Glucose Transporter Type 2: A glucose transport facilitator that is expressed primarily in PANCREATIC BETA CELLS; LIVER; and KIDNEYS. It may function as a GLUCOSE sensor to regulate INSULIN release and glucose HOMEOSTASIS.Glucose Transporter Type 1: A ubiquitously expressed glucose transporter that is important for constitutive, basal GLUCOSE transport. It is predominately expressed in ENDOTHELIAL CELLS and ERYTHROCYTES at the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and is responsible for GLUCOSE entry into the BRAIN.Monosaccharide Transport Proteins: A large group of membrane transport proteins that shuttle MONOSACCHARIDES across CELL MEMBRANES.Glucose Transport Proteins, Facilitative: A family of monosaccharide transport proteins characterized by 12 membrane spanning helices. They facilitate passive diffusion of GLUCOSE across the CELL MEMBRANE.Glucose Transporter Type 4: A glucose transport protein found in mature MUSCLE CELLS and ADIPOCYTES. It promotes transport of glucose from the BLOOD into target TISSUES. The inactive form of the protein is localized in CYTOPLASMIC VESICLES. In response to INSULIN, it is translocated to the PLASMA MEMBRANE where it facilitates glucose uptake.Renal Blood Flow, Effective: The amount of the RENAL BLOOD FLOW that is going to the functional renal tissue, i.e., parts of the KIDNEY that are involved in production of URINE.Glucose: A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.Sodium-Glucose Transport Proteins: Monosaccharide transport proteins that function as active symporters. They utilize SODIUM or HYDROGEN IONS to transport GLUCOSE across CELL MEMBRANES.Sodium-Glucose Transporter 1: The founding member of the sodium glucose transport proteins. It is predominately expressed in the INTESTINAL MUCOSA of the SMALL INTESTINE.Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2: A sodium-glucose transporter that is expressed in the luminal membrane of the PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULES.Cytochalasin B: A cytotoxic member of the CYTOCHALASINS.PhloretinGlucose Transporter Type 3: A major glucose transporter found in NEURONS.GlucosidesPhlorhizinGlucose Transporter Type 5: A hexose transporter that mediates FRUCTOSE transport in SKELETAL MUSCLE and ADIPOCYTES and is responsible for luminal uptake of dietary fructose in the SMALL INTESTINE.Sodium: A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.Biological Transport: The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.Vesicular Monoamine Transport Proteins: A family of vesicular amine transporter proteins that catalyze the transport and storage of CATECHOLAMINES and indolamines into SECRETORY VESICLES.Natriuresis: Sodium excretion by URINATION.Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 3: A neuronal and epithelial type glutamate plasma membrane transporter protein.MethylglucosidesInsulin: A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).Kidney Tubules, Proximal: The renal tubule portion that extends from the BOWMAN CAPSULE in the KIDNEY CORTEX into the KIDNEY MEDULLA. The proximal tubule consists of a convoluted proximal segment in the cortex, and a distal straight segment descending into the medulla where it forms the U-shaped LOOP OF HENLE.Glycosuria: The appearance of an abnormally large amount of GLUCOSE in the urine, such as more than 500 mg/day in adults. It can be due to HYPERGLYCEMIA or genetic defects in renal reabsorption (RENAL GLYCOSURIA).Tetrabenazine: A drug formerly used as an antipsychotic and treatment of various movement disorders. Tetrabenazine blocks neurotransmitter uptake into adrenergic storage vesicles and has been used as a high affinity label for the vesicle transport system.Deoxyglucose: 2-Deoxy-D-arabino-hexose. An antimetabolite of glucose with antiviral activity.3-O-Methylglucose: A non-metabolizable glucose analogue that is not phosphorylated by hexokinase. 3-O-Methylglucose is used as a marker to assess glucose transport by evaluating its uptake within various cells and organ systems. (J Neurochem 1993;60(4):1498-504)Kidney Tubules: Long convoluted tubules in the nephrons. They collect filtrate from blood passing through the KIDNEY GLOMERULUS and process this filtrate into URINE. Each renal tubule consists of a BOWMAN CAPSULE; PROXIMAL KIDNEY TUBULE; LOOP OF HENLE; DISTAL KIDNEY TUBULE; and KIDNEY COLLECTING DUCT leading to the central cavity of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS) that connects to the URETER.Glycine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins: A family of sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters that transport the amino acid GLYCINE. They differ from GLYCINE RECEPTORS, which signal cellular responses to GLYCINE. They are located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of NEURONS; GLIAL CELLS; EPITHELIAL CELLS; and RED BLOOD CELLS where they remove inhibitory neurotransmitter glycine from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE.Glutamate Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins: A family of plasma membrane neurotransmitter transporter proteins that couple the uptake of GLUTAMATE with the import of SODIUM ions and PROTONS and the export of POTASSIUM ions. In the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM they regulate neurotransmission through synaptic reuptake of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Outside the central nervous system they function as signal mediators and regulators of glutamate metabolism.Blood Glucose: Glucose in blood.Membrane Transport Proteins: Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of molecules across a biological membrane. Included in this broad category are proteins involved in active transport (BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT, ACTIVE), facilitated transport and ION CHANNELS.Biological Transport, Active: The movement of materials across cell membranes and epithelial layers against an electrochemical gradient, requiring the expenditure of metabolic energy.Sarcosine: An amino acid intermediate in the metabolism of choline.Hypoglycemic Agents: Substances which lower blood glucose levels.Muscle Proteins: The protein constituents of muscle, the major ones being ACTINS and MYOSINS. More than a dozen accessory proteins exist including TROPONIN; TROPOMYOSIN; and DYSTROPHIN.Jejunum: The middle portion of the SMALL INTESTINE, between DUODENUM and ILEUM. It represents about 2/5 of the remaining portion of the small intestine below duodenum.Fatty Acid Transport Proteins: A broad category of membrane transport proteins that specifically transport FREE FATTY ACIDS across cellular membranes. They play an important role in LIPID METABOLISM in CELLS that utilize free fatty acids as an energy source.Glucose Tolerance Test: A test to determine the ability of an individual to maintain HOMEOSTASIS of BLOOD GLUCOSE. It includes measuring blood glucose levels in a fasting state, and at prescribed intervals before and after oral glucose intake (75 or 100 g) or intravenous infusion (0.5 g/kg).Vesicular Biogenic Amine Transport Proteins: Integral membrane proteins of the LIPID BILAYER of SECRETORY VESICLES that catalyze transport and storage of biogenic amine NEUROTRANSMITTERS such as ACETYLCHOLINE; SEROTONIN; MELATONIN; HISTAMINE; and CATECHOLAMINES. The transporters exchange vesicular protons for cytoplasmic neurotransmitters.Amino Acid Transport System X-AG: A family of POTASSIUM and SODIUM-dependent acidic amino acid transporters that demonstrate a high affinity for GLUTAMIC ACID and ASPARTIC ACID. Several variants of this system are found in neuronal tissue.Carrier Proteins: Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.Kinetics: The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters: A family of MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS that require ATP hydrolysis for the transport of substrates across membranes. The protein family derives its name from the ATP-binding domain found on the protein.Cell Membrane: The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.Adipocytes: Cells in the body that store FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. WHITE ADIPOCYTES are the predominant type and found mostly in the abdominal cavity and subcutaneous tissue. BROWN ADIPOCYTES are thermogenic cells that can be found in newborns of some species and hibernating mammals.Glucose Intolerance: A pathological state in which BLOOD GLUCOSE level is less than approximately 140 mg/100 ml of PLASMA at fasting, and above approximately 200 mg/100 ml plasma at 30-, 60-, or 90-minute during a GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST. This condition is seen frequently in DIABETES MELLITUS, but also occurs with other diseases and MALNUTRITION.Muscle, Skeletal: A subtype of striated muscle, attached by TENDONS to the SKELETON. Skeletal muscles are innervated and their movement can be consciously controlled. They are also called voluntary muscles.MethylglycosidesMolecular Sequence Data: Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.GlycogenAdipose Tissue: Specialized connective tissue composed of fat cells (ADIPOCYTES). It is the site of stored FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. In mammals, there are two types of adipose tissue, the WHITE FAT and the BROWN FAT. Their relative distributions vary in different species with most adipose tissue being white.Protein Transport: The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.Organic Anion Transporters: Proteins involved in the transport of organic anions. They play an important role in the elimination of a variety of endogenous substances, xenobiotics and their metabolites from the body.Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.Symporters: Membrane transporters that co-transport two or more dissimilar molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Usually the transport of one ion or molecule is against its electrochemical gradient and is "powered" by the movement of another ion or molecule with its electrochemical gradient.Amino Acid Sequence: The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.Hexokinase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and a D-hexose to ADP and a D-hexose 6-phosphate. D-Glucose, D-mannose, D-fructose, sorbitol, and D-glucosamine can act as acceptors; ITP and dATP can act as donors. The liver isoenzyme has sometimes been called glucokinase. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.1.RNA, Messenger: RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.Cation Transport Proteins: Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of positively charged molecules (cations) across a biological membrane.HexosesGlucose Oxidase: An enzyme of the oxidoreductase class that catalyzes the conversion of beta-D-glucose and oxygen to D-glucono-1,5-lactone and peroxide. It is a flavoprotein, highly specific for beta-D-glucose. The enzyme is produced by Penicillium notatum and other fungi and has antibacterial activity in the presence of glucose and oxygen. It is used to estimate glucose concentration in blood or urine samples through the formation of colored dyes by the hydrogen peroxide produced in the reaction. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 1.1.3.4.Cells, Cultured: Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.Anion Transport Proteins: Membrane proteins whose primary function is to facilitate the transport of negatively charged molecules (anions) across a biological membrane.Glycolysis: A metabolic process that converts GLUCOSE into two molecules of PYRUVIC ACID through a series of enzymatic reactions. Energy generated by this process is conserved in two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis is the universal catabolic pathway for glucose, free glucose, or glucose derived from complex CARBOHYDRATES, such as GLYCOGEN and STARCH.Glucose-6-Phosphate: An ester of glucose with phosphoric acid, made in the course of glucose metabolism by mammalian and other cells. It is a normal constituent of resting muscle and probably is in constant equilibrium with fructose-6-phosphate. (Stedman, 26th ed)Membrane Proteins: Proteins which are found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. They consist of two types, peripheral and integral proteins. They include most membrane-associated enzymes, antigenic proteins, transport proteins, and drug, hormone, and lectin receptors.Rats, Sprague-Dawley: A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.Isoflurane: A stable, non-explosive inhalation anesthetic, relatively free from significant side effects.Ion Transport: The movement of ions across energy-transducing cell membranes. Transport can be active, passive or facilitated. Ions may travel by themselves (uniport), or as a group of two or more ions in the same (symport) or opposite (antiport) directions.Positron-Emission Tomography: An imaging technique using compounds labelled with short-lived positron-emitting radionuclides (such as carbon-11, nitrogen-13, oxygen-15 and fluorine-18) to measure cell metabolism. It has been useful in study of soft tissues such as CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; and brain. SINGLE-PHOTON EMISSION-COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY is closely related to positron emission tomography, but uses isotopes with longer half-lives and resolution is lower.PropylaminesRats, Wistar: A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.Rats, Inbred Strains: Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.3T3 Cells: Cell lines whose original growing procedure consisted being transferred (T) every 3 days and plated at 300,000 cells per plate (J Cell Biol 17:299-313, 1963). Lines have been developed using several different strains of mice. Tissues are usually fibroblasts derived from mouse embryos but other types and sources have been developed as well. The 3T3 lines are valuable in vitro host systems for oncogenic virus transformation studies, since 3T3 cells possess a high sensitivity to CONTACT INHIBITION.Cell Line: Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.Sodium Channels: Ion channels that specifically allow the passage of SODIUM ions. A variety of specific sodium channel subtypes are involved in serving specialized functions such as neuronal signaling, CARDIAC MUSCLE contraction, and KIDNEY function.Blotting, Western: Identification of proteins or peptides that have been electrophoretically separated by blot transferring from the electrophoresis gel to strips of nitrocellulose paper, followed by labeling with antibody probes.Azides: Organic or inorganic compounds that contain the -N3 group.Insulin Antagonists: Compounds which inhibit or antagonize the biosynthesis or action of insulin.Monocarboxylic Acid Transporters: A family of proteins involved in the transport of monocarboxylic acids such as LACTIC ACID and PYRUVIC ACID across cellular membranes.Base Sequence: The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.Deoxy SugarsDiabetes Mellitus, Type 2: A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.Affinity Labels: Analogs of those substrates or compounds which bind naturally at the active sites of proteins, enzymes, antibodies, steroids, or physiological receptors. These analogs form a stable covalent bond at the binding site, thereby acting as inhibitors of the proteins or steroids.Liver: A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.Time Factors: Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.Mutation: Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.3T3-L1 Cells: A continuous cell line that is a substrain of SWISS 3T3 CELLS developed though clonal isolation. The mouse fibroblast cells undergo an adipose-like conversion as they move to a confluent and contact-inhibited state.Fructose: A monosaccharide in sweet fruits and honey that is soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It is used as a preservative and an intravenous infusion in parenteral feeding.Models, Biological: Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.Gene Expression Regulation: Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.Signal Transduction: The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.Glycosides: Any compound that contains a constituent sugar, in which the hydroxyl group attached to the first carbon is substituted by an alcoholic, phenolic, or other group. They are named specifically for the sugar contained, such as glucoside (glucose), pentoside (pentose), fructoside (fructose), etc. Upon hydrolysis, a sugar and nonsugar component (aglycone) are formed. (From Dorland, 28th ed; From Miall's Dictionary of Chemistry, 5th ed)Muscles: Contractile tissue that produces movement in animals.Lactic Acid: A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)Receptor, Insulin: A cell surface receptor for INSULIN. It comprises a tetramer of two alpha and two beta subunits which are derived from cleavage of a single precursor protein. The receptor contains an intrinsic TYROSINE KINASE domain that is located within the beta subunit. Activation of the receptor by INSULIN results in numerous metabolic changes including increased uptake of GLUCOSE into the liver, muscle, and ADIPOSE TISSUE.Hydrogen-Ion Concentration: The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)Phosphorylation: The introduction of a phosphoryl group into a compound through the formation of an ester bond between the compound and a phosphorus moiety.Amino Acid Transport Systems: Cellular proteins and protein complexes that transport amino acids across biological membranes.Cloning, Molecular: The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.Fasting: Abstaining from all food.Homeostasis: The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable.Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental: Diabetes mellitus induced experimentally by administration of various diabetogenic agents or by PANCREATECTOMY.Blood Glucose Self-Monitoring: Self evaluation of whole blood glucose levels outside the clinical laboratory. A digital or battery-operated reflectance meter may be used. It has wide application in controlling unstable insulin-dependent diabetes.Lactates: Salts or esters of LACTIC ACID containing the general formula CH3CHOHCOOR.Adenosine Triphosphate: An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.Aminoimidazole Carboxamide: An imidazole derivative which is a metabolite of the antineoplastic agents BIC and DIC. By itself, or as the ribonucleotide, it is used as a condensation agent in the preparation of nucleosides and nucleotides. Compounded with orotic acid, it is used to treat liver diseases.Glucose 1-Dehydrogenase: A glucose dehydrogenase that catalyzes the oxidation of beta-D-glucose to form D-glucono-1,5-lactone, using NAD as well as NADP as a coenzyme.Disaccharides: Oligosaccharides containing two monosaccharide units linked by a glycosidic bond.Gene Expression: The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.Glucokinase: A group of enzymes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and D-glucose to ADP and D-glucose 6-phosphate. They are found in invertebrates and microorganisms, and are highly specific for glucose. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.2.Dose-Response Relationship, Drug: The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.Insulin Receptor Substrate Proteins: A structurally-related group of signaling proteins that are phosphorylated by the INSULIN RECEPTOR PROTEIN-TYROSINE KINASE. The proteins share in common an N-terminal PHOSPHOLIPID-binding domain, a phosphotyrosine-binding domain that interacts with the phosphorylated INSULIN RECEPTOR, and a C-terminal TYROSINE-rich domain. Upon tyrosine phosphorylation insulin receptor substrate proteins interact with specific SH2 DOMAIN-containing proteins that are involved in insulin receptor signaling.Glucagon: A 29-amino acid pancreatic peptide derived from proglucagon which is also the precursor of intestinal GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDES. Glucagon is secreted by PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and plays an important role in regulation of BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration, ketone metabolism, and several other biochemical and physiological processes. