the development of these tissues. Mutations in LIM-homeodomain proteins have been linked to a number of human diseases, including limb malformations, cardiac defects, and certain types of cancer. Understanding the function and regulation of these proteins is therefore important for the development of new treatments for these diseases.

Glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit are a group of hormones that are composed of two subunits: an alpha subunit and a hormone-specific beta subunit. The alpha subunit is a common component of several different glycoprotein hormones, including follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The alpha subunit is encoded by a single gene and is synthesized in the pituitary gland. It is then cleaved from the larger glycoprotein hormone molecule, leaving behind the hormone-specific beta subunit. The alpha subunit is responsible for binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, allowing the hormone-specific beta subunit to exert its effects. Glycoprotein hormones, alpha subunit are important regulators of various physiological processes, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction. They are often used as diagnostic markers in medical testing and are also used in the treatment of various medical conditions, such as infertility and thyroid disorders.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone produced by the parathyroid glands, which are four small glands located in the neck, near the thyroid gland. PTH plays a crucial role in regulating the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the body. PTH acts on the bones, kidneys, and intestines to increase the levels of calcium in the blood. It stimulates the release of calcium from the bones into the bloodstream, increases the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys, and promotes the absorption of calcium from the intestines. PTH also plays a role in regulating the levels of phosphorus in the body. It stimulates the kidneys to excrete phosphorus in the urine, which helps to maintain the proper balance of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. Abnormal levels of PTH can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hyperparathyroidism (too much PTH), hypoparathyroidism (too little PTH), and parathyroid cancer. Hyperparathyroidism can cause osteoporosis, kidney stones, and other complications, while hypoparathyroidism can lead to muscle cramps, seizures, and other symptoms.

Craniopharyngioma is a rare, slow-growing benign tumor that develops in the craniopharyngeal region, which is the area where the brain meets the pituitary gland. It is classified into two types: adamantinomatous and papillary. The tumor can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, vision problems, hormonal imbalances, and changes in appetite and weight. It can also cause fluid buildup in the brain, leading to increased pressure and potentially life-threatening complications. Treatment options for craniopharyngioma include surgery, radiation therapy, and medication to manage symptoms. The choice of treatment depends on the size and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences.

Estradiol is a naturally occurring hormone that is produced by the ovaries in females and by the testes in males. It is a type of estrogen, which is a group of hormones that play a key role in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system, as well as in the maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in both males and females. Estradiol is a potent estrogen and is one of the most biologically active forms of estrogen in the body. It is involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including the regulation of the menstrual cycle, the development of female sexual characteristics, and the maintenance of bone density. Estradiol also plays a role in the regulation of the cardiovascular system, the brain, and the immune system. Estradiol is used in medicine to treat a variety of conditions, including menopause, osteoporosis, and certain types of breast cancer. It is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, patches, and gels, and is typically administered by mouth or applied to the skin. It is important to note that estradiol can have side effects, and its use should be carefully monitored by a healthcare provider.

Testosterone is a hormone that is primarily produced in the testicles in males and in smaller amounts in the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. It is responsible for the development of male sexual characteristics, such as the growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice, and muscle mass. Testosterone also plays a role in bone density, red blood cell production, and the regulation of the body's metabolism. In the medical field, testosterone is often used to treat conditions related to low testosterone levels, such as hypogonadism (a condition in which the body does not produce enough testosterone), delayed puberty, and certain types of breast cancer in men. It can also be used to treat conditions related to low estrogen levels in women, such as osteoporosis and menopause symptoms. Testosterone therapy can be administered in various forms, including injections, gels, patches, and pellets. However, it is important to note that testosterone therapy can have side effects, such as acne, hair loss, and an increased risk of blood clots, and should only be prescribed by a healthcare professional.

Adrenal insufficiency is a medical condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce enough of certain hormones, specifically cortisol and aldosterone. The adrenal glands are small endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys, and they play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, blood pressure, and the stress response. There are two main types of adrenal insufficiency: primary and secondary. Primary adrenal insufficiency, also known as Addison's disease, is caused by damage to the adrenal glands themselves, usually due to an autoimmune response or an infection. Secondary adrenal insufficiency, on the other hand, is caused by a problem with the pituitary gland or hypothalamus, which are responsible for regulating the production of hormones by the adrenal glands. Symptoms of adrenal insufficiency can include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, low blood pressure, dizziness, and nausea. In severe cases, it can lead to shock and even death if not properly treated. Treatment typically involves hormone replacement therapy to replace the missing hormones, as well as addressing any underlying causes of the condition.

Adenoma, Acidophil is a type of benign (non-cancerous) tumor that develops in the glands of the digestive system, particularly in the stomach. It is characterized by the presence of acid-secreting cells, which are responsible for producing hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Acidophilic adenomas are typically small and asymptomatic, meaning they do not cause any noticeable symptoms. However, in some cases, they can grow larger and cause problems such as stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, and difficulty swallowing. Treatment for acidophilic adenomas usually involves surgical removal, although in some cases, they may be monitored with regular endoscopy to ensure they do not grow or cause any complications.

Central Nervous System (CNS) cysts are fluid-filled sacs that develop within the brain or spinal cord. They can be congenital, meaning present at birth, or acquired later in life. CNS cysts can be classified as either non-neoplastic or neoplastic, depending on whether they are benign or cancerous. Non-neoplastic CNS cysts are more common and include arachnoid cysts, dermoid cysts, and epidermoid cysts. These cysts are usually asymptomatic and do not require treatment unless they cause symptoms or become infected. Neoplastic CNS cysts are less common and include cystic brain tumors such as cystic astrocytomas, cystic meningiomas, and cystic gliomas. These cysts are usually treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy, depending on the type and location of the cyst. CNS cysts can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, seizures, difficulty with balance and coordination, and changes in mental function. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment options depend on the type, size, and location of the cyst, as well as the patient's overall health and symptoms.

Hypogonadism is a medical condition characterized by a deficiency in the production of sex hormones, such as testosterone in males and estrogen and progesterone in females, by the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males). This deficiency can result in a range of symptoms, including decreased libido, infertility, fatigue, weight gain, and osteoporosis. Hypogonadism can be primary, meaning that the gonads themselves are not functioning properly, or secondary, meaning that the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, which control the production of sex hormones, are not functioning properly. Causes of primary hypogonadism include genetic disorders, such as Klinefelter syndrome in males and Turner syndrome in females, as well as damage to the gonads due to injury, infection, or cancer treatment. Causes of secondary hypogonadism include pituitary tumors, chronic illnesses, and certain medications. Treatment for hypogonadism depends on the underlying cause and may include hormone replacement therapy, fertility treatments, or surgery.

Diabetes insipidus, neurogenic, is a rare condition that occurs when the body is unable to produce enough of a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or when the body is unable to respond to ADH properly. ADH is produced by the hypothalamus, a part of the brain, and helps regulate the body's water balance by controlling the amount of water that is reabsorbed by the kidneys. In neurogenic diabetes insipidus, the problem is caused by damage to the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland, which is responsible for producing and releasing ADH. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including head injury, infection, tumors, or certain medications. Symptoms of neurogenic diabetes insipidus include excessive thirst and urination, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances. Treatment typically involves replacing the missing ADH with synthetic forms of the hormone, such as desmopressin.

Endocrine system diseases refer to disorders that affect the endocrine glands and the hormones they produce. The endocrine system is responsible for regulating various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction. Endocrine system diseases can be classified into two main categories: endocrine disorders and endocrine tumors. Endocrine disorders are conditions in which the endocrine glands produce too much or too little of a hormone, leading to imbalances in the body's chemical processes. Examples of endocrine disorders include diabetes, thyroid disorders, and Cushing's syndrome. Endocrine tumors, on the other hand, are abnormal growths of cells in the endocrine glands. These tumors can produce too much or too little of a hormone, leading to similar symptoms as endocrine disorders. Examples of endocrine tumors include pituitary adenomas, thyroid nodules, and adrenal gland tumors. Endocrine system diseases can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life and can lead to serious health complications if left untreated. Treatment options for endocrine system diseases depend on the specific condition and may include medication, surgery, or other therapies.

Hypothyroidism is a medical condition in which the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones. The thyroid gland is a small gland located in the neck that plays a crucial role in regulating the body's metabolism. When the thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones, the body's metabolism slows down, leading to a range of symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, dry skin, hair loss, constipation, and depression. Hypothyroidism can be caused by a variety of factors, including autoimmune disorders, iodine deficiency, radiation therapy, surgery, and certain medications. It is typically diagnosed through blood tests that measure the levels of thyroid hormones in the body. Treatment for hypothyroidism typically involves taking synthetic thyroid hormone medication to replace the hormones that the body is not producing enough of. With proper treatment, most people with hypothyroidism can manage their symptoms and live normal, healthy lives.

Receptors, Pituitary Hormone are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to specific hormones produced by the pituitary gland. These hormones include growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin (PRL). When these hormones bind to their respective receptors, they trigger a series of chemical reactions within the cell that ultimately lead to changes in cell function and behavior. For example, GH receptors stimulate growth and cell division, while TSH receptors stimulate the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Understanding the function and regulation of pituitary hormone receptors is important for understanding the normal functioning of the endocrine system and for diagnosing and treating disorders related to pituitary hormone imbalances.

Hypothalamic diseases refer to disorders that affect the hypothalamus, a small but crucial region of the brain that plays a vital role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, appetite, thirst, body temperature, and sleep. The hypothalamus is also responsible for controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, which in turn regulates other endocrine glands in the body. Hypothalamic diseases can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, infections, trauma, tumors, and autoimmune disorders. Some common examples of hypothalamic diseases include: 1. Hypothalamic obesity: A condition characterized by excessive weight gain due to hormonal imbalances in the hypothalamus. 2. Hypothalamic amenorrhea: A condition in which menstrual periods stop due to hormonal imbalances in the hypothalamus. 3. Hypothalamic diabetes insipidus: A condition characterized by excessive thirst and urination due to a deficiency of the hormone vasopressin, which is produced by the hypothalamus. 4. Hypothalamic hypopituitarism: A condition in which the pituitary gland fails to produce one or more of its hormones due to damage to the hypothalamus. 5. Hypothalamic tumors: Tumors that develop in the hypothalamus can cause a variety of symptoms, including hormonal imbalances, changes in appetite and weight, and neurological problems. Treatment for hypothalamic diseases depends on the underlying cause and the specific symptoms experienced by the patient. In some cases, hormone replacement therapy may be necessary to correct hormonal imbalances. In other cases, surgery or radiation therapy may be used to treat tumors or other structural abnormalities in the hypothalamus.

Receptors, Thyroid Hormone are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to thyroid hormones, such as thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones are produced by the thyroid gland and play a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development. When thyroid hormones bind to their receptors, they trigger a cascade of chemical reactions within the cell that ultimately leads to changes in gene expression and cellular function. There are two main types of thyroid hormone receptors: alpha (α) and beta (β). The α receptor is found primarily in the liver, heart, and skeletal muscle, while the β receptor is found in almost all tissues in the body. Thyroid hormone receptors can be activated by both T4 and T3, but T3 is generally more potent than T4. In addition, thyroid hormones can also bind to other receptors, such as the nuclear receptor superfamily, which can modulate their effects on gene expression. Abnormalities in thyroid hormone receptor function can lead to a variety of health problems, including thyroid disorders such as hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism, as well as other conditions such as cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis.

In the medical field, RNA, Messenger (mRNA) refers to a type of RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus of a cell to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized. During the process of transcription, the DNA sequence of a gene is copied into a complementary RNA sequence called messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds to ribosomes and serves as a template for the synthesis of a specific protein. The sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein that is synthesized. Therefore, changes in the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule can result in changes in the amino acid sequence of the protein, which can affect the function of the protein and potentially lead to disease. mRNA molecules are often used in medical research and therapy as a way to introduce new genetic information into cells. For example, mRNA vaccines work by introducing a small piece of mRNA that encodes for a specific protein, which triggers an immune response in the body.

Growth Hormone-Secreting Pituitary Adenoma, also known as acromegaly, is a rare hormonal disorder that occurs when the pituitary gland produces excessive amounts of growth hormone (GH). The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain that produces hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth and development. In individuals with acromegaly, the excess GH causes the bones and soft tissues to grow abnormally, leading to a variety of physical and health problems. Common symptoms of acromegaly include enlargement of the hands and feet, thickening of the skin, joint pain, and excessive sweating. The condition can also lead to other health problems, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and sleep apnea. Treatment for acromegaly typically involves surgery to remove the pituitary adenoma, followed by medication to control GH production. In some cases, radiation therapy may also be used to shrink the tumor. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications and improve outcomes for individuals with acromegaly.

