Stable elementary particles having the smallest known positive charge, found in the nuclei of all elements. The proton mass is less than that of a neutron. A proton is the nucleus of the light hydrogen atom, i.e., the hydrogen ion.
Integral membrane proteins that transport protons across a membrane. This transport can be linked to the hydrolysis of ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. What is referred to as proton pump inhibitors frequently is about POTASSIUM HYDROGEN ATPASE.
Compounds that inhibit H(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE. They are used as ANTI-ULCER AGENTS and sometimes in place of HISTAMINE H2 ANTAGONISTS for GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Energy that is generated by the transfer of protons or electrons across an energy-transducing membrane and that can be used for chemical, osmotic, or mechanical work. Proton-motive force can be generated by a variety of phenomena including the operation of an electron transport chain, illumination of a PURPLE MEMBRANE, and the hydrolysis of ATP by a proton ATPase. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed, p171)
Rhodopsins found in the PURPLE MEMBRANE of halophilic archaea such as HALOBACTERIUM HALOBIUM. Bacteriorhodopsins function as an energy transducers, converting light energy into electrochemical energy via PROTON PUMPS.
Multisubunit enzymes that reversibly synthesize ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE. They are coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane.
One of the non-essential amino acids commonly occurring in the L-form. It is found in animals and plants, especially in sugar cane and sugar beets. It may be a neurotransmitter.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
A clear, odorless, tasteless liquid that is essential for most animal and plant life and is an excellent solvent for many substances. The chemical formula is hydrogen oxide (H2O). (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Proton-translocating ATPases that are involved in acidification of a variety of intracellular compartments.
An amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as CREATININE in the urine.
A multisubunit enzyme complex containing CYTOCHROME A GROUP; CYTOCHROME A3; two copper atoms; and 13 different protein subunits. It is the terminal oxidase complex of the RESPIRATORY CHAIN and collects electrons that are transferred from the reduced CYTOCHROME C GROUP and donates them to molecular OXYGEN, which is then reduced to water. The redox reaction is simultaneously coupled to the transport of PROTONS across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
The first chemical element in the periodic table. It has the atomic symbol H, atomic number 1, and atomic weight [1.00784; 1.00811]. It exists, under normal conditions, as a colorless, odorless, tasteless, diatomic gas. Hydrogen ions are PROTONS. Besides the common H1 isotope, hydrogen exists as the stable isotope DEUTERIUM and the unstable, radioactive isotope TRITIUM.
A carbodiimide that is used as a chemical intermediate and coupling agent in peptide synthesis. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed)
A low-energy attractive force between hydrogen and another element. It plays a major role in determining the properties of water, proteins, and other compounds.
The process by which ELECTRONS are transported from a reduced substrate to molecular OXYGEN. (From Bennington, Saunders Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984, p270)
A cyclododecadepsipeptide ionophore antibiotic produced by Streptomyces fulvissimus and related to the enniatins. It is composed of 3 moles each of L-valine, D-alpha-hydroxyisovaleric acid, D-valine, and L-lactic acid linked alternately to form a 36-membered ring. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) Valinomycin is a potassium selective ionophore and is commonly used as a tool in biochemical studies.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
Compounds that contain benzimidazole joined to a 2-methylpyridine via a sulfoxide linkage. Several of the compounds in this class are ANTI-ULCER AGENTS that act by inhibiting the POTASSIUM HYDROGEN ATPASE found in the PROTON PUMP of GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
A basic constituent of lecithin that is found in many plants and animal organs. It is important as a precursor of acetylcholine, as a methyl donor in various metabolic processes, and in lipid metabolism.
Condensation products of aromatic amines and aldehydes forming azomethines substituted on the N atom, containing the general formula R-N:CHR. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
A 4-methoxy-3,5-dimethylpyridyl, 5-methoxybenzimidazole derivative of timoprazole that is used in the therapy of STOMACH ULCERS and ZOLLINGER-ELLISON SYNDROME. The drug inhibits an H(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE which is found in GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
Spherical phototrophic bacteria found in mud and stagnant water exposed to light.
A species of halophilic archaea found in salt lakes. Some strains form a PURPLE MEMBRANE under anaerobic conditions.
An essential amino acid that is required for the production of HISTAMINE.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of chemical processes or phenomena; includes the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
A genus of HALOBACTERIACEAE whose growth requires a high concentration of salt. Binary fission is by constriction.
Various agents with different action mechanisms used to treat or ameliorate PEPTIC ULCER or irritation of the gastrointestinal tract. This has included ANTIBIOTICS to treat HELICOBACTER INFECTIONS; HISTAMINE H2 ANTAGONISTS to reduce GASTRIC ACID secretion; and ANTACIDS for symptomatic relief.
A polyether antibiotic which affects ion transport and ATPase activity in mitochondria. It is produced by Streptomyces hygroscopicus. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
Organic sulfonic acid esters or salts which contain an aromatic hydrocarbon radical.
Deuterium. The stable isotope of hydrogen. It has one neutron and one proton in the nucleus.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A rigorously mathematical analysis of energy relationships (heat, work, temperature, and equilibrium). It describes systems whose states are determined by thermal parameters, such as temperature, in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic parameters. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed)
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
Gated, ion-selective glycoproteins that traverse membranes. The stimulus for ION CHANNEL GATING can be due to a variety of stimuli such as LIGANDS, a TRANSMEMBRANE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, mechanical deformation or through INTRACELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS.
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).
The movement of ions across energy-transducing cell membranes. Transport can be active, passive or facilitated. Ions may travel by themselves (uniport), or as a group of two or more ions in the same (symport) or opposite (antiport) directions.
The study of chemical changes resulting from electrical action and electrical activity resulting from chemical changes.
A proton ionophore that is commonly used as an uncoupling agent in biochemical studies.
The movement of materials across cell membranes and epithelial layers against an electrochemical gradient, requiring the expenditure of metabolic energy.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
The facilitation of a chemical reaction by material (catalyst) that is not consumed by the reaction.
Stable elementary particles having the smallest known negative charge, present in all elements; also called negatrons. Positively charged electrons are called positrons. The numbers, energies and arrangement of electrons around atomic nuclei determine the chemical identities of elements. Beams of electrons are called CATHODE RAYS.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.
Rhodopsin molecules found in microorganisms such as ARCHAEA and PROTEOBACTERIA.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Drugs that selectively bind to but do not activate histamine H2 receptors, thereby blocking the actions of histamine. Their clinically most important action is the inhibition of acid secretion in the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers. Smooth muscle may also be affected. Some drugs in this class have strong effects in the central nervous system, but these actions are not well understood.
Functionally and structurally differentiated, purple-pigmented regions of the cytoplasmic membrane of some strains of Halobacterium halobium. The membrane develops under anaerobic conditions and is made almost entirely of the purple pigment BACTERIORHODOPSINS. (From Singleton & Sainsbury Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Organic compounds that have the general formula R-SO-R. They are obtained by oxidation of mercaptans (analogous to the ketones). (From Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 4th ed)
NMR spectroscopy on small- to medium-size biological macromolecules. This is often used for structural investigation of proteins and nucleic acids, and often involves more than one isotope.
An atom or group of atoms that have a positive or negative electric charge due to a gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons. Atoms with a positive charge are known as CATIONS; those with a negative charge are ANIONS.
The color-furnishing portion of hemoglobin. It is found free in tissues and as the prosthetic group in many hemeproteins.
The accumulation of an electric charge on a object
A 4-(3-methoxypropoxy)-3-methylpyridinyl derivative of timoprazole that is used in the therapy of STOMACH ULCERS and ZOLLINGER-ELLISON SYNDROME. The drug inhibits H(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE which is found in GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
The theory that the radiation and absorption of energy take place in definite quantities called quanta (E) which vary in size and are defined by the equation E=hv in which h is Planck's constant and v is the frequency of the radiation.
A group of peptide antibiotics from BACILLUS brevis. Gramicidin C or S is a cyclic, ten-amino acid polypeptide and gramicidins A, B, D are linear. Gramicidin is one of the two principal components of TYROTHRICIN.
The isotopic compound of hydrogen of mass 2 (deuterium) with oxygen. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed) It is used to study mechanisms and rates of chemical or nuclear reactions, as well as biological processes.
The location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a molecule, as well as the number, type and location of covalent bonds.
A plasma membrane exchange glycoprotein transporter that functions in intracellular pH regulation, cell volume regulation, and cellular response to many different hormones and mitogens.
Chemical agents that uncouple oxidation from phosphorylation in the metabolic cycle so that ATP synthesis does not occur. Included here are those IONOPHORES that disrupt electron transfer by short-circuiting the proton gradient across mitochondrial membranes.
Chemical agents that increase the permeability of CELL MEMBRANES to PROTONS.
The characteristic three-dimensional shape of a molecule.
Retrograde flow of gastric juice (GASTRIC ACID) and/or duodenal contents (BILE ACIDS; PANCREATIC JUICE) into the distal ESOPHAGUS, commonly due to incompetence of the LOWER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER.
Computer-assisted mathematical calculations of beam angles, intensities of radiation, and duration of irradiation in radiotherapy.
The homogeneous mixtures formed by the mixing of a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance (solute) with a liquid (the solvent), from which the dissolved substances can be recovered by physical processes. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
A cytosolic carbonic anhydrase isoenzyme found widely distributed in cells of almost all tissues. Deficiencies of carbonic anhydrase II produce a syndrome characterized by OSTEOPETROSIS, renal tubular acidosis (ACIDOSIS, RENAL TUBULAR) and cerebral calcification. EC 4.2.1.-
The art or process of comparing photometrically the relative intensities of the light in different parts of the spectrum.
Electrically neutral elementary particles found in all atomic nuclei except light hydrogen; the mass is equal to that of the proton and electron combined and they are unstable when isolated from the nucleus, undergoing beta decay. Slow, thermal, epithermal, and fast neutrons refer to the energy levels with which the neutrons are ejected from heavier nuclei during their decay.
The total amount of radiation absorbed by tissues as a result of radiotherapy.
Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
The study of crystal structure using X-RAY DIFFRACTION techniques. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Any spaces or cavities within a cell. They may function in digestion, storage, secretion, or excretion.
The measurement of radiation by photography, as in x-ray film and film badge, by Geiger-Mueller tube, and by SCINTILLATION COUNTING.
A species of bacteria isolated from soil.
The rate at which oxygen is used by a tissue; microliters of oxygen STPD used per milligram of tissue per hour; the rate at which oxygen enters the blood from alveolar gas, equal in the steady state to the consumption of oxygen by tissue metabolism throughout the body. (Stedman, 25th ed, p346)
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
Protein-lipid combinations abundant in brain tissue, but also present in a wide variety of animal and plant tissues. In contrast to lipoproteins, they are insoluble in water, but soluble in a chloroform-methanol mixture. The protein moiety has a high content of hydrophobic amino acids. The associated lipids consist of a mixture of GLYCEROPHOSPHATES; CEREBROSIDES; and SULFOGLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS; while lipoproteins contain PHOSPHOLIPIDS; CHOLESTEROL; and TRIGLYCERIDES.
Any type of variation in the appearance of energy output of the sun. (NASA Thesaurus, 1994)
Membrane-bound proton-translocating ATPases that serve two important physiological functions in bacteria. One function is to generate ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE by utilizing the energy provided by an electrochemical gradient of protons across the cellular membrane. A second function is to counteract a loss of the transmembrane ion gradient by pumping protons at the expense of adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis.
Artificial, single or multilaminar vesicles (made from lecithins or other lipids) that are used for the delivery of a variety of biological molecules or molecular complexes to cells, for example, drug delivery and gene transfer. They are also used to study membranes and membrane proteins.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
An isomer of glucose that has traditionally been considered to be a B vitamin although it has an uncertain status as a vitamin and a deficiency syndrome has not been identified in man. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1379) Inositol phospholipids are important in signal transduction.
Discrete concentrations of energy, apparently massless elementary particles, that move at the speed of light. They are the unit or quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Photons are emitted when electrons move from one energy state to another. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 11th ed)
Trityl compounds are organic chemical structures where a central atom or group of atoms is bonded to three phenyl groups, each carrying a methyl substituent, forming a bulky and lipophilic moiety often used as a protective group or a label in biochemical and medicinal applications.