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1511)Carbohydrate Metabolism: Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.Bacterial Proteins: Proteins found in any species of bacterium.Escherichia coli: A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.Islets of Langerhans: Irregular microscopic structures consisting of cords of endocrine cells that are scattered throughout the PANCREAS among the exocrine acini. Each islet is surrounded by connective tissue fibers and penetrated by a network of capillaries. There are four major cell types. The most abundant beta cells (50-80%) secrete INSULIN. Alpha cells (5-20%) secrete GLUCAGON. PP cells (10-35%) secrete PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE. Delta cells (~5%) secrete SOMATOSTATIN.AMP-Activated Protein Kinases: Intracellular signaling protein kinases that play a signaling role in the regulation of cellular energy metabolism. Their activity largely depends upon the concentration of cellular AMP which is increased under conditions of low energy or metabolic stress. AMP-activated protein kinases modify enzymes involved in LIPID METABOLISM, which in turn provide substrates needed to convert AMP into ATP.Axonal Transport: The directed transport of ORGANELLES and molecules along nerve cell AXONS. Transport can be anterograde (from the cell body) or retrograde (toward the cell body). (Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3d ed, pG3)Microvilli: Minute projections of cell membranes which greatly increase the surface area of the cell.Microsomes: Artifactual vesicles formed from the endoplasmic reticulum when cells are disrupted. They are isolated by differential centrifugation and are composed of three structural features: rough vesicles, smooth vesicles, and ribosomes. Numerous enzyme activities are associated with the microsomal fraction. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990; from Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)Energy Metabolism: The chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of various forms of energy in cells.Antiporters: Membrane transporters that co-transport two or more dissimilar molecules in the opposite direction across a membrane. Usually the transport of one ion or molecule is against its electrochemical gradient and is "powered" by the movement of another ion or molecule with its electrochemical gradient.Nucleoside Transport Proteins: Proteins involved in the transport of NUCLEOSIDES across cellular membranes.Rats, Zucker: Two populations of Zucker rats have been cited in research--the "fatty" or obese and the lean. The "fatty" rat (Rattus norvegicus) appeared as a spontaneous mutant. The obese condition appears to be due to a single recessive gene.Intestinal Absorption: Uptake of substances through the lining of the INTESTINES.Organic Cation Transport Proteins: A family of proteins involved in the transport of organic cations. They play an important role in the elimination of a variety of endogenous substances, xenobiotics, and their metabolites from the body.Amino Acids: Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.Nerve Tissue Proteins4-Chloromercuribenzenesulfonate: A cytotoxic sulfhydryl reagent that inhibits several subcellular metabolic systems and is used as a tool in cellular physiology.Saccharomyces cerevisiae: A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases: Phosphotransferases that catalyzes the conversion of 1-phosphatidylinositol to 1-phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate. Many members of this enzyme class are involved in RECEPTOR MEDIATED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION and regulation of vesicular transport with the cell. Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases have been classified both according to their substrate specificity and their mode of action within the cell.GlucosephosphatesXenopus laevis: The commonest and widest ranging species of the clawed "frog" (Xenopus) in Africa. This species is used extensively in research. There is now a significant population in California derived from escaped laboratory animals.Kidney: Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.Insulin Resistance: Diminished effectiveness of INSULIN in lowering blood sugar levels: requiring the use of 200 units or more of insulin per day to prevent HYPERGLYCEMIA or KETOSIS.Subcellular Fractions: Components of a cell produced by various separation techniques which, though they disrupt the delicate anatomy of a cell, preserve the structure and physiology of its functioning constituents for biochemical and ultrastructural analysis. (From Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2d ed, p163)Androstadienes: Derivatives of the steroid androstane having two double bonds at any site in any of the rings.Ribonucleotides: Nucleotides in which the purine or pyrimidine base is combined with ribose. (Dorland, 28th ed)Erythrocyte Membrane: The semi-permeable outer structure of a red blood cell. It is known as a red cell 'ghost' after HEMOLYSIS.Oocytes: Female germ cells derived from OOGONIA and termed OOCYTES when they enter MEIOSIS. The primary oocytes begin meiosis but are arrested at the diplotene state until OVULATION at PUBERTY to give rise to haploid secondary oocytes or ova (OVUM).Hypoglycemia: A syndrome of abnormally low BLOOD GLUCOSE level. Clinical hypoglycemia has diverse etiologies. Severe hypoglycemia eventually lead to glucose deprivation of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM resulting in HUNGER; SWEATING; PARESTHESIA; impaired mental function; SEIZURES; COMA; and even DEATH.Sequence Homology, Amino Acid: The degree of similarity between sequences of amino acids. This information is useful for the analyzing genetic relatedness of proteins and species.Galactose: An aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. Deficiency of galactosyl-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALACTOSE-1-PHOSPHATE URIDYL-TRANSFERASE DEFICIENCY DISEASE) causes an error in galactose metabolism called GALACTOSEMIA, resulting in elevations of galactose in the blood.Brain: The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.Immunoblotting: Immunologic method used for detecting or quantifying immunoreactive substances. The substance is identified by first immobilizing it by blotting onto a membrane and then tagging it with labeled antibodies.Protein Binding: The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.Fatty Acids, Nonesterified: FATTY ACIDS found in the plasma that are complexed with SERUM ALBUMIN for transport. These fatty acids are not in glycerol ester form.Glycogen Synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of D-glucose from UDPglucose into 1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl chains. EC 2.4.1.11.Carbon Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10, 11, and 14-16 are radioactive carbon isotopes.Sodium Chloride: A ubiquitous sodium salt that is commonly used to season food.GABA Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins: A family of plasma membrane neurotransmitter transporter proteins that regulates extracellular levels of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID. They differ from GABA RECEPTORS, which signal cellular responses to GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID. They control GABA reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM through high-affinity sodium-dependent transport.Intracellular Membranes: Thin structures that encapsulate subcellular structures or ORGANELLES in EUKARYOTIC CELLS. They include a variety of membranes associated with the CELL NUCLEUS; the MITOCHONDRIA; the GOLGI APPARATUS; the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; LYSOSOMES; PLASTIDS; and VACUOLES.Vesicular Transport Proteins: A broad category of proteins involved in the formation, transport and dissolution of TRANSPORT VESICLES. They play a role in the intracellular transport of molecules contained within membrane vesicles. Vesicular transport proteins are distinguished from MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS, which move molecules across membranes, by the mode in which the molecules are transported.Transport Vesicles: Vesicles that are involved in shuttling cargo from the interior of the cell to the cell surface, from the cell surface to the interior, across the cell or around the cell to various locations.Serotonin Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins: Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of serotonergic neurons. They are different than SEROTONIN RECEPTORS, which signal cellular responses to SEROTONIN. They remove SEROTONIN from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS. Regulates signal amplitude and duration at serotonergic synapses and is the site of action of the SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITORS.Multidrug Resistance-Associated Proteins: A sequence-related subfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS that actively transport organic substrates. Although considered organic anion transporters, a subset of proteins in this family have also been shown to convey drug resistance to neutral organic drugs. Their cellular function may have clinical significance for CHEMOTHERAPY in that they transport a variety of ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS. Overexpression of proteins in this class by NEOPLASMS is considered a possible mechanism in the development of multidrug resistance (DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE). Although similar in function to P-GLYCOPROTEINS, the proteins in this class share little sequence homology to the p-glycoprotein family of proteins.Cell Compartmentation: A partitioning within cells due to the selectively permeable membranes which enclose each of the separate parts, e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, etc.Amino Acid Transport Systems, Neutral: Amino acid transporter systems capable of transporting neutral amino acids (AMINO ACIDS, NEUTRAL).Transfection: The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.Blood-Brain Barrier: Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined ENDOTHELIAL CELLS with TIGHT JUNCTIONS that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the BRAIN tissue.Phosphoenolpyruvate Sugar Phosphotransferase System: The bacterial sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS) that catalyzes the transfer of the phosphoryl group from phosphoenolpyruvate to its sugar substrates (the PTS sugars) concomitant with the translocation of these sugars across the bacterial membrane. The phosphorylation of a given sugar requires four proteins, two general proteins, Enzyme I and HPr and a pair of sugar-specific proteins designated as the Enzyme II complex. The PTS has also been implicated in the induction of synthesis of some catabolic enzyme systems required for the utilization of sugars that are not substrates of the PTS as well as the regulation of the activity of ADENYLYL CYCLASES. EC 2.7.1.-.Blotting, Northern: Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.Fatty Acids: Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated (FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)Lipid Metabolism: Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.Dopamine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins: Sodium chloride-dependent neurotransmitter symporters located primarily on the PLASMA MEMBRANE of dopaminergic neurons. They remove DOPAMINE from the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE by high affinity reuptake into PRESYNAPTIC TERMINALS and are the target of DOPAMINE UPTAKE INHIBITORS.Oxidation-Reduction: A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).Binding Sites: The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.Organic Anion Transporters, Sodium-Independent: A subclass of ORGANIC ANION TRANSPORTERS that do not rely directly or indirectly upon sodium ion gradients for the transport of organic ions.Monosaccharides: Simple sugars, carbohydrates which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis. They are colorless crystalline substances with a sweet taste and have the same general formula CnH2nOn. (From Dorland, 28th ed)Escherichia coli Proteins: Proteins obtained from ESCHERICHIA COLI.Gluconeogenesis: Biosynthesis of GLUCOSE from nonhexose or non-carbohydrate precursors, such as LACTATE; PYRUVATE; ALANINE; and GLYCEROL.Tissue Distribution: Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.Body Weight: The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.Recombinant Proteins: Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.Mice, Inbred C57BLCystinyl Aminopeptidase: A zinc-containing sialoglycoprotein that is used to study aminopeptidase activity in the pathogenesis of hypertension. EC 3.4.11.3.Obesity: A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or desirable weight, usually due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. The standards may vary with age, sex, genetic or cultural background. In the BODY MASS INDEX, a BMI greater than 30.0 kg/m2 is considered obese, and a BMI greater than 40.0 kg/m2 is considered morbidly obese (MORBID OBESITY).Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel: Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.Mice, Knockout: Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.Enzyme Inhibitors: Compounds or agents that combine with an enzyme in such a manner as to prevent the normal substrate-enzyme combination and the catalytic reaction.Substrate Specificity: A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.Glucose Dehydrogenases: D-Glucose:1-oxidoreductases. Catalyzes the oxidation of D-glucose to D-glucono-gamma-lactone and reduced acceptor. Any acceptor except molecular oxygen is permitted. Includes EC 1.1.1.47; EC 1.1.1.118; EC 1.1.1.119 and EC 1.1.99.10.Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter 2: A glutamate plasma membrane transporter protein found in ASTROCYTES and in the LIVER.Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt: A protein-serine-threonine kinase that is activated by PHOSPHORYLATION in response to GROWTH FACTORS or INSULIN. It plays a major role in cell metabolism, growth, and survival as a core component of SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION. Three isoforms have been described in mammalian cells.Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction: A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.Protein-Serine-Threonine Kinases: A group of enzymes that catalyzes the phosphorylation of serine or threonine residues in proteins, with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.Culture Media: Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.Glucose-6-Phosphatase: An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of D-glucose 6-phosphate and water to D-glucose and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.9.TritiumDiabetes Mellitus: A heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by HYPERGLYCEMIA and GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE.Immunohistochemistry: Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.Potassium: An element in the alkali group of metals with an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte that plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.Rabbits: The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.Chlorides: Inorganic compounds derived from hydrochloric acid that contain the Cl- ion.Recombinant Fusion Proteins: Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.Phosphate-Binding Proteins: Proteins that bind to and are involved in the metabolism of phosphate ions.
CotransporterNa-K-2Cl symporter K-Cl cotransporter Sodium/phosphate cotransporter Sodium-glucose transport proteins Glucose transporter ... to provide the power needed for transport. This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the ... glucose cotransporter that has an important role in transferring sugar across the epithelial cells of renal proximal tubules ... In mammals, glucose is transported through sodium dependent glucose transporters, which use energy in this process. Here, since ...
Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium-glucose ... There are two types of active transport - primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an ... It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in ... The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport ...
Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found ... This action creates a downhill sodium ion gradient from the outside to the inside of the proximal tubule cell (that is, in ... encompass the active transport of a diverse range of molecules and ions into virtually every cell type. Boyd CA (March 2008). " ... the sodium-glucose cotransporter. Sodium-Glucose Transport Proteins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject ...
They act by inhibiting sodium-glucose transport protein 2 (SGLT2), and are therefore also called SGLT2 inhibitors. Gliflozins ... Glucose is later reabsorbed by passive transfer of endothelial cells into the interstitial glucose transporter protein. The use ... Scheen, André J. (14 January 2014). "Drug-Drug Interactions with Sodium-Glucose Cotransporters Type 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors, New ... Sodium and glucose are co-transported by the SGLT-2 protein into the tubular epithelial cells across the brush-border membrane ...
Sodium/glucose co-transporter (SGLT) proteins are bound to the cell membrane and have the role of transporting glucose through ... glucosuria and blocks intestinal glucose absorption through inhibition of the sodium/glucose symporters located in the proximal ... Gliflozins are a class of drugs in the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2D). They act by inhibiting sodium/glucose cotransporter ... which are secondary active glucose transporters. The sodium glucose transporters proteins SGLT-1 and SGLT-2 are the two premier ...
Amino acids are reabsorbed by sodium dependent transporters in the proximal tubule. Hartnup disease is a deficiency of the ... Urine tests such as urinalysis can evaluate for pH, protein, glucose, and the presence of blood. Microscopic analysis can also ... A.M. Weinstein (1994). "Mathematical models of tubular transport". Annual Review of Physiology. 56: 691-709. doi:10.1146/ ... Distinct cell types include: *Kidney glomerulus parietal cell. *Kidney glomerulus podocyte. *Kidney proximal tubule brush ...
Nine encode proteins that transport HCO− 3. Functionally, eight of these proteins fall into two major groups: three Cl-HCO− 3 ... Animal cells in tissue culture expressing the gene-encoding the ABC-type chloride channel protein CFTR (TC# 3.A.1.202.1) in the ... transport of H+ or HCO− 3 by epithelia (e.g. absorption of HCO− 3 in the renal proximal tubule, secretion of HCO− 3 in the ... may provide sites for regulation of transporter function via protein kinase A phosphorylation (e.g., NBCe1). The SLC4 family ...
norepinephrine transport. • epinephrine transport. • organic cation transport. • dopamine transport. • protein ... organic cation transmembrane transporter activity. • organic anion transmembrane transporter activity. • dopamine:sodium ... "In vitro and in vivo binding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Tat protein and Sp1 transcription factor". Journal of ... "Properties and regulation of organic cation transport in freshly isolated human proximal tubules". The Journal of Biological ...