In the medical field, "ether" typically refers to diethyl ether, which is a type of inhalation anesthetic that was widely used in the past for general anesthesia. Diethyl ether is a colorless, flammable liquid with a sweet odor that evaporates easily. When inhaled, it causes unconsciousness and a loss of pain sensation, making it useful for surgical procedures. However, diethyl ether has been largely replaced by other anesthetics that are safer and more effective. It is still used in some medical settings, such as veterinary medicine and dentistry, but its use is limited due to its potential for serious side effects, including respiratory depression, cardiac arrhythmias, and central nervous system damage.

Progesterone is a hormone that plays a crucial role in the female reproductive system. It is produced by the ovaries and the placenta during pregnancy and is responsible for preparing the uterus for pregnancy and maintaining the pregnancy. Progesterone also helps to regulate the menstrual cycle and can be used as a contraceptive. In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone has a number of other effects on the body. It can help to reduce inflammation, promote bone density, and regulate mood. Progesterone is also used in medical treatment for a variety of conditions, including menopause, osteoporosis, and certain types of breast cancer. Progesterone is available as a medication in a variety of forms, including oral tablets, injections, and creams. It is important to note that progesterone can have side effects, including nausea, dizziness, and mood changes. It is important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of using progesterone with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Pituitary ACTH hypersecretion is a medical condition in which the pituitary gland produces excessive amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This can lead to an overproduction of cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which can cause a variety of symptoms and health problems. There are several potential causes of pituitary ACTH hypersecretion, including: * Cushing's disease: This is the most common cause of pituitary ACTH hypersecretion. It is caused by a benign tumor (adenoma) in the pituitary gland that produces excess ACTH. * Ectopic ACTH syndrome: This is a rare condition in which ACTH is produced by a tumor outside of the pituitary gland, such as in the lungs, thymus, or pancreas. * Primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD): This is a rare genetic disorder that causes the adrenal glands to produce excess ACTH. Symptoms of pituitary ACTH hypersecretion may include: * Weight gain, particularly around the abdomen * Fatigue * Muscle weakness * High blood pressure * High blood sugar * Osteoporosis * Thinning of the skin and easy bruising * Depression or irritability Treatment for pituitary ACTH hypersecretion depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, surgery to remove the tumor causing the excess ACTH production may be necessary. Medications may also be used to help control cortisol levels and manage symptoms. In some cases, radiation therapy may be used to shrink the tumor or control its growth.

Receptors, Prolactin are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to the hormone prolactin and initiate a response within the cell. Prolactin is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that plays a role in lactation and breast development, as well as other functions such as immune system regulation and bone metabolism. The binding of prolactin to its receptors can stimulate the production of milk in the mammary glands, as well as other cellular responses depending on the type of cell and tissue involved.

An ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma is a type of benign tumor that develops in the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. This type of adenoma produces excess amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a hormone that regulates metabolism and the body's response to stress. The overproduction of cortisol in individuals with an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma can lead to a variety of symptoms, including weight gain, high blood pressure, muscle weakness, fatigue, and mood changes. In some cases, the excess cortisol production can also cause the skin to become thin and fragile, and the bones to become weak and brittle. Treatment for an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma typically involves surgery to remove the tumor, followed by medication to manage any remaining symptoms or to prevent the tumor from growing back. In some cases, radiation therapy may also be used to treat the tumor.

Dwarfism is a medical condition characterized by short stature, which is defined as an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches (147 centimeters) or less for males and 4 feet 6 inches (137 centimeters) or less for females. Dwarfism can be caused by a variety of genetic and non-genetic factors, including chromosomal abnormalities, hormonal imbalances, and skeletal dysplasias. There are over 200 different types of dwarfism, each with its own specific genetic cause and set of symptoms. Some forms of dwarfism are inherited, while others are caused by random genetic mutations or environmental factors. Individuals with dwarfism may also experience other health problems, such as joint pain, vision and hearing problems, and an increased risk of certain medical conditions, such as diabetes and heart disease. Treatment for dwarfism typically involves addressing any underlying health issues and providing supportive care to help individuals with dwarfism live healthy, fulfilling lives. This may include physical therapy, orthopedic surgery, and hormone replacement therapy.

Somatostatin is a hormone that is produced by the pancreas and the hypothalamus in the brain. It is also known as growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) or somatotropin release-inhibiting hormone (SRIF). Somatostatin plays a role in regulating the release of other hormones, including growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and insulin. It also has a role in controlling the digestive system, as it can inhibit the release of digestive enzymes and slow down the movement of food through the digestive tract. In the medical field, somatostatin is used to treat a variety of conditions, including acromegaly (a condition in which the body produces too much growth hormone), carcinoid syndrome (a condition in which the body produces too much serotonin), and certain types of diarrhea. It is also being studied for its potential use in treating other conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease and cancer.

Triiodothyronine, also known as T3, is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. T3 is synthesized from thyroxine (T4), another thyroid hormone, by removing an iodine atom from each of the three iodine atoms in T4. In the medical field, T3 is often measured as a diagnostic tool to evaluate thyroid function. Abnormal levels of T3 can indicate a variety of thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone levels) and hyperthyroidism (high thyroid hormone levels). T3 levels may also be monitored in patients with certain conditions, such as heart disease, to assess their overall health and response to treatment.

Chromogranins are a family of proteins that are synthesized and stored in secretory granules of endocrine and neuroendocrine cells. They are composed of multiple tandem repeats of a basic amino acid-rich domain, and are involved in various cellular processes such as exocytosis, cell signaling, and regulation of enzyme activity. In the medical field, chromogranins are often used as markers for neuroendocrine tumors, as they are overexpressed in many of these tumors. They are also used as diagnostic tools for various conditions, including pheochromocytoma, carcinoid syndrome, and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Additionally, chromogranins have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders.

Receptors, LHRH (Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone Receptors) are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to and respond to Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), also known as Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH). These receptors are primarily located in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads (ovaries and testes) and play a crucial role in regulating the production and release of hormones in the endocrine system. LHRH is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which in turn regulate the reproductive system. When LHRH binds to its receptors on these cells, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the production and release of LH and FSH. Receptors, LHRH are also found in other tissues throughout the body, including the breast, prostate, and uterus, where they may play a role in regulating other physiological processes. Disruptions in the function or expression of LHRH receptors can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including infertility, menstrual disorders, and prostate cancer.

Insulin-like Growth Factor I (IGF-I) is a protein hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating growth and development in humans and other animals. It is produced by the liver, as well as by other tissues such as the kidneys, muscles, and bones. IGF-I has insulin-like effects on cells, promoting the uptake of glucose and the synthesis of proteins. It also stimulates the growth and differentiation of various cell types, including muscle cells, bone cells, and cartilage cells. In the medical field, IGF-I is often used as a diagnostic tool to measure growth hormone (GH) levels in patients with growth disorders or other conditions that affect GH production. It is also used as a treatment for certain conditions, such as growth hormone deficiency, Turner syndrome, and short stature. However, excessive levels of IGF-I have been linked to an increased risk of certain cancers, such as colon cancer and breast cancer, and it is therefore important to monitor IGF-I levels carefully in patients with these conditions.

Neuropeptides are small, protein-like molecules that are synthesized and secreted by neurons in the nervous system. They play a variety of roles in regulating and modulating various physiological processes, including mood, appetite, pain perception, and hormone release. Neuropeptides are typically composed of 3-50 amino acids and are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum of neurons. They are then transported to the synaptic terminals, where they are released into the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron or on other cells in the body. There are many different types of neuropeptides, each with its own unique structure and function. Some examples of neuropeptides include dopamine, serotonin, and opioid peptides such as endorphins. Neuropeptides can act as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, or hormones, and they play important roles in both the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Gonadotropins are hormones that are produced by the anterior pituitary gland and regulate the function of the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females). There are two main types of gonadotropins: luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in males and estrogen and progesterone in females. It also triggers ovulation in females. FSH stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. It also plays a role in regulating the menstrual cycle in females. Gonadotropins are often used in medical treatments to stimulate ovulation in women who are having difficulty conceiving or to treat infertility. They may also be used to treat certain hormone imbalances, such as hypogonadism (low levels of sex hormones) or polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

Homeodomain proteins are a class of transcription factors that play a crucial role in the development and differentiation of cells and tissues in animals. They are characterized by a highly conserved DNA-binding domain called the homeodomain, which allows them to recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences. Homeodomain proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including embryonic development, tissue differentiation, and organogenesis. They regulate the expression of genes that are essential for these processes by binding to specific DNA sequences and either activating or repressing the transcription of target genes. There are many different types of homeodomain proteins, each with its own unique function and target genes. Some examples of homeodomain proteins include the Hox genes, which are involved in the development of the body plan in animals, and the Pax genes, which are involved in the development of the nervous system. Mutations in homeodomain proteins can lead to a variety of developmental disorders, including congenital malformations and intellectual disabilities. Understanding the function and regulation of homeodomain proteins is therefore important for the development of new treatments for these conditions.

Growth disorders refer to conditions that affect the growth and development of an individual. These disorders can affect the rate of growth, the pattern of growth, or the final height of an individual. Growth disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic, hormonal, nutritional, or environmental factors. Some common examples of growth disorders include: 1. Dwarfism: A condition characterized by short stature due to genetic or hormonal factors. 2. Turner Syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects females and is characterized by short stature, infertility, and other physical and developmental abnormalities. 3. Marfan Syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects connective tissue and can cause tall stature, skeletal abnormalities, and cardiovascular problems. 4. Growth Hormone Deficiency: A condition in which the body does not produce enough growth hormone, which can lead to short stature and other physical and developmental abnormalities. 5. Prader-Willi Syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects the brain and body and is characterized by short stature, obesity, and other physical and behavioral abnormalities. Treatment for growth disorders depends on the underlying cause and may include hormone therapy, surgery, or other medical interventions. In some cases, growth hormone therapy can be used to stimulate growth in individuals with growth hormone deficiency.

Corticosterone is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in response to stress. It plays a key role in the body's stress response and helps regulate metabolism, immune function, and blood pressure. Corticosterone is also involved in the development and maintenance of bone tissue, and it has anti-inflammatory effects. In the medical field, corticosterone is used to treat a variety of conditions, including adrenal insufficiency, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. It is available as a prescription medication and is typically administered orally or by injection.

Receptors, Pituitary Hormone-Regulating Hormone (RH-RH) are a type of protein receptor found in the pituitary gland that are activated by the hormone called "Releasing Hormone" (RH). RH-RH receptors are responsible for regulating the production and release of various hormones from the pituitary gland, including growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. These hormones play important roles in regulating various bodily functions, such as growth, metabolism, and stress response. Dysfunction of RH-RH receptors can lead to various medical conditions, including hypopituitarism and acromegaly.

Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy. It is responsible for maintaining the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone to support the pregnancy. hCG is also used as a diagnostic tool in medicine to detect pregnancy, as well as to monitor the progress of the pregnancy and detect any potential complications. In some cases, hCG may also be used to treat certain medical conditions, such as certain types of cancer.

Luteinizing Hormone, beta Subunit (LH beta) is a protein subunit that is a component of the luteinizing hormone (LH) molecule. LH is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that plays a key role in regulating the reproductive system in both males and females. In males, LH stimulates the production of testosterone by the Leydig cells of the testes. In females, LH triggers ovulation and stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries. LH beta is one of two subunits that make up the LH molecule, the other being the alpha subunit. The beta subunit is responsible for binding to receptors on the target cells and initiating the signaling cascade that leads to the physiological effects of LH. LH beta is also used as a diagnostic marker in various medical conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), hypogonadism, and pituitary disorders.

Acromegaly is a rare hormonal disorder that occurs when the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone (GH). This excess GH causes the body's tissues to grow abnormally, leading to a variety of physical and health problems. The most noticeable physical changes associated with acromegaly are the enlargement of the hands, feet, and facial features, particularly the nose, lips, and jaw. Other symptoms may include joint pain, thickening of the skin, excessive sweating, and sleep apnea. Acromegaly is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, blood tests to measure GH levels, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans to visualize the pituitary gland. Treatment options for acromegaly may include surgery to remove the pituitary tumor, radiation therapy, and medications to lower GH levels. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent complications and improve quality of life for individuals with acromegaly.

Adenoma, Chromophobe is a type of benign (non-cancerous) tumor that develops in the adrenal gland. It is characterized by the absence of pigmentation, which is why it is called "chromophobe." Adenomas are usually small and grow slowly, and they are often discovered incidentally during imaging studies for other conditions. They can cause hormonal imbalances, such as high blood pressure or diabetes, if they produce excess hormones. Treatment for adenomas, chromophobe is usually surgical removal, although in some cases, medication may be used to control hormone production. The prognosis for people with adenomas, chromophobe is generally good, as they are not cancerous and do not spread to other parts of the body.