Cu(II) inhibition of the proton translocation machinery of the influenza A virus M2 protein. (1/5891)

The homotetrameric M2 integral membrane protein of influenza virus forms a proton-selective ion channel. An essential histidine residue (His-37) in the M2 transmembrane domain is believed to play an important role in the conduction mechanism of this channel. Also, this residue is believed to form hydrogen-bonded interactions with the ammonium group of the anti-viral compound, amantadine. A molecular model of this channel suggests that the imidazole side chains of His-37 from symmetry-related monomers of the homotetrameric pore converge to form a coordination site for transition metals. Thus, membrane currents of oocytes of Xenopus laevis expressing the M2 protein were recorded when the solution bathing the oocytes contained various transition metals. Membrane currents were strongly and reversibly inhibited by Cu2+ with biphasic reaction kinetics. The biphasic inhibition curves may be explained by a two-site model involving a fast-binding peripheral site with low specificity for divalent metal ions, as well as a high affinity site (Kdiss approximately 2 microM) that lies deep within the pore and shows rather slow-binding kinetics (kon = 18.6 +/- 0.9 M-1 s-1). The pH dependence of the interaction with the high affinity Cu2+-binding site parallels the pH dependence of inhibition by amantadine, which has previously been ascribed to protonation of His-37. The voltage dependence of the inhibition at the high affinity site indicates that the binding site lies within the transmembrane region of the pore. Furthermore, the inhibition by Cu2+ could be prevented by prior application of the reversible blocker of M2 channel activity, BL-1743, providing further support for the location of the site within the pore region of M2. Finally, substitutions of His-37 by alanine or glycine eliminated the high affinity site and resulted in membrane currents that were only partially inhibited at millimolar concentrations of Cu2+. Binding of Cu2+ to the high affinity site resulted in an approximately equal inhibition of both inward and outward currents. The wild-type protein showed very high specificity for Cu2+ and was only partially inhibited by 1 mM Ni2+, Pt2+, and Zn2+. These data are discussed in terms of the functional role of His-37 in the mechanism of proton translocation through the channel.  (+info)

Effects of nucleoside analog incorporation on DNA binding to the DNA binding domain of the GATA-1 erythroid transcription factor. (2/5891)

We investigate here the effects of the incorporation of the nucleoside analogs araC (1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine) and ganciclovir (9-[(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl] guanine) into the DNA binding recognition sequence for the GATA-1 erythroid transcription factor. A 10-fold decrease in binding affinity was observed for the ganciclovir-substituted DNA complex in comparison to an unmodified DNA of the same sequence composition. AraC substitution did not result in any changes in binding affinity. 1H-15N HSQC and NOESY NMR experiments revealed a number of chemical shift changes in both DNA and protein in the ganciclovir-modified DNA-protein complex when compared to the unmodified DNA-protein complex. These changes in chemical shift and binding affinity suggest a change in the binding mode of the complex when ganciclovir is incorporated into the GATA DNA binding site.  (+info)

Mapping of residues in the NADP(H)-binding site of proton-translocating nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase from Escherichia coli. A study of structure and function. (3/5891)

Conformational changes in proton pumping transhydrogenases have been suggested to be dependent on binding of NADP(H) and the redox state of this substrate. Based on a detailed amino acid sequence analysis, it is argued that a classical betaalphabetaalphabeta dinucleotide binding fold is responsible for binding NADP(H). A model defining betaA, alphaB, betaB, betaD, and betaE of this domain is presented. To test this model, four single cysteine mutants (cfbetaA348C, cfbetaA390C, cfbetaK424C, and cfbetaR425C) were introduced into a functional cysteine-free transhydrogenase. Also, five cysteine mutants were constructed in the isolated domain III of Escherichia coli transhydrogenase (ecIIIH345C, ecIIIA348C, ecIIIR350C, ecIIID392C, and ecIIIK424C). In addition to kinetic characterizations, effects of sulfhydryl-specific labeling with N-ethylmaleimide, 2-(4'-maleimidylanilino)naphthalene-6-sulfonic acid, and diazotized 3-aminopyridine adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) were examined. The results are consistent with the view that, in agreement with the model, beta-Ala348, beta-Arg350, beta-Ala390, beta-Asp392, and beta-Lys424 are located in or close to the NADP(H) site. More specifically, beta-Ala348 succeeds betaB. The remarkable reactivity of betaR350C toward NNADP suggests that this residue is close to the nicotinamide moiety of NADP(H). beta-Ala390 and beta-Asp392 terminate or succeed betaD, and are thus, together with the region following betaA, creating the switch point crevice where NADP(H) binds. beta-Asp392 is particularly important for the substrate affinity, but it could also have a more complex role in the coupling mechanism for transhydrogenase.  (+info)

Conformations of Gly(n)H+ and Ala(n)H+ peptides in the gas phase. (4/5891)

High-resolution ion mobility measurements and molecular dynamics simulations have been used to probe the conformations of protonated polyglycine and polyalanine (Gly(n)H and Ala(n)H+, n = 3-20) in the gas phase. The measured collision integrals for both the polyglycine and the polyalanine peptides are consistent with a self-solvated globule conformation, where the peptide chain wraps around and solvates the charge located on the terminal amine. The conformations of the small peptides are governed entirely by self-solvation, whereas the larger ones have additional backbone hydrogen bonds. Helical conformations, which are stable for neutral Alan peptides, were not observed in the experiments. Molecular dynamics simulations for Ala(n)H+ peptides suggest that the charge destabilizes the helix, although several of the low energy conformations found in the simulations for the larger Ala(n)H+ peptides have small helical regions.  (+info)

Oxygen-dependent K+ influxes in Mg2+-clamped equine red blood cells. (5/5891)

1. Cl--dependent K+ (86Rb+) influxes were measured in oxygenated and deoxygenated equine red blood cells, whose free [Mg2+]i had been clamped, to examine the effect on O2 dependency of the K+-Cl- cotransporter. 2. Total [Mg2+]i was 2.55 +/- 0.07 mM (mean +/- s.e.m. , n = 6). Free [Mg2+]i was estimated at 0.45 +/- 0.04 and 0.68 +/- 0. 03 mM (mean +/- s.e.m., n = 4) in oxygenated and deoxygenated red cells, respectively. 3. K+-Cl- cotransport was minimal in deoxygenated cells but substantial in oxygenated ones. Cl--dependent K+ influx, inhibited by calyculin A, consistent with mediation via the K+-Cl- cotransporter, was revealed by depleting deoxygenated cells of Mg2+. 4. Decreasing [Mg2+]i stimulated K+ influx, and increasing [Mg2+]i inhibited it, in both oxygenated and deoxygenated red cells. When free [Mg2+]i was clamped, Cl--dependent K+ influxes were always greater in oxygenated cells than in deoxygenated ones, and changes in free [Mg2+]i of the magnitude occurring during oxygenation-deoxygenation cycles had a minimal effect. Physiological fluctuations in free [Mg2+]i are unlikely to provide the primary link coupling activity of the K+-Cl- cotransporter with O2 tension. 5. Volume and H+ ion sensitivity of K+ influx in Mg2+-clamped red cells were increased in O2 compared with those in deoxygenated cells at the same free [Mg2+]i, by about 6- and 2-fold, respectively, but again these features were not responsible for the higher fluxes in oxygenated cells. 6. Regulation of the K+-Cl- cotransporter by O2 is very similar in equine, sheep and in normal human (HbA) red cells, but altered in human sickle cells. Present results imply that, as in sheep red cells, O2 dependence of K+-Cl- cotransport in equine red cells is not mediated via changes in free [Mg2+]i and that cotransport in Mg2+-clamped red cells is still stimulated by O2. This behaviour is contrary to that reported for human sickle (HbS) cells.  (+info)

Expression of uncoupling protein-3 and mitochondrial activity in the transition from hypothyroid to hyperthyroid state in rat skeletal muscle. (6/5891)

We sought a correlation between rat skeletal muscle triiodothyronine (T3)-mediated regulation of uncoupling protein-3 (UCP3) expression and mitochondrial activity. UCP3 mRNA expression increased strongly during the hypothyroid-hyperthyroid transition. The rank order of mitochondrial State 3 and State 4 respiration rates was hypothyroid < euthyroid < hyperthyroid. The State 4 increase may have been due to the increased UCP3 expression, as the proton leak kinetic was stimulated in the hypothyroid-hyperthyroid transition and a good correlation exists between the State 4 and UCP3 mRNA level. As a significant proportion of an organism's resting oxygen consumption is dedicated to opposing the proton leak, skeletal muscle mitochondrial UCP3 may mediate part of T3's effect on energy metabolism.  (+info)

Direct evidence that the proton motive force inhibits membrane translocation of positively charged residues within membrane proteins. (7/5891)

The M13 phage procoat protein requires both its signal sequence and its membrane anchor sequence in the mature part of the protein for membrane insertion. Translocation of its short acidic periplasmic loop is stimulated by the proton motive force (pmf) and does not require the Sec components. We now find that the pmf becomes increasingly important for the translocation of negatively charged residues within procoat when the hydrophobicity of the signal or membrane anchor is incrementally reduced. In contrast, we find that the pmf inhibits translocation of the periplasmic loop when it contains one or two positively charged residues. This inhibitory effect of the pmf is stronger when the hydrophobicity of the inserting procoat protein is compromised. No pmf effect is observed for translocation of an uncharged periplasmic loop even when the hydrophobicity is reduced. We also show that the Delta Psi component of the pmf is necessary and sufficient for insertion of representative constructs and that the translocation effects of charged residues are primarily due to the DeltaPsi component of the pmf and not the pH component.  (+info)

High base pair opening rates in tracts of GC base pairs. (8/5891)

Sequence-dependent structural features of the DNA double helix have a strong influence on the base pair opening dynamics. Here we report a detailed study of the kinetics of base pair breathing in tracts of GC base pairs in DNA duplexes derived from 1H NMR measurements of the imino proton exchange rates upon titration with the exchange catalyst ammonia. In the limit of infinite exchange catalyst concentration, the exchange times of the guanine imino protons of the GC tracts extrapolate to much shorter base pair lifetimes than commonly observed for isolated GC base pairs. The base pair lifetimes in the GC tracts are below 5 ms for almost all of the base pairs. The unusually rapid base pair opening dynamics of GC tracts are in striking contrast to the behavior of AT tracts, where very long base pair lifetimes are observed. The implication of these findings for the structural principles governing spontaneous helix opening as well as the DNA-binding specificity of the cytosine-5-methyltransferases, where flipping of the cytosine base has been observed, are discussed.  (+info)

In the context of medicine, particularly in relation to cancer treatment, protons refer to positively charged subatomic particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Proton therapy, a type of radiation therapy, uses a beam of protons to target and destroy cancer cells with high precision, minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. The concentrated dose of radiation is delivered directly to the tumor site, reducing side effects and improving quality of life during treatment.

A proton pump is a specialized protein structure that functions as an enzyme, known as a proton pump ATPase, which actively transports hydrogen ions (protons) across a membrane. This process creates a gradient of hydrogen ions, resulting in an electrochemical potential difference, also known as a proton motive force. The main function of proton pumps is to generate and maintain this gradient, which can be used for various purposes, such as driving the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) or transporting other molecules against their concentration gradients.

In the context of gastric physiology, the term "proton pump" often refers to the H+/K+-ATPase present in the parietal cells of the stomach. This proton pump is responsible for secreting hydrochloric acid into the stomach lumen, contributing to the digestion and sterilization of ingested food. Inhibiting this specific proton pump with medications like proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) is a common treatment strategy for gastric acid-related disorders such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.

Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are a class of medications that work to reduce gastric acid production by blocking the action of proton pumps in the parietal cells of the stomach. These drugs are commonly used to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and other conditions where excessive stomach acid is a problem.