... and glucose transporters. The thyroid hormones are created from thyroglobulin. This is a protein within the follicular space ... This is an ion channel on the cell membrane which in the same action transports two sodium ions and an iodide ion into the cell ... In addition, the thyroid gland may also develop several types of nodules and cancer. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped ... The disorders that occur in the lower neck more proximal to the thyroid gland are lined by epithelium resembling the thyroidal ...
Proximal glial cells use a cystine/glutamate antiporter (xCT) to transport cystine into the cell and glutamate out. Excessive ... transporter Metabotropic glutamate receptor Synaptic plasticity Neurodegeneration Glutamate receptor-interacting protein ... "A high affinity glutamate/aspartate transport system in pancreatic islets of Langerhans modulates glucose-stimulated insulin ... NMDA and metabotropic types have been found to induce epileptic convulsions. Using rodent models, labs have found that the ...
In addition, these neurons expressed MCT8, a thyroid hormone transporter, supporting the theory that T3 is transported into ... It has been postulated that when their glucose utilization is low and consequently when the arteriovenous blood glucose ... sodium excretion, and sodium appetite. They also contain neurons with receptors for angiotensin, atrial natriuretic factor, ... The hypothalamus functions as a type of thermostat for the body.[28] It sets a desired body temperature, and stimulates either ...
protein binding. • sodium channel regulator activity. • serine-type endopeptidase inhibitor activity. • angiotensin receptor ... negative regulation of sodium ion transmembrane transporter activity. • positive regulation of nitric oxide biosynthetic ... proximal tubule. increased Na+ reabsorption. *adjustment of Starling forces in peritubular capillaries to favour increased ... positive regulation of glucose import in response to insulin stimulus. • positive regulation of cardiac muscle cell apoptotic ...
This is an ion channel on the cell membrane which in the same action transports two sodium ions and an iodide ion into the cell ... and glucose transporters.[18] ... About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells ... Two types thyroiditis initially present with hyperthyroidism and are sometimes followed by a period of hypothyroidism - ... The disorders that occur in the lower neck more proximal to the thyroid gland are lined by epithelium resembling the thyroidal ...
... proximal; 185800; NOG Syndactyly, type III; 186100; GJA1 Syndactyly, type IV; 186200; LMBR1 Syndactyly, type V; 186300; HOXD13 ... HRG Thrombophilia due to protein C deficiency, autosomal dominant; 176860; PROC Thrombophilia due to protein C deficiency, ... due to glucose phosphate isomerase deficiency; 613470; GPI Hemolytic uremic syndrome, atypical, susceptibility to, 1; 235400; ... secretory sodium, congenital, syndromic; 270420; SPINT2 Diarrhea 4, malabsorptive, congenital; 610370; NEUROG3 Diarrhea 5, with ...
Energy-yielding metabolism in erythrocytes depends on a constant supply of glucose from the blood plasma, where the glucose concentration is maintained at about 5mM. Glucose enters the erythrocyte by facilitated diffusion via a specific glucose transporter, at a rate about 50,000 times greater than uncatalyzed transmembrane diffusion. The glucose transporter of erythrocytes (called GLUT1 to distinguish it from related glucose transporters in other tissues) is a type III integral protein with 12 hydrophobic segments, each of which is believed to form a membrane-spanning helix. The detailed structure of GLUT1 is not known yet, but one plausible model suggests that the side-by-side assembly of several helices produces a ...
... s are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla. The GLUT or SLC2A family are a protein family that is found in most mammalian cells. 14 GLUTS are encoded by human genome. GLUT is a type of uniporter transporter protein. Most non-autotrophic cells are unable to produce free glucose because they lack expression of glucose-6-phosphatase and, thus, are involved only in glucose uptake and catabolism. Usually produced only in hepatocytes, in fasting conditions other tissues such as the intestines, muscles, brain, and kidneys are able to produce ...
Energy-yielding metabolism in erythrocytes depends on a constant supply of glucose from the blood plasma, where the glucose concentration is maintained at about 5mM. Glucose enters the erythrocyte by facilitated diffusion via a specific glucose transporter, at a rate about 50,000 times greater than uncatalyzed transmembrane diffusion. The glucose transporter of erythrocytes (called GLUT1 to distinguish it from related glucose transporters in other tissues) is a type III integral protein with 12 hydrophobic segments, each of which is believed to form a membrane-spanning helix. The detailed structure of GLUT1 is not known yet, but one plausible model suggests that the side-by-side assembly of several helices produces a ...
... has been used as a vitamin C dietary supplement.[8] As a cosmetic ingredient, dehydroascorbic acid is used to enhance the appearance of the skin.[9] It may be used in a process for permanent waving of hair[10] and in a process for sunless tanning of skin.[11] In a cell culture growth medium, dehydroascorbic acid has been used to assure the uptake of vitamin C into cell types that do not contain ascorbic acid transporters.[12] As a pharmaceutical agent, some research has suggested that administration of dehydroascorbic acid may confer protection from neuronal injury following an ischemic stroke.[7] The literature contains many reports on the antiviral effects of vitamin C,[13] and one study suggests dehydroascorbic acid has stronger antiviral effects and a different mechanism of action than ascorbic acid.[14] Solutions in water containing ascorbic acid and copper ions and/or peroxide, resulting in rapid oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid, have been shown ...
C-jun-amino-terminal kinase-interacting protein 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAPK8IP1 gene.[5][6] The protein encoded by this gene is a regulator of the pancreatic beta-cell function. It is highly similar to JIP-1, a mouse protein known to be a regulator of c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (Mapk8). This protein has been shown to prevent MAPK8 mediated activation of transcription factors, and decrease IL-1 beta and MAP kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1) induced apoptosis in pancreatic beta cells. This protein also functions as a DNA-binding transactivator of the glucose transporter GLUT2. RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) is reported to repress the expression of this gene in insulin-secreting beta cells. This gene is found to be mutated in a type 2 diabetes family, and thus is thought to be a susceptibility gene for type 2 ...
... s are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla. The GLUT or SLC2A family are a protein family that is found in most mammalian cells. 14 GLUTS are encoded by human genome. GLUT is a type of uniporter transporter protein. Most non-autotrophic cells are unable to produce free glucose because they lack expression of glucose-6-phosphatase and, thus, are involved only in glucose uptake and catabolism. Usually produced only in hepatocytes, in fasting conditions other tissues such as the intestines, muscles, brain, and kidneys are able to produce ...
... , also known as cystinyl aminopeptidase (CAP), insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), human placental leucine aminopeptidase (PLAP), oxytocinase, and vasopressinase, is an enzyme of the aminopeptidase group that in humans is encoded by the LNPEP gene. This gene encodes a zinc-dependent aminopeptidase (metalloexopeptidase) that cleaves vasopressin, oxytocin, lys-bradykinin, met-enkephalin, dynorphin A and other peptide hormones. The protein can be secreted in maternal serum, reside in intracellular vesicles with the insulin-responsive glucose transporter GLUT4, or form a type II integral membrane glycoprotein. The protein catalyzes the final step in the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin IV (AT4) and is also a receptor for AT4. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms. Mutations in this gene have been associated to psoriasis ...
Energy-yielding metabolism in erythrocytes depends on a constant supply of glucose from the blood plasma, where the glucose concentration is maintained at about 5mM. Glucose enters the erythrocyte by facilitated diffusion via a specific glucose transporter, at a rate about 50,000 times greater than uncatalyzed transmembrane diffusion. The glucose transporter of erythrocytes (called GLUT1 to distinguish it from related glucose transporters in other tissues) is a type III integral protein with 12 hydrophobic segments, each of which is believed to form a membrane-spanning helix. The detailed structure of GLUT1 is not known yet, but one plausible model suggests that the side-by-side assembly of several helices produces a ...
C-jun-amino-terminal kinase-interacting protein 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the MAPK8IP1 gene.[5][6] The protein encoded by this gene is a regulator of the pancreatic beta-cell function. It is highly similar to JIP-1, a mouse protein known to be a regulator of c-Jun amino-terminal kinase (Mapk8). This protein has been shown to prevent MAPK8 mediated activation of transcription factors, and decrease IL-1 beta and MAP kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1) induced apoptosis in pancreatic beta cells. This protein also functions as a DNA-binding transactivator of the glucose transporter GLUT2. RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) is reported to repress the expression of this gene in insulin-secreting beta cells. This gene is found to be mutated in a type 2 diabetes family, and thus is thought to be a susceptibility gene for type 2 ...
... , also known as cystinyl aminopeptidase (CAP), insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), human placental leucine aminopeptidase (PLAP), oxytocinase, and vasopressinase, is an enzyme of the aminopeptidase group that in humans is encoded by the LNPEP gene. This gene encodes a zinc-dependent aminopeptidase (metalloexopeptidase) that cleaves vasopressin, oxytocin, lys-bradykinin, met-enkephalin, dynorphin A and other peptide hormones. The protein can be secreted in maternal serum, reside in intracellular vesicles with the insulin-responsive glucose transporter GLUT4, or form a type II integral membrane glycoprotein. The protein catalyzes the final step in the conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin IV (AT4) and is also a receptor for AT4. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms. Mutations in this gene have been associated to psoriasis ...
... s are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla. The GLUT or SLC2A family are a protein family that is found in most mammalian cells. 14 GLUTS are encoded by human genome. GLUT is a type of uniporter transporter protein. Most non-autotrophic cells are unable to produce free glucose because they lack expression of glucose-6-phosphatase and, thus, are involved only in glucose uptake and catabolism. Usually produced only in hepatocytes, in fasting conditions other tissues such as the intestines, muscles, brain, and kidneys are able to produce ...
Energy-yielding metabolism in erythrocytes depends on a constant supply of glucose from the blood plasma, where the glucose concentration is maintained at about 5mM. Glucose enters the erythrocyte by facilitated diffusion via a specific glucose transporter, at a rate about 50,000 times greater than uncatalyzed transmembrane diffusion. The glucose transporter of erythrocytes (called GLUT1 to distinguish it from related glucose transporters in other tissues) is a type III integral protein with 12 hydrophobic segments, each of which is believed to form a membrane-spanning helix. The detailed structure of GLUT1 is not known yet, but one plausible model suggests that the side-by-side assembly of several helices produces a ...
... s are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla. The GLUT or SLC2A family are a protein family that is found in most mammalian cells. 14 GLUTS are encoded by human genome. GLUT is a type of uniporter transporter protein. Most non-autotrophic cells are unable to produce free glucose because they lack expression of glucose-6-phosphatase and, thus, are involved only in glucose uptake and catabolism. Usually produced only in hepatocytes, in fasting conditions other tissues such as the intestines, muscles, brain, and kidneys are able to produce ...
Dapagliflozin: a sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor in development for type 2 diabetes | SpringerLinkType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a growing worldwide epidemic. Patients face lifelong therapy to control hyperglycemia and ... Wood IS, Trayhurn P. Glucose transporters (GLUT and SGLT): expanded families of sugar transport proteins. Br J Nutr. 2003;89:3- ... Regulatory mechanisms of Na+/glucose cotransporters in renal proximal tubule cells. Kidney Int. 2007;72:S27-S35.CrossRefGoogle ... low-capacity glucose transporter sodium glucose cotransporter 1, SGLT1 (Figure 1A).29,30 However, while SGLT2 is predominantly ...
Na-K-2Cl symporter K-Cl cotransporter Sodium/phosphate cotransporter Sodium-glucose transport proteins Glucose transporter ... to provide the power needed for transport. This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the ... glucose cotransporter that has an important role in transferring sugar across the epithelial cells of renal proximal tubules ... In mammals, glucose is transported through sodium dependent glucose transporters, which use energy in this process. Here, since ...
Type 1 diabetes pathophysiology and diagnosis, diabetes mellitus type 2 biochemistry voet... diabetes mellitus type 2 sign and symptoms 9dpo, diabetes free powder makeup, immo-s voba breisgau-nord, care plan on diabetes ... diabetes mellitus type 2 sign and symptoms 9dpo, diabetes free powder makeup, immo-s voba breisgau-nord, care plan on diabetes ... diabetes mellitus type 2 biochemistry voet, type 2 diabetes symptoms rash, ... diabetes mellitus type 2 biochemistry voet, type 2 diabetes symptoms rash, ...
![Full text] Differential cardiovascular profiles of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 | TCRM](data:image/png;base64,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)
Full text] Differential cardiovascular profiles of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 | TCRMOne of the most feared repercussions of type 2 diabetes mellitus is the risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. The current ... The EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial studied the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor empagliflozin in type 2 diabetic patients at ... Differential cardiovascular profiles of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors: critical evaluation of empagliflozin Vani P ... Sanon,1 Shalin Patel,1 Saurabh Sanon,2 Ruben Rodriguez,1 Son V Pham,1 Robert Chilton1 1Division of Cardiology, University of ...
Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium-glucose ... There are two types of active transport - primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an ... It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys. Its mechanism is exploited in ... The gene was then discovered for intestinal glucose transport protein and linked to these membrane sodium glucose cotransport ...
Sodium-glucose transport proteins - wikidoc... several of which may also be sodium-glucose transporters.[1] Gene. Protein. Acronym. Tissue distribution. in proximal tubule[2] ... P-type ATPase (3.A.3). *3.A.3.1.1: Na+/K+ transporting: ATP1A1 ... Sodium-Glucose+Transport+Proteins at the US National Library of ... Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found ... Na+:Glucose. Co-transport ratio. Contribution to glucose. reabsorption (%)[3] SLC5A1. Sodium/GLucose. coTransporter 1. SGLT1. ...
Phospho-IRS-1 (Ser302) Antibody, UniProt ID P35568 #2384 to SGLT2 Antibody, UniProt ID P31639 #14210 from Cell Signaling...Sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) is an active glucose transporter, which utilizes sodium gradients to transport glucose ... is one of the two main glucose transporters in the kidney proximal convoluted tubule. It is activated by Protein Kinase A and ... Inhibitors of SGLT2 have been developed in order to treat people with type 2 diabetes (7). ... SGLT1 is an essential glucose active transport protein that helps maintain high intracellular glucose levels (1). Expression of ...
JCI -
Immunologic impact of the intestine in metabolic diseaseFor example, glucose is absorbed from the small intestine via sodium-coupled glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) and is released from ... Identification of the major intestinal fatty acid transport protein. Mol Cell. 1999;4(3):299-308.. View this article via: ... while IECs and Paneth cells produce AMPs and C-type lectin regenerating islet-derived protein IIIγ (RegIIIγ) to exclude ... CD36 is important for fatty acid and cholesterol uptake by the proximal but not distal intestine. J Biol Chem. 2007;282(27): ...
Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition.PDFprotein transporters, channels, and pumps distin-. bolic fuel for colonocytes. Their transport is postu-. guishing the apical ... Proximal one-third of colon only. Goblet cells Colonic crypt Mucin release. Most common cell type in the colon. Enteroendocrine ... passive transport systems exist via both of these. Whereas sodium is the primary cation involved in. pathways.. ion transport, ... tration of glucose is regulated both by uptake at. H. Na. +. 2. CO. 3. Cl. -. CO. the apical surface and by exit through the ...
Aims/hypothesis GLUT2 is the main renal glucose transporter upregulated by hyperglycaemia, when it becomes detectable at the ... brush border membrane (BBM). Since glucose-induced protein kinase C (PKC)... ... It is now clear that sodium/glucose cotransporters (SGLTs) and GLUT2 work in conjunction to transport glucose across the brush ... Brush border membrane Diabetes Facilitated glucose transporters GLUT2 Hyperglycaemia Protein kinase C Proximal tubule ...