Fish proteins are the proteins that are derived from fish. They are a rich source of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, and are often used in medical nutrition to provide nutritional support for people with various medical conditions, such as malnutrition, cancer, and kidney disease. Fish proteins are also used in the production of various medical products, such as wound dressings, tissue engineering scaffolds, and drug delivery systems. They have been shown to have anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antitumor properties, and are being studied for their potential use in the treatment of various diseases. In the medical field, fish proteins are often used as a dietary supplement or as an ingredient in medical foods and supplements. They are typically consumed in the form of fish oil, fish meal, or fish protein powder.

Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide (PACAP) are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in various tissues throughout the body. PACAP is a neuropeptide that plays a role in regulating a variety of physiological processes, including metabolism, blood pressure, and immune function. PACAP receptors are activated by the binding of PACAP to the receptor, which triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression and cellular function. In the pituitary gland, PACAP receptors are involved in the regulation of hormone secretion, including the release of growth hormone and prolactin. PACAP receptors have also been implicated in a number of neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. In addition, PACAP and its receptors have been shown to play a role in the regulation of pain perception and the immune response. Overall, the PACAP receptor system is an important target for the development of new therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases and conditions.

Hypothalamic hormones are hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus, a small region of the brain that plays a critical role in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, and reproduction. The hypothalamus produces several hormones that are involved in regulating the endocrine system, which is responsible for producing and secreting hormones throughout the body. Some of the most well-known hypothalamic hormones include: 1. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): This hormone stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. 2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): This hormone stimulates the pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which in turn stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol. 3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): This hormone stimulates the pituitary gland to produce follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are involved in regulating the reproductive system. 4. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): This hormone stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth hormone (GH), which is involved in regulating growth and development. 5. Somatostatin: This hormone inhibits the production of several hormones, including GH, TSH, and ACTH. Hypothalamic hormones play a critical role in regulating various bodily functions, and imbalances in these hormones can lead to a range of health problems, including metabolic disorders, reproductive disorders, and endocrine disorders.

Transcription factors are proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences and controlling the transcription of genetic information from DNA to RNA. They play a crucial role in the development and function of cells and tissues in the body. In the medical field, transcription factors are often studied as potential targets for the treatment of diseases such as cancer, where their activity is often dysregulated. For example, some transcription factors are overexpressed in certain types of cancer cells, and inhibiting their activity may help to slow or stop the growth of these cells. Transcription factors are also important in the development of stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types. By understanding how transcription factors regulate gene expression in stem cells, researchers may be able to develop new therapies for diseases such as diabetes and heart disease. Overall, transcription factors are a critical component of gene regulation and have important implications for the development and treatment of many diseases.

In the medical field, "Cells, Cultured" refers to cells that have been grown and maintained in a controlled environment outside of their natural biological context, typically in a laboratory setting. This process is known as cell culture and involves the isolation of cells from a tissue or organism, followed by their growth and proliferation in a nutrient-rich medium. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including human or animal tissues, and can be used for a wide range of applications in medicine and research. For example, cultured cells can be used to study the behavior and function of specific cell types, to develop new drugs and therapies, and to test the safety and efficacy of medical products. Cultured cells can be grown in various types of containers, such as flasks or Petri dishes, and can be maintained at different temperatures and humidity levels to optimize their growth and survival. The medium used to culture cells typically contains a combination of nutrients, growth factors, and other substances that support cell growth and proliferation. Overall, the use of cultured cells has revolutionized medical research and has led to many important discoveries and advancements in the field of medicine.

Melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) are a group of peptides that are produced by the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus in the brain. They play a role in regulating the production of melanin, a pigment that gives color to the skin, hair, and eyes. MSH also has other functions, such as regulating appetite, metabolism, and stress response. There are two main types of MSH: alpha-MSH and beta-MSH. Alpha-MSH is the more potent of the two and is responsible for stimulating the production of melanin. Beta-MSH has a weaker effect on melanin production and is primarily involved in regulating appetite and metabolism. MSH is produced by specialized cells in the brain called melanotrophs, which are located in the anterior pituitary gland. These cells release MSH into the bloodstream, where it travels to the skin and other organs to exert its effects. Abnormalities in MSH production or function can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including skin disorders, obesity, and mood disorders. For example, a deficiency in MSH can cause albinism, a genetic disorder characterized by a lack of pigmentation in the skin, hair, and eyes. On the other hand, an excess of MSH can lead to excessive pigmentation, which can cause skin discoloration and other skin problems.

Juvenile hormones are a class of hormones that are produced by the endocrine glands of insects. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating the development and growth of insects, particularly during their larval stage. In insects, juvenile hormones are produced by the corpora allata, a gland located in the head of the insect. These hormones are transported to the target tissues, where they bind to specific receptors and initiate a cascade of signaling events that regulate various aspects of insect development, including growth, molting, and metamorphosis. Juvenile hormones are also involved in regulating the reproductive development of insects. In some species, they can stimulate the development of reproductive organs and the production of sex hormones, while in others, they can inhibit these processes. In the medical field, juvenile hormones have been studied for their potential use in controlling insect populations and as a source of therapeutic compounds. For example, some juvenile hormones have been shown to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties, and they are being investigated as potential treatments for these conditions.

The adrenal glands are two small endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys in the human body. They are responsible for producing a variety of hormones that play important roles in regulating various bodily functions, including metabolism, blood pressure, and the stress response. The adrenal glands are composed of two main parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex produces hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens, which help regulate metabolism, blood pressure, and the body's response to stress. The adrenal medulla, on the other hand, produces hormones such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, which help the body respond to stress by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. In the medical field, the adrenal glands are often studied and monitored for a variety of conditions, including adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, and pheochromocytoma. These conditions can result from problems with the production or regulation of hormones by the adrenal glands, and can have a significant impact on a person's overall health and well-being.

Peptide hormones are a type of hormone that are composed of chains of amino acids. They are synthesized in the endocrine glands and are released into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions. Peptide hormones are involved in a wide range of processes, including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and the regulation of the body's response to stress. Examples of peptide hormones include insulin, growth hormone, and thyroid-stimulating hormone. These hormones act on specific receptors in target cells to produce their effects, and they are often regulated by feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis in the body.

In the medical field, an amino acid sequence refers to the linear order of amino acids in a protein molecule. Proteins are made up of chains of amino acids, and the specific sequence of these amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. The amino acid sequence is determined by the genetic code, which is a set of rules that specifies how the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids in a protein. Each amino acid is represented by a three-letter code, and the sequence of these codes is the amino acid sequence of the protein. The amino acid sequence is important because it determines the protein's three-dimensional structure, which in turn determines its function. Small changes in the amino acid sequence can have significant effects on the protein's structure and function, and this can lead to diseases or disorders. For example, mutations in the amino acid sequence of a protein involved in blood clotting can lead to bleeding disorders.

In the medical field, a base sequence refers to the specific order of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) that make up the genetic material (DNA or RNA) of an organism. The base sequence determines the genetic information encoded within the DNA molecule and ultimately determines the traits and characteristics of an individual. The base sequence can be analyzed using various techniques, such as DNA sequencing, to identify genetic variations or mutations that may be associated with certain diseases or conditions.

Gonadal hormones are hormones produced by the gonads, which are the testes in males and the ovaries in females. These hormones play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of reproductive function in both males and females. In males, the primary gonadal hormone is testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and muscle mass. Testosterone also plays a role in sperm production and sexual desire. In females, the primary gonadal hormones are estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle. Progesterone is responsible for preparing the uterus for pregnancy and maintaining pregnancy. Gonadal hormones also play a role in other bodily functions such as bone health, mood regulation, and immune function. Imbalances in gonadal hormones can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including infertility, osteoporosis, and mood disorders.

Receptors, Pituitary Adenylate Cyclase-Activating Polypeptide, Type I (PAC1 receptors) are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the brain and other tissues. These receptors are activated by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), a neuropeptide that plays a role in regulating various physiological processes, including metabolism, blood pressure, and immune function. PAC1 receptors are expressed in a variety of brain regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, and are involved in regulating a range of functions, including anxiety, pain, and appetite. Activation of PAC1 receptors can lead to the release of various neurotransmitters, including dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline, which can affect mood, behavior, and other physiological processes. PAC1 receptors have also been implicated in a number of neurological and psychiatric disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders, and addiction. As such, they are an important target for the development of new treatments for these conditions.

Hormone antagonists are medications that block or inhibit the effects of hormones in the body. They are often used in medical treatments to counteract the effects of hormones that are either overactive or underactive. Examples of hormone antagonists include: 1. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs): These medications block the effects of estrogen in some tissues but not others. They are used to treat conditions such as breast cancer and osteoporosis. 2. Progestins: These medications mimic the effects of the hormone progesterone and are used to treat conditions such as menopause symptoms and endometriosis. 3. Androgens: These medications block the effects of testosterone and are used to treat conditions such as prostate cancer and hirsutism (excessive hair growth in women). 4. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonists: These medications block the release of gonadotropins, hormones that stimulate the ovaries and testes to produce sex hormones. They are used to treat conditions such as endometriosis and prostate cancer. Overall, hormone antagonists are an important tool in the medical field for treating a variety of conditions related to hormonal imbalances.

Dexamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid hormone that is used in the medical field as an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and antipyretic agent. It is a potent corticosteroid that has a wide range of therapeutic applications, including the treatment of allergic reactions, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. Dexamethasone is available in various forms, including tablets, injections, and inhalers, and is used to treat a variety of conditions, such as asthma, COPD, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, and inflammatory bowel disease. It is also used to treat severe cases of COVID-19, as it has been shown to reduce inflammation and improve outcomes in patients with severe illness. However, dexamethasone is a potent drug that can have significant side effects, including weight gain, fluid retention, high blood pressure, increased risk of infection, and mood changes. Therefore, it is typically prescribed only when other treatments have failed or when the potential benefits outweigh the risks.

In the medical field, the term "cattle" refers to large domesticated animals that are raised for their meat, milk, or other products. Cattle are a common source of food and are also used for labor in agriculture, such as plowing fields or pulling carts. In veterinary medicine, cattle are often referred to as "livestock" and may be treated for a variety of medical conditions, including diseases, injuries, and parasites. Some common medical issues that may affect cattle include respiratory infections, digestive problems, and musculoskeletal disorders. Cattle may also be used in medical research, particularly in the fields of genetics and agriculture. For example, scientists may study the genetics of cattle to develop new breeds with desirable traits, such as increased milk production or resistance to disease.

Thyroid Hormone Receptors beta (TRβ) are a type of nuclear hormone receptor that are activated by thyroid hormones, such as triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These receptors are expressed in a wide range of tissues throughout the body, including the brain, heart, muscles, and adipose tissue. TRβ receptors play a critical role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development. When thyroid hormones bind to TRβ receptors, they can either activate or repress the expression of genes involved in these processes. This can lead to changes in the body's energy metabolism, heart rate, body temperature, and other physiological functions. In the medical field, TRβ receptors are often studied in the context of thyroid disorders, such as hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Abnormalities in TRβ receptor function can contribute to the development of these conditions, and targeted therapies that modulate TRβ receptor activity are being investigated as potential treatments. Additionally, TRβ receptors are also being studied in the context of other diseases, such as cancer and diabetes, as they may play a role in regulating these conditions as well.

Receptors, Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body that bind to and respond to the hormone thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus, a region of the brain, and is involved in regulating the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland. When TRH binds to its receptors on thyroid cells, it stimulates the production and release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. These hormones are important for regulating metabolism and energy production in the body.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the amount of glucose (sugar) in the bloodstream. It helps the body's cells absorb glucose from the bloodstream and use it for energy or store it for later use. Insulin is essential for maintaining normal blood sugar levels and preventing conditions such as diabetes. In the medical field, insulin is used to treat diabetes and other conditions related to high blood sugar levels. It is typically administered through injections or an insulin pump.

In the medical field, a cell line refers to a group of cells that have been derived from a single parent cell and have the ability to divide and grow indefinitely in culture. These cells are typically grown in a laboratory setting and are used for research purposes, such as studying the effects of drugs or investigating the underlying mechanisms of diseases. Cell lines are often derived from cancerous cells, as these cells tend to divide and grow more rapidly than normal cells. However, they can also be derived from normal cells, such as fibroblasts or epithelial cells. Cell lines are characterized by their unique genetic makeup, which can be used to identify them and compare them to other cell lines. Because cell lines can be grown in large quantities and are relatively easy to maintain, they are a valuable tool in medical research. They allow researchers to study the effects of drugs and other treatments on specific cell types, and to investigate the underlying mechanisms of diseases at the cellular level.

Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a hormone produced by granulosa cells in the ovaries. It plays a crucial role in the development and function of the female reproductive system. AMH levels are highest during fetal development and gradually decrease after birth. In women, AMH levels fluctuate throughout the menstrual cycle and are highest during the follicular phase, when the ovaries are preparing to release an egg. AMH is often used as a marker of ovarian reserve, which refers to the number and quality of eggs remaining in the ovaries. High levels of AMH are associated with a larger number of eggs, while low levels may indicate a lower ovarian reserve. AMH levels can also be used to diagnose conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and to monitor the effectiveness of fertility treatments.

In the medical field, "body height" refers to the vertical distance from the ground to the top of the head when standing upright with the feet together and heels against a flat surface. It is typically measured in centimeters or inches and is an important factor in determining a person's overall health and well-being. Body height can be influenced by genetics, nutrition, and environmental factors, and can vary significantly among individuals. In some cases, a person's body height may be used as a diagnostic indicator for certain medical conditions, such as growth hormone deficiency or Turner syndrome.

Castration is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of the testicles in males or the ovaries in females. In males, castration is often performed to treat conditions such as prostate cancer, testicular cancer, or advanced prostate enlargement. In females, castration is typically performed to treat conditions such as ovarian cancer or endometriosis. There are two main types of castration: surgical castration and chemical castration. Surgical castration involves the removal of the testicles or ovaries through surgery. Chemical castration involves the administration of drugs that suppress the production of hormones by the testicles or ovaries. Castration can have a number of effects on the body, including changes in hormone levels, sexual function, and mood. In males, castration can lead to a decrease in testosterone levels, which can cause changes in sexual desire, energy levels, and muscle mass. In females, castration can lead to a decrease in estrogen levels, which can cause changes in sexual desire, bone density, and mood.

Corticotrophs are a type of endocrine cell found in the anterior pituitary gland. They produce and secrete a hormone called adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress. Corticotrophs are also known as corticotroph cells or corticotroph adenomas. They can become overactive and cause a condition called Cushing's disease, which is characterized by high levels of cortisol in the body and can lead to a variety of health problems.

Gastrointestinal hormones are chemical messengers produced by cells in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract that regulate various functions of the digestive system, including appetite, digestion, and absorption of nutrients. These hormones are secreted in response to various stimuli, such as the presence of food in the stomach or the stretching of the gut wall. Some examples of gastrointestinal hormones include gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin. Gastrin stimulates the production of stomach acid and the release of digestive enzymes, while secretin and cholecystokinin help regulate the release of bile from the liver and the movement of food through the digestive tract. Ghrelin, on the other hand, is involved in regulating appetite and energy balance. Gastrointestinal hormones play a crucial role in maintaining the normal functioning of the digestive system and are often studied in the context of various digestive disorders, such as gastrointestinal ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease, and obesity.

Bromocriptine is a medication that is used to treat a variety of conditions, including Parkinson's disease, hyperprolactinemia (a condition in which the body produces too much of the hormone prolactin), and acromegaly (a hormonal disorder that causes the body to produce too much growth hormone). It is a dopamine agonist, which means that it works by mimicking the effects of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is important for regulating movement, mood, and other bodily functions. Bromocriptine is usually taken by mouth, and it can be effective in reducing symptoms of Parkinson's disease and improving motor function in people with this condition. It can also be used to lower prolactin levels in people with hyperprolactinemia, and it may be used to treat acromegaly in some cases.

Receptors, Somatotropin are proteins found on the surface of cells that bind to and respond to growth hormone (somatotropin), a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. These receptors play a crucial role in regulating growth and development in animals, including humans. Activation of somatotropin receptors can stimulate cell growth, division, and differentiation, as well as regulate metabolism and body composition. Dysregulation of somatotropin receptors has been implicated in various diseases, including acromegaly and gigantism in humans.

Macrophage Migration-Inhibitory Factors (MIF) are a group of proteins that are produced by various cells in the body, including macrophages, monocytes, and dendritic cells. MIF plays a role in regulating the immune response by inhibiting the migration of macrophages and other immune cells to sites of inflammation or infection. It also has other functions, such as regulating the production of cytokines and modulating the activity of certain enzymes. MIF has been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, cancer, and infectious diseases.

Inhibins are a group of hormones produced by the ovaries and testes in humans and other animals. They play a role in regulating the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the pituitary gland. Inhibins are primarily produced by the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles and the Sertoli cells of the testes. Inhibins act as negative feedback regulators of FSH and LH production. When the levels of FSH and LH are high, inhibins are produced and released into the bloodstream, which then inhibits the production of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. This feedback mechanism helps to maintain a balance between the production of FSH and LH and the development of ovarian follicles and sperm production. Inhibins are also involved in the regulation of pregnancy and lactation. During pregnancy, the levels of inhibins increase, which helps to suppress the production of FSH and LH, preventing the development of additional ovarian follicles and ovulation. In lactating women, inhibins help to suppress the production of FSH and LH, preventing the return of the menstrual cycle until after lactation has ended. Abnormal levels of inhibins can be associated with various medical conditions, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure, and testicular cancer.

Cushing syndrome is a hormonal disorder that occurs when the body produces too much of the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. There are several causes of Cushing syndrome, including: 1. Taking corticosteroid medications for a long time 2. Having a tumor in the pituitary gland that produces too much adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 3. Having a tumor in the adrenal gland that produces too much cortisol 4. Having a tumor in the pancreas that produces too much ACTH 5. Having a genetic condition that causes the body to produce too much cortisol Symptoms of Cushing syndrome can include weight gain, particularly in the face, neck, and abdomen, thinning skin that bruises easily, muscle weakness, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and osteoporosis. Diagnosis of Cushing syndrome typically involves blood tests to measure cortisol levels, as well as imaging tests to look for tumors in the pituitary gland, adrenal gland, or pancreas. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the syndrome and may include surgery to remove tumors, radiation therapy, or medications to lower cortisol levels.

Securin is a protein that plays a critical role in cell division, particularly during mitosis. It is synthesized in response to the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which is responsible for the degradation of key cell cycle regulators. Securin binds to and inhibits the APC, preventing it from targeting and destroying other proteins that are necessary for the proper progression of mitosis. As a result, securin ensures that the cell can complete its division cycle without errors. In the absence of securin, the APC is able to degrade its targets, leading to the premature separation of chromosomes and the formation of aneuploid daughter cells, which can contribute to the development of cancer and other diseases.

Placental hormones are hormones that are produced by the placenta, a specialized organ that develops during pregnancy and provides nourishment and protection to the developing fetus. These hormones play important roles in regulating various physiological processes in both the mother and the fetus, including fetal growth and development, maternal metabolism, and the onset of labor. Some of the key placental hormones include human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), progesterone, estrogen, relaxin, and human placental lactogen (hPL). hCG is produced early in pregnancy and helps to maintain the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone to support the pregnancy. Estrogen and progesterone help to prepare the uterus for pregnancy and maintain the pregnancy, while relaxin helps to soften and widen the cervix in preparation for labor. hPL is involved in regulating maternal metabolism and promoting fetal growth and development. Placental hormones play a critical role in maintaining a healthy pregnancy and ensuring the proper development of the fetus. Abnormal levels of these hormones can lead to complications such as miscarriage, preterm labor, and gestational diabetes.

In the medical field, aging refers to the natural process of physical, biological, and psychological changes that occur over time in living organisms, including humans. These changes can affect various aspects of an individual's health and well-being, including their metabolism, immune system, cardiovascular system, skeletal system, and cognitive function. Aging is a complex process that is influenced by a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. As people age, their bodies undergo a gradual decline in function, which can lead to the development of age-related diseases and conditions such as arthritis, osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and dementia. In the medical field, aging is studied in the context of geriatrics, which is the branch of medicine that focuses on the health and well-being of older adults. Geriatricians work to identify and manage age-related health issues, promote healthy aging, and improve the quality of life for older adults.

Thyrotropin, beta Subunit, also known as TSH-beta, is a protein subunit that is a component of the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that regulates the function of the thyroid gland. The TSH-beta subunit is one of two subunits that make up TSH, the other being the alpha subunit. TSH-beta is a glycoprotein that is composed of 101 amino acids. It is synthesized and secreted by the pituitary gland in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. TSH-beta binds to specific receptors on the surface of thyroid cells, triggering the release of thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), from the thyroid gland. In the medical field, TSH-beta is often measured as a diagnostic tool for thyroid disorders. Abnormal levels of TSH-beta can indicate problems with the thyroid gland, such as hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (an overactive thyroid). TSH-beta levels can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for thyroid disorders, such as thyroid hormone replacement therapy.

Thyroid Hormone Receptors alpha (TRα) are a type of nuclear hormone receptor that are activated by thyroid hormones, such as triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These receptors are found in many tissues throughout the body, including the brain, heart, muscles, and bones. When thyroid hormones bind to TRα receptors, they can regulate gene expression, which can affect a wide range of physiological processes, including metabolism, growth and development, and body temperature regulation. In the thyroid gland, TRα receptors play a critical role in regulating the production and release of thyroid hormones. Abnormalities in TRα receptors can lead to a variety of thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism (low levels of thyroid hormones) and hyperthyroidism (high levels of thyroid hormones). These disorders can have a significant impact on a person's health and well-being, and may require medical treatment.

Pancreatic hormones are hormones produced by the pancreas that play important roles in regulating various bodily functions. The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, behind the stomach, and it produces both digestive enzymes and hormones. The main pancreatic hormones are: 1. Insulin: This hormone regulates blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake of glucose by cells and the storage of glucose in the liver and muscles. 2. Glucagon: This hormone raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose into the bloodstream. 3. Somatostatin: This hormone inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon, as well as the production of digestive enzymes. 4. Pancreatic polypeptide: This hormone regulates appetite and digestion. 5. VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide): This hormone regulates the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles in the digestive tract. Pancreatic hormones play a crucial role in maintaining normal blood sugar levels, regulating digestion, and controlling appetite. Imbalances in these hormones can lead to various medical conditions, such as diabetes, pancreatitis, and pancreatic cancer.

Endorphins are a group of natural chemicals produced by the body that act as painkillers and produce feelings of pleasure and well-being. They are released by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus in response to stress, pain, or physical activity. Endorphins bind to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which can reduce the perception of pain and produce a sense of euphoria. They are often referred to as the "feel-good" chemicals because they can help to reduce anxiety, depression, and stress. Endorphins are also involved in the body's response to exercise, and are thought to play a role in the "runner's high" experienced by some athletes.

Insect hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes in insects, such as growth, development, reproduction, and behavior. These hormones are produced by glands in the insect's body and are transported through the hemolymph, the insect's equivalent of blood. There are several types of insect hormones, including ecdysteroids, juvenile hormones, and sex hormones. Ecdysteroids are responsible for regulating molting and metamorphosis in insects, while juvenile hormones control the development of immature insects into adults. Sex hormones, such as pheromones, are involved in sexual behavior and reproduction. Insect hormones play a crucial role in the life cycle of insects and are often used in pest control and management strategies. For example, insecticides that mimic or block the effects of insect hormones can be used to disrupt insect development or behavior, making them less harmful to crops or humans. Additionally, researchers are studying insect hormones as potential targets for new drugs to treat human diseases, such as cancer and diabetes.

Testicular hormones are hormones produced by the testes in males. The primary hormones produced by the testes are testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH). Testosterone is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and muscle mass. LH stimulates the production of testosterone by the testes. Testicular hormones also play a role in sperm production and sexual function.

Invertebrate hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands in invertebrates, such as insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and worms. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including growth and development, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior. Invertebrate hormones can be classified into different types based on their chemical structure and function. Some examples of invertebrate hormones include: * Ecdysteroids: These hormones are involved in regulating molting and metamorphosis in insects and crustaceans. * JH (Juvenile Hormone): This hormone is involved in regulating growth and development in insects. * Melatonin: This hormone is involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle in many invertebrates. * Octopamine: This hormone is involved in regulating metabolism, feeding behavior, and aggression in insects and crustaceans. * Serotonin: This hormone is involved in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep in many invertebrates. Invertebrate hormones are studied in the medical field because they can provide insights into the evolution of endocrine systems and the mechanisms underlying various physiological processes. Additionally, some invertebrate hormones have potential therapeutic applications in medicine, such as in the treatment of sleep disorders or the regulation of metabolism.

Beta-Endorphin is a naturally occurring peptide hormone that is produced by the pituitary gland and the adrenal gland in the human body. It is a member of the endorphin family of peptides, which also includes alpha-endorphin and delta-endorphin. Beta-Endorphin is primarily known for its pain-relieving and mood-elevating effects. It binds to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, which can reduce the perception of pain and produce feelings of euphoria and well-being. In addition to its effects on pain and mood, beta-endorphin has also been shown to have a number of other physiological effects, including reducing stress and anxiety, regulating appetite, and modulating the immune system. Beta-Endorphin is often used in medical research to study the mechanisms of pain perception and mood regulation, and it has potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of a variety of conditions, including chronic pain, depression, and anxiety disorders.