PPIs include several different medications such as omeprazole, lansoprazole, rabeprazole, pantoprazole, and esomeprazole. They are usually taken orally, but some PPIs are also available in intravenous (IV) form for hospital use.

By inhibiting the action of proton pumps, PPIs reduce the amount of acid produced in the stomach, which can help to relieve symptoms such as heartburn, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing. They are generally considered safe and effective when used as directed, but long-term use may increase the risk of certain side effects, including bone fractures, vitamin B12 deficiency, and Clostridium difficile infection.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

The Proton-Motive Force (PMF) is not a medical term per se, but it is a fundamental concept in the field of biochemistry and cellular physiology. It is primarily used to describe a key mechanism in bacterial cells and mitochondria that drives the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), an essential energy currency for many cellular processes.

PMF is the electrochemical gradient of protons (H+ ions) across a biological membrane, such as the inner mitochondrial membrane or the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. This gradient consists of two components:

1. A chemical component, which arises from the difference in proton concentration [H+] between the two sides of the membrane. Protons tend to move from an area of higher concentration (more acidic) to an area of lower concentration (less acidic).
2. An electrical component, which is due to the separation of charges across the membrane. The movement of protons generates a charge difference, creating an electric field that drives the flow of charged particles, such as ions.

The PMF stores energy in the form of this electrochemical gradient, and it can be harnessed by special enzymes called ATP synthases to produce ATP through a process called chemiosmosis. When protons flow back across the membrane through these enzymes, they release their stored energy, which is then used to convert ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate into ATP.

While PMF is not a medical term per se, understanding its role in cellular energy production is crucial for grasping various aspects of cell biology, bioenergetics, and related medical fields such as molecular biology, microbiology, and mitochondrial disorders.

Bacteriorhodopsins are a type of protein found in certain archaea, a group of single-celled microorganisms. They are most commonly found in the archaea of the genus Halobacterium, which live in extremely salty environments such as salt lakes and solar salterns.

Bacteriorhodopsins are embedded in the cell membrane of these archaea and contain a retinal molecule, which is a type of vitamin A derivative. When exposed to light, the retinal changes shape, which causes a conformational change in the bacteriorhodopsin protein. This leads to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the cell membrane, generating a proton gradient.

The proton gradient created by bacteriorhodopsins can be used to generate ATP, which is the main energy currency of the cell. Bacteriorhodopsins are therefore involved in energy production in these archaea and are often referred to as light-driven proton pumps. They have also been studied extensively for their potential applications in optoelectronics and biotechnology.

Proton-translocating ATPases are complex, multi-subunit enzymes found in the membranes of many organisms, from bacteria to humans. They play a crucial role in energy transduction processes within cells.

In simpler terms, these enzymes help convert chemical energy into a form that can be used to perform mechanical work, such as moving molecules across membranes against their concentration gradients. This is achieved through a process called chemiosmosis, where the movement of ions (in this case, protons or hydrogen ions) down their electrochemical gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, an essential energy currency for cellular functions.

Proton-translocating ATPases consist of two main domains: a catalytic domain responsible for ATP binding and hydrolysis, and a membrane domain that contains the ion transport channel. The enzyme operates in either direction depending on the energy status of the cell: it can use ATP to pump protons out of the cell when there's an excess of chemical energy or utilize the proton gradient to generate ATP during times of energy deficit.

These enzymes are essential for various biological processes, including nutrient uptake, pH regulation, and maintaining ion homeostasis across membranes. In humans, they are primarily located in the inner mitochondrial membrane (forming the F0F1-ATP synthase) and plasma membranes of certain cells (as V-type ATPases). Dysfunction of these enzymes has been linked to several diseases, including neurological disorders and cancer.

Aspartic acid is an α-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CO2H. It is one of the twenty standard amino acids, and it is a polar, negatively charged, and hydrophilic amino acid. In proteins, aspartic acid usually occurs in its ionized form, aspartate, which has a single negative charge.

Aspartic acid plays important roles in various biological processes, including metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, and energy production. It is also a key component of many enzymes and proteins, where it often contributes to the formation of ionic bonds and helps stabilize protein structure.

In addition to its role as a building block of proteins, aspartic acid is also used in the synthesis of other important biological molecules, such as nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. It is also a component of the dipeptide aspartame, an artificial sweetener that is widely used in food and beverages.

Like other amino acids, aspartic acid is essential for human health, but it cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through the diet. Foods that are rich in aspartic acid include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, eggs, legumes, and some fruits and vegetables.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Medical definitions of water generally describe it as a colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid that is essential for all forms of life. It is a universal solvent, making it an excellent medium for transporting nutrients and waste products within the body. Water constitutes about 50-70% of an individual's body weight, depending on factors such as age, sex, and muscle mass.

In medical terms, water has several important functions in the human body:

1. Regulation of body temperature through perspiration and respiration.
2. Acting as a lubricant for joints and tissues.
3. Facilitating digestion by helping to break down food particles.
4. Transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body.
5. Helping to maintain healthy skin and mucous membranes.
6. Assisting in the regulation of various bodily functions, such as blood pressure and heart rate.

Dehydration can occur when an individual does not consume enough water or loses too much fluid due to illness, exercise, or other factors. This can lead to a variety of symptoms, including dry mouth, fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. Severe dehydration can be life-threatening if left untreated.

Vacuolar Proton-Translocating ATPases (V-ATPases) are complex enzyme systems that are found in the membranes of various intracellular organelles, such as vacuoles, endosomes, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus. They play a crucial role in the establishment and maintenance of electrochemical gradients across these membranes by actively pumping protons (H+) from the cytosol to the lumen of the organelles.

The V-ATPases are composed of two major components: a catalytic domain, known as V1, which contains multiple subunits and is responsible for ATP hydrolysis; and a membrane-bound domain, called V0, which consists of several subunits and facilitates proton translocation. The energy generated from ATP hydrolysis in the V1 domain is used to drive conformational changes in the V0 domain, resulting in the vectorial transport of protons across the membrane.

These electrochemical gradients established by V-ATPases are essential for various cellular processes, including secondary active transport, maintenance of organellar pH, protein sorting and trafficking, and regulation of cell volume. Dysfunction in V-ATPases has been implicated in several human diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders, renal tubular acidosis, and certain types of cancer.

Creatine is a organic acid that is produced naturally in the liver, kidneys and pancreas. It is also found in small amounts in certain foods such as meat and fish. The chemical formula for creatine is C4H9N3O2. In the body, creatine is converted into creatine phosphate, which is used to help produce energy during high-intensity exercise, such as weightlifting or sprinting.

Creatine can also be taken as a dietary supplement, in the form of creatine monohydrate, with the goal of increasing muscle creatine and phosphocreatine levels, which may improve athletic performance and help with muscle growth. However, it is important to note that while some studies have found that creatine supplementation can improve exercise performance and muscle mass in certain populations, others have not found significant benefits.

Creatine supplements are generally considered safe when used as directed, but they can cause side effects such as weight gain, stomach discomfort, and muscle cramps in some people. It is always recommended to consult a healthcare professional before starting any new supplement regimen.

Electron Transport Complex IV is also known as Cytochrome c oxidase. It is the last complex in the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells. This complex contains 13 subunits, two heme groups (a and a3), and three copper centers (A, B, and C).

In the electron transport chain, Complex IV receives electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to molecular oxygen, reducing it to water. This process is accompanied by the pumping of protons across the membrane, contributing to the generation of a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase (Complex V). The overall reaction catalyzed by Complex IV can be summarized as follows:

4e- + 4H+ + O2 → 2H2O

Defects in Cytochrome c oxidase can lead to various diseases, including mitochondrial encephalomyopathies and neurodegenerative disorders.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hydrogen" is not a medical term. It is a chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up about 75% of its elemental mass.

In a medical context, hydrogen can be discussed in terms of molecular hydrogen (H2) which has been studied for potential therapeutic benefits. Some research explores its use as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent, but more studies are needed to confirm these effects and understand the mechanisms behind them.

Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) is a chemical compound with the formula (C6H11)2NCO. It is a white to off-white solid that is used as a dehydrating agent in organic synthesis, particularly in the formation of peptide bonds. DCC works by activating carboxylic acids to form an active ester intermediate, which can then react with amines to form amides.

It's important to note that Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide is a hazardous chemical and should be handled with appropriate safety precautions, including the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, lab coats, and eye protection. It can cause skin and eye irritation, and prolonged exposure can lead to respiratory problems. Additionally, it can react violently with water and strong oxidizing agents.

It's also important to note that Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide is not a medical term or a substance used in medical treatment, but rather a chemical reagent used in laboratory settings for research purposes.

Hydrogen bonding is not a medical term per se, but it is a fundamental concept in chemistry and biology that is relevant to the field of medicine. Here's a general definition:

Hydrogen bonding is a type of attractive force between molecules or within a molecule, which occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine) and is then attracted to another electronegative atom. This attraction results in the formation of a partially covalent bond known as a "hydrogen bond."

In biological systems, hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in the structure and function of many biomolecules, such as DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates. For example, the double helix structure of DNA is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs (adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine). Similarly, the three-dimensional structure of proteins is maintained by a network of hydrogen bonds that help to determine their function.

In medical contexts, hydrogen bonding can be relevant in understanding drug-receptor interactions, where hydrogen bonds between a drug molecule and its target protein can enhance the binding affinity and specificity of the interaction, leading to more effective therapeutic outcomes.

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is a series of complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that are involved in the process of cellular respiration. It is the final pathway for electrons derived from the oxidation of nutrients such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to be transferred to molecular oxygen. This transfer of electrons drives the generation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP, the main energy currency of the cell.

The electron transport chain consists of four complexes (I-IV) and two mobile electron carriers (ubiquinone and cytochrome c). Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to Complex I and Complex II respectively, which then pass them along to ubiquinone. Ubiquinone then transfers the electrons to Complex III, which passes them on to cytochrome c. Finally, cytochrome c transfers the electrons to Complex IV, where they combine with oxygen and protons to form water.

The transfer of electrons through the ETC is accompanied by the pumping of protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient. The flow of protons back across the inner membrane through ATP synthase drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Overall, the electron transport chain is a crucial process for generating energy in the form of ATP in the cell, and it plays a key role in many metabolic pathways.

Valinomycin is not a medical condition or treatment, but rather it is a naturally occurring antibiotic compound that is produced by certain strains of bacteria. Valinomycin is a cyclic depsipeptide, which means it is made up of a ring of amino acids and alcohols.

Valinomycin is known for its ability to selectively bind to potassium ions (K+) with high affinity and transport them across biological membranes. This property makes valinomycin useful in laboratory research as a tool for studying ion transport and membrane permeability. However, it has no direct medical application in humans or animals.

Protein conformation refers to the specific three-dimensional shape that a protein molecule assumes due to the spatial arrangement of its constituent amino acid residues and their associated chemical groups. This complex structure is determined by several factors, including covalent bonds (disulfide bridges), hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds, which help stabilize the protein's unique conformation.

Protein conformations can be broadly classified into two categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The primary structure represents the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure arises from local interactions between adjacent amino acid residues, leading to the formation of recurring motifs such as α-helices and β-sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding pattern of a single polypeptide chain, while quaternary structure describes the spatial arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide chains (subunits) that interact to form a functional protein complex.

Understanding protein conformation is crucial for elucidating protein function, as the specific three-dimensional shape of a protein directly influences its ability to interact with other molecules, such as ligands, nucleic acids, or other proteins. Any alterations in protein conformation due to genetic mutations, environmental factors, or chemical modifications can lead to loss of function, misfolding, aggregation, and disease states like neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

2-Pyridinylmethylsulfinylbenzimidazoles is a class of chemical compounds that have both a pyridinylmethylsulfinyl group and a benzimidazole ring in their structure. Pyridinylmethylsulfinyl refers to a functional group consisting of a sulfinyl group (-S(=O)-) attached to a methyl group (-CH2-) that is, in turn, attached to a pyridine ring. Benzimidazoles are heterocyclic compounds containing a fused benzene and imidazole ring.