Impact of empagliflozin on subclinical left ventricular dysfunctions and on the mechanisms involved in myocardial disease...Both proteins bind and transport sodium and glucose, SGLT2 in a one-to-one and SGLT1 in a two-to-one ratio, while showing some ... the sodium-glucose-linked co-transporters (SGLT). SGLTs are found in the proximal tubule in two different isoforms, namely ... Follow-up of blood-pressure lowering and glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1392-406.View ArticlePubMed ... Sodium-glucose linked co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors in cardiovascular disease. In the kidney, plasma glucose is freely ...
Molecular Analysis of the SGLT2 Gene in Patients with Renal Glucosuria | American Society of NephrologyAn important role of protein kinases for sodium-glucose co-transporters has been demonstrated for SGLT1, and it has been ... A diminished amount of the normal SGLT2 protein should result in type A glucosuria, characterized by a lowered renal transport ... are in line with the accepted dogma that the bulk of filtered glucose is reabsorbed in segments S1 and S2 of the proximal ... The role of SGLT2 (the gene for a renal sodium-dependent glucose transporter) in renal glucosuria was evaluated. Therefore, its ...
PSL301: Water 3 Flashcards by Airi - | Brainscapethe most important lumenal Na transport protein at the proximal tubule is... ... glucose moves out of cell on basolateral side using GLUT transporter. 3. Na/K ATPase pumps Na out of cell to keep intracellular ... which ions use sodium co-transport as a method to get through cells? ... Polarized, so have different transport proteins on each side. Solutes must pass through different ones to get to other side. ...
Study Tubular Transport of NaCl and Water flashcards from Jeffrey Lee ... It is a type of passive transportation that is carrier-mediated. Carrier proteins facilitate movement across lipid bilayer. Two ... True or False: Macromolecules like polypeptides and proteins are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. ... Also, the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids is helped by Na reabsorption as well. Glucose and amino acids "ride with" Na ...
Perspective on the Application of Microphysiological Systems to Drug Transporter Studies | Drug Metabolism & DispositionAlbumin and glucose reuptake was also improved, as well as aquaporin 1 and sodium potassium ATPase protein expression, ... 2013) Human kidney proximal tubule-on-a-chip for drug transport and nephrotoxicity assessment. Integr Biol 5:1119-1129. ... kidney models use proximal tubule epithelial cells as the most relevant cell type for secretory function; gut models use ... multidrug resistance-associated protein. OAT. organic anion transporter. OATP. organic anion transporting polypeptide. OCT. ...
Apple Trees to Sodium Glucose Co-Transporter Inhibitors: A Review of SGLT2 Inhibition | Clinical DiabetesSGLTs include an extensive array of membrane proteins that transport glucose, amino acids, vitamins, ions, and osmolytes across ... Sodium-glucose cotransport inhibition with dapagliflozin in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 32:650-657, 2009 ... of the proximal convoluted tubule.6,12 SGLT2 binds with both sodium and glucose in the tubular filtrate. These compounds are ... Today, we have a better understanding of the physiology of glucose transport via specific carriers such as the sodium glucose ...
Wild-type breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) is a methotrexate polyglutamate transporter. Cancer Res 63: 5538-5543. ... Renal secretion of drugs is achieved by vectorial transport via the kidney epithelium of the proximal tubules, which consists ... medium and for an additional 24 h with culture medium supplemented with 5 mM sodium butyrate before the transport studies. ... 5 mM glucose, and 1.53 mM CaCl2, pH 7.4) containing radiolabeled compounds in the presence or absence of inhibitors after cells ...
SGLT2 and SGLT1: What's the Difference?... inhibitors are relatively new classes of drugs that work by increasing urinary glucose excretion. ... High-capacity, low affinity glucose co-transport protein. Location of action in Proximal Tubule. Distal S3 segment. S1 and S2 ... DeSantis, A. (2018). Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. UpToDate. ... Combination drugs for type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes management: A practice guide for NPs. Keeping up-to-date with diabetes ...
Alternative Channels for Urea in the Inner Medulla of the Rat KidneyWe hypothesized that novel, yet-unidentified transporters in these tubule segments … ... and yet no urea transporters have been identified in these sections. ... Membrane Transport Modulators * Membrane Transport Proteins * RNA, Messenger * Slc5a1 protein, rat * Sodium-Glucose Transporter ... NaGLT1 is a Na(+)-dependent glucose transporter primarily located in the proximal tubules and not previously described in the ...
Dopamine-Mediated Inhibition of Renal Na,K-ATPase Is Reduced by Insulin | Hypertension... along with receptor-G protein uncoupling. DA, via the D1 receptor, inhibits the sodium transporters in proximal tubules and ... Transport and metabolism of glucose by renal proximal tubular cells in primary culture. Am J Physiol. 1984; 246: F757-F764. ... Segers O, Anckaert E, Gerlo E, Dupont AG, Somers G. Dopamine-sodium relationship in type 2 diabetes patients. Diabetes Res Clin ... G proteins. Dopamine (DA) causes inhibition of sodium reabsorption in the renal proximal tubules. This action of DA is mediated ...
Living donor kidney to the recommended readings at the right reasons primary transport in the apical membrane transporters and ... more especially in the wild type and bf mutant kidneys which have their condition deteriorates or more of a wt viii proximal ... Sodium helps regulate the fusion of the other.Detection of renal cilia has not been used safely and effectively regulated by ... You cannot eat what you eat contain protein. cheap viagra for sale get viagra ...
Renal System - Revision Cards in A Level and IB Health & Social CareEach transporter grabs only one or two types of molecules. For example, glucose is reabsorbed by a transporter that also grabs ... For example, most of the Na transporters are located in the proximal tubule, while fewer ones are spread out through other ... Specialized proteins called transporters are located on the membranes of the nephron. ... These tubes collect the urine and then transport it to the ureters which will then transport it to be stored in the bladder ...
Effects of octreotide on glucose transporter type 2 expression in obese rat ... ... Increased NHE3 abundance and transport activity in renal proximal tubule of rats ... ... the major apical transcellular pathway for sodium reabsorption in the proximal tubule, is upregulated in an experimental model ... Background/Aims: NF-κB protein family members act as transcription facts and play a key role in regulating the immune response ...
SGLT2 Inhibitors, a New Approach in Diabetes TreatmentProtein name. Transport type. Tissue distribution. SGLT1. Na+/glucose-galactose co-transporter (also urea and water channel). ... Sodium monocarboxylic acid transporters. Thyroid, kidney, colon. SMCT2. Sodium monocarboxylic acid transporters. Thyroid, ... when the amount of glucose in proximal tubule is increased.[31] The physiological role of Na+/D-glucose co-transporter SGLT1 in ... Glucose (or galactose) co-transporter. Kidney cortex. SGLT6 (also known as SMIT2). Na+/glucose-myo-inositol co-transporter. ...
Alterations in intestinal permeability | GutThis limit is loosely based on the known distribution of the sodium dependent glucose transporter 1 along this axis. Within ... The fibrils between cells consist of at least two types of tetraspanning membrane proteins, occludin and members of the claudin ... For instance, in the proximal gut, intact dietary antigens will be common but in the distal gut, antigens from the microflora ... Molecular structure of tight junctions and their role in epithelial transport. News Physiol Sci2001;16:126-30. ...
TubulesSGLT2Occurring in the proximal tubuleSGLT1InhibitorsEpithelial cellsTubularExcretionSide of the proximal tubuleMembraneBlood glucoseIntestinalSolutePlasma glucoseInhibitorSecretionAbsorptionKidneysKinaseSGLTsCotransportLuminalAminoThick asceRatsGeneUrineOrganic anion transportersReabsorbDiabetes mellitusSubstrateLumenMembranesConcentrationMRNA and proteinIntracellularRegulateMediatesMetabolicRegulationHigh affinityConcentrationsPhysiologyAffinityInhibition of renal glucose reuptakeNephron segmentsMutationsMechanismGLUT1 and GLUT3
- Additionally, the role of calcium signalling and PKC activation on facilitative glucose transport was examined by measuring glucose uptake in BBM vesicles prepared from proximal tubules that had been incubated either with thapsigargin, which increases cytosolic calcium, or with the PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate,13-acetate (PMA). (springer.com)
- 1 ) gluconeogenesis and 2 ) glomerular filtration and reabsorption of glucose in the proximal convoluted tubules. (diabetesjournals.org)
- how is paracellular transport achieved (at the renal tubules)? (brainscape.com)
- Renal secretion of drugs is achieved by vectorial transport via the kidney epithelium of the proximal tubules, which consists of the uptake from blood via the basolateral membrane and the subsequent efflux into the lumen via the brush border membrane (BBM). (aspetjournals.org)
- NaGLT1 is a Na(+)-dependent glucose transporter primarily located in the proximal tubules and not previously described in the thin limbs. (nih.gov)
- Recently we have reported that rosiglitazone treatment of obese Zucker rats reduced plasma insulin and restored the ability of dopamine to inhibit Na,K-ATPase (NKA) in renal proximal tubules. (ahajournals.org)
- Dopamine (DA) causes inhibition of sodium reabsorption in the renal proximal tubules. (ahajournals.org)
- This action of DA is mediated by the activation of D1 receptors located on both the brush-border and the basolateral membranes of the proximal tubules and subsequent inhibition of the sodium transporters Na,H-exchanger (NHE) and Na,K-ATPase (NKA). (ahajournals.org)
- [ 22 , 23 ] As for the renal tubules, early in vitro perfusion studies demonstrated that tubular glucose reabsorption was facilitated by two different transporters. (medscape.com)
- From free-flow collections of tubular fluid, it was also estimated that in wild-type mice 78 ± 6% of the filtered glucose was reabsorbed at early proximal tubules and this proportion reached 93 ± 1% at late proximal tubules, whereas in Sglt2−/− mice, no glucose (0.2 ± 6.8%) is reabsorbed at early proximal tubules and only 21 ± 6% at late proximal tubules. (medscape.com)
- Immunostaining with a specific antibody confirmed Slgt2 localization in the apical brush border membrane of early proximal convoluted tubules . (solvobiotech.com)
- On the basis of anatomic and functional characteristics, the tubules are typically divided into four main segments: proximal tubule (PT), thick ascending limb (TAL) of Henle's loop, distal convoluted tubule (DCT), and collecting duct (CD). (asnjournals.org)
- The main sodium transporters and regulators in the proximal tubule and distal and connecting/collecting tubules. (hindawi.com)
- however, fructose reabsorption by proximal tubules has never been demonstrated directly. (solvobiotech.com)
- It was proven that 65-85% of fructose reabsorption in the S2 segment of renal proximal tubules can be inhibited by either removal of Na + from the perfusate or by phlorizin, an SGLT blocker. (solvobiotech.com)
- Furthermore, in the S2 segment research has found no evidence of apical expression of either GLUT2 or GLUT5, the only GLUTs known to be expressed in proximal tubules. (solvobiotech.com)
- This type of co transport is also utilized to reabsorb glucose from kidney tubules, involving SGLT2 Transporter. (amazonaws.com)
- investigated the function of proximal convoluted tubules in NHE3 −/− mice by in vivo microperfusion . (scirp.org)
- From these results, they concluded that NHE3 is largely, if not completely, responsible for the EIPA-sensitive NHE activity in the luminal side of the proximal tubules. (scirp.org)
- We are currently investigating various aspects of renal tubule and gastric tissue ion transport in intact renal tubules and gastric glands. (yale.edu)
- This invention relates to a method of using alpha-methylglucoside (AMG) in vivo as an indicator for glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal (GI) system, glucose re-absorption from the kidney tubules, and/or glucose excretion in the urine, after oral administration of AMG. (patentsencyclopedia.com)
- The distal tubules join to form collecting tubules which in turn join to form collecting ducts, which open at the tip of the renal papilla (Fig. 2). (encyclopedia.com)
- The Bowman's capsules, proximal tubules, and distal tubules are situated in the renal cortex, whereas the loops of Henle and the collecting ducts extend down through the medulla. (encyclopedia.com)
- Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa (enterocytes) of the small intestine (SGLT1) and the proximal tubule of the nephron (SGLT2 in PCT and SGLT1 in PST). (wikipedia.org)
- In the kidneys, 100% of the filtered glucose in the glomerulus has to be reabsorbed along the nephron (98% in PCT, via SGLT2). (wikipedia.org)
- In addition to SGLT1 and SGLT2, there are five other members in the human protein family SLC5A, several of which may also be sodium-glucose transporters. (wikipedia.org)
- SGLT2 inhibitors, also called gliflozins, are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. (wikipedia.org)
- Because sodium and glucose are moved in the same direction across the membrane, SGLT1 and SGLT2 are known as symporters. (wikipedia.org)
- The Role of Kidney in Glucose Homeostasis - SGLT2 Inhibitors, a New Approach in Diabetes Treatment. (amazonaws.com)
- Aglycone Exploration of C-arylglucoside Inhibitors of Renal Sodium-dependent Glucose Transporter SGLT2. (amazonaws.com)
- Unlike the other hypoglycemic drugs, SGLT2 inhibitors have shown potential benefits for reducing cardiovascular death and risk factors, aside from lowering plasma glucose levels. (biomedcentral.com)
- Certainly, this is the case in the story of sodium glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. (diabetesjournals.org)
- The role of SGLT2 (the gene for a renal sodium-dependent glucose transporter) in renal glucosuria was evaluated. (asnjournals.org)
- Fourteen individuals (including the original patient with 'renal glucosuria type 0′) were homozygous or compound heterozygous for an SGLT2 mutation resulting in glucosuria in the range of 14.6 to 202 g/1.73 m 2 /d (81 - 1120 mmol/1.73 m 2 /d). (asnjournals.org)
- Likewise, in index cases with glucosuria below 10 g/1.73 m 2 /d (55 mmol/1.73 m 2 /d) an SGLT2 mutation, if present, was always detected in the heterozygous state. (asnjournals.org)
- We conclude that SGLT2 plays an important role in renal tubular glucose reabsorption. (asnjournals.org)
- In addition, a defect of the renal low-affinity sodium/glucose cotransporter SGLT2 gene (also referred to as SLC5A2 , [OMIM 182381 ]) has long been proposed to cause renal glucosuria (OMIM 233100 ) ( 4 ). (asnjournals.org)
- Here, we summarize our results of the characterization of the SGLT2 gene and present our data on 23 consecutive families with index patients with renal glucosuria, including the original patient with renal glucosuria type 0. (asnjournals.org)
- Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) and 1 (SGLT1) inhibitors are relatively new classes of drugs that work by increasing urinary glucose excretion. (nursingcenter.com)
- SGLT2 is a high-capacity, low affinity glucose co-transport protein which helps to reabsorb about 90 - 95% of glucose (160-180 g/d) in the S1 and S2 segments of the proximal tubule. (nursingcenter.com)
- SGLT1 may help with additional renal glucose reabsorption that evades SGLT2 either due to overload or SGLT2 inhibition. (nursingcenter.com)
- SGLT2 inhibitors block the action of SGLT2 proteins and decrease glucose reabsorption. (nursingcenter.com)
- The American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends that SGLT2 inhibitors can be used at any stage of T2DM in dual or triple combination with other oral and injectable glucose-lowering agents (Novak & Kruger, 2017). (nursingcenter.com)
- [ 27-29 ] Recent in vitro studies in cultured human embryonic kidney cells [ 30 ] have shown that affinity for D-glucose - one of the two stereoisomers of glucose - is almost similar for SGLT1 and 2 (5 mM for SGLT2 and 2 mM for SGLT1) under normal conditions. (medscape.com)
- According to the same in vitro study that mentioned before, [ 30 ] the role of SGLT1 has been upgraded and it is believed that SGLT1 not only re-absorbs glucose that 'escape' SGLT2 reabsorption in S1/2 segment, but is also responsible for a significant part of glucose reabsorption exceeding the50% of the SGLT2 reabsorption. (medscape.com)
- Contrary to SGLT1, which is found at the S3 segment and has a stoichiometry of 2Na to 1 glucose, SGLT2 is situated at the S1 segment and has one to one stoichiometry. (medscape.com)
- [ 25-29 , 39 ] The pharmacological effect of SGLT2 inhibitors on SGLT2 secondary active co-transporters at S1 segment tubular cells is depicted in the figure (grey arrows). (medscape.com)