Diabetes Insipidus is a rare disorder that affects the body's ability to regulate water balance. It is characterized by the excessive production of urine, which leads to dehydration and a constant feeling of thirst. There are two types of diabetes insipidus: 1. Central Diabetes Insipidus: This type of diabetes insipidus occurs when the pituitary gland fails to produce enough of a hormone called vasopressin, which helps the kidneys reabsorb water. 2. Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus: This type of diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidneys are unable to respond to vasopressin properly, leading to the loss of water in the urine. Diabetes insipidus can be caused by a variety of factors, including head injuries, certain medications, and genetic disorders. Treatment typically involves the use of desmopressin, a synthetic form of vasopressin, to help regulate the body's water balance.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a hormone that is produced by the cells of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as by neurons in the brain and other parts of the body. It is a polypeptide hormone, which means that it is made up of chains of amino acids. VIP has a number of effects on the body, including: 1. Relaxing smooth muscle: VIP can cause the muscles in blood vessels to relax, which can lead to a decrease in blood pressure. 2. Increasing the production of insulin: VIP can stimulate the pancreas to produce more insulin, which is a hormone that helps to regulate blood sugar levels. 3. Regulating the digestive system: VIP can stimulate the production of digestive enzymes and the movement of food through the digestive tract. 4. Modulating the immune system: VIP can help to regulate the immune system and reduce inflammation. VIP is also involved in a number of other physiological processes, including the regulation of heart rate and the contraction of the uterus during childbirth. It is sometimes used as a medication to treat conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome and certain types of diarrhea.

Beta-Lipotropin (β-LPH) is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. It is a peptide hormone that is composed of 39 amino acids and is structurally related to the hormones adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). β-LPH plays a role in regulating the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates, as well as in the regulation of appetite and body weight. It also has a role in the regulation of the immune system and in the development of certain types of cancer. In the medical field, β-LPH is often used as a diagnostic tool to help diagnose certain conditions, such as Cushing's disease, which is a disorder of the adrenal glands that results in the overproduction of cortisol. It is also used to monitor the effectiveness of certain treatments for these conditions.

Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in many cellular processes, including metabolism, gene expression, and cell proliferation. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase, and its levels are regulated by various hormones and neurotransmitters. In the medical field, cAMP is often studied in the context of its role in regulating cellular signaling pathways. For example, cAMP is involved in the regulation of the immune system, where it helps to activate immune cells and promote inflammation. It is also involved in the regulation of the cardiovascular system, where it helps to regulate heart rate and blood pressure. In addition, cAMP is often used as a tool in research to study cellular signaling pathways. For example, it is commonly used to activate or inhibit specific signaling pathways in cells, allowing researchers to study the effects of these pathways on cellular function.

Iodide Peroxidase (also known as Thyroid Peroxidase) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in the production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland. It catalyzes the oxidation of iodide ions to form iodine, which is then incorporated into thyroglobulin, a large protein produced by thyroid cells. The iodinated thyroglobulin is then broken down into smaller thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which are essential for regulating metabolism in the body. In the medical field, the measurement of thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPOAb) is often used as a diagnostic tool for autoimmune thyroid diseases such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease. In these conditions, the immune system mistakenly attacks the thyroid gland, leading to inflammation and damage to the gland's ability to produce thyroid hormones. The presence of TPOAb in the blood can indicate an autoimmune response and help guide treatment decisions.