These types of compounds have been studied for their potential biological activity, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor properties. However, it's important to note that medical definitions typically refer to specific substances or classes of substances that have established clinical use or are under investigation for therapeutic purposes. As such, 2-Pyridinylmethylsulfinylbenzimidazoles do not have a recognized medical definition in this sense.

Choline is an essential nutrient that is vital for the normal functioning of all cells, particularly those in the brain and liver. It is a water-soluble compound that is neither a vitamin nor a mineral, but is often grouped with vitamins because it has many similar functions. Choline is a precursor to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory, mood, and other cognitive processes. It also helps to maintain the structural integrity of cell membranes and is involved in the transport and metabolism of fats.

Choline can be synthesized by the body in small amounts, but it is also found in a variety of foods such as eggs, meat, fish, nuts, and cruciferous vegetables. Some people may require additional choline through supplementation, particularly if they follow a vegetarian or vegan diet, are pregnant or breastfeeding, or have certain medical conditions that affect choline metabolism.

Deficiency in choline can lead to a variety of health problems, including liver disease, muscle damage, and neurological disorders. On the other hand, excessive intake of choline can cause fishy body odor, sweating, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea and vomiting. It is important to maintain adequate levels of choline through a balanced diet and, if necessary, supplementation under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

A Schiff base is not a medical term per se, but rather a chemical concept that can be relevant in various scientific and medical fields. A Schiff base is a chemical compound that contains a carbon-nitrogen double bond with the nitrogen atom connected to an aryl or alkyl group, excluding hydrogen. This structure is also known as an azomethine.

The general formula for a Schiff base is R1R2C=NR3, where R1 and R2 are organic groups (aryl or alkyl), and R3 is a hydrogen atom or an organic group. These compounds can be synthesized by the condensation of a primary amine with a carbonyl compound, such as an aldehyde or ketone.

Schiff bases have been studied in various medical and biological contexts due to their potential bioactivities. Some Schiff bases exhibit antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. They can also serve as ligands for metal ions, forming complexes with potential applications in medicinal chemistry, such as in the development of new drugs or diagnostic agents.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Omeprazole is defined as a proton pump inhibitor (PPI) used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), gastric ulcers, and other conditions where reducing stomach acid is desired. It works by blocking the action of the proton pumps in the stomach, which are responsible for producing stomach acid. By inhibiting these pumps, omeprazole reduces the amount of acid produced in the stomach, providing relief from symptoms such as heartburn and pain caused by excess stomach acid.

It is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and oral suspension, and is typically taken once or twice a day, depending on the condition being treated. As with any medication, omeprazole should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, and its potential side effects and interactions with other medications should be carefully considered before use.

Rhodobacter sphaeroides is not a medical term, but rather a scientific name for a type of bacteria. It belongs to the class of proteobacteria and is commonly found in soil, fresh water, and the ocean. This bacterium is capable of photosynthesis, and it can use light as an energy source, converting it into chemical energy. Rhodobacter sphaeroides is often studied in research settings due to its unique metabolic capabilities and potential applications in biotechnology.

In a medical context, Rhodobacter sphaeroides may be mentioned in relation to rare cases of infection, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. However, it is not considered a significant human pathogen, and there are no specific medical definitions associated with this bacterium.

"Halobacterium salinarum" is not a medical term, but a scientific name for a type of archaea (single-celled microorganism) that is commonly found in extremely salty environments, such as salt lakes and solar salterns. It is often used as a model organism in research related to archaea and extremophiles.

Here's a brief scientific definition:

"Halobacterium salinarum" is a species of halophilic archaea belonging to the family Halobacteriaceae. It is a rod-shaped, gram-negative organism that requires high salt concentrations (in the range of 15-25%) for growth and survival. This archaeon is known for its ability to produce bacteriorhodopsin, a light-driven proton pump, which gives it a purple color and allows it to generate energy through phototrophy in addition to being chemotrophic. It is also capable of forming endospores under conditions of nutrient deprivation.

Histidine is an essential amino acid, meaning it cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources. Its chemical formula is C6H9N3O2. Histidine plays a crucial role in several physiological processes, including:

1. Protein synthesis: As an essential amino acid, histidine is required for the production of proteins, which are vital components of various tissues and organs in the body.

2. Hemoglobin synthesis: Histidine is a key component of hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. The imidazole side chain of histidine acts as a proton acceptor/donor, facilitating the release and uptake of oxygen by hemoglobin.

3. Acid-base balance: Histidine is involved in maintaining acid-base homeostasis through its role in the biosynthesis of histamine, which is a critical mediator of inflammatory responses and allergies. The decarboxylation of histidine results in the formation of histamine, which can increase vascular permeability and modulate immune responses.

4. Metal ion binding: Histidine has a high affinity for metal ions such as zinc, copper, and iron. This property allows histidine to participate in various enzymatic reactions and maintain the structural integrity of proteins.

5. Antioxidant defense: Histidine-containing dipeptides, like carnosine and anserine, have been shown to exhibit antioxidant properties by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and chelating metal ions. These compounds may contribute to the protection of proteins and DNA from oxidative damage.

Dietary sources of histidine include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and wheat germ. Histidine deficiency is rare but can lead to growth retardation, anemia, and impaired immune function.

A chemical model is a simplified representation or description of a chemical system, based on the laws of chemistry and physics. It is used to explain and predict the behavior of chemicals and chemical reactions. Chemical models can take many forms, including mathematical equations, diagrams, and computer simulations. They are often used in research, education, and industry to understand complex chemical processes and develop new products and technologies.

For example, a chemical model might be used to describe the way that atoms and molecules interact in a particular reaction, or to predict the properties of a new material. Chemical models can also be used to study the behavior of chemicals at the molecular level, such as how they bind to each other or how they are affected by changes in temperature or pressure.

It is important to note that chemical models are simplifications of reality and may not always accurately represent every aspect of a chemical system. They should be used with caution and validated against experimental data whenever possible.

Halobacterium is a genus of extremely halophilic archaea, which means they require a high salt concentration to grow. They are often found in salt lakes, salt pans, and other hypersaline environments. These microorganisms contain bacteriorhodopsin, a light-driven proton pump, which gives them a purple color and allows them to generate ATP using light energy, similar to photosynthesis in plants. Halobacteria are also known for their ability to survive under extreme conditions, such as high temperatures, radiation, and desiccation.

Anti-ulcer agents are a class of medications that are used to treat and prevent ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract. These medications work by reducing the production of stomach acid, neutralizing stomach acid, or protecting the lining of the stomach and duodenum from damage caused by stomach acid.

There are several types of anti-ulcer agents, including:

1. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs): These medications block the action of proton pumps in the stomach, which are responsible for producing stomach acid. PPIs include drugs such as omeprazole, lansoprazole, and pantoprazole.
2. H-2 receptor antagonists: These medications block the action of histamine on the H-2 receptors in the stomach, reducing the production of stomach acid. Examples include ranitidine, famotidine, and cimetidine.
3. Antacids: These medications neutralize stomach acid and provide quick relief from symptoms such as heartburn and indigestion. Common antacids include calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminum hydroxide.
4. Protective agents: These medications form a barrier between the stomach lining and stomach acid, protecting the lining from damage. Examples include sucralfate and misoprostol.

Anti-ulcer agents are used to treat conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. It is important to take these medications as directed by a healthcare provider, as they can have side effects and interactions with other medications.

Nigericin is not typically considered to have a "medical definition" as it is not a medication or therapeutic agent used in human medicine. However, it is a chemical compound that has been studied in laboratory research for its potential effects on various biological processes.

Nigericin is a polyether antibiotic produced by the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus. It functions as an ionophore, which is a type of molecule that can transport ions across cell membranes. Specifically, nigericin can transport potassium (K+) and hydrogen (H+) ions across membranes, which can affect the balance of these ions inside and outside of cells.

In laboratory research, nigericin has been used to study various cellular processes, including the regulation of intracellular pH, mitochondrial function, and inflammation. However, it is not used as a therapeutic agent in clinical medicine due to its potential toxicity and narrow therapeutic window.

Arylsulfonates are organic compounds that contain a sulfonate group (-SO3H) attached to an aromatic ring. The term "aryl" refers to the aromatic ring, which can be phenyl (a benzene ring) or any other aromatic structure. Sulfonation is the process of introducing a sulfonate group into an organic compound. Arylsulfonates are often used as detergents, dyes, and pharmaceuticals. They also serve as important intermediates in chemical synthesis.

Deuterium is a stable and non-radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The atomic nucleus of deuterium, called a deuteron, contains one proton and one neutron, giving it an atomic weight of approximately 2.014 atomic mass units (amu). It is also known as heavy hydrogen or heavy water because its hydrogen atoms contain one neutron in addition to the usual one proton found in common hydrogen atoms.

Deuterium occurs naturally in trace amounts in water and other organic compounds, typically making up about 0.015% to 0.018% of all hydrogen atoms. It can be separated from regular hydrogen through various methods such as electrolysis or distillation, and it has many applications in scientific research, particularly in the fields of chemistry and physics.

In medical contexts, deuterium is sometimes used as a tracer to study metabolic processes in the body. By replacing hydrogen atoms in specific molecules with deuterium atoms, researchers can track the movement and transformation of those molecules within living organisms. This technique has been used to investigate various physiological processes, including drug metabolism, energy production, and lipid synthesis.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "thermodynamics" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It is a branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. However, the principles of thermodynamics can be applied to biological systems, including those in the human body, such as in the study of metabolism or muscle function. But in a medical context, "thermodynamics" would not be a term used independently as a diagnosis, treatment, or any medical condition.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

Ion channels are specialized transmembrane proteins that form hydrophilic pores or gaps in the lipid bilayer of cell membranes. They regulate the movement of ions (such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride) across the cell membrane by allowing these charged particles to pass through selectively in response to various stimuli, including voltage changes, ligand binding, mechanical stress, or temperature changes. This ion movement is essential for many physiological processes, including electrical signaling, neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and maintenance of resting membrane potential. Ion channels can be categorized based on their activation mechanisms, ion selectivity, and structural features. Dysfunction of ion channels can lead to various diseases, making them important targets for drug development.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

Membrane potential is the electrical potential difference across a cell membrane, typically for excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells. It is the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell, created by the selective permeability of the cell membrane to different ions. The resting membrane potential of a typical animal cell is around -70 mV, with the interior being negative relative to the exterior. This potential is generated and maintained by the active transport of ions across the membrane, primarily through the action of the sodium-potassium pump. Membrane potentials play a crucial role in many physiological processes, including the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle cells.

Ion transport refers to the active or passive movement of ions, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), and calcium (Ca2+) ions, across cell membranes. This process is essential for various physiological functions, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and maintenance of resting membrane potential.

Ion transport can occur through several mechanisms, including:

1. Diffusion: the passive movement of ions down their concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
2. Facilitated diffusion: the passive movement of ions through specialized channels or transporters in the cell membrane.
3. Active transport: the energy-dependent movement of ions against their concentration gradient, requiring the use of ATP. This process is often mediated by ion pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase).
4. Co-transport or symport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in the same direction, often driven by an electrochemical gradient.
5. Counter-transport or antiport: the coupled transport of two or more different ions or molecules in opposite directions, also often driven by an electrochemical gradient.

Abnormalities in ion transport can lead to various medical conditions, such as cystic fibrosis (which involves defective chloride channel function), hypertension (which may be related to altered sodium transport), and certain forms of heart disease (which can result from abnormal calcium handling).

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the interconversion of electrical energy and chemical energy. It involves the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move, resulting in the transfer of electrical charge, and the reverse processes by which electrical energy can be used to drive chemical reactions. This field encompasses various phenomena such as the generation of electricity from chemical sources (as in batteries), the electrolysis of substances, and corrosion. Electrochemical reactions are fundamental to many technologies, including energy storage and conversion, environmental protection, and medical diagnostics.

Carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (CCP) is a chemical compound that functions as an ionophore, which is a type of molecule that can transport ions across biological membranes. CCP is specifically known to transport protons (H+) and has been used in research as a tool to study the role of proton transport in various cellular processes.