- Inhibition of SGLT2 blocks filtered glucose from being reabsorbed into the proximal tubule. (medscape.com)
- Direct experimental in vivo evidence for the role of SGLT2 co-transporter in tubular glucose reabsorption that accrued from the study of Vallon et al . (medscape.com)
- on gene-targeted mice lacking Sglt2 , demonstrated that the SGLT2 protein is located at the brush border of the early proximal tubule, it is responsible for all glucose reabsorption at this tubular segment and for the bulk of glucose reabsorption in the kidney overall. (medscape.com)
- [ 31 ] According to this study, in wild-type mice (express SGLT2), 99.7 ± 0.1% of fractional glucose is reabsorbed and in Sglt2−/− mice (not express SGLT2), only 36 ± 8% is reabsorbed. (medscape.com)
- Ertugliflozin is a sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that has been approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (DM2) in adult patients as an adjunct to diet and exercise. (uspharmacist.com)
- Ertugliflozin is a biaryl-sugar derivative ( Figure 1 ) that inhibits SGLT2, a renal transport protein responsible for the majority of glucose reabsorption from the proximal renal tubule of the nephron. (uspharmacist.com)
- SGLT2 is a member of the SGLT (SLC5) family that contains six SGLT proteins, including SGLT3 which is a glucose sensor expressed in neurons . (solvobiotech.com)
- SGLT2 transports D-glucose with low affinity and high capacity (a KM of 5 mM was detected in HEK293 cells overexpressing SGLT2) [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- SGLT2-mediated glucose transport is electrogenic, and coupled with Na+ transport in a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1 [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- SGLT2 is exclusively expressed in the early proximal convoluted tubule and plays a crucial role in glucose reabsorption from the filtrate. (solvobiotech.com)
- As a prominent contributor to glucose homeostasis, SGLT2 is an important drug target in type 2 diabetes (T2D). (solvobiotech.com)
- The clone encoding the SGLT2 protein was exclusively found in the kidney , more specifically in the early proximal tubule. (solvobiotech.com)
- This expression pattern was further confirmed with Western blot analysis of tissue samples from Sglt2-knockout and wild-type mice , where a specific 70-kDa protein was found. (solvobiotech.com)
- Based on their localization, as well as the characteristics and physiological parameters of transporter-knockout mice, the low affinity / high capacity SGLT2 mediates the bulk reabsorption (80-90%) of glucose across the apical membrane of early proximal tubule cells, whereas SGLT1 with high affinity and low capacity is responsible for further reducing luminal glucose concentration to a very low level in the distal part of the proximal tubule [1, 16, (solvobiotech.com)
- Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are a newer class of antihyperglycemic agents that exert glucose-lowering effects via glycosuric actions. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Over the past three decades, discovery and elucidation of the role of sodium symporters in glucose reabsorption, and thereby glucose homeostasis, have pointed to sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibition as a viable therapeutic target ( 16 - 19 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
- is a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor that acts by inhibiting glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule of the nephron. (openaccesspub.org)
- Reabsorption of glucose occurs mainly in the proximal tubule and is mediated by 2 different transport proteins, SGLT1 and SGLT2. (openaccesspub.org)
- Sodium-glucose co-transporters SGLT1 and SGLT2 are solute transporters that use the electrochemical gradient of Na + to actively transport glucose into cells. (openaccesspub.org)
- The human kidney low affinity Na+/glucose cotransporter SGLT2. (nih.gov)
- Using expression studies with Xenopus laevis oocytes we demonstrate that this protein (termed SGLT2) mediates saturable Na(+)-dependent and phlorizin-sensitive transport of D-glucose and alpha-methyl-D-glucopyranoside (alpha MeGlc) with Km values of 1.6 mM for alpha MeGlc and approximately 250 to 300 mM for Na+, consistent with low affinity Na+/glucose cotransport. (nih.gov)
- In contrast to SGLT1, SGLT2 does not transport D-galactose. (nih.gov)
- Using combined in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry with tubule segment specific marker antibodies, we demonstrate an extremely high level of SGLT2 message in proximal tubule S1 segments. (nih.gov)
- We conclude that SGLT2 has properties characteristic of the renal low affinity high capacity Na+/glucose cotransporter as previously reported for perfused tubule preparations and brush border membrane vesicles. (nih.gov)
- There is less evidence to support a similar process occurring in the proximal tubule BBM, but because the basic glucose transport mechanisms are similar in both tissues, it seems likely that the same model may apply. (springer.com)
- Half a century later this idea has turned into one of the most studied of all transporter proteins (SGLT1), the sodium-glucose cotransporter. (wikipedia.org)
- Na+-D-glucose Cotransporter SGLT1 is Pivotal for Intestinal Glucose Absorption and Glucose-dependent Incretin Secretion. (amazonaws.com)
- The reabsorption of glucose is ensured by the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT) 2, responsible for the reabsorption of 90% of glucose, and SGLT1, that reabsorbs the remaining glucose .Despite the large amount of data regarding the implication of the kidneys in glucose homeostasis, this organ is often overlooked as a key player in glucose metabolism. (amazonaws.com)
- SGLT1 is a low-capacity, high-affinity transporter that mediates approximately 5% of glucose reabsorption in the S3 (distal) segment of the proximal tubule (Novak & Kruger, 2017). (nursingcenter.com)
- SGLT1 is also found in the skeletal muscles and heart and is a primary mediator for glucose absorption in the small intestine. (nursingcenter.com)
- The sodium/glucose cotransport hypothesis was introduced as early as 1960 by Crane B , but the first transporter of the sodium/glucose cotransporter family, SGLT1, was only cloned in the late 1980s [7, (solvobiotech.com)
- Using low-stringency screening with human SGLT1 as a probe, a 672-residue protein with 59% identity at the amino acid level to SGLT1 was cloned from the human kidney in 1992 . (solvobiotech.com)
- The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that quercetin 4′-β-glucoside is a substrate for the intestinal sodium-dependent d -glucose cotransporter SGLT1. (aspetjournals.org)
- These results demonstrate for the first time that quercetin 4′-β-glucoside is transported by SGLT1 across the apical membrane of enterocytes. (aspetjournals.org)
- SGLT4 and 5 transport fructose but SGLT1 and 2 do not [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- SGLT1, which occurs in the straight section of the tubule (S3), is responsible for approximately 10% of glucose reabsorption in the kidney. (openaccesspub.org)
- We report the characterization of a previously cloned human kidney cDNA that codes for a protein with 59% identity to the high affinity Na+/glucose cotransporter (SGLT1). (nih.gov)
- Accompanying the cytoskeleton injuries, we found that the distribution of brush border-associated functional proteins sucrase-isomaltase (SI), dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DPPIV), glucose transporter SGLT1, and fructose transporter GLUT5 was dramatically altered. (asm.org)
- Dietary sugars are transported from the intestinal lumen into absorptive enterocytes by the sodium-dependent glucose transporter isoform 1 (SGLT1). (pnas.org)
- Although expression of SGLT1 is regulated by luminal monosaccharides, the luminal glucose sensor mediating this process was unknown. (pnas.org)
- Here, we show that the sweet taste receptor subunit T1R3 and the taste G protein gustducin, expressed in enteroendocrine cells, underlie intestinal sugar sensing and regulation of SGLT1 mRNA and protein. (pnas.org)
- Dietary sugar and artificial sweeteners increased SGLT1 mRNA and protein expression, and glucose absorptive capacity in wild-type mice, but not in knockout mice lacking T1R3 or α-gustducin. (pnas.org)
- Several studies have shown that in many species expression of the intestinal sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1 (SGLT1) is directly regulated by monosaccharides in the lumen of the gut independently of metabolism and appears to involve a G protein-linked second messenger pathway ( 2 - 6 ). (pnas.org)
- Furthermore, the addition of membrane-impermeable glucose analogues to the lumen of the intestine stimulates SGLT1 expression, implying that a glucose sensor on luminal membranes is involved ( 6 ). (pnas.org)
- Regulation of Intestinal SGLT1 Expression in Wild-Type and Knockout Mice in Response to Dietary Carbohydrate. (pnas.org)
- We maintained wild-type, Gα gust knockout ( 13 ) and T1R3 knockout ( 14 ) mice on diets of varied carbohydrate content and then measured intestinal expression of the SGLT1 gene. (pnas.org)
- Dapagliflozin, the first of a class of selective sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, reduces renal glucose reabsorption and is currently under development for the treatment of T2DM. (springer.com)
- Cotransport Cotransporter Glucose-galactose malabsorption Renal sodium reabsorption Discovery and development of SGLT-2 inhibitors Ensembl release 48: Homo sapiens Ensembl protein family ENSF00000000509 Wright EM, Hirayama BA, Loo DF (January 2007). (wikipedia.org)
- The American Diabetes Association/European Association for the Study of Diabetes Consensus Report published online in October 2018 recommends SGLT inhibitors as preferred add-on therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes and established cardiovascular disease or chronic kidney disease, if kidney function is adequate. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Two other JAKi containing this moiety, AZD1480 and cerdulatinib, were weaker inhibitors of the thiamine transporters. (aspetjournals.org)
- When the compensatory mechanisms that increase Pi excretion fail, Pi toxicity can only be prevented by reducing the intestinal absorption of Pi through phosphate binders that reduced the free Pi concentration in the lumen, and inhibitors of intestinal Pi transporters and of the paracellular absorption route. (springer.com)
- In this review, we summarize the different groups of compounds reported to date as inhibitors of Pi transport. (springer.com)
- Recent FDA Drug Safety Communications report an increased risk for acute kidney injury in patients treated with the gliflozin class of sodium/glucose co-transport inhibitors indicated for treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. (readbyqxmd.com)
- How do transporting epithelial cells work? (brainscape.com)
- We conducted experiments in primary proximal tubule epithelial cells obtained from Sprague-Dawley rat kidneys. (ahajournals.org)
- 16,17 The molecular mechanism for this defect appears to be hyperphosphorylation of the D1 receptor caused by an increase in the constitutive activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK4) in proximal tubular epithelial cells from patients with essential hypertension. (ahajournals.org)
- To test this hypothesis, we used primary proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTECs) and examined the effect of chronic exposure to insulin on SKF-38393, a D1-like receptor agonist-induced inhibition of NKA, and measured D1 receptors and their coupling with G proteins. (ahajournals.org)
- However, at the junction between epithelial cells there is a potential route for solute traffic that is not regulated by brush border membrane transporters or channels. (bmj.com)
- Proximal tubule epithelial cells express sodium-glucose linked transporters (SGLTs) 1, 2, 4 and 5, and glucose transporters (GLUTs) 2 and 5. (solvobiotech.com)
- The adhesion of streptococcal bacteria to host epithelial cells, connective tissue matrix and serum proteins, salivary components, and other bacterial cells in the environment is mediated for the most part by cell surface proteins ( 26 , 38 ). (asm.org)
- A whole array of transport proteins in the tubular epithelial cells is involved in this, and their importance becomes most apparent when one or more of them are defective. (asnjournals.org)
- The engine that drives tubular transport is the Na + -K + -ATPase, located on the basolateral aspect of the tubular epithelial cells. (asnjournals.org)
- In an effort to maintain ionic homeostasis, epithelial cells have devised a variety of ion channels, transport proteins, and carriers to regulate and maintain the intracellular ionic concentrations. (yale.edu)
- To further understand how ions are transported in epithelial cells, we have developed a variety of optical techniques to continuously monitor intracellular ionic concentrations in real time. (yale.edu)
- Microvesicles containing microRNA-21 secreted by proximal tubular epithelial cells are involved in renal interstitial fibrosis by activating AKT pathway. (readbyqxmd.com)
- The junctional network also promotes adhesion, facilitates intercellular communication, restricts motility, and thus preserves tissue integrity and permits epithelial cells to function as a cohesive unit ( 2 ). (aacrjournals.org)
- Na,K-ATPase is an abundantly expressed protein in epithelial cells and plays a crucial role in kidney function. (aacrjournals.org)
- This Na + and K + homeostasis is necessary to regulate the functions of the various ion and solute transporters in epithelial cells. (aacrjournals.org)
- Maximum Tubular Reabsorption Capacity for Glucose and Renal Hemodynamcis During Rapid Hypertonic Glucose Infusion in Normal and Diabetic Subjects. (amazonaws.com)
- Glucose Transporters in Human Renal Proximal Tubular Cells Isolated from the Urine of Patients with Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes. (amazonaws.com)
- however, the underlying mechanisms affecting proximal tubular cell function and their relationship to glucose transport have not been studied in any detail. (springer.com)
- Paracellular transport is transport between the tubular cells. (brainscape.com)
- Renal glucosuria is defined by urinary glucose excretion in the presence of a normal blood glucose concentration and the absence of any signs of a general renal tubular dysfunction. (asnjournals.org)
- Severe glucosuria is rare, and the first patient with virtual absence of tubular glucose reabsorption, termed renal glucosuria type 0, was not reported until 1987. (asnjournals.org)
- None of these subjects had any signs of a generalized tubular dysfunction or of any other type of renal disease. (asnjournals.org)
- Transporters involved in the mechanism of tubular glucose reabsorption are separated into two main families: the SGLTs secondary active Na + /D-glucose co-transporters, located at the brush border of tubular cells and the GLUTs facilitated diffusion glucose transporters located at the basolateral membrane of tubular cells. (medscape.com)
- In the tubular cells of S1 and S3 segment of proximal convoluted tubule, Na/K ATPase pump is a primary active co-transporter and for every three sodium that exports to the interstitium, imports 2 K. The required energy for this transportation is provided by the ATP-ADP transformation. (medscape.com)
- The function of this pump creates the sodium gradient needed for the operation of the secondary active SGLTs co-transporter, which imports both Na and glucose from the tubular lumen into tubular cells. (medscape.com)
- Intracellular glucose moves to the interstitium through GLUTs passive diffusion transporters, which are located at the basolateral membrane of the tubular cells. (medscape.com)
- Both transporters are located on the brush border of tubular cells. (medscape.com)
- Because of the central nature of sodium in tubular transport physiology, disorders of sodium handling may affect virtually all aspects of the homeostatic functions of the kidney. (asnjournals.org)
- Salt-losing tubulopathies can affect all tubular segments, from the proximal tubule to the collecting duct. (asnjournals.org)
- The importance of tubular sodium reabsorption becomes especially apparent when the system is disturbed, as in the salt-losing tubulopathies. (asnjournals.org)
- In the basolateral side of the proximal tubule, sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1) mediates sodium and bicarbonate exit from tubular cells. (hindawi.com)
- The task is achieved by an orchestra of proteins, directly or indirectly involved in the tubular transport of water and solutes. (asnjournals.org)
- Mutations of NBCe1 lead to severe proximal renal tubular acidosis (pRTA) and other systemic manifestations. (scirp.org)
- NHEs play an important role in the reabsorption of bicarbonate as well, because they provide proton into the lumen, which is titrated with bicarbonate by carbonic anhydrase in the lumen then comes into the proximal tubular cell in the form of CO 2 . (scirp.org)
- Uromodulin also appears to facilitate intracellular transport of both the Na-K-2Cl furosemide -sensitive transporter and the ROMK potassium channel on the apical surface of the thick ascending loop tubular cells. (wikidoc.org)
- Intracellular accumulation of abnormal uromodulin proteins can lead to tubular cell atrophy and death. (wikidoc.org)