These mutations can occur in the genes coding for GnRH, LH, and FSH or their receptors. Depending on which hormone and receptor ... The anterior portion of the pituitary gland produces luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the ... GnRH travels down the anterior portion of the pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system and binds to receptors on the ... Haasl RJ, Ahmadi MR, Meethal SV, Gleason CE, Johnson SC, Asthana S, Bowen RL, Atwood CS (2008). "A luteinizing hormone receptor ...
They act on specific membrane receptors. They are glycoproteins. Then you have the signal. They stimulate release of pituitary ... Hormones of the hypothalamus, Hormones of the pituitary gland, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary axis). ... There is a pituitary portal system, with which the hormones are transported. These hormones are prolactin, growth hormone, TSH ... Hypothalamic-pituitary hormones are hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Although the organs in ...
Hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis Lin, S. H. (2008). "Prolactin-Releasing Peptide". Orphan G Protein-Coupled Receptors and ... Prolactin-releasing hormone, also known as PRLH, is a hypothetical human hormone or hormone releasing factor. Existence of this ... v t e (Human hormones, All stub articles, Molecular and cellular biology stubs). ... such as thyrotropin-releasing hormone, oxytocin, vasoactive intestinal peptide and estrogen) those have primary functions other ...
"GABA acts directly on cells of pituitary pars intermedia to alter hormone output". Nature. 301 (5902): 706-7. Bibcode:1983Natur ... GABAA receptors are ligand-gated ion channels (also known as ionotropic receptors); whereas GABAB receptors are G protein- ... Over-excitation of this receptor induces receptor remodeling and the eventual invagination of the GABA receptor. As a result, ... Members of this superfamily, which includes nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, GABAA receptors, glycine and 5-HT3 receptors, ...
"Pituitary adenomas of patients with acromegaly express thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor messenger RNA: cloning and ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor (TRHR) is a G protein-coupled receptor which binds thyrotropin-releasing hormone. The ... "Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Receptors". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and ... Receptors,+Thyrotropin-Releasing+Hormone at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) v t e (CS1 ...
... expressed in the pituitary, encodes a receptor for growth-hormone-releasing hormone. Binding of this hormone to the receptor ... The growth-hormone-releasing hormone receptor (GHRHR) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that binds growth hormone-releasing ... Mayo KE (Oct 1992). "Molecular cloning and expression of a pituitary-specific receptor for growth hormone-releasing hormone". ... GHRHR is distinct from the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (also known as the ghrelin receptor), where growth hormone ...
... followed by permanent blockage of the GnRH pituitary receptor) LH is available mixed with FSH in the form of menotropin, and ... Peptide hormones, Sex hormones, Human hormones, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, Anterior pituitary hormones) ... Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as luteinising hormone, lutropin and sometimes lutrophin) is a hormone produced by ... Luteinizing hormone receptors are located in areas of the brain associated with cognitive function. The role of LH role in the ...
Resistance to thyroid hormone: Feedback loop interrupted on the level of pituitary thyroid hormone receptors. Standard ... Thyroid hormone exerts negative feedback control over the hypothalamus as well as anterior pituitary, thus controlling the ... The pituitary gland secretes thyrotropin (TSH; Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) that stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine ( ... Hoermann R, Midgley JE, Larisch R, Dietrich JW (2012). "Is pituitary TSH an adequate measure of thyroid hormone-controlled ...
August 1996). "A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release". Science. 273 (5277): 974-977 ... The ghrelin receptor GHS-R1a (a splice-variant of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, with the GHS-R1b splice being ... Ghrelin was discovered after the ghrelin receptor (called growth hormone secretagogue type 1A receptor or GHS-R) was determined ... Ghrelin stimulates brain structures having a specific receptor - the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1A (GHSR-1A). Ghrelin ...
... and pituitary. In the pituitary, CRF1 stimulation triggers the activation of the POMC gene, which in turn causes the release of ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor Corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist Antalarmin ... Corticotropin-releasing+hormone+receptors at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) CRF+receptor ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 has been shown to interact with Corticotropin-releasing hormone and urocortin. ...
... receptors of human pituitary gland". J. Endocrinol. Invest. 24 (1): RC1-3. doi:10.1007/bf03343800. PMID 11227737. S2CID ... Deghenghi R, Papotti M, Ghigo E, Muccioli G (2001). "Cortistatin, but not somatostatin, binds to growth hormone secretagogue ( ... Robas N, Mead E, Fidock M (2004). "MrgX2 is a high potency cortistatin receptor expressed in dorsal root ganglion". J. Biol. ... 2003). "Cortistatin rather than somatostatin as a potential endogenous ligand for somatostatin receptors in the human immune ...
Hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis Male lactation Prolactin modulator Prolactin receptor Prolactin-releasing hormone ... Anterior pituitary hormones, Breastfeeding, Galactagogues, Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis, Hormones of ... The hormone acts in endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine manners through the prolactin receptor and numerous cytokine receptors ... Human prolactin receptors are insensitive to mouse prolactin. Prolactin levels may be checked as part of a sex hormone workup, ...
... is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue acting as an agonist at pituitary GnRH receptors. Agonism of ... "Hormone Therapy in Gender Dysphoria" (PDF). NHS Guideline. Table 1 "Hormone Therapy in Gender Dysphoria" (PDF). NHS Guideline. ... GnRH receptors initially results in the stimulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) ... pituitary GnRH receptors become desensitised after several weeks of continuous leuprorelin therapy. This protracted ...
"An Autocrine Role for Pituitary GABA: Activation of GABA-B Receptors and Regulation of Growth Hormone Levels". ... The third receptor is the δ-opioid receptor (DOR). The delta receptor is the least studied out of the 3 main opioid receptors. ... Opioid receptors are specialized pain blocking receptors. They bind a wide range of hormones, peptides, and much more. Although ... The μ-opioid receptor is a G-protein coupled receptor. When the μ-opioid receptor is activated, it causes pain relief, euphoria ...
... from the anterior pituitary-body. These hormones are responsible for the synthesis of steroid sex hormones (testosterone in men ... GnRH agonists are a group of drugs intended to activate GnRH receptors in the anterior pituitary gland. They are synthesized by ... The melanocortin receptor agonist proposes to activate multiple receptor subtypes nonselectively, with the highest affinity ... It compiles a serotonin 1A receptor agonist and a serotonin 2A receptor antagonist. and is an antidepressant that was ...
Prolactin Growth hormone Human placental lactogen Placental growth hormone S179D-hPRL Prolactin receptor antagonists such as ... "Use of prolactin receptor antagonist to better understand prolactin regulation of pituitary homeostasis". Neuroendocrinology. ... It is the receptor for prolactin (PRL). The PRLR can also bind to and be activated by growth hormone (GH) and human placental ... The prolactin receptor (PRLR) is a membrane-bound protein of the cytokine receptor superfamily. In humans, it is encoded by a ...
They also regulate many hormones including pituitary, gonadal and hypothalamic hormones as well as insulin. They are also nerve ... The type II receptor is a serine/threonine receptor kinase, which catalyzes the phosphorylation of the Type I receptor. Each ... It can then either form a receptor complex with activin A receptor, type IB (ACVR1B) or with activin A receptor, type IC ( ... TGFβ superfamily ligands bind to a type II receptor, which recruits and phosphorylates a type I receptor. The type I receptor ...
"Gonadotrophin-Releasing Hormone Receptors: GnRH receptor". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union ... G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) family. It is expressed on the surface of pituitary gonadotrope cells as well as lymphocytes ... This gene encodes the receptor for type 1 gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This receptor is a member of the seven-transmembrane ... Bédécarrats GY, Kaiser UB (2007). "Mutations in the human gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor: insights into receptor ...
The drug works by blocking the action of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) upon the pituitary, thus rapidly suppressing the ... Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor § Antagonists "Ganirelix Theramex (Theramex Australia Pty Ltd)". Therapeutic Goods ... Ganirelix competitively blocks GnRH receptors on the pituitary gonadotroph, quickly resulting in the suppression of ... Ganirelix has a significantly higher receptor binding affinity (Kd = 0.4 nM) than GnRH (Kd = 3.6 nM). When ganirelix is given ...
At the pituitary, GnRH stimulates the synthesis and secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH ... Kakar SS, Jennes L (November 1995). "Expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor ... Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LRH, LHRH) Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone-releasing factor (FSH/LH ... Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (FSH/LH-RH) Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating ...
"Aberrant alternative splicing of thyroid hormone receptor in a TSH-secreting pituitary tumor is a mechanism for hormone ... NCOR2 is also referred to as a silencing mediator for retinoid or thyroid-hormone receptors (SMRT) or T3 receptor-associating ... a silencing mediator for retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors-extended isoform that is more related to the nuclear receptor ... "Ligand-independent repression by the thyroid hormone receptor mediated by a nuclear receptor co-repressor". Nature. 377 (6548 ...
Human hormones, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis, Hormones of the thyroid gland). ... 3,5-T2 is an active thyroid hormone. It stimulates the TR-beta receptor for thyroid hormones and thus increases energy ... 3,5-Diiodothyronine (3,5-T2) is an active thyroid hormone within the class of iodothyronines. It has two iodine atoms at ... This could explain why patients with low T3 syndrome don't benefit from substitution therapy with thyroid hormones. Goglia F ( ...
"Aberrant alternative splicing of thyroid hormone receptor in a TSH-secreting pituitary tumor is a mechanism for hormone ... "Thyroid hormone receptor mutants that cause resistance to thyroid hormone. Evidence for receptor competition for DNA sequences ... Thyroid hormone receptor beta (TR-beta) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group A, member 2 (NR1A2), is a nuclear ... The protein encoded by this gene is a nuclear hormone receptor for triiodothyronine. It is one of the several receptors for ...
It is a growth hormone secretagogue receptor (ghrelin receptor) agonist causing release of growth hormone from the pituitary ... Macimorelin acetate, the salt formulation, is a synthetic growth hormone secretagogue receptor agonist. ... As of December 2017, it became FDA-approved as a method to diagnose growth hormone deficiency. Traditionally, growth hormone ... Ghrelin receptor agonists, Growth hormone secretagogues, Tryptamines, Peptides, All stub articles, Systemic hormonal ...
"Isoform-specific thyroid hormone receptor antibodies detect multiple thyroid hormone receptors in rat and human pituitaries". ... "Characterization of a third human thyroid hormone receptor coexpressed with other thyroid hormone receptors in several tissues ... "Heterodimerization among thyroid hormone receptor, retinoic acid receptor, retinoid X receptor, chicken ovalbumin upstream ... Thyroid hormone receptor alpha (TR-alpha) also known as nuclear receptor subfamily 1, group A, member 1 (NR1A1), is a nuclear ...
The pituitary synthesizes and secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, in turn, stimulates production of the thyroid ... In Igsf1 deficient mice, the receptor for TRH is downregulated in the pituitary. This decrease could explain, at least in part ... TSH secretion is controlled by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is released by neurons in the hypothalamus of the ... How the loss of IGSF1 causes a decrease in TRH receptors is presently unknown. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000147255 - ...
The gonadotropin receptors are a group of receptors that bind a group of pituitary hormones called gonadotropins. They include ... GnRH receptor Sex hormone receptor v t e (G protein-coupled receptors, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropins, Signal ... Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) - binds follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) - ... binds luteinizing hormone (LH) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) ...
The anterior pituitary in turn releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH induces the release of corticosteroids and ... When a receptor within the body senses a stressor, a signal is sent to the anterior hypothalamus. At the reception of the ... Stress hormones influence the processes carried out in the hippocampus and amygdala which are also associated with emotional ... These stress hormones are also hindering the hippocampus from receiving enough energy by diverting glucose levels to ...
This interaction takes place as Arginine Vasopressin works with corticotropin releasing hormone to stimulate the pituitary ... Vasopressin V1b receptor (V1BR) also known as vasopressin 3 receptor (VPR3) or antidiuretic hormone receptor 1B is a protein ... AVPR1b is a G protein-coupled pituitary receptor that has only recently been characterized because of its rarity. It has been ... AVPR1B was initially described as a novel vasopressin receptor located in the anterior pituitary, where it stimulates ACTH ...
... a neuropeptide and hormone, resulting in increased signaling through its receptor tyrosine kinase, tropomyosin receptor kinase ... Psychological stress induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland by activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal ... "stress hormone", cortisol, is a glucocorticoid that binds to glucocorticoid receptors. ... IGF-1 elicits its physiological effects by binding to a specific receptor tyrosine kinase, the IGF-1 receptor, to control ...
V1 receptors are found in various sites around the body. The major points include the CNS, Liver, Anterior Pituitary, Muscle ( ... Felypressin is a non-catecholamine vasoconstrictor that is chemically related to vasopressin, the posterior pituitary hormone. ... Felypressin is a Vasopressin 1 agonist, and will thus have effects at all Arginine vasopressin receptor 1As. It will, however, ...
... pituitary adenoma), or other pituitary disorders). The diagnosis may involve identifying a mutation of the thyroid receptor, ... More than 1000 individuals have been identified with thyroid hormone resistance, of which 85% had thyroid hormone beta receptor ... Refetoff S, Dumitrescu AM (2007). "Syndromes of reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormone: genetic defects in hormone receptors, ... Hypothalamus secretes a hormone called thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) which in turn release thyroid stimulating hormone ( ...
These gonadal hormones are produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and have been shown to determine sex ... Although these actions of gonadal hormones are well supported, the possibility that sex chromosomes similarly influence HPA ... and this difference has largely been attributed to modulation by the gonadal hormones testosterone and estradiol. ... The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a neuroendocrine network that controls hormonal responses to internal and ...
... P. Limonta. Primo. ;D ... Effects of aging on pituitary and testicular luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptors in the rat / P. Limonta, D. Dondi ... Rats, Inbred Strains; Rats; Animals; Testosterone; Receptors, LH; Pituitary Gland; Luteinizing Hormone; Testis; Aging; Male ... occurring in old animals is reflected by modifications of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptors at the level ...
These mutations can occur in the genes coding for GnRH, LH, and FSH or their receptors. Depending on which hormone and receptor ... The anterior portion of the pituitary gland produces luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the ... GnRH travels down the anterior portion of the pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system and binds to receptors on the ... Haasl RJ, Ahmadi MR, Meethal SV, Gleason CE, Johnson SC, Asthana S, Bowen RL, Atwood CS (2008). "A luteinizing hormone receptor ...
Pegvisomant: a growth hormone receptor antagonist used in the treatment of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2017 Feb. 20(1):129-35. [QxMD ... Growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor. GH is necessary for normal linear growth. Its secretion from the pituitary gland ... Growth hormone measurements in the diagnosis and monitoring of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2007. 10(2):165-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ... Growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence: features and results of transnasal surgery. ...
The GHRHR gene provides instructions for making the growth hormone releasing hormone receptor. Learn about this gene and ... A nonfunctional receptor cannot effectively trigger the production of growth hormone or signal its release from the pituitary ... The GHRHR gene provides instructions for making the growth hormone releasing hormone receptor. This receptor is active ( ... Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) and the GHRH Receptor. Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2002 Dec;3(4):313-23. doi: 10.1023/a: ...
Desensitization, trafficking, and resensitization of the pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.; Frontiers in ... the receptor changes conformation, activates Gq, and becomes phosphorylated by specific receptor kinases; the phospho-receptor ... siRNA screen identifies the phosphatase acting on the G protein-coupled thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.; ACS chemical ... to study signal pathways for a hypothalamic peptide hormone, TRH, which acts via a G protein coupled receptor to increase ...