CCP is also a potent mitochondrial uncoupler, which means that it disrupts the normal functioning of the mitochondria, the energy-producing structures in cells. By doing so, CCP can cause a rapid and irreversible decline in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production, leading to cell death.

Due to its potent toxicity, CCP is not used as a therapeutic agent but rather as a research tool to study mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism. It is important to handle this compound with care and follow appropriate safety protocols when working with it in the laboratory.

Biological transport, active is the process by which cells use energy to move materials across their membranes from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This type of transport is facilitated by specialized proteins called transporters or pumps that are located in the cell membrane. These proteins undergo conformational changes to physically carry the molecules through the lipid bilayer of the membrane, often against their concentration gradient.

Active transport requires energy because it works against the natural tendency of molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, a process known as diffusion. Cells obtain this energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is produced through cellular respiration.

Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose and amino acids into cells, as well as the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters. The sodium-potassium pump, which helps maintain resting membrane potential in nerve and muscle cells, is a classic example of an active transporter.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, thereby allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly and efficiently. This can be particularly important in biological systems, where enzymes act as catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions that are essential for life.

An electron is a subatomic particle, symbol e-, with a negative electric charge. Electrons are fundamental components of atoms and are responsible for the chemical bonding between atoms to form molecules. They are located in an atom's electron cloud, which is the outermost region of an atom and contains negatively charged electrons that surround the positively charged nucleus.

Electrons have a mass that is much smaller than that of protons or neutrons, making them virtually weightless on the atomic scale. They are also known to exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties, which is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. Electrons play a crucial role in various physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, and chemical reactions.

In the context of medical terminology, "light" doesn't have a specific or standardized definition on its own. However, it can be used in various medical terms and phrases. For example, it could refer to:

1. Visible light: The range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye, typically between wavelengths of 400-700 nanometers. This is relevant in fields such as ophthalmology and optometry.
2. Therapeutic use of light: In some therapies, light is used to treat certain conditions. An example is phototherapy, which uses various wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) or visible light for conditions like newborn jaundice, skin disorders, or seasonal affective disorder.
3. Light anesthesia: A state of reduced consciousness in which the patient remains responsive to verbal commands and physical stimulation. This is different from general anesthesia where the patient is completely unconscious.
4. Pain relief using light: Certain devices like transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units have a 'light' setting, indicating lower intensity or frequency of electrical impulses used for pain management.

Without more context, it's hard to provide a precise medical definition of 'light'.

Microbial rhodopsins are a type of light-sensitive proteins found in various microorganisms such as archaea, bacteria, and certain eukaryotic microbes. They are named after their ability to bind retinal, a form of vitamin A, which gives them their light-absorbing properties.

Microbial rhodopsins contain seven transmembrane helices and can be classified into several subfamilies based on their functions, including:

1. Pumping ions across the cell membrane: This group includes bacteriorhodopsin, which pumps protons (H+) out of the cell, and halorhodopsin, which pumps chloride ions (Cl-) into the cell. These ion pumps generate an electrochemical gradient that can be used for various purposes, such as generating ATP or driving secondary transport processes.
2. Sensing light: Some microbial rhodopsins act as photoreceptors, converting light signals into chemical or electrical signals. They are involved in various physiological responses, including phototaxis (movement towards or away from light) and photophosphorylation (generation of ATP using light energy).
3. Generating reactive oxygen species: A subgroup of microbial rhodopsins called xanthorhodopsins can generate reactive oxygen species when exposed to light, which may play a role in microbial defense mechanisms or signaling pathways.

Overall, microbial rhodopsins are versatile proteins that enable various light-dependent processes in microorganisms and have attracted significant interest for their potential applications in optogenetics, biosensors, and renewable energy production.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

In medical terms, acids refer to a class of chemicals that have a pH less than 7 and can donate protons (hydrogen ions) in chemical reactions. In the context of human health, acids are an important part of various bodily functions, such as digestion. However, an imbalance in acid levels can lead to medical conditions. For example, an excess of hydrochloric acid in the stomach can cause gastritis or peptic ulcers, while an accumulation of lactic acid due to strenuous exercise or decreased blood flow can lead to muscle fatigue and pain.

Additionally, in clinical laboratory tests, certain substances may be tested for their "acidity" or "alkalinity," which is measured using a pH scale. This information can help diagnose various medical conditions, such as kidney disease or diabetes.

Histamine H2 antagonists, also known as H2 blockers, are a class of medications that work by blocking the action of histamine on the H2 receptors in the stomach. Histamine is a chemical that is released by the body during an allergic reaction and can also be released by certain cells in the stomach in response to food or other stimuli. When histamine binds to the H2 receptors in the stomach, it triggers the release of acid. By blocking the action of histamine on these receptors, H2 antagonists reduce the amount of acid produced by the stomach, which can help to relieve symptoms such as heartburn, indigestion, and stomach ulcers. Examples of H2 antagonists include ranitidine (Zantac), famotidine (Pepcid), and cimetidine (Tagamet).

The term "Purple Membrane" is used in the context of medical research and biochemistry to refer to a specific structure within certain types of cells. It's not a commonly used term in general clinical medicine, but it does have significance in specific areas of study.

In a medical definition, Purple Membrane refers to a specialized portion of the cell membrane found in certain halobacteria (salt-loving bacteria). This membrane is called "purple" because it contains a light-absorbing pigment-protein complex called bacteriorhodopsin, which appears purple. Bacteriorhodopsin plays a crucial role in energy production for the cell by converting light energy into chemical energy through a process called chemiosmosis.

It's important to note that this term is highly specialized and not something that would typically come up in routine medical practice or patient care.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Sulfoxides are organic compounds characterized by the functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to two oxygen atoms and a carbon atom. The general structure is R-S(=O)O-R', where R and R' represent alkyl or aryl groups. They are often formed by the oxidation of sulfides, which contain a sulfur atom bonded to two carbon atoms. Sulfoxides have a trigonal pyramidal geometry at the sulfur atom due to the presence of two electron-withdrawing oxygen atoms. They exhibit properties of both polar and nonpolar compounds, making them useful as solvents and intermediates in organic synthesis.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Biomolecular is a research technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to study the structure and dynamics of biological molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids. This technique measures the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei within these molecules, specifically their spin, which can be influenced by the application of an external magnetic field.

When a sample is placed in a strong magnetic field, the nuclei absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation at specific frequencies, known as resonance frequencies, which are determined by the molecular structure and environment of the nuclei. By analyzing these resonance frequencies and their interactions, researchers can obtain detailed information about the three-dimensional structure, dynamics, and interactions of biomolecules.

NMR spectroscopy is a non-destructive technique that allows for the study of biological molecules in solution, which makes it an important tool for understanding the function and behavior of these molecules in their natural environment. Additionally, NMR can be used to study the effects of drugs, ligands, and other small molecules on biomolecular structure and dynamics, making it a valuable tool in drug discovery and development.

An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net electric charge. Cations are positively charged ions, which have lost electrons, while anions are negatively charged ions, which have gained electrons. Ions can play a significant role in various physiological processes within the human body, including enzyme function, nerve impulse transmission, and maintenance of acid-base balance. They also contribute to the formation of salts and buffer systems that help regulate fluid composition and pH levels in different bodily fluids.

Heme is not a medical term per se, but it is a term used in the field of medicine and biology. Heme is a prosthetic group found in hemoproteins, which are proteins that contain a heme iron complex. This complex plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including oxygen transport (in hemoglobin), electron transfer (in cytochromes), and chemical catalysis (in peroxidases and catalases).

The heme group consists of an organic component called a porphyrin ring, which binds to a central iron atom. The iron atom can bind or release electrons, making it essential for redox reactions in the body. Heme is also vital for the formation of hemoglobin and myoglobin, proteins responsible for oxygen transport and storage in the blood and muscles, respectively.

In summary, heme is a complex organic-inorganic structure that plays a critical role in several biological processes, particularly in electron transfer and oxygen transport.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but static electricity is not a term that has a specific medical definition. Static electricity is an electrical charge that builds up on the surface of objects. This occurs when there is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material. It can be caused by certain conditions, such as friction, which can build up an electric charge.

While not a medical term, static electricity can have various effects in different settings, including medical ones. For instance, it can cause issues with electronic equipment used in healthcare settings. Additionally, some people may experience a shock or spark when they touch a conductive object that has been charged with static electricity. However, these occurrences are not typically considered medical conditions or issues.

Rabeprazole is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). The medical definition of Rabeprazole is:

A substituted benzimidazole that acts as a prodrug, being selectively converted to the active form in the acidic environment of gastric parietal cells. It suppresses gastric acid secretion by inhibiting the H+/K+ ATPase enzyme system at the secretory surface of the gastric parietal cell. Rabeprazole is used in the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. It is available by prescription in various forms, including tablets and sodium salt for oral administration.

In simpler terms, Rabeprazole works by reducing the amount of acid produced in the stomach, which helps to prevent and heal damage to the esophagus and stomach caused by excessive acid production.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Quantum Theory" is not a term that is typically used in medical definitions. Quantum theory, also known as quantum mechanics, is a branch of physics that deals with phenomena on a very small scale, such as molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles like electrons and photons (which are particles of light).

Quantum theory introduces the concept of wave-particle duality, where particles can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties. It also includes principles like superposition, which suggests that a physical system—such as an electron in an atom—can exist in multiple states or places at the same time until it is measured.

While quantum mechanics has had profound implications for our understanding of the physical world, its concepts are not directly applicable to medical definitions or human health. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I'd be happy to help with those instead!

Gramicidin is not a medical condition but rather an antibiotic substance that is used in medical treatments.

Here's the scientific and pharmacological definition:

Gramicidin is a narrow-spectrum, cationic antimicrobial peptide derived from gram-positive bacteria of the genus Bacillus. It is an ionophore that selectively binds to monovalent cations, forming channels in lipid bilayers and causing disruption of bacterial cell membranes, leading to bacterial lysis and death. Gramicidin D, a mixture of at least four different gramicidins (A, B, C, and D), is commonly used in topical formulations for the treatment of skin and eye infections due to its potent antimicrobial activity against many gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. However, it has limited systemic use due to its potential toxicity to mammalian cells.

Deuterium oxide, also known as heavy water, is a compound consisting of two atoms of deuterium (a heavy isotope of hydrogen) and one atom of oxygen. Its chemical formula is D2O. Deuterium oxide has physical and chemical properties similar to those of regular water (H2O), but its density and boiling point are slightly higher due to the increased atomic weight. It is used in various scientific research applications, including as a tracer in biochemical and medical studies.

Molecular structure, in the context of biochemistry and molecular biology, refers to the arrangement and organization of atoms and chemical bonds within a molecule. It describes the three-dimensional layout of the constituent elements, including their spatial relationships, bond lengths, and angles. Understanding molecular structure is crucial for elucidating the functions and reactivities of biological macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Various experimental techniques, like X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), are employed to determine molecular structures at atomic resolution, providing valuable insights into their biological roles and potential therapeutic targets.

A Sodium-Hydrogen Antiporter (NHA) is a type of membrane transport protein that exchanges sodium ions (Na+) and protons (H+) across a biological membrane. It is also known as a Na+/H+ antiporter or exchanger. This exchange mechanism plays a crucial role in regulating pH, cell volume, and intracellular sodium concentration within various cells and organelles, including the kidney, brain, heart, and mitochondria.

In general, NHA transporters utilize the energy generated by the electrochemical gradient of sodium ions across a membrane to drive the uphill transport of protons from inside to outside the cell or organelle. This process helps maintain an optimal intracellular pH and volume, which is essential for proper cellular function and homeostasis.

There are several isoforms of Sodium-Hydrogen Antiporters found in different tissues and organelles, each with distinct physiological roles and regulatory mechanisms. Dysfunction or alterations in NHA activity have been implicated in various pathophysiological conditions, such as hypertension, heart failure, neurological disorders, and cancer.