- A 52 year old nurse with 15 year history of T2 DM, hypertension, proteinuria, type 4 renal tubular acidosis since 2010, and hyperlipidemia. (openaccesspub.org)
- Renal tubular acidosis (RTA) is a diverse group of tubular transport disorders that involve defects in the reabsorption of bicarbonate or the excretion of hydrogen ions or both while the glomerular filtration rate remains relatively normal. (healio.com)
- A defect in a transporter involved in proximal tubular acidification. (healio.com)
- Proximal RTA may occur in children as an isolated (sporadic or familial) condition or as a part of Fanconis syndrome, a generalized defect in proximal tubular function that is characterized by urinary loss of bicarbonate, glucose, phosphate, amino acids, and uric acid9 (Table 1). (healio.com)
- The things that we want to discuss today, are how the kidney uses tubular transporters to reabsorb materials, that is to take solutes from the filtrate back into the body, into the blood. (coursera.org)
- Some, but not all, of their heterozygous family members had an increased glucose excretion of up to 4.4 g/1.73 m 2 /d (24 mmol/1.73 m 2 /d). (asnjournals.org)
- Inhibition of this transporter by ertugliflozin results in increased glucose excretion and an overall reduction in BG levels. (uspharmacist.com)
- Historically, NO produced by the kidney has been thought of primarily as a factor that regulates urinary volume and sodium excretion. (ahajournals.org)
- showed that, in obese subjects with insulin resistance, urinary sodium excretion was decreased by insulin similarly as in nonobese subjects [ 11 ]. (hindawi.com)
- Since these transporters are expressed in the intestine, liver and kidney variations in their expression levels and/or regulation may be responsible for the erratic oral absorption and biliary excretion of CPT observed in human subjects. (biomedcentral.com)
- 3. Ammonia then enters the ornithine cycle and produces urea which is transported to the kidneys for excretion. (goconqr.com)
- Presented here are methods using alpha-methylglucoside (AMG) in vivo as an indicator for glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal (GI) system or glucose excretion in the urine after oral administration of AMG. (patentsencyclopedia.com)
- The methods find use in, for example, but not limited to, determining the effect of a sodium-dependent glucose transporter (SGLT) inhibitor in an animal, comparing the differences in the effects of a first and second SGLT inhibitor in an animal, and diagnosing a disease associated with glucose absorption from the gastrointestinal (GI) system or glucose excretion from the kidney in an animal. (patentsencyclopedia.com)
- The degree of water transport, via aquaporin2 water channels (AQP2), and sodium transport, via epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) in renal collecting duct principal cells are reflected by the level of urinary excretion of AQP2 (u-AQP2) and the γ-fraction of ENaC (u-ENaCγ). (biomedcentral.com)
- There are NHE3 and NHE8 in the luminal side of the proximal tubule [2,11- (scirp.org)
- About two-thirds of filtered NaCl and water are reabsorbed via NHEs in the luminal side of the proximal tubule [2]. (scirp.org)
- Cotransporters are a subcategory of membrane transport proteins (transporters) that couple the favorable movement of one molecule with its concentration gradient and unfavorable movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient. (wikipedia.org)
- In general, cotransporters consist of two out of the three classes of integral membrane proteins known as transporters that move molecules and ions across biomembranes. (wikipedia.org)
- In plants, sucrose transport is distributed throughout the plant by the proton-pump where the pump, as discussed above, creates a gradient of protons so that there are many more on one side of the membrane than the other. (wikipedia.org)
- As the protons diffuse back across the membrane, the free energy liberated by this diffusion is utilized to co-transport sucrose. (wikipedia.org)
- Here, since both glucose and sodium are transported in the same direction across the membrane, they would be classified as symporters. (wikipedia.org)
- This type of transport is known as secondary active transport and is powered by the energy derived from the concentration gradient of the ions/molecules across the membrane the cotransporter protein is integrated within. (wikipedia.org)
- In one conformation the protein will have the binding site (or sites in the case of symporters) exposed to one side of the membrane. (wikipedia.org)
- Firstly, an Na+/K+ ATPase pump on the basolateral membrane of the proximal tubule cell uses ATP molecules to move 3 sodium ions outward into the blood, while bringing in 2 potassium ions. (wikipedia.org)
- The SGLT proteins use the energy from this downhill sodium ion gradient created by the ATPase pump to transport glucose across the apical membrane, against an uphill glucose gradient. (wikipedia.org)
- Members of the GLUT family of glucose uniporters then transport the glucose across the basolateral membrane, and into the peritubular capillaries. (wikipedia.org)
- Specifically, he proposed that the accumulation of glucose in the intestinal epithelium across the brush border membrane was [is] coupled to downhill Na+ transport cross the brush border. (wikipedia.org)
- 1960). The key point here was 'flux coupling', the cotransport of sodium and glucose in the apical membrane of the small intestinal epithelial cell. (wikipedia.org)
- GLUT2 is the main renal glucose transporter upregulated by hyperglycaemia, when it becomes detectable at the brush border membrane (BBM). (springer.com)
- It is now clear that sodium/glucose cotransporters (SGLTs) and GLUT2 work in conjunction to transport glucose across the brush border membrane (BBM) over a wide range of glucose concentrations. (springer.com)
- Their transport is postu- guishing the apical from the basolateral membrane. (yudu.com)
- Apical Basolateral formed by this active transport creates an electroche- mical gradient facilitative to the passive flow for Na + other ions across the cell membrane-a process known as secondary active transport (Figure 2). (yudu.com)
- Glucose directions across the cell membrane (Figure 3). (yudu.com)
- The present study quantitatively evaluated the possible role of the transporters in such drug-drug interactions using human kidney slices and membrane vesicles expressing human ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. (aspetjournals.org)
- 6,9-10 Hyperphosphatemia appears to stimulate calcification through flux of inorganic phosphate (Pi) by transporters present in the plasma membrane of cells 11 which, in addition, may induce the formation of apoptotic bodies and matrix vesicles. (ahajournals.org)
- The enterocyte balances its dual function as both an absorptive and barrier cell by embedding transport systems within this membrane for the water soluble compounds that it wishes to transport. (bmj.com)
- An ever expanding family of proteins are found in the vicinity of these junctions, forming fibrils that cross the plasma membrane to interact with proteins from the adjoining cell. (bmj.com)
- Later analysis of organ induction and intubation guards against this conclusion also exist the apical membrane transporters and growth differentiation factors gdf are involved in heparin sulfate synthesis sugarless sgl and sulfateless sfl result in a patient between doctors and nurses have an increased risk for vascular access is being undertaken. (nationalnewstoday.com)
- Most monosaccharides, including fructose, glucose, galactose, mannose, as well as myo-inositol are transported across the cell membrane by either of two types of glucose transporters: facilitated glucose transporters (GLUTs) and sodium/glucose cotransporters (SGLTs). (solvobiotech.com)
- B SGLT5 was found to be localized to the luminal (apical) but not the basolateral membrane of proximal tubule cells in the S2 segment [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- SGLT5 is a 64,342 Da membrane protein with 14 transmembrane helices . (solvobiotech.com)
- As there is no passive mechanism to facilitate the movement of fructose across the membrane of S2 proximal tubule cells, fructose reabsorption is presumably mediated by either SGLT4 or SGLT5 [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- Glucose-induced excitation of hypothalamic neurons requires glucose phosphorylation, ATP production by glucose oxidation, and subsequent closure of ATP-sensitive potassium (K ATP ) channels that induces a membrane depolarization (reviewed in Refs. (physiology.org)
- In addition, gram-positive bacteria express surface proteins that are lipid modified at the N terminus and that are associated with the outer face of the cytoplasmic membrane ( 36 ). (asm.org)
- The encoded protein contains twelve putative transmembrane domains and is a plasma integral membrane protein. (wikipedia.org)
- Specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the substance and allows it access [ 1 ] (or, in the case of secondary transport, expend energy on forcing it) to cross the membrane when it otherwise would not, either because it is one to which the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane is impermeable or because it is moved in the direction of the concentration gradient. (academic.ru)
- The other cases, which usually derive their energy through exploitation of an electrochemical gradient, are known as secondary active transport and involve pore-forming proteins that form channels through the cell membrane. (academic.ru)
- Symport is the name if two substrates are being transported in the same direction across the membrane. (academic.ru)
- Particles moving from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration [ 2 ] (i.e., in the opposite direction as the concentration gradient) require specific trans-membrane carrier proteins. (academic.ru)
- Primary active transport, also called direct active transport, directly uses energy to transport molecules across a membrane. (academic.ru)
- An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. (academic.ru)
- An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH. (academic.ru)
- Glucose transporters, including GLUT2, are multiple-pass integral membrane proteins. (ptglab.com)
- The Na + /H + exchangers, NHEs mediate counter-transport, which translocate Na + and H + across the cell membrane [1- (scirp.org)
- Proprotein convertase subtilisin-kexin type 9 (PCSK9) marks low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) receptors (LDL-R) on the hepatocyte membrane for intracellular degradation and thereby regulates circulating levels of the atherogenic LDL-C. 4 Two fully human monoclonal antibodies against PCSK9, evolocumab and alirocumab, have been approved for use in the US. (radcliffecardiology.com)
- These channels enable the high conductance state of the astrocytic plasma membrane, which ensures the driving force for glutamate transport and dumps the transport-associated depolarization along the astrocyte processes. (jneurosci.org)
- The Na + /H + exchanger NHE1 is a highly regulated membrane protein that is required for pH homoeostasis in cardiomyocytes. (biochemj.org)
- NHE1 has been described as a relatively immobile actin-anchored plasma membrane protein [ 13 , 14 ]. (biochemj.org)
- Cookson and Nataro ( 10 ) observed that attachment of Afa/Dr DAEC onto epithelial Hep-2 cells is followed by induction of a long thin membrane extending from the cell surface. (asm.org)
- In the liver, Zip14 protein was highly localized in the hepatocyte membrane along with sinusoids by 2% carbonyl iron. (ufl.edu)
- In the duodenum, the immunostaining of Zip14 was faint in FeD, but unexpectedly, 2% FeO showed strong signals of Zip14 in the basolateral membrane of the villus region. (ufl.edu)
- The purpose of the present study was to continue the investigation of the membrane transport mechanisms of 20-(S)-camptothecin (CPT) in order to understand the possible role of membrane transporters on its oral bioavailability and disposition. (biomedcentral.com)
- To investigate the involvement of specific apically-located secretory membrane transporters, CPT transport studies were conducted using MDCKII/PGP cells and MDCKII/MRP2 cells. (biomedcentral.com)
- Berner W, Kinne R, Murer H (1976) Phosphate transport into brush-border membrane vesicles isolated from rat small intestine. (springer.com)
- Brot-Laroche E, Dao MT, Alcalde AI, Delhomme B, Triadou N, Alvarado F (1988) Independent modulation by food supply of two distinct sodium-activated d -glucose transport systems in the Guinea pig jejunal brush-border membrane. (springer.com)
- isoforms that function primarily on the plasma membrane (NHEs 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) and those that are present primarily on intracellular organelles (NHEs 6, 7 and 9). (biologists.org)
- NHEs 1, 2 and 4 are static on the plasma membrane, although data for NHE4 are not thorough. (biologists.org)
- Localized to the basolateral plasma membrane, the oligomeric Na,K-ATPase catalyzes an ATP-dependent transport of three Na + out and two K + into the cell per pump cycle to maintain Na + and K + gradients across the plasma membrane. (aacrjournals.org)
- When blood glucose levels surpass the 180-200 g/d capacity of the glucose cotransporters, excess glucose appears in the urine which may indicate diabetes mellitus. (nursingcenter.com)
- DM2, a chronic endocrine disease affecting 29 million people, is characterized by insulin resistance that results in blood glucose (BG) elevations. (uspharmacist.com)
- Achieving glycemic control with conventional blood glucose-lowering therapies early in the course of T1D or T2D reduces, but does not eliminate, the risk of developing DKD ( 11 , 14 , 15 ). (diabetesjournals.org)
- Magnesium is a cofactor in more than 300 enzyme systems that regulate diverse biochemical reactions in the body, including protein synthesis, muscle and nerve transmission, neuromuscular conduction, signal transduction, blood glucose control, and blood pressure regulation. (mdpi.com)
- Yet, accumulating data indicate a critical role for EEC and in particular for GLP-1 in metabolic adaptation and in orchestrating immune responses beyond blood glucose control. (frontiersin.org)
- In healthy humans consuming high-fructose or -sucrose diets, serum fructose can reach 0.2-0.5 mM ( 92 ), but this concentration is still very low compared with normal blood glucose levels (5.5 mM). (physiology.org)
- In August 1960, in Prague, Robert K. Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption. (wikipedia.org)
- In the last 5 years, the conventional model of glucose transport across renal and intestinal epithelia has been challenged. (springer.com)
- Chloride transport occurs via both active and pas- to one of high concentration (electrochemical gradi- sive processes, and it is the major intestinal anion ent). (yudu.com)
- Although it has been suggested that the intestinal glucose transporter may actively absorb dietary flavonoid glucosides, there is a lack of direct evidence for their transport by this system. (aspetjournals.org)
- In fact, our previous studies with the human Caco-2 cell model of intestinal absorption demonstrated that a major dietary flavonoid, quercetin 4′-β-glucoside, is effluxed by apically expressed multidrug resistance-associated protein-2, potentially masking evidence for active absorption. (aspetjournals.org)
- supports an interaction of quercetin glucosides with the intestinal glucose transporters. (aspetjournals.org)
- The absorbed glucose is transported to portal blood from intestinal cell by specific GLUT-2 transporters (Facilitated diffusion). (amazonaws.com)
- gastric ion transport in health and disease, intestinal ion transport in health and disease, and renal physiology. (yale.edu)
- For studies of intestinal ion transport, we are focusing on how the calcium sensing receptor(CaSR) can modulate fluid transport during toxin induced diarrhea. (yale.edu)
- Fatty acids have been shown to modulate intestinal cholesterol absorption in cells and animals, a process that is mediated by several transporter proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
- 23 ). We have previously shown that Afa/Dr DAEC strains infect polarized human intestinal Caco-2 cells expressing a well-characterized brush border endowed with CD55 and forming a monolayer mimicking an epithelial barrier ( 32 ). (asm.org)
- The intestinal transport kinetics of CPT were characterized using Caco-2 cells, MDCKII wild-type cells and MDCKII cells transfected with human P-glycoprotein (PGP) (ABCB1) or human multidrug resistance protein 2 (MRP2) (ABCC2). (biomedcentral.com)
- Regulation of this protein is important for the provision of glucose to the body and avoidance of intestinal malabsorption. (pnas.org)
- Gα gust and bitter-responsive type 2 taste receptors (T2Rs) are expressed in mouse intestinal endocrine cells and in the murine enteroendocrine cell line STC-1 ( 11 ). (pnas.org)
- 2 Intestinal Water Transport. (maisondesvautours.com)
- 4 Experimental Approaches to Study Ion Transport by Intestinal Epithelium. (maisondesvautours.com)
- These variations can also arise from differences in fructose consumption, which is a potent regulator of intestinal fructose transport. (physiology.org)
- This low fructose level results from rates of intestinal absorption lower than that of glucose and from efficient clearance of blood fructose mainly by the liver (50-70%) and, to a lesser extent, (20%) by the kidneys ( 103 ). (physiology.org)
- Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water , sodium , bicarbonate , glucose , and amino acids . (wikipedia.org)
- Solute carrier family 22 member 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the gene SLC22A1 . (wikipedia.org)
- Glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), also known as solute carrier family 2, facilitated glucose transporter member 2 (SLC2A2), is a transporter protein regulating glucose transport across cell membranes in an insulin-independent manner. (ptglab.com)
- Also known as Sodium/nucleoside cotransporter (Na(+)/glucose cotransporter 2) (Solute carrier family 5 member 2). (mybiosource.com)
- Also known as Sodium/nucleoside cotransporter 1 (Concentrative nucleoside transporter 1) (CNT 1) (hCNT1) (Na(+)/nucleoside cotransporter 1) (Sodium-coupled nucleoside transporter 1) (Solute carrier family 28 member 1). (mybiosource.com)
- Also known as Sodium/nucleoside cotransporter 2 (Concentrative nucleoside transporter 2) (CNT 2) (hCNT2) (Na(+)/nucleoside cotransporter 2) (Sodium-coupled nucleoside transporter 2) (Sodium/purine nucleoside co-transporter) (SPNT) (Solute carrier family 28 member 2). (mybiosource.com)
- Transport proteins involved in the secretion process of OA are members of the so called solute carrier family 22A (SLC22A). (otago.ac.nz)
- Zip14 (solute carrier family 39, member of 14, SLC39A14) is a transmembrane metal-ion transporter. (ufl.edu)
- 3 , 4 Development of T2DM is a lengthy multistage process and changes in insulin resistance, insulin secretion, and plasma glucose can be present many years before a diagnosis of T2DM is made. (springer.com)
- 5 Increasing insulin resistance (reduced sensitivity of tissues to insulin) generally occurs as the first in this sequence of events and is followed by a compensatory increase in insulin secretion by the pancreatic beta-cells, thereby maintaining close to normal plasma glucose levels. (springer.com)
- 9 The ultimate goal of any pharmacological intervention in T2DM is to limit microvascular and potentially macrovascular complications by maintaining plasma glucose levels within a relatively normal range. (springer.com)
- If the plasma glucose concentration is too high (hyperglycemia), glucose is excreted in urine (glucosuria) because SGLT are saturated with the filtered glucose. (wikipedia.org)
- Having a glomerular filtration rate of 180 liters per day, it filters approximately 180 grams of glucose per day, bringing its contribution in maintaining normal fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels [2]. (amazonaws.com)
- Obesity and diabetes are associated with increased chronic low-grade inflammation and elevated plasma glucose levels. (jci.org)
- Plasma glucose concentrations were modulated in rats by treatment with nicotinamide 15 min prior to induction of diabetes with streptozotocin. (springer.com)
- Levels of GLUT2 and PKC-βI correlated positively with plasma glucose concentration. (springer.com)
- With a daily glomerular filtration rate of 180 L, approximately 162 g of glucose must be reabsorbed each day to maintain normal plasma glucose concentrations. (openaccesspub.org)
- The EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial studied the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor empagliflozin in type 2 diabetic patients at high risk of cardiovascular events. (dovepress.com)
- It also offers a discussion of the results of clinical trials of the most salient sodium glucose co-transporter inhibitor to date: dapagliflozin. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Inhibition of thiamine transporters has been proposed as a putative mechanism for the observation of Wernicke's encephalopathy and subsequent termination of clinical development of fedratinib, a Janus kinase inhibitor (JAKi). (aspetjournals.org)
- However, the decrease in the efflux ratio of CPT in MDCKII/MRP2 cells (2.31 to 1.03) suggests that CPT efflux was completely inhibited by MK571, a potent inhibitor of the Multidrug Resistance Protein transporter family. (biomedcentral.com)
- 8. A method for comparing the differences in the effects of a first and second sodium-dependent glucose transporter (SGLT) inhibitor, comprising the steps ofa. (patentsencyclopedia.com)
- The incidence of type 2 DM is increasing worldwide and results from a lack of insulin or inadequate insulin secretion following increases in insulin resistance. (scribd.com)
- For gastric ion transport we are focusing on means to modulate acid secretion and reverse erosion. (yale.edu)
- Cellular GPR119 Gαs signaling raises intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels, and in β-cells, this leads to glucose-stimulated insulin release (2) and in L- or K-cells, to hormone secretion, i.e., glucagonlike peptide 1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY), and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) (3, 8-10). (deepdyve.com)
- T1R2 receptor-mediated glucose sensing in the upper intestine potentiates glucose absorption through activation of local regulatory pathways. (ptglab.com)
- EPA and DHA inhibited cholesterol absorption in Caco-2 monolayer might be caused by down-regulating NPC1L1 mRNA and protein levels, which were associated with inhibition of SREBP-1/− 2 mRNA expression levels. (biomedcentral.com)
- The epithelial brush border Na/H exchanger NHE3 is active under basal conditions and functions as part of neutral NaCl absorption in the intestine and renal proximal tubule, where it accounts for the majority of total Na absorbed. (biologists.org)
- We hypothesized that hexose transporter levels and glucose absorption follow a coordinated, site-specific diurnal rhythm in rat duodenum and jejunum, but not in ileum. (unboundmedicine.com)
- To understand how SGLTs work, we need to review the kidneys' role in glucose regulation. (nursingcenter.com)
- The kidneys release glucose into the circulation by two processes: through glycogenolysis they break down glycogen into free glucose and via gluconeogenesis they create free glucose from lactate, pyruvate, and amino acids. (nursingcenter.com)
- The kidneys also filter and reabsorb glucose. (nursingcenter.com)
- Sodium helps regulate the fusion of the other.Detection of renal cilia has not been used safely and effectively regulated by ureteric bud from e kidneys reveal that he or she will want to bring a set period of time averaged concentration of mg/dl with a sonogram or ct scan. (nationalnewstoday.com)
- They are small muscular tubes which transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. (getrevising.co.uk)
- Abstract The thiazide-sensitive sodium chloride cotransporter (NCC) is more abundant in kidneys of females than of males. (medworm.com)
- Because AQP2 and ENaC plays such an important role in water and sodium balance and associated disorders, it is important to identify factors involved in the reabsorption of water and sodium by the kidneys in order to study these disorders in the future. (biomedcentral.com)
- 1-5 Inhibition of NHE activity results from D1 receptor coupling to the G s protein and an increase in the levels of intracellular cAMP, which causes activation of protein kinase A (PKA), leading to phosphorylation of the exchanger. (ahajournals.org)
- Some magnesium dependent enzymes are Na + /K + -ATPase, hexokinase, creatine kinase, protein kinase, and cyclases (see Table 1 ). (mdpi.com)
- Hormonal stimulations have been linked to direct phosphorylation of NHE1 by protein kinases, including ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) 1/2, p160ROCK (p160 Rho-associated kinase), p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase), p90 ribosomal S6K (S6 kinase), CaMKII (Ca 2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II) and Akt, and to dephosphorylation dependent upon the protein phosphatases PP1, PP2A and SHP-2 (Src homology 2 domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase 1/2). (biochemj.org)
- Target receptors for the second messenger cyclic GMP include protein kinase G isozymes, cGMP-gated ion channels as well as cGMP-responsive phosphodiesterases. (biolog.de)
- Online kinase Compassion cell phospholipids in protein are readily to 1 damage in dioxide, with a engineering of approx. (erik-mill.de)
- The mechanisms growing from this conjugation are a pit in triple announcement and sulfotransferease of Protein Kinase C( PKC). (erik-mill.de)
- primary proteins point resident deficiency from kinase, myeloid and returned lower glycoproteins, water-soluble deletion, amino, ligand-induced switch and different strand methyltransferases. (evakoch.com)
- In addition to Smad-dependent pathways, TGF-β also activates Smad-independent pathways such as the Erk, c-Jun-NH 2 -kinase, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways ( 6 , 7 ). (aacrjournals.org)
- Although the complex maintaining on the including kinase leads positively IRF7 to that on the selling location, the Complete health on the two gases transporters then also. (evakoch.com)
- Today, we have a better understanding of the physiology of glucose transport via specific carriers such as the sodium glucose co-transporters (SGLTs). (diabetesjournals.org)
- About 180 grams of glucose are filtered each day by the glomerulus, most of which is reabsorbed by the proximal tubule assisted by active SGLTs and passive glucose transporters (GLUTs). (nursingcenter.com)
- They enable cotransport (secondary active transport) and include antiporters and symporters. (wikipedia.org)
- Antiporters use the mechanism of cotransport (coupling the movement of one ion or molecule down its concentration gradient with the transport of another ion or molecule up its concentration gradient), to move the ions and molecule in opposite directions. (wikipedia.org)
- Crane in 1961 was the first to formulate the cotransport concept to explain active transport . (wikipedia.org)
- Cotransport of ions occurs with other molecules, such as Na and glucose. (yudu.com)
- Actively transports uridine into cells by Na(+) cotransport. (mybiosource.com)
- Sodium-proton exchanger type 3 (NHE3) is a main regulator of sodium reabsorption in the luminal side of proximal tubule. (hindawi.com)
- In the proximal tubule, insulin and Ang II stimulate NHE3 at the luminal side, NBCe1, and Na-K-ATPase at the basolateral side. (hindawi.com)
- In the luminal side the key player is sodium-proton exchanger type 3 (NHE3), whereas sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1) plays the critical role in the basolateral side. (scirp.org)
- NHE3 and NHE8 exist predominantly in the luminal side of the renal proximal tubule. (scirp.org)
- EEC sense the lamina propria and luminal environment, including the microbiota via receptors and transporters. (frontiersin.org)
- Although the gut epithelium senses luminal sugars and modulates its glucose absorptive capacity accordingly, the nature of the sugar-sensing molecule(s) and downstream events remain unknown. (pnas.org)
- Fluids and electrolytes are absorbed via either the to the transport of bile salts and amino acids transcellular or the paracellular pathway. (yudu.com)
- Many of these proteins are anchored to the cell wall via a specialized C-terminal amino acid sequence ( 33 ). (asm.org)
- The scaC gene encodes an ATP-binding protein (251 amino acid [aa] residues), scaB encodes a transmembrane component (278 aa residues) which presumably dimerizes ( 22 ), and scaA encodes a lipoprotein (310 aa residues) ( 27 ). (asm.org)
- In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. (academic.ru)
- 1. Body cannot store proteins or amino acids 2. (goconqr.com)
- 2. Sodium ions are transported into the cell along with glucose or amino acids via co-transporter proteins by facilitated diffusion. (goconqr.com)
- 3. As glucose or amino acids move into the cell, this decreases the water potential so water follows by osmosis. (goconqr.com)
- unknown catalytic uses plague been located in the rats of protein heaters, proteins, mRNA interactions, and village receptors, which are regulated under a precursor of conditioning cells, resulting glucokinase, amino activity, Expression and family. (evakoch.com)
- The glomerular filter prevents plasma proteins from passing into the nephrons, but is permeable to all other plasma constituents (such as ions, glucose, amino acids, urea, etc). (encyclopedia.com)
- In the mammal NHE3 exists not only in the apical side of renal proximal tubule and thick ascending limb, but also in the gastrointestinal tract, gall bladder, epididymis, and brain [2]. (scirp.org)
- It is an insoluble protein whose sticky, adherent properties are probably important in maintaining the watertight integrity of the thick ascending limb . (wikidoc.org)
- Due to accumulation of abnormal uromodulin in thick ascending limb cells leads sequentially to impaired NaCl reabsorption, mild renal salt wasting, volume contraction, and a secondary increase in proximal urate reabsorption, which restores volume status to normal but leads to hyperuricemia . (wikidoc.org)
- Sustained Liver Glucose Release in Response to Adrenaline Can Improve Hypoglycaemic Episodes in Rats under Food Restriction Subjected to Acute Exercise. (amazonaws.com)
- 4 , 5 Animal studies carried out in 90% pancreatectomized diabetic rats demonstrated that phlorizin-induced glucosuria normalized fasting and postprandial glucose levels and reversed insulin resistance. (diabetesjournals.org)
- The present study was performed to test the hypothesis that a chronic increase in levels of insulin causes a decrease in expression of the D1 receptor and its uncoupling from G proteins, which may account for the diminished inhibitory effect of dopamine on NKA in obese Zucker rats. (ahajournals.org)
- Recently, we have reported that DA was unable to inhibit NHE and NKA activities in obese Zucker rats, which have moderate hypertension and also provide a model for type 2 diabetes. (ahajournals.org)
- 20,21 We found that this phenomenon was the result of reduced D1 receptor numbers and uncoupling of the D1 receptor from G proteins in obese Zucker rats. (ahajournals.org)
- Male Sprague-Dawley rats (Harlan, Indianapolis, Ind) weighing 200 to 250 g were used to prepare and purify proximal tubule fragments, as previously described. (ahajournals.org)
- The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) on hepatic glycogen synthesis and FoxO1 transcriptional activity in type 2 diabetic rats and the mechanism underlying these effects. (biomedsearch.com)
- In short, primary cultures of VSMCs were obtained from the thoracic aortas of 2-month-old rats by microdissection and collagenase digestion. (ahajournals.org)
- In response to 40 min bilateral renal I/R, Rorc-/- rats were resistant to injury relative to wild-type Rorc+/+ rats. (medworm.com)
- OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine the effect of AGE and SAC on the level of mRNA expression of the main neuronal glucose transporter (GLUT3) and the glutamate cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) in rats with transient focal cerebral ischemia. (bvsalud.org)
- MATERIAL AND METHODS: Cerebral ischemia was induced in male Wistar rats by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 2 h. (bvsalud.org)
- In the present study, we morphologically examined local inhibitory inputs to corticospinal neurons (CSNs) in motor areas using transgenic rats in which GABAergic neurons expressed fluorescent protein Venus. (frontiersin.org)
- Weanling male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed modified AIN-93G purified rodent diets that contained 10 ppm iron (FeD), 50 ppm iron (FeA) or 1.9% carbonyl iron (2% FeO) for 3 wks. (ufl.edu)
- The potential role of vitamin D deficiency in insulin resistance has been proposed to be associated with inherited gene polymorphisms including vitamin D-binding protein, vitamin D receptor, and vitamin D 1alpha-hydroxylase gene. (scribd.com)
- It is the product of the third gene within the scaCBA operon encoding the components of an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter system. (asm.org)
- In each instance the LraI polypeptide is encoded by the third gene of a tricistronic operon encoding the components of an ABC transporter. (asm.org)
- This gene is one of three similar cation transporter genes located in a cluster on chromosome 6. (wikipedia.org)
- Two transcript variants encoding two different isoforms have been found for this gene, but only the longer variant encodes a functional transporter. (wikipedia.org)
- Inherited forms are caused by X-linked loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the vasopressin 2- receptor (V2R) or autosomal mutations in the gene encoding aquaporin 2 (AQP2). (medworm.com)
- Mutants defective in the previously described gbt gene (PA3082) grew on GB with kinetics similar to those of the wild type in both the PAO1 and PA14 strain backgrounds. (asm.org)
- Targeted disruption of the mouse NHERF-1 gene promotes internalization of proximal tubule sodium-phosphate cotransporter type IIa and renal phosphate wasting. (springer.com)
- Following phosphorylation of Smad2 or Smad3 by the activated type I receptor, a heteromeric complex is formed with Smad4, resulting in the translocation of the complex to the nucleus to directly or indirectly regulate gene transcription. (aacrjournals.org)
- These respectively phosphorylate as being needs for the gene of SH2( concert adapter) or PTB( transport fusion) cells of fibers, resulting levels or Revisiting microRNAs. (evakoch.com)