Pituitary. Adrenals. Thyroid and Thyroid Hormone Receptor. Adipose Tissue. Cardiovascular System. Lung. Lacrimal and Salivary ... Additional Immunoglobulin-related Receptors (includes NK cell receptors). Butyrophilin Family. Interleukins and Their Receptors ... Ephrins and Ephrin Receptors. Epidermal Growth Factor. Fibroblast Growth Factors. TGF-β Family. Growth Hormone and Related ... Toll-like Receptors. Pyrin and Associated Functions. Complement. Fc Receptors. MS4 Family. Superoxide Pathway. HLA and Related ...
Pituitary resistance to suppressive effect of thyroid hormone due to a mutation in the T3 receptor ... The iodine hormone exerts its action on receptors on the nucleus in cells. T3 binds to the nuclear receptor (TR) and combines ... The pituitary senses there is too much hormone production and is shut off. When it senses not enough thyroid hormone ... as T4 in binding to a receptor that exerts the action as receptor to the thyroid hormone. If taken by mouth T3 is 3 to 4 times ...
stimulate the pituitary glad to release hormones. *prompt the adrenal glands to make the "fight or flight" hormone adrenaline ... bind to receptors on the surface of nerve cells increasing their activity ...
... with selective affinity for this receptor may therefore be more effective in the treatment of hormone-secreting pituitary ... Somatostatin (SRIF), a hypothalamic inhibitor of pituitary growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion ... the distribution of growth hormone pituitary cells, as well as circulating growth hormone levels, were normal. Treatment of ... Somatostatin receptor subtype specificity in human fetal pituitary cultures. Differential role of SSTR2 and SSTR5 for growth ...
Human growth hormone (HGH) plays a pivotal role during puberty. Eating a balanced diet can help to accelerate growth and ensure ... Vitamin A interacts with certain receptors in the pituitary gland, thereby increasing the release of growth hormone. Studies ... The release of HGH from the pituitary gland is controlled by two other hormones, growth hormone-releasing hormone and ... The growth hormone-releasing hormone, as its name implies, prompts the production and release of the human growth hormone. ...
Pegvisomant: a growth hormone receptor antagonist used in the treatment of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2017 Feb. 20(1):129-35. [QxMD ... Growth hormone and insulinlike growth factor. GH is necessary for normal linear growth. Its secretion from the pituitary gland ... Growth hormone measurements in the diagnosis and monitoring of acromegaly. Pituitary. 2007. 10(2):165-72. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ... Growth hormone-secreting pituitary adenomas in childhood and adolescence: features and results of transnasal surgery. ...
We Offers cheap anabolic steroids, Proviron, Growth Hormone, Methandrostenolone, Trenbolone Acetate price. And the continued ... gradually stop many such created by pituitary organ and later discharged in the circulation system is what human growth hormone ... Receptors (MRs) and medical uses reduce inflammation and cell damage following lengthy, intense exercise. And angry behavior ... High levels of testosterone in women could result in reduced breast size with other supplements gABA A receptor. Posted: Aug 11 ...
The thyroid gland is under continuous stimulation by circulating autoantibodies against the TSH receptor, and pituitary TSH ... Thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs) bind to and activate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, causing the ... sodium-iodide symporter and the TSH receptor. However, the TSH receptor itself is the primary autoantigen of Graves disease and ... The TSH receptor is detectable in orbital tissues, but whether it has a pathogenetic role in Graves ophthalmopathy is unclear. ...
Most studies report that buprenorphine being a partial agonist/antagonist may not be impacting the pituitary trophic hormones ... buprenorphine has not been adequately studied in respect to its long-term effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) ... particularly as it relates to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which is controversial and not fully defined. ... The opiate receptors 2010. 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Humana Press; 2010. p. 23-48.Search in Google Scholar ...
The cells that produce growth hormone have special receptors that signal the cells to release their stocks of growth hormone. ... unravel mechanism of hormone resistance in pituitary tumors of Cushing disease patients. Cushing disease is caused by pituitary ... deterioration and death of cells in the pituitary gland that produce growth hormone. As a result, this single hormone ... Hormone resistance of pituitary tumors and Cushing disease explained. * Post author By Vetscite ...
... yet the purported remedies of hormones and surgery are entirely physical ... of its docking receptor. This "agonist", or sustained stimulating effect, resulted in an immediate surge of pituitary hormones ... As it stimulated the release of hormones from the pituitary gland that went on to stimulate the gonads, it was called ... Cross-sex hormones. Courts have repeated the testimony of experts that the effects of cross-sex hormones are "partially ...
Placebos can also act on 5-HT-dependent hormone secretion, on both the pituitary and adrenal glands, thereby mimicking the ... Opiate receptor knockout mice define μ receptor roles in endogenous nociceptive responses and morphine-induced analgesia. Proc ... hypothalamic-pituitary regulation of reproductive and stress hormones (e.g., ACTH and the immunologically active cortisol), and ... Individual data points for the change in the binding potential measure (μ-opioid receptor availability in vivo; Bmax/Kd) from ...
A glycoprotein hormone expressed in corticotrophs exhibits unique binding properties on thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor. ... pituitary axis and show to activate specific G protein-coupled receptors in the thyroid (TSH receptor) and gonads (LH and FSH ... Thyrostimulin, a heterodimer of two new human glycoprotein hormone subunits, activates the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor ... but not LH and FSH receptors, and shows high affinity to TSH receptors in a radioligand receptor assay. The heterodimer also ...
Not only are a variety of sex hormone receptors found on immune cells, but cytokine receptors (e.g., IL-1R, IL-18R) have ... proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1β stimulate the release of glucocorticoids from the hypothalamus-pituitary- ... or Th2-type immune response develops by interacting with hormone receptors on immune cells (38). ... Toll-like receptors in the induction of the innate immune response. Nature. 2000;406:782-7. DOIPubMedGoogle Scholar ...
... hormones controlled by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus) receptor concentrations. The concentrations of these hormones ... Since benign mammary tumors are hormone dependent, and malignant mammary tumors are initially hormone dependent, spaying ... Russo, I., & Russo, J. (1998). Role of hormones in mammary cancer initiation and progression. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia, 3 ... Rats fed ad libitum (free-fed) have lower survival and a higher incidence of pancreatic, mammary, and pituitary tumors than ...
... acromegaly is due to ectopic secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), responsible for pituitary hyperplasia. The ... gene aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein, AIP (11q13.3), has been identified as a major susceptibility factor, ... In the majority of cases, acromegaly is related to a pituitary adenoma, either purely GH-secreting (60%) or mixed. In very rare ... A rare acquired endocrine disease related to excessive production of growth hormone (GH) and characterized by progressive ...
... inhibits hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion, and glucocorticoids inhibit pituitary luteinizing hormo ... The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, when activated by stress, exerts an inhibitory effect on the female reproductive ... In addition, corticotropin-releasing hormone and its receptors have been identified in most female reproductive tissues, ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) inhibits hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion, and ...
PNX is thought to sensitize the pituitary gland to releasing hormones, as well as contribute to regulation of reproductive and ... Recent findings have indicated that both phoenixin (PNX), a peptide involved in such responses, and its receptor, GPR173, are ... stress hormone release. Recently, specific stress-related effects of this peptide in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) ... Through projections to the pituitary gland, median eminence and hindbrain, the PVN plays a role in stress response and other ...
Macimorelin: (Major) Avoid use of macimorelin with drugs that directly affect pituitary growth hormone secretion, such as ... Lutetium Lu 177 dotatate binds to somatostatin receptors, with the highest affinity for subtype 2 somatostatin receptors (SSTR2 ... Growth hormone (GH) inhibits 11betaHSD-1. Consequently, patients with untreated GH deficiency have relative increases in ... Growth hormone (GH) inhibits 11betaHSD-1. Consequently, patients with untreated GH deficiency have relative increases in ...
Receptors, Growth, Hormone, Secretagog, Receptor, 1a, peptides, acylated, Ghrelin, 1463, Tocris Bioscience ... it stimulates release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland in vitro and in vivo, and regulates feeding, growth and energy ... Home / Pharmacology / GPCRs / 7-TM Receptors / Peptide Receptors / Ghrelin Receptors / Ghrelin Receptor Agonists / Ghrelin ( ... Kojima et al (1999) Ghrelin is growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402 656 PMID: 10604470 Tolle et ...
... receptors on the thyroid gland]. Because of the high circulating levels of thyroid hormones, anterior pituitary secretion of ... Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary. Dopamine, growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH), ... Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is a peptide hormone that acts on the cells of the anterior pituitary by an inositol 1,4, ... A. Thyroid hormone Explanation. Thyroid hormone, an amine, acts on its target tissues by a steroid hormone mechanism, inducing ...
Prolactin is another hormone which serves a purpose in pregnant women, and it binds to receptors in breast tissue to signal ... One of progesterones purposes is so signal the pituitary gland to produce and secrete a protein hormone called prolactin. ... When applied topically, it acts as a DHT receptor antagonist at receptor sites in the scalp (or wherever you rub it on), ... What im getting at here is: the body can only utilize so much hormone before youre just wasting your money. Why run 600mg ...
  • It is produced by the pituitary gland and released into the bloodstream. (healthnews.com)
  • The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPG axis, also known as the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian/testicular axis) refers to the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonadal glands as if these individual endocrine glands were a single entity. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted from the hypothalamus by GnRH-expressing neurons. (wikipedia.org)
  • In oviparous organisms (e.g. fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds), the HPG axis is commonly referred to as the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal-liver axis (HPGL-axis) in females. (wikipedia.org)
  • The HPA, HPG, and HPT axes are three pathways in which the hypothalamus and pituitary direct neuroendocrine function. (wikipedia.org)
  • In addition, leptin and insulin have stimulatory effects and ghrelin has inhibitory effects on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion from the hypothalamus. (wikipedia.org)
  • When the egg is released, the empty follicle sac begins to produce progesterone to inhibit the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary thus stopping the estrogen-LH positive feedback loop. (wikipedia.org)
  • The hypothalamus secretes a small peptide called Thyroid Releasing Hormone. (cdc.gov)
  • FSH, LH, and TSH, mainly expressed in the anterior pituitary, are essential for coordinated endocrine regulation in the hypothalamus- pituitary axis and show to activate specific G protein-coupled receptors in the thyroid (TSH receptor) and gonads (LH and FSH receptors), respectively. (biovendor.com)
  • The development and growth of mammary tumors are primarily dependent on estrogen and prolactin (hormones controlled by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus) receptor concentrations. (ratguide.com)
  • Women receiving donated oocytes were treated with progressively increasing doses of oral estradiol, followed by intravaginal progesterone after previous pituitary desensitization with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist. (medscape.com)
  • The purpose of this report is to review the available evidence on the endocrine effects of buprenorphine, particularly as it relates to the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which is controversial and not fully defined. (degruyter.com)
  • Tumors with endocrine influence such as pituitary and mammary gland have been most severely altered by ad libitum feeding (Boorman & Everitt, 2006). (ratguide.com)
  • A rare acquired endocrine disease related to excessive production of growth hormone (GH) and characterized by progressive somatic disfigurement (mainly involving the face and extremities) and systemic manifestations. (orpha.net)
  • The endocrine system-the other communication system in the body-is made up of endocrine glands that produce hormones, chemical substances released into the bloodstream to guide processes such as metabolism, growth, and sexual development. (medscape.com)
  • The anterior pituitary, often called the "master gland," responds to chemical messages from the bloodstream to produce numerous hormones that trigger the action of other endocrine glands. (medscape.com)
  • The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands that produce and secrete hormones into the blood stream to reach and act on target cells of specific organs. (medscape.com)
  • The Endocrine Society has issued a scientific statement regarding hormones and aging and identifies future areas of research. (medscape.com)
  • Some endocrine facts, such as the sequelae coined the term "hormone" for this internal of castration, are deeply rooted in the past. (who.int)
  • The gene aryl hydrocarbon receptor interacting protein, AIP (11q13.3), has been identified as a major susceptibility factor, particularly when acromegaly begins in childhood or adolescence. (orpha.net)
  • The anterior portion of the pituitary gland produces luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the gonads produce estrogen and testosterone. (wikipedia.org)
  • Increased estrogen, by positive feedback, stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). (proprofs.com)
  • [ 14 ] In addition to its direct effect on the oocytes and/or cumulus cells, GH may also influence oocyte quality indirectly, through activation of insulin-like growth factor-I synthesis or promotion of follicle-stimulating hormone-induced ovarian steroidogenesis (reviewed in [ 15 ] ). (medscape.com)
  • In adult female rodents, acute HPA function following a stressor is markedly greater than it is in males, and this difference has largely been attributed to modulation by the gonadal hormones testosterone and estradiol. (nature.com)
  • This work has been performed in order to verify whether, in male rats, the decreased secretion of LH and testosterone (T) occurring in old animals is reflected by modifications of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) receptors at the level of the anterior pituitary and of the testes. (unimi.it)
  • The impaired production of testosterone occurring in aged rats is accompanied by a significant increase of the number of testicular LHRH receptors, indicating that also the intratesticular mechanisms controlling testosterone release undergo significant alterations with aging. (unimi.it)
  • In previous studies, other hormones have formula made to reveal Results in not testosterone in satellite cell regulation. (wirelessdesignmag.com)
  • High levels of testosterone in women could result in reduced breast size with other supplements gABA A receptor. (wirelessdesignmag.com)
  • Previous research has linked testosterone, the male sex hormone, to immune system suppression. (vetscite.org)
  • The ovaries produce 25% of circulating testosterone, which is dependent on luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior pituitary. (medscape.com)
  • Of the circulating androgens, only testosterone and DHT are able to activate androgen receptors. (medscape.com)
  • 1] In healthy women, 80% of testosterone is bound to sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), 19% is bound to albumin, and 1% circulates freely in the blood stream. (medscape.com)
  • Androgen receptor gene CAG repeat polymorphism independently influences recovery of male sexual function after testosterone replacement therapy in postsurgical hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. (cdc.gov)
  • To this purpose, the affinity constant (Ka) and the maximal binding capacity (Bmax) for the LHRH analog [D-Ser(tBu)6]des-Gly10-LHRH-N-ethylamide were evaluated, by means of a receptor binding assay, in membrane preparations derived from the anterior pituitary and testicular Leydig cells of male rats of 3 and 19 months of age. (unimi.it)
  • GnRH travels down the anterior portion of the pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system and binds to receptors on the secretory cells of the adenohypophysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The expression of thyrostimulin in the anterior pituitary known to express TSH receptors suggested a paracrine mechanism. (biovendor.com)
  • Adrenal androgen secretion is dependent on adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary. (medscape.com)
  • Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland in pulsatile manner, and it has important roles in cell growth and metabolism throughout the body. (medscape.com)
  • Introduction: Different medical therapies have been developed for pituitary adenomas. (bvsalud.org)
  • Furthermore, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been linked to resistance to medical treatment in a significant number of tumors, including pituitary adenomas. (bvsalud.org)
  • Mutation analysis of inhibitory guanine nucleotide binding protein alpha (GNAI) loci in young and familial pituitary adenomas. (cdc.gov)
  • The pituitary gland produces thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) that goes into the blood stream to activate thyroid cells, which then secrete T3 and T4 into the peripheral tissues. (cdc.gov)
  • The pituitary gland produces the largest number of different hormones and, therefore, has the widest range of effects on the body's functions. (medscape.com)