Uncoupling agents are chemicals that interfere with the normal process of oxidative phosphorylation in cells. In this process, the energy from food is converted into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the main source of energy for cellular functions. Uncouplers disrupt this process by preventing the transfer of high-energy electrons to oxygen, which normally drives the production of ATP.

Instead, the energy from these electrons is released as heat, leading to an increase in body temperature. This effect is similar to what happens during shivering or exercise, when the body generates heat to maintain its core temperature. Uncoupling agents are therefore also known as "mitochondrial protonophores" because they allow protons to leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane, bypassing the ATP synthase enzyme that would normally use the energy from this proton gradient to produce ATP.

Uncoupling agents have been studied for their potential therapeutic uses, such as in weight loss and the treatment of metabolic disorders. However, they can also be toxic at high doses, and their long-term effects on health are not well understood.

Proton ionophores are substances that increase the permeability of cell membranes to hydrogen ions (protons). They facilitate the transport of protons across biological membranes, which can affect various physiological processes such as pH regulation, ATP synthesis, and signal transduction. Some examples of proton ionophores include gramicidin D, nigericin, and carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP). These substances are often used in research to manipulate membrane potentials and study cellular processes. However, they can also have harmful effects on cells and tissues, especially at high concentrations or under prolonged exposure.

Molecular conformation, also known as spatial arrangement or configuration, refers to the specific three-dimensional shape and orientation of atoms that make up a molecule. It describes the precise manner in which bonds between atoms are arranged around a molecular framework, taking into account factors such as bond lengths, bond angles, and torsional angles.

Conformational isomers, or conformers, are different spatial arrangements of the same molecule that can interconvert without breaking chemical bonds. These isomers may have varying energies, stability, and reactivity, which can significantly impact a molecule's biological activity and function. Understanding molecular conformation is crucial in fields such as drug design, where small changes in conformation can lead to substantial differences in how a drug interacts with its target.

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is the retrograde movement of stomach contents into the esophagus, which can cause discomfort and symptoms. It occurs when the lower esophageal sphincter (a ring of muscle between the esophagus and stomach) relaxes inappropriately, allowing the acidic or non-acidic gastric contents to flow back into the esophagus.

Gastroesophageal reflux becomes gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) when it is more severe, persistent, and/or results in complications such as esophagitis, strictures, or Barrett's esophagus. Common symptoms of GERD include heartburn, regurgitation, chest pain, difficulty swallowing, and chronic cough or hoarseness.

Computer-assisted radiotherapy planning (CARP) is the use of computer systems and software to assist in the process of creating a treatment plan for radiotherapy. The goal of radiotherapy is to deliver a precise and effective dose of radiation to a tumor while minimizing exposure to healthy tissue. CARP involves using imaging data, such as CT or MRI scans, to create a 3D model of the patient's anatomy. This model is then used to simulate the delivery of radiation from different angles and determine the optimal treatment plan. The use of computers in this process allows for more accurate and efficient planning, as well as the ability to easily adjust the plan as needed.

In the context of medical terminology, "solutions" refers to a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, in which one substance (the solute) is uniformly distributed within another substance (the solvent). The solvent is typically the greater component of the solution and is capable of dissolving the solute.

Solutions can be classified based on the physical state of the solvent and solute. For instance, a solution in which both the solvent and solute are liquids is called a liquid solution or simply a solution. A solid solution is one where the solvent is a solid and the solute is either a gas, liquid, or solid. Similarly, a gas solution refers to a mixture where the solvent is a gas and the solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid.

In medical applications, solutions are often used as vehicles for administering medications, such as intravenous (IV) fluids, oral rehydration solutions, eye drops, and topical creams or ointments. The composition of these solutions is carefully controlled to ensure the appropriate concentration and delivery of the active ingredients.

Glutamic acid is an alpha-amino acid, which is one of the 20 standard amino acids in the genetic code. The systematic name for this amino acid is (2S)-2-Aminopentanedioic acid. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2CO2H.

Glutamic acid is a crucial excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain, and it plays an essential role in learning and memory. It's also involved in the metabolism of sugars and amino acids, the synthesis of proteins, and the removal of waste nitrogen from the body.

Glutamic acid can be found in various foods such as meat, fish, beans, eggs, dairy products, and vegetables. In the human body, glutamic acid can be converted into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), another important neurotransmitter that has a calming effect on the nervous system.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.

Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Carbonic anhydrase II (CA-II) is a specific isoform of the carbonic anhydrase enzyme, which catalyzes the reversible reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This enzyme plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including pH regulation, electrolyte balance, and biosynthetic reactions.

CA-II is widely distributed in the body, with high concentrations found in erythrocytes (red blood cells), the gastric mucosa, and renal tubules. In erythrocytes, CA-II facilitates the rapid conversion of carbon dioxide generated during cellular respiration to bicarbonate and protons, which can then be transported across the cell membrane for excretion or used in other metabolic processes.

In the gastric mucosa, CA-II helps regulate acid secretion by catalyzing the formation of carbonic acid from water and carbon dioxide, which subsequently dissociates into bicarbonate and a proton. The generated proton can then participate in the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

In renal tubules, CA-II is involved in the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions from the filtrate back into the bloodstream, helping maintain electrolyte balance and pH homeostasis. Additionally, CA-II has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as neurological disorders, cancer, and osteoporosis, making it a potential therapeutic target for drug development.

Spectrophotometry is a technical analytical method used in the field of medicine and science to measure the amount of light absorbed or transmitted by a substance at specific wavelengths. This technique involves the use of a spectrophotometer, an instrument that measures the intensity of light as it passes through a sample.

In medical applications, spectrophotometry is often used in laboratory settings to analyze various biological samples such as blood, urine, and tissues. For example, it can be used to measure the concentration of specific chemicals or compounds in a sample by measuring the amount of light that is absorbed or transmitted at specific wavelengths.

In addition, spectrophotometry can also be used to assess the properties of biological tissues, such as their optical density and thickness. This information can be useful in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions, including skin disorders, eye diseases, and cancer.

Overall, spectrophotometry is a valuable tool for medical professionals and researchers seeking to understand the composition and properties of various biological samples and tissues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but neutrons are not a medical term. They are a fundamental particle in physics and chemistry. Neutrons are neutral particles found in the nucleus of an atom, alongside protons. Together, they make up the atomic nucleus, while electrons orbit around it.

Neutrons are not typically discussed in the context of medical definitions unless it's in relation to nuclear medicine, radiation therapy or other specialized medical fields that involve ionizing radiation and nuclear reactions. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help!

Radiotherapy dosage refers to the total amount of radiation energy that is absorbed by tissues or organs, typically measured in units of Gray (Gy), during a course of radiotherapy treatment. It is the product of the dose rate (the amount of radiation delivered per unit time) and the duration of treatment. The prescribed dosage for cancer treatments can range from a few Gray to more than 70 Gy, depending on the type and location of the tumor, the patient's overall health, and other factors. The goal of radiotherapy is to deliver a sufficient dosage to destroy the cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to introduce specific and targeted changes to a specific DNA sequence. This process involves creating a new variant of a gene or a specific region of interest within a DNA molecule by introducing a planned, deliberate change, or mutation, at a predetermined site within the DNA sequence.

The methodology typically involves the use of molecular tools such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, and/or ligases to introduce the desired mutation(s) into a plasmid or other vector containing the target DNA sequence. The resulting modified DNA molecule can then be used to transform host cells, allowing for the production of large quantities of the mutated gene or protein for further study.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a valuable tool in basic research, drug discovery, and biotechnology applications where specific changes to a DNA sequence are required to understand gene function, investigate protein structure/function relationships, or engineer novel biological properties into existing genes or proteins.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

X-ray crystallography is a technique used in structural biology to determine the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In this method, a beam of X-rays is directed at a crystal and diffracts, or spreads out, into a pattern of spots called reflections. The intensity and angle of each reflection are measured and used to create an electron density map, which reveals the position and type of atoms in the crystal. This information can be used to determine the molecular structure of a compound, including its shape, size, and chemical bonds. X-ray crystallography is a powerful tool for understanding the structure and function of biological macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Vacuoles are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of most eukaryotic organisms. They are essentially fluid-filled sacs that store various substances, such as enzymes, waste products, and nutrients. In plants, vacuoles often contain water, ions, and various organic compounds, while in fungi, they may store lipids or pigments. Vacuoles can also play a role in maintaining the turgor pressure of cells, which is critical for cell shape and function.

In animal cells, vacuoles are typically smaller and less numerous than in plant cells. Animal cells have lysosomes, which are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes and break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign substances. Lysosomes can be considered a type of vacuole, but they are more specialized in their function.

Overall, vacuoles are essential for maintaining the health and functioning of cells by providing a means to store and dispose of various substances.

Radiometry is the measurement of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. It quantifies the amount and characteristics of radiant energy in terms of power or intensity, wavelength, direction, and polarization. In medical physics, radiometry is often used to measure therapeutic and diagnostic radiation beams used in various imaging techniques and cancer treatments such as X-rays, gamma rays, and ultraviolet or infrared light. Radiometric measurements are essential for ensuring the safe and effective use of these medical technologies.

"Paracoccus denitrificans" is not a medical term, but rather a term used in the field of microbiology. It refers to a species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are commonly found in soil and water environments. These bacteria are known for their ability to carry out denitrification, which is the process of converting nitrate (NO3-) to nitrogen gas (N2) under anaerobic conditions. This ability makes them important players in the global nitrogen cycle.

While "Paracoccus denitrificans" itself is not a medical term, certain strains of this bacterium have been used in medical research and biotechnology applications. For example, some researchers have studied the use of "Paracoccus denitrificans" as a potential agent for removing nitrogenous compounds from wastewater or for producing hydrogen gas through fermentation. However, there is no direct medical relevance to this bacterium in terms of human health or disease.

Oxygen consumption, also known as oxygen uptake, is the amount of oxygen that is consumed or utilized by the body during a specific period of time, usually measured in liters per minute (L/min). It is a common measurement used in exercise physiology and critical care medicine to assess an individual's aerobic metabolism and overall health status.

In clinical settings, oxygen consumption is often measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) to evaluate cardiovascular function, pulmonary function, and exercise capacity in patients with various medical conditions such as heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other respiratory or cardiac disorders.

During exercise, oxygen is consumed by the muscles to generate energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. The amount of oxygen consumed during exercise can provide important information about an individual's fitness level, exercise capacity, and overall health status. Additionally, measuring oxygen consumption can help healthcare providers assess the effectiveness of treatments and rehabilitation programs in patients with various medical conditions.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Proteolipids are a type of complex lipid-containing proteins that are insoluble in water and have a high content of hydrophobic amino acids. They are primarily found in the plasma membrane of cells, where they play important roles in maintaining the structural integrity and function of the membrane. Proteolipids are also found in various organelles, including mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.

Proteolipids are composed of a hydrophobic protein core that is tightly associated with a lipid bilayer through non-covalent interactions. The protein component of proteolipids typically contains several transmembrane domains that span the lipid bilayer, as well as hydrophilic regions that face the cytoplasm or the lumen of organelles.

Proteolipids have been implicated in various cellular processes, including signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and ion transport. They are also associated with several neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. The study of proteolipids is an active area of research in biochemistry and cell biology, with potential implications for the development of new therapies for neurological disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "solar activity" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Solar activity refers to the various phenomena that occur on the Sun, including solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and solar wind. These events involve the release of energy and charged particles from the Sun's atmosphere and can have effects on space weather and technological systems in near-Earth space. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

Bacterial Proton-Translocating ATPases are complex enzyme systems found in the membranes of bacteria that play a crucial role in energy generation for the cell. They are responsible for catalyzing the conversion of ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary form of energy currency in cells.

These enzymes function through a process called chemiosmosis, where they use the energy generated by the flow of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane to drive the synthesis of ATP. The protons are pumped out of the cell by another enzyme complex, creating a concentration gradient or proton motive force. The Bacterial Proton-Translocating ATPases then use this gradient to drive the reverse flow of protons back into the cell, which in turn provides the energy needed to convert ADP and phosphate into ATP.