- In general, urinary glucose concentration had been repeatedly determined by dipstick before it was quantified by the glucose oxidase method in aliquots of 24-h urine collected on a free diet. (asnjournals.org)
- Excess glucose is excreted into the urine (glucosuria). (medscape.com)
- In males the urethra transports both semen and urine. (getrevising.co.uk)
- Approximately 180 liters of plasma pass through the kidney's glomerular filtration system daily wherein minerals such as sodium, potassium, and chloride are absorbed and returned to the bloodstream rather than passed out in the urine. (openaccesspub.org)
- In recent years I was involved in the cloning and functional characterisation of organic anion transporters (OAT) of the SLC22A family. (otago.ac.nz)
- Intelligent design" may not have devised a system that, in an average adult, initially filters approximately 150 L of water daily, containing an enormous load of solutes, including about 20,000 mmol of sodium per day (equivalent to the amount in 1.2 kg of cooking salt), only to laboriously reabsorb virtually all of it back into circulation. (asnjournals.org)
- Rate of flow of the filtrate - flow rate affects the time available for the transporters to reabsorb molecules. (howstuffworks.com)
- Proximal RTA is caused by an impaired capacity of the proximal tubule to reabsorb bicarbonate. (healio.com)
- Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a growing worldwide epidemic. (springer.com)
- 1 Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is the most common form, accounting for approximately 85% of all cases. (springer.com)
- Diabetes mellitus type 1 - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Type 1 diabetes is a disease that involves many genes. (amazonaws.com)
- One of the most feared repercussions of type 2 diabetes mellitus is the risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. (dovepress.com)
- Diabetes mellitus remains a very complex disorder to medically manage, often requiring insulin for Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and lifestyle modifications such as diet, exercise, and weight loss along with oral antidiabetic medications for Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). (nursingcenter.com)
- The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (type 2 DM) is increasing at an alarming rate both nationally and worldwide. (scribd.com)
- Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is one of the most frequent microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus, and develops in 15-40% of patients with Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. (mdpi.com)
- This cycle of conformational changes only transports one substrate ion at a time, which results in a fairly slow transport rate (100 to 104 ions or molecules per second) when compared to other transport proteins like ion channels. (wikipedia.org)
- Although the main substrate of GLUT2 transport is glucose, it can also transport galactose, mannose, and fructose. (ptglab.com)
- The profile of the substrate transporters and metabolic proteins mirror the metabolic shift from fatty acid to glucose utilisation that occurs in vivo in the human heart. (jove.com)
- Since glucose is also a substrate for these transporters, there is competition between glucose and DHAA for transport via these transporters under normal physiologic conditions. (oilforexprofits.com)
- The second, we want to describe the cellular mechanism for transport of materials from the tubule to the interior of the tubule, that is within the lumen, across the cells and into the blood. (coursera.org)
- Transcellular transport is transport through the apical and basolateral membranes. (brainscape.com)
- Measurement of D1 receptors in the plasma membranes revealed that [ 3 H]SCH-23390 binding, a D1 receptor ligand, as well as D1 receptor protein abundance, was significantly reduced in insulin-pretreated cells compared with untreated cells. (ahajournals.org)
- SKF-38393 (10 μmol/L) elicited significant stimulation of [ 35 S]GTPγS binding in the membranes from control cells, suggesting that the D1 receptor-G protein coupling was intact. (ahajournals.org)
- Specialized proteins called transporters are located on the membranes of the nephron. (getrevising.co.uk)
- Specialized proteins called transporters are located on the membranes of the various cells of the nephron. (howstuffworks.com)
- Fats have been considered to be sources of energy and components of biological membranes, however research over recent years demonstrate a diverse array of biological activities associated with fatty acids, their derivatives and other types of lipid compounds. (biomedcentral.com)
- highly, telomeric neonatal cell might vary associated to translocate such cells in recessive but minor phase proteins that would often inform to promoter expression, while the Misincorporated complex undergoes of mid synthesis for cellular membranes to facilitate the culture of genome % protein after network. (evakoch.com)
- Fructose is transported passively across membranes by a member of the facilitative glucose transporter (GLUT) family, named GLUT5 ( 19 , 20 , 72 , 98 , 137 ). (physiology.org)
- Diclofenac-glucuronide significantly inhibited MRP2-mediated transport of methotrexate in a concentration-dependent manner, whereas naproxen-glucuronide had no effect. (aspetjournals.org)
- Water concentration, temperature, and glucose concentration must be kept as constant as possible. (getrevising.co.uk)
- This reabsorption is saturated when glucose concentration in the filtrate exceeds 20 mM. (solvobiotech.com)
- Active transport is the movement of a substance against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration). (academic.ru)
- Antiport and symport are associated with secondary active transport , meaning that one of the two substances are transported in the direction of their concentration gradient utilizing the energy derived from the transport of the second substance (mostly Na+, K+ or H+) down its concentration gradient. (academic.ru)
- Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient. (academic.ru)
- Hexose transporter mRNA and protein levels follow a diurnal rhythm in rat jejunum. (unboundmedicine.com)
- This variation from the norm by and large shows as an expanded resting centralization of intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]I), diminished Ca2+ transporter movement and diminished boost that produces Ca2+ signals. (intechopen.com)
- We have examined intracellular Na + transients and glutamate transporter currents as the most telling indicators of glutamate clearance after synaptic or photolytic release of glutamate in striatal slices. (jneurosci.org)
- The mammalian NHE (Na + /H + exchanger) family of proteins plays an important role in maintenance of pH i (intracellular pH) [ 1 ]. (biochemj.org)
- Microtubules (MTs) are intracellular polymers that provide structure to the cell, serve as railways for intracellular transport, and regulate many cellular activities, including cell migration. (stanford.edu)
- moreover, the regulation of transcription factors that positively regulate the expression of glucose transporters is associated with this therapy. (bvsalud.org)
- New evidence suggests that the G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER1) mediates protective actions within the cardiovascular and renal systems. (medworm.com)
- But the awareness of the renal mechanisms of glucose control is likely to increase due to the development of new types of glucose-lowering drugs that target this metabolic pathway .2. (amazonaws.com)
- IRS-1 contains multiple tyrosine phosphorylation motifs that serve as docking sites for SH2-domain containing proteins that mediate the metabolic and growth-promoting functions of insulin (2-4). (cellsignal.com)
- The sugar transporter receptor, i.e., "transceptor" GLUT2, may constitute a drug target to treat eating disorders and associated metabolic diseases, particularly by modulating its receptor function without affecting vital sugar provision by its transporter function. (physiology.org)
- When myocardial energy demands are increased acutely, the heart maintains the balance between its energetic supply and demand by shifting fluxes through existing metabolic pathways ( 2,3 ). (onlinejacc.org)
- The NHE3 null mice had only a mild metabolic acidosis of 3 to 5 mEq/l less than that of wild type mice. (scirp.org)
- The atypical glucose metabolic phenomenon, known as the Warburg effect, has been recognized as a hallmark of cancer and serves as a promising target for tumor specific imaging. (hindawi.com)
- Currently, glucose and its analogues have been labeled with various radionuclides such as 99m Tc, 111 In, 18 F, 68 Ga, and 64 Cu and have been successfully investigated for tumor metabolic imaging in many preclinical studies. (hindawi.com)
- In this review, preclinical and early clinical development of glucose-based radiopharmaceuticals for tumor metabolic imaging will be summarized. (hindawi.com)
- We hypothesized that the sarcolemmal and mitochondrial proteins involved in these key metabolic pathways would mirror these changes, providing a mechanism to account for the modified metabolic flux measured in the human heart. (jove.com)
- 18). Cardiac biopsies were obtained during valve replacement surgery, and used for western blotting to measure metabolic protein levels. (jove.com)
- 15 NO produced by each of the 3 nitric oxide synthases (NOS), NOS 1, NOS 2, and NOS 3, reportedly contributes to the regulation of renal function. (ahajournals.org)
- This review will focus mainly on the regulation of sodium reabsorption along the nephron segments by insulin and its roles in the blood pressure control. (hindawi.com)
- there is evidence that renal Cl − transport is an independent determinant of vascular volume and blood pressure regulation. (springermedizin.de)
- Recently, V-ATPase with renal specific subunits is suggested to have some roles in the regulation of proximal tubule functions. (scirp.org)
- In this review, we will discuss the regulation of acid-base transport in the proximal tubule and the updates. (scirp.org)
- BACKGROUND: During cerebral ischemia, energy restoration through the regulation of glucose transporters and antioxidant defense mechanisms is essential to maintain cell viability. (bvsalud.org)
- My main current interest is the post-transcriptional regulation of these urate transporters, especially GLUT9 in general and under different stress conditions. (otago.ac.nz)
- The regulation of NHE3 depends on its C-terminal cytoplasmic domain, which acts as a scaffold to bind multiple regulatory proteins and links NHE3 to the cytoskeleton. (biologists.org)
- Methods and Results- Primary cultures of VSMCs express both high affinity Na-dependent and Na-independent components of Pi transport. (ahajournals.org)
- Studies on rat, rabbit, and frog nephrons support a hypothesis that active glucose reabsorption occurs in the early convoluted proximal tubule via a low affinity, high capacity system, whereas in the late proximal tubule a high affinity (Km 0.5), low capacity (10 pmol/min/mm) system is at work . (solvobiotech.com)
- A family of low- and high-affinity sucrose transporters (SUT) was identified. (plantcell.org)
- SUT1 serves as a high-affinity transporter essential for phloem loading and long-distance transport in solanaceous species. (plantcell.org)
- LeSUT2 protein colocalizes with the low- and high-affinity sucrose transporters in sieve elements of tomato petioles, indicating that multiple SUT mRNAs or proteins travel from companion cells to enucleate sieve elements. (plantcell.org)
- Thus, the putative sugar sensor identified colocalizes with two other sucrose transporters, differs from them in kinetic properties, and potentially regulates the relative activity of low- and high-affinity sucrose transport into sieve elements. (plantcell.org)
- Most studies have concentrated on the effect of high glucose concentrations on mesangial cells, since glomerulopathy is the most characteristic clinical and histological feature of diabetic renal disease. (springer.com)
- 4,5 These factors include high phosphate concentrations, 6 uremic toxins, 7 or high glucose levels 8 among others which induce the expression of specific osteogenes. (ahajournals.org)
- In a recent study, it was concluded that an increase in fructose consumption results in enhanced SGLT4, SGLT5 and GLUT2 expression and elevated plasma fructose concentrations [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- At least four types of neurons, excited or inhibited by low or high glucose concentrations, can modulate their firing rate in response to variations in glucose concentrations ( 31 , 38 , 41 ). (physiology.org)
- nevertheless, these transporters get saturated at low glucose concentrations ( 6 ). (physiology.org)
- By contrast, GLUT2, a high-capacity, high- K m transporter isoform ( 6 ), when associated with an efficient glucokinase, sustains fluxes of higher glucose concentrations. (physiology.org)
- The involvement of additional secretory transporters was suggested since the basolateral to apical permeability of CPT was not further reduced in the presence of increasing concentrations of GF120918. (biomedcentral.com)
- Furthermore, we analyze the challenges and opportunities for the implementation of such systems in the study of transporter-mediated drug disposition and the generation of clinically relevant physiology-based in silico models incorporating relevant drug transport activity. (aspetjournals.org)
- Since its inception by Langendorff 1 , the isolated perfused heart remains a prominent tool for studying cardiac physiology 2 . (jove.com)
- By the early 1970s, research with phlorizin revealed the location (proximal tubule brush border) of the active-transport system responsible for glucose reabsorption and that phlorizin had a much higher affinity for these transporters than did glucose. (diabetesjournals.org)
- It also transports - methyl-D-glucopyranoside (AMG) with similar affinity, while its affinity for galactose is significantly lower [2]. (solvobiotech.com)
- G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) 119 (GPR119) is a lipid metabolite sensor that exhibits affinity for the endogenous anorectic lipid, oleoylethanolamide (OEA), as well as metabolites of dietary triglycerides, such as 2-monoacylglycerol (2-OG) (1). (deepdyve.com)
- SUT4 is a low-affinity transporter with an expression pattern overlapping that of SUT1. (plantcell.org)
- One such approach is through the inhibition of renal glucose reuptake. (springer.com)
- Knockouts of distinctive proteins in particular nephron segments lead to distinctive disease in man, as indicated. (asnjournals.org)
- 3 Finally, NO regulates transport in various nephron segments as reviewed recently by Ortiz and Garvin. (ahajournals.org)
- Sodium transport through various nephron segments is quite important in regulating sodium reabsorption and blood pressure. (hindawi.com)
- Among several regulators of this process, insulin acts on almost all the nephron segments and is a strong enhancer of sodium reabsorption. (hindawi.com)
- The clinical consequences reflect the role of the affected transport protein: it can be isolated loss of specific solutes, which may even be of clinical benefit, considering, for instance, isolated renal glycosuria owing to mutations in the sodium-glucose cotransporter type 2. (asnjournals.org)
- challenges 1 and 2( PGM1, 2) lack required in the alpha5beta1 subunit of transition Mutations known for triple osteoblast, fully, the transcription of presence( G6P) into breakdown( G1P). (evakoch.com)
- Eventually, at the nexus of these aforementioned discoveries, it was recognized that the effect of a phlorizin-like compound on renal glucose transporters might offer a novel mechanism for the management of hyperglycemia. (diabetesjournals.org)
- Inhibiting GLUT2-mediated glucose detection augmented daily food intake by a mechanism that increased the meal size but not the number of meals. (physiology.org)
- Delineation of the major renal reabsorptive mechanism for D-glucose. (nih.gov)
- Here we provide the first molecular evidence for this renal D-glucose reabsorptive mechanism. (nih.gov)
- Knowledge of the structural and functional properties of this major renal Na+/glucose reabsorptive mechanism will advance our understanding of the pathophysiology of renal diseases such as familial renal glycosuria and diabetic renal disorders. (nih.gov)
- The HD-induced deficit ranged from −27% (GTC maximum at −100 mV in Ba 2+ ) to −41% (sodium transients in astrocytes after loading SBFI-AM). Our specific aim was to clarify the mechanism(s) by which Kir4.1 channels can influence glutamate transport, as determined by either Na + imaging or transport-associated electrical signals. (jneurosci.org)
- The wild-type Afa/Dr DAEC strain C1845 has been shown to induce brush border lesions by an adhesin-dependent mechanism triggering apical F-actin rearrangements. (asm.org)
- When investigating the mechanism of pathogenicity of the diarrheagenic Afa/Dr DAEC strain C1845 in Caco-2 cells, we reported that the first event in cell infection is adhesin binding to the apical surface of polarized cells resulting from recognition of the brush border-associated CD55 ( 2 , 33 ). (asm.org)
- There is increased expression of GLUT1 and GLUT3 transporters on the surface of cancer cells. (amazonaws.com)