  • Inhibin acts to inhibit activin, which is a peripherally produced hormone that positively stimulates GnRH-producing cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) inhibits hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion, and glucocorticoids inhibit pituitary luteinizing hormone and ovarian estrogen and progesterone secretion. (nih.gov)
  • Evidence that atrazine and diaminochlorotriazine inhibit the estrogen/progesterone induced surge of luteinizing hormone in female Sprague-Dawley rats without changing estrogen receptor action. (cdc.gov)
  • The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of ATRA and DACT on the estradiol benzoate (EB)/progesterone (P) induced LH surge and to determine if such changes correlate with impaired estrogen receptor (ER) function. (cdc.gov)
  • In contrast, ATRA, administered to female rats under dosing conditions which suppressed the LH surge, neither changed the levels of unoccupied ER nor altered the estrogen induced up-regulation of progesterone receptor mRNA. (cdc.gov)
  • Produced mainly by the stomach, it stimulates release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland in vitro and in vivo , and regulates feeding, growth and energy production. (tocris.com)
  • Meanwhile, the autonomic nervous system stimulates the suprarenal medulla to secrete hormones such as epinephrine into the bloodstream. (medscape.com)
  • The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a neuroendocrine network that controls hormonal responses to internal and external challenges in an organism's environment, exhibits strikingly sex-biased activity. (nature.com)
  • These gonadal hormones are produced by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and have been shown to determine sex differences in adult HPA function after acute stress via their activational and organizational effects. (nature.com)
  • The ability of all mammals to cope with any environmental or homeostatic challenge (i.e., stressor), or with perceptual threats to homeostasis, relies upon activation of a neuroendocrine signaling cascade called the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. (nature.com)
  • Aging exerts profound influences on the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular-axis. (unimi.it)
  • We use a number of model systems (pituitary cells, cell lines, transgenic animals) to study signal pathways for a hypothalamic peptide hormone, TRH, which acts via a G protein coupled receptor to increase cytoplasmic calcium and protein kinase C activity. (rochester.edu)
  • Athletes with good muscle mass important nursing considerations potency, mineralocorticoid effects, and duration of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression. (wirelessdesignmag.com)
  • Based on a comprehensive review of the available literature, we conclude that despite its increasing popularity, buprenorphine has not been adequately studied in respect to its long-term effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. (degruyter.com)
  • The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, when activated by stress, exerts an inhibitory effect on the female reproductive system. (nih.gov)
  • Total plasma LH secretion was reduced by 37% compared to control, suggesting that in addition to potential hypothalamic dysfunction, pituitary function is altered. (cdc.gov)
  • Somatostatin is a hypothalamic hormone, a pancreatic hormone, and a central and peripheral neurotransmitter. (bvsalud.org)
  • If the condition allows it, [CV004 trade name] should be given as a single daily dose (daytime) or a single dose every second day, to reduce suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. (who.int)
  • Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH) and the GHRH Receptor. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In very rare cases, acromegaly is due to ectopic secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), responsible for pituitary hyperplasia. (orpha.net)
  • Longevity in untreated congenital growth hormone deficiency due to a homozygous mutation in the GHRH receptor gene. (cdc.gov)
  • In conclusion, these results suggest that the reduced secretion of LH in old male rats may be linked, at least partially, to a decrease of the number of pituitary LHRH receptors. (unimi.it)
  • Similarly, individual amino acids like lysine, arginine, and glutamine also boost growth hormone secretion in the body. (healthnews.com)
  • The thyroid hormone regulates energy and fat metabolism and protein synthesis by regulating different enzymes that are involved in those processes. (cdc.gov)
  • It regulates the receptor for cholesterol, takes it out of the blood stream and puts it into the cells. (cdc.gov)
  • This is how the human growth hormone regulates metabolism to support normal growth. (healthnews.com)
  • The pituitary gland regulates the ovaries and it needs to be working correctly in order for women to ovulate. (austinfamily.com)
  • It produces 2 hormones: vasopressin, which causes blood pressure to rise and regulates the amount of water in the body's cells, and oxytocin, which causes the uterus to contract during childbirth and lactation to begin. (medscape.com)
  • Insulin is a hormone that controls the blood glucose level. (healthnews.com)
  • Studies have shown that nutritional deprivation and malnutrition are associated with abnormal levels of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors in the body. (healthnews.com)
  • Gestational diabetes involves another better-known hormone, insulin. (austinfamily.com)
  • But when you have gestational diabetes, hormones created by the placenta to help the baby develop now make it hard for the mother's body to use the insulin that the pancreas manufactures. (austinfamily.com)
  • Insulin signaling through the insulin receptor increases linear growth through effects on bone and the GH-IGF-1 axis. (medscape.com)
  • Human growth hormone (HGH) is necessary for growth, cell repair, and metabolism. (healthnews.com)
  • Carbohydrates are broken down by the body to provide glucose, which is required for effective cell metabolism and growth hormone regulation. (healthnews.com)
  • Thyroid hormones affect a wide range of things including metabolism, brain development, heart and nervous system functions, breathing and menstrual cycles. (austinfamily.com)
  • The thyroid gland secretes thyroxin, a hormone that can reduce concentration and lead to irritability when the thyroid is overactive and cause drowsiness and a sluggish metabolism when the thyroid is underactive. (medscape.com)
  • The GHRHR receptor attaches (binds) to a molecule called growth hormone releasing hormone. (medlineplus.gov)
  • the phospho-receptor binds to beta-arrestin. (rochester.edu)
  • T3 binds to the nuclear receptor (TR) and combines with another receptor (RXR) then combines with a receptor element on DNA. (cdc.gov)
  • The release of HGH from the pituitary gland is controlled by two other hormones, growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin. (healthnews.com)
  • Somatostatin on the other hand stops the release of the growth hormone. (healthnews.com)
  • To further explore the potential usefulness of medical treatment for NF-PitNET we assessed the expression of somatostatin receptors and dopamine-associated genes. (bvsalud.org)
  • citation needed] In males, the production of GnRH, LH, and FSH are similar, but the effects of these hormones are different. (wikipedia.org)
  • DACT treatment also decreased release of LH from the pituitary in response to exogenous gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) by 47% compared to control. (cdc.gov)
  • These two hormones play an important role in communicating to the gonads. (wikipedia.org)
  • Puberty is initiated by a biological clock deep in the brain and involves a cascade of chemical messengers that travel to the gonads to cause them to release hormones that evoke secondary sex characteristics and to prepare for procreation using organs laid down before birth. (quadrant.org.au)
  • Recombinant A2/B5 heterodimeric glycoproteins activates human TSH receptors, but not LH and FSH receptors, and shows high affinity to TSH receptors in a radioligand receptor assay. (biovendor.com)
  • Using an in vitro receptor binding assay, ATRA, but not DACT, inhibited binding of [(3)H]-estradiol to ER. (cdc.gov)
  • The results obtained show that, in aged male rats, the concentration of pituitary LHRH receptors is significantly lower than that found in young animals. (unimi.it)
  • Rats fed ad libitum (free-fed) have lower survival and a higher incidence of pancreatic, mammary, and pituitary tumors than rats fed a moderate dietary restriction of identical diets (Boorman & Everitt, 2006). (ratguide.com)
  • High oral doses of atrazine (ATRA) disrupt normal neuroendocrine function, resulting in suppression of the luteinizing hormone (LH) surge in adult, ovariectomized (OVX) estrogen-primed female rats. (cdc.gov)
  • Although these actions of gonadal hormones are well supported, the possibility that sex chromosomes similarly influence HPA activity is unexplored. (nature.com)
  • Moreover, questions remain regarding sex differences in the activity of the HPA axis following chronic stress and the underlying contributions of gonadal hormones and sex chromosomes. (nature.com)
  • We primarily outline what is known about how gonadal hormones and sex chromosomes modulate HPA axis activity following acute stress, and then focus on sex-biased HPA axis activity post-chronic stress, which is far less well understood. (nature.com)
  • siRNA screen identifies the phosphatase acting on the G protein-coupled thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor. (rochester.edu)
  • Paroxetine is a direct inhibitor of g protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 and increases myocardial contractility. (rochester.edu)
  • The thyroid hormone exerts negative feedback on cells that produce TSH, causing them to shut down production. (cdc.gov)
  • It is metabolized so one iodine atom is removed to produce T3 - about 10 times as active as T4 in binding to a receptor that exerts the action as receptor to the thyroid hormone. (cdc.gov)
  • The iodine hormone exerts its action on receptors on the nucleus in cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Furthermore, corticotropin-releasing hormone is secreted in peripheral inflammatory sites where it exerts inflammatory actions. (nih.gov)
  • However, Non-Functioning Pituitary Neuroendocrine Tumors (NF-PitNET) have shown little response to them. (bvsalud.org)
  • Human thyrostimulin ranks among the glycoprotein hormone family. (biovendor.com)
  • Corticotroph-derived glycoprotein hormone (CGH), also referred to as thyrostimulin, is a noncovalent heterodimer of glycoprotein hormone alpha 2 (GPHA2) and glycoprotein hormone beta 5 (GPHB5). (biovendor.com)
  • This new heterodimeric glycoprotein hormone was named as thyrostimulin based on its thyroid-stimulating activity. (biovendor.com)
  • Hsu SY, Nakabayashi K, Bhalla A. Evolution of glycoprotein hormone subunit genes in bilateral metazoa: identification of two novel human glycoprotein hormone subunit family genes, GPA2 and GPB5. (biovendor.com)
  • Thyrostimulin, a heterodimer of two new human glycoprotein hormone subunits, activates the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor. (biovendor.com)
  • A glycoprotein hormone expressed in corticotrophs exhibits unique binding properties on thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor. (biovendor.com)
  • When T4 is converted to T3 it produces the more active thyroid hormone and activates the pathway. (cdc.gov)
  • The pituitary gland is the master hormone regulator," explains Dr. Lindsay Harrison, an endocrinologist with Texas Diabetes and Endocrinology. (austinfamily.com)
  • Fluctuations in this axis cause changes in the hormones produced by each gland and have various local and systemic effects on the body. (wikipedia.org)
  • Effects of aging on pituitary and testicular luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptors in the rat / P. Limonta, D. Dondi, R. Maggi, L. Martini, F. Piva. (unimi.it)
  • Their absence or the absence of androgen receptors results in a female phenotype, despite the presence of a 46 XY karyotype (eg, androgen insensitivity syndrome). (medscape.com)
  • Small Indels in the Androgen Receptor Gene: Phenotype Implications and Mechanisms of Mutagenesis. (medscape.com)
  • More than 20 mutations in the GHRHR gene have been found to cause isolated growth hormone deficiency, a condition characterized by slow growth and short stature. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Mutations in the GHRHR gene cause some cases of isolated growth hormone deficiency type IB. (medlineplus.gov)
  • As a result, little growth hormone is produced or available in the body in people with GHRHR gene mutations, leading to isolated growth hormone deficiency type IB. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Alatzoglou KS, Dattani MT. Genetic causes and treatment of isolated growth hormone deficiency-an update. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This gland is is located at the base of the brain and produces many hormones, including growth hormone. (medlineplus.gov)
  • When it senses not enough thyroid hormone circulating it produces more TSH. (cdc.gov)
  • Linkage and comparative mapping studies indicate that the transferred chromosome segment contains a number of candidate genes for hypertension, including genes encoding a brain dopamine receptor and a renal epithelial potassium channel. (jci.org)
  • The concentrations of these hormones are found to be higher in hormone dependent tumors, whereas in hormone independent tumors (as seen in latter stages of mammary adenocarcinoma) they tend to be lower. (ratguide.com)
  • Furthermore, we found that the EMT phenomenon was more common in NF-PitNET than in GH-secreting pituitary tumors. (bvsalud.org)
  • Thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs) bind to and activate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, causing the thyroid gland to grow and the thyroid follicles to increase synthesis of thyroid hormone. (medscape.com)
  • Growth hormone is necessary for the normal growth of the body's bones and tissues. (medlineplus.gov)
  • These hormones regulate the body's growth, and are involved in cell to cell communication, control metabolic activity, sleep-wake homeostasis, and altered regulation or dysregulation of adaptive response in various physiologic and pathophysiologic states. (medscape.com)
  • This binding, along with the actions of other molecules, triggers the production of growth hormone and its release from the pituitary gland. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A nonfunctional receptor cannot effectively trigger the production of growth hormone or signal its release from the pituitary gland. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Background and Objective Administration of growth hormone (GH) during ovarian stimulation has been shown to improve success rates of in vitro fertilization. (medscape.com)
  • Administration of growth hormone (GH) during ovarian stimulation has been shown to improve success rates of in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment, [ 1 , 2 ] and especially in women with poor ovarian response. (medscape.com)
  • GH receptor is expressed in human oocytes and cumulus cells, [ 12 , 13 ] and GH has been shown to promote in vitro nuclear maturation of denuded human oocytes. (medscape.com)
  • For example, in response to a stressful situation, the pituitary gland may release beta endorphin and ACTH, which, in turn, prompt the suprarenal cortex to release hormones. (medscape.com)
  • albumin has a low affinity for sex hormones, so the albumin-bound androgens are readily available to tissues. (medscape.com)
  • Genetic analyses of bone morphogenetic protein 2, 4 and 7 in congenital combined pituitary hormone deficiency. (cdc.gov)
  • In females, the positive feedback loop between estrogen and luteinizing hormone help to prepare the follicle in the ovary and the uterus for ovulation and implantation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Point E shows the luteinizing hormone (LH) surge that initiates ovulation at mid-cycle. (proprofs.com)
  • In addition, corticotropin-releasing hormone and its receptors have been identified in most female reproductive tissues, including the ovary, uterus, and placenta. (nih.gov)
  • In addition, we use biochemical and genetic approaches to identify proteins that interact with the receptor during biosynthesis, signaling and desensitization. (rochester.edu)
  • The action of hormones are transduced by regulating the synthesis of proteins (5% of proteins in the body are regulated by thyroid hormone). (cdc.gov)
  • The thyroid secretes thyroxine (T4), & triiodothyronine (T3) that exert effects on peripheral tissues exerting the actions of thyroid hormone. (cdc.gov)
  • Most of these mutations replace single protein building blocks (amino acids) in the receptor protein, preventing the production of a functional receptor. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Amino acids are the building blocks of protein, and they are excellent sources of nitrogen for hormones. (healthnews.com)
  • The endocri ne system is made up of glands, such as the pituitary and thyroid. (austinfamily.com)
  • Some of these glands make hormones and release them into the bloodstream. (austinfamily.com)
  • Many of the physical changes are due to the release of human growth hormone (HGH) in the body. (healthnews.com)
  • Exercise, sleep, and a balanced diet can all support the release of human growth hormone. (healthnews.com)
  • The growth hormone-releasing hormone, as its name implies, prompts the production and release of the human growth hormone. (healthnews.com)
  • PNX is thought to sensitize the pituitary gland to releasing hormones, as well as contribute to regulation of reproductive and stress hormone release. (queensu.ca)
  • The alpha-subunit combines with four distinct beta-subunits giving rise to four biologically active hormones in human: FSH, LH, TSH, and CG. (biovendor.com)
  • Functional characterization of a heterozygous GLI2 missense mutation in patients with multiple pituitary hormone deficiency. (cdc.gov)
  • In 1902, Balysis and Startling extracted and identified the first hormone secretin (secreted by cells in the intestinal mucosa), and, in 1927, McGee isolated and purified substances that were androgenic in small amounts (microgram levels). (medscape.com)
  • Thus, 1690, that an organ such as the thyroid secretin was the first hormone to be isolat- pours into the blood substances of physio- ed. (who.int)
  • Through projections to the pituitary gland, median eminence and hindbrain, the PVN plays a role in stress response and other autonomic functions. (queensu.ca)
  • Ghrelin (human) is an endogenous agonist peptide for the ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1a). (tocris.com)
  • This receptor is active (expressed) on the growth-stimulating somatotropic cells in the pituitary gland. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The iodine is what the cells need to make the thyroid hormone. (cdc.gov)
  • From there, the hormones travel to receptors on cells throughout our bodies, where they play a very important role in what those cells do, or don't do. (austinfamily.com)
  • After puberty these hormones levels remain relatively constant. (wikipedia.org)
  • Human growth hormone is a key hormone during puberty. (healthnews.com)