These enzymes are essential for many bacterial processes, including motility, nutrient uptake, and the maintenance of membrane potential. They are also a target for some antibiotics, as inhibiting their function can disrupt the energy metabolism of bacteria and potentially lead to their death.

Liposomes are artificially prepared, small, spherical vesicles composed of one or more lipid bilayers that enclose an aqueous compartment. They can encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, making them useful for drug delivery applications in the medical field. The lipid bilayer structure of liposomes is similar to that of biological membranes, which allows them to merge with and deliver their contents into cells. This property makes liposomes a valuable tool in delivering drugs directly to targeted sites within the body, improving drug efficacy while minimizing side effects.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Inositol is not considered a true "vitamin" because it can be created by the body from glucose. However, it is an important nutrient and is sometimes referred to as vitamin B8. It is a type of sugar alcohol that is found in both animals and plants. Inositol is involved in various biological processes, including:

1. Signal transduction: Inositol phospholipids are key components of cell membranes and play a crucial role in intracellular signaling pathways. They act as secondary messengers in response to hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors.
2. Insulin sensitivity: Inositol and its derivatives, such as myo-inositol and D-chiro-inositol, are involved in insulin signal transduction. Abnormalities in inositol metabolism have been linked to insulin resistance and conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
3. Cerebral and ocular functions: Inositol is essential for the proper functioning of neurons and has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. It also plays a role in maintaining eye health.
4. Lipid metabolism: Inositol participates in the breakdown and transport of fats within the body.
5. Gene expression: Inositol and its derivatives are involved in regulating gene expression through epigenetic modifications.

Inositol can be found in various foods, including fruits, beans, grains, nuts, and vegetables. It is also available as a dietary supplement for those who wish to increase their intake.

A photon is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a fundamental concept in physics. Photons are elementary particles that carry electromagnetic energy, such as light. They have no mass or electric charge and exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties. In the context of medicine, photons are often discussed in relation to various medical imaging techniques (e.g., X-ray imaging, CT scans, and PET scans) and therapeutic interventions like laser therapy and radiation therapy, where photons are used to diagnose or treat medical conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Trityl compounds" are not a recognized medical term or concept in the field of medicine. Trityl groups or compounds are terms used in chemistry and biochemistry to refer to organic compounds that contain a trityl group (Ph3C=), where Ph represents a phenyl group (a benzene ring).

Trityl groups are often used as protecting groups in chemical reactions, particularly in the synthesis of complex carbohydrates, nucleotides, and other biomolecules. They can also be used in various applications such as radiopharmaceuticals for medical imaging. However, they do not have a specific medical definition or relevance on their own.

If you have any questions related to the chemistry or use of trityl compounds, I would recommend consulting a chemistry or biochemistry resource or expert.

List of particles Proton-proton chain Quark model Proton spin crisis Proton therapy "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass". The NIST ... However, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will ... "proton transfer". The acid is referred to as a proton donor and the base as a proton acceptor. Likewise, biochemical terms such ... Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons. Free protons of high ...
... is also responsible with the tuning and upgrade of certain Proton models, such as the Proton Satria, Proton Saga and ... After the formation of Proton R3 in Shah Alam, Selangor, it replaced Proton PERT in Proton's motorsport scene. Proton's new ... The Proton Saga R3 and Proton Iriz R3, launched in 2021, are limited editions of the original third generation Proton Saga and ... Proton R3 was established in 2003 as a division of Proton. It was originally formed as a successor to Proton's motorsport ...
"Proton to end production of Proton Savvy. For real?". AutoBuzz.my. 2011-06-29. Retrieved 2017-07-17. Proton Savvy Indonesia ... The Proton Savvy is a supermini hatchback produced by Malaysian carmaker Proton. The car was introduced in June 2005, as an ... "New Proton Savvy Lite - from RM33,549". Paul Tan's Automotive News. 2007-07-07. Retrieved 2017-07-17. "New Proton Saga Launch ... In March 2006, Proton introduced a "Savvy Zerokit" variant developed in conjunction with the Proton's motorsports division, R3 ...
"Proton Electronic Industrial Co Ltd - Company Profile and News". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2023-05-24. "FULL SOUND OF PROTON 320 ... Proton' moves up". taiwantoday.tw. Taiwan Today. Retrieved 14 May 2020. Wang, Lisa. "Proton in China television joint venture ... Proton Electronic Industrial Co., Ltd. (Chinese: 普騰電子工業股份有限公司) is a Taiwanese company founded in 1964. The company's line of ... Proton was founded in 1964 as a importer of hi-fi equipment. They moved into manufacturing in 1970 and OEM manufacturing in ...
... that received all the assets of Proton and called New Proton Bank. The new Good Bank also received the brand name Proton Bank ... Proton Bank (in Greek Proton Τράπεζα Α.Ε.) was a Greek bank that was established in 2001 and was taken over by the government ... "Proton Bank: Σε συζητήσεις με την Hapoalim" (in Greek). Capital.gr. 13 Dec 2007. "Στο 35% της Proton Bank "στοχεύει" η Hapoalim ... "Proton Bank: Ο κ. Λαυρέντιος Λαυρεντιάδης νέος πρόεδρος" (in Greek). Capital.gr. 7 Jan 2009. "Establishment of a new Proton ...
Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2) −5⁄6 in SU(5) GUT Dimension-6 proton decay mediated by the X boson (3,2 ... In particle physics, proton decay is a hypothetical form of particle decay in which the proton decays into lighter subatomic ... The proton decay hypothesis was first formulated by Andrei Sakharov in 1967. Despite significant experimental effort, proton ... Positron emission and electron capture - forms of radioactive decay which see a proton become a neutron - are not proton decay ...
Proton Beam Therapy Proton therapy - MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Proton Therapy What is Proton Therapy (Pages with non- ... In medicine, proton therapy, or proton radiotherapy, is a type of particle therapy that uses a beam of protons to irradiate ... "Best proton therapy centers - IBA proton therapy". iba-worldwide.com. Retrieved 2018-03-16. "Proton Therapy Jacksonville , ... "Australian Bragg Centre for Proton Therapy". Australian Bragg Centre for Proton Therapy. Spence, Andrew (10 June 2020). "Proton ...
Undertaken by Proton City Development Corp, a joint venture between DRB-HICOM and Proton itself. A core member of Proton ... The Proton plant has a workforce of more than 2,000 and most of them are expected to live in the area. When Proton City is ... Proton City (Malay: Bandar Proton) is a township with industrial, commercial and residential activities spread over 4,000 acres ... It houses the RM1.8 billion Proton car assembly plant. Proton City aims to be fully developed by 2020. ...
... , on the other hand, is not a measure of free energy. Proton affinities are quoted in kJ/mol, in increasing ... the gas-phase basicity includes entropic terms in contrast to the proton affinity. The higher the proton affinity, the stronger ... The proton affinity (PA, Epa) of an anion or of a neutral atom or molecule is the negative of the enthalpy change in the ... The term "proton acid" is used to distinguish these acids from Lewis acids. It is the gas-phase equivalent of the term Brønsted ...
Proton began development of their first MPV, then codenamed 'Proton RGW', in late 1999. It was based on the Mitsubishi Town Box ... The Proton Juara is a microvan/mini MPV produced by the Malaysian automobile manufacturer Proton between 2001 and 2004. It was ... and Mitsubishi would save on production costs if Proton were to re-engineer cars for them. Proton officially announced their ... The Juara also became the first Proton to feature Electric Power Steering (EPS). Safety wise, the Proton Juara came equipped ...
... (C90) (4-door) Proton Persona Aeroback (5-door) Proton Persona Compact (3-door) Proton Persona Coupé (2-door) ... The first generation Proton Persona (C90) refers to the export name given to the Proton Wira. The first use of the 'Proton ... The Proton Wira made its debut in the United Kingdom in November 1993, where it was sold as the 'Proton Persona'. The Persona ... The third generation Proton Persona (BH) was unveiled in August 2016. It is based on an extended Proton Iriz platform, and is ...
... is a nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus and one or more protons collide and merge to form a heavier ... Proton capture plays an important role in the cosmic nucleosynthesis of proton rich isotopes. In stars it can proceed in two ... Since protons have positive electric charge, they are repelled electrostatically by the positively charged nucleus. Therefore, ... it is more difficult for protons to enter the nucleus compared to neutrally charged neutrons. ...
Like most other Proton cars of its time, the Proton Wira did not offer any safety features other than the standard three-point ... The last Proton Wiras were produced in June 2009. Proton sold 14,908 units of the Wira in Malaysia for 2007, and a further ... In 2004, Proton Wira received a new grille, front bumper and alloy rims which is similar to Proton Arena. Also introduced was ... Export Proton Wiras used a different Proton badge compared to the badge found on Wiras for the Malaysian market. "AA car test ...
"Proton-Electrotex company was included in the list of top priority organizations in the Oryol region". en.proton-electrotex.com ... Proton-Electrotex has official certificate Made in Russia Proton-Electrotex company was included in the list of top priority ... "Proton-Electrotex Reached the Top-3 in the Ranking of Russian Companies in the Electronic Industry!". en.proton-electrotex.com ... "Proton-Electrotex, JSC became a nomination winner in the «TechUp-2019» rating". en.proton-electrotex.com. Retrieved 2020-12-18 ...
A proton pump is an integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane. Proton pumps ... driven proton pumps (also referred to as proton ATPases or H+ -ATPases) are proton pumps driven by the hydrolysis of adenosine ... Proton pump animation Proton+Pumps at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) (Articles with ... An example of a proton pump that is not electrogenic, is the proton/potassium pump of the gastric mucosa which catalyzes a ...
"PROTON - PROTON RELEASES OFFICIAL PICTURES OF FACELIFTED IRIZ". www.proton.com. Archived from the original on 2019-05-03. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Proton EMAS. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Proton Iriz. Proton Holdings Berhad ... On February 18, 2021, Proton released the Proton Iriz R3 limited edition. On August 5, 2021, Proton launched the second ... Proton and Lotus Cars wished to jointly develop the global small car, where the Proton versions will be aimed at the budget ...
The Proton was designed as a competition glider. The initial version was later replaced by the Proton GT in production. The GT ... Proton official website Proton GT official website (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Use ... Proton GT M Mid-sized model for medium-weight pilots. Its 12.53 m (41.1 ft) span wing has a wing area of 26.86 m2 (289.1 sq ft ... Proton M Mid-sized model for medium-weight pilots. Its 12.09 m (39.7 ft) span wing has a wing area of 25.58 m2 (275.3 sq ft), ...
The Proton Light 1st stage was planned with 4 main engines and external tanks to the 6 used by Proton Medium and Proton-M. The ... This was the 326th launch of a Proton, the 16th Proton-M/Briz-M launch, and the 41st Proton launch to be conducted by ILS. It ... On 19 October 2011, ViaSat-1 weighing 6740 kg was lifted into GTO by the Proton-M/Briz-M Phase III. Proton Light and Proton ... The first Proton-M launch occurred on 7 April 2001. Proton flew its most recent mission on 12 March 2023. As of August 2020, a ...
"Current Projects". OJSC Proton-PM. Retrieved 2015-07-21. "History". OJSC Proton-PM. Retrieved 2015-07-21. "Perm Motors Company ... "Production and industrial services". OJSC Proton-PM. Retrieved 2015-07-21. Proton-PM website (Articles with short description, ... OJSC Proton-PM (Russian: АО «Протон-ПМ») is a Russian engine and heavy machinery manufacturing plant. It is located in the city ... "Management". OJSC Proton-PM. Retrieved 2015-07-21. "Списки аффилированных лиц ПАО Протон-ПМ". Disclosure.ru. Retrieved 7 May ...
... (also known as Team Felbermayr-Proton) is a German auto racing team founded by Gerold Ried. The team is ... Proton Competition official website Wikimedia Commons has media related to Proton Competition. (Articles with short description ... Proton also operated an extra 911 GT3-RSR No. 88 in the Pro class, driven by Nick Tandy, Abdulaziz al-Faisal and Bryce Miller. ... Proton finished third in the championship with 52 points. The team went into the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans in two classes as ...
LST-1078 became Proton (AG-147) in January 1949. Returned to active status in February 1951, Proton underwent conversion to AKS ... USS Proton (AG-147/AKS-28) -- also known as USS LST-1078 - was an LST-542-class tank landing ship launched by the U.S. Navy ... Proton served as a troop ship, a cargo ship and as an electronic parts supply ship for the U.S. Pacific Fleet and was ... Arriving Naval Supply Center, Oakland, California, 22 December, Proton was placed out of commission, in reserve, 22 April 1958 ...
5,000+ Proton Waja (Impian) were exported to Iran to be used as taxis. The Proton Waja was exported to Pakistan as the Proton ... "Proton Waja MME and Proton GEN.2 MME". Paul Tan's Automotive News. 4 August 2006. Retrieved 2017-11-16. "Proton Waja MME and ... "PM unveils Proton Waja". New Straits Times. 2000-05-09. "Proton - About - Facts & Figures - Car Sales 1999-2003". proton.com. ... "Proton's Waja over-priced, under-powered". "Proton Impian Specifications - Technical Specifications". proton-impian.co.uk. ...
The Proton Jebat is a series of concept cars developed by Proton, a Malaysian automobile manufacturer, under the joint venture ... "Proton - Jebat Concept". All Car Index. 4 December 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2018. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Proton ... Proton Holdings Berhad v t e (Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Commons category link from ... The car is claimed to have a top speed of 232 km/h (144 mph). Proton Inspira Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution Mitsubishi Lancer " ...
In 2002, Proton introduced the Arena, a ute based on the Proton Wira platform and thus far the only Proton model to enjoy ... In 1994, Proton launched the three-door Proton Satria hatchback and the two-door Proton Putra coupé in 1996, both of which are ... All Proton cars launched between 1985 and 2000 with the exception of the Proton Tiara were based on Mitsubishi vehicles. Proton ... In 2005, Proton opened a showroom at Norwich City's Carrow Road stadium, featuring products from Proton and Proton-owned brands ...
"PROTON - Proton X70". www.proton.com. Retrieved 15 February 2020. "Proton X70 gets Asean NCAP 5-star rating". carsifu.my. 16 ... "Proton ends 2021 with third consecutive year of sales growth". www.proton.com. Retrieved 10 April 2022. "Proton X50, X70 and ... On May 31, 2022, Proton has shipped some X70 units to South Africa alongside the Proton X50 and Proton Saga. "Designing A New ... The Proton X70 is a compact crossover SUV produced by the Malaysian car maker Proton. Marketed as a C-segment SUV, the car was ...
Proton played the Big Day Out Festival in 2000. Live at Mojo's (2001) Here Beneath The Big Top (2000) Palmer, Sarah (25 August ... Proton is a "funk-disco-rock-hop" band from Perth. Members included Peter 'Buzzy' Miller, Tomas Shore, Jason McGann (John ...
"Proton Cars UK - History - Proton MPI (1989-1995)". proton.co.uk. Archived from the original on 29 May 2011. Retrieved 4 June ... "PROTON Holdings Berhad - History of Proton". corporate.proton.com. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 29 ... It is based on a stretched Proton Savvy platform and was developed in-house by Proton. The third generation Proton Saga was ... 1987-1990 Proton Saga (Magma) saloon 1990-1992 Proton Saga (Megavalve) Aeroback hatchback On 15 August 1992, the Proton Saga ...
A proton magnetometer, also known as a proton precession magnetometer (PPM), uses the principle of Earth's field nuclear ... causing some of the protons to align with that field. The current is then interrupted, and as protons realign themselves with ... Johnston, R. B., "Proton Magnetometry and its Application to Archaeology: An Evaluation at Angel Site", Indiana Historical ... The frequency of Earth's field NMR for protons varies between approximately 900 Hz near the equator to 4.2 kHz near the ...
In 2006, Proton Radio began its "On-Demand" service, allowing users access to its DJ mixes at any time. "Proton Radio first ... Proton Radio established a record label in 2004. Proton Music has featured releases from artists such as Digital Witchcraft, ... "PROTON RADIO GOES ON-DEMAND". 365mag. 2006-03-10. Archived from the original on 2006-10-20. Retrieved 2007-03-01. Proton Radio ... Proton Music's first release was a compilation in October 2004 titled The Sound mixed by resident DJ Lance Cashion. The label's ...
Proton Jebat Proton Lekiu Proton Iriz Paul Tan (2010-03-02). "Proton showcases the EMAS, EMAS Country and EMAS3 trio of ... Proton EMAS was planned to be Malaysia's and Proton's first global car and was expected to be in production by 2012. As of ... Proton EMAS is a range of concept cars designed by Italdesign Giugiaro and developed by Proton. It debuted at the 2010 Geneva ... "Quick Review: Proton EMAS Concept". Road & Track. 19 April 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2014. Proton Concepts v t e (Articles with ...
List of particles Proton-proton chain Quark model Proton spin crisis Proton therapy "2018 CODATA Value: proton mass". The NIST ... However, the character of such bound protons does not change, and they remain protons. A fast proton moving through matter will ... "proton transfer". The acid is referred to as a proton donor and the base as a proton acceptor. Likewise, biochemical terms such ... Free protons exist in plasmas in which temperatures are too high to allow them to combine with electrons. Free protons of high ...
Developers of the Time series of games; Time Wasters, Time Warpers, Time Clickers and Time Rifters.
Proton beam radiotherapy, one form of charged particle therapy, allows for excellent dose distributions, with the added benefit ... Protons are also used for treatment of paediatric malignancies at the Loma Linda University Proton Center, and the groups at ... Proton beam radiotherapy. The majority of patients receiving charged particle therapy have been treated with protons. As of ... Ongoing clinical trials of proton beam radiation therapy are in progress at the Northeast Proton Therapy Center (MGH) for ...
Like other types of radiation, proton therapy kills cancer cells and stops them from growing. ... Like other types of radiation, proton therapy kills cancer cells and stops them from growing. ... Proton therapy is a kind of radiation used to treat cancer. ... Proton therapy is a kind of radiation used to treat cancer. ... Proton beam therapy; Cancer - proton therapy; Radiation therapy - proton therapy; Prostate cancer - proton therapy ...
Proton Motive Force published in Encyclopedia of Astrobiology ... Proton Motive Force. Figure 1 Proton gradients and proton ... Proton motive force (PMF) is the force that promotes movement of protons across membranes downhill the electrochemical ... in the case of protons, is called proton motive force (PMF). This is measured in terms of the potential energy resulting from ... Abad, J.P. (2011). Proton Motive Force. In: Gargaud, M., et al. Encyclopedia of Astrobiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. ...
The PROTON is our wing for competitors. It is a high-performer with a big difference compared with many of the racing wings ... The PROTON has all the features you would expect of a high-performance wing as well as our extended brake travel which adds ... The Proton pilot is relaxed enough to maximise in thermals, to choose the efficient route, to arrive in goal having enjoyed ...
All on-sale Proton cars reviewed by the Autocar road test team, providing the most detailed car reviews in the world since 1895 ... Proton Satria Neo 2007-2012. The Proton Satria Neo is certainly the best car the company has ever built, but it is still ... Proton Savvy 2005-2012. The Proton Savvy is a cheap Fiesta-sized hatchback, but the compromise in quality isnt worth the ... Proton Gen-2 2004-2012. The Proton Gen-2 is a hugely disappointing effort, despite its low price ...
Protons power protein portal to push zinc out of cells. Date:. June 22, 2014. Source:. Johns Hopkins Medicine. Summary:. ... "Protons power protein portal to push zinc out of cells." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com. /. releases. /. 2014. /. 06. /. ... The protons want to flow "down" this gradient into the cell, like water following gravity down a waterfall, says Fu. Thus, when ... "When the protons move from a place of high concentration to low concentration, they generate a force like falling water does," ...
rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-2.el9.s390x.rpm. rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-2.el9.x86_64.html. Ruby language bindings for the Qpid ... rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-1.el8.s390x.rpm. rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-1.el8.x86_64.html. Ruby language bindings for the Qpid ... rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-5.fc38.s390x.rpm. rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-5.fc38.x86_64.html. Ruby language bindings for the Qpid ... rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-3.fc37.s390x.rpm. rubygem-qpid_proton-0.37.0-3.fc37.x86_64.html. Ruby language bindings for the Qpid ...
Proton beam therapy destroys tumor cells while sparing healthy brain tissue. ... Proton beam therapy destroys tumor cells while sparing healthy brain tissue.. Proton beam therapy uses energized particles to ... Proton beams can be targeted more precisely, allowing doctors to attack a tumor with high doses of radiation while preserving ... Proton beams can help minimize collateral damage to brain or other tissue by delivering precise radiation to the affected area. ...
... , a new feature that allows developers complement the standard infrastructure of Proton ... With Proton, customers can standardize centralized templates to meet security, cost, and compliance goals. Proton helps ... AWS Proton is a managed service for platform engineers to increase the pace of innovation by defining, vending, and maintaining ... Platform engineers use Proton to define the core infrastructure of their services and keep it consistent and updated across ...
A profile on GameFront.com
Live music with The Protons. KBOO is hiring a Development Director! Interested in learning about or applying for the position? ...
The risk for dementia before age 90 years was significantly higher among people with a history of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) ... Cite this: Proton Pump Inhibitors Linked to Increased Dementia Risk - Medscape - Oct 10, 2023. ...
They had chosen the simplest nucleus consisting of one neutron and one proton for the study. Through a unique neutron ... 19, 2018-A team of scientists has for the first time measured the elusive weak interaction between protons and neutrons in the ... Protons and neutrons are made of smaller particles called quarks that are bound together by the strong interaction, which is ... "There is a theory for the weak force between the quarks inside the proton and neutron, but the way that the strong force ...
Proton therapy is an advanced type of radiation therapy. Its an effective treatment for many childhood cancers. ... Why Is Proton Therapy Done?. Proton therapy (also called proton beam therapy) is most commonly used to shrink solid tumors that ... How Does Proton Therapy Work?. Proton therapy uses protons (positively charged particles) instead of X-rays. A special machine ... What Is Proton Therapy?. Proton therapy is an advanced type of radiation therapy used to treat some cancers. Its precise ...
What is proton therapy?. Proton therapy is an advanced form of radiation therapy that sends a powerful beam of protons to the ... Proton therapy is an advanced form of radiation therapy that sends a powerful beam of protons to the precise site of a tumor. ... Our Proton Therapy Center is the worlds first proton therapy facility to be located within a comprehensive cancer center. Our ... MD Andersons team of experts pioneered intensity modulated proton therapy (IMPT), also called pencil-beam scanning proton ...
ProTon welcomes everyone who enjoys singing together - even if you dont work at the research center. The choir consists of ...
New research suggests proton therapy might effectively treat esophageal cancer with less risk of damaging nearby organs. ... Proton therapy uses beams of protons to destroy cancer cells instead of X-rays. Proton therapy can potentially expose healthy ... Proton therapy is a type of radiation therapy that uses beams of protons instead of X-rays. Research suggests that it exposes ... Proton therapy is a type of radiation therapy that uses protons instead of X-rays. New research suggests it might effectively ...
CERN Document Server - Proton Synchrotron, PS
... Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2016 Jul;28(4):420-5. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000291. ... Purpose of review: The purpose of the review is to provide an update on recent advances in the evidence based on proton pump ...
The National Informal STEM Education Network (NISE Network) is a community of informal educators and scientists dedicated to supporting learning about science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) across the United States.. The NISE Network is supported by multiple sources of funding - learn more. Except where otherwise noted all materials are licensed under a Creative Commons license, as per the Use and Privacy statement and Legal Notice.. ...
... yet showcase the development of new innovative primary standard instrumentation that is underpinning enhanced proton ... yet showcase the development of new innovative primary standard instrumentation that is underpinning enhanced proton ...
Stephanie was diagnosed with a rare brain tumor and doctors suggested proton therapy for treatment over surgery or chemotherapy ... Proton therapy is an advanced type of radiation treatment that uses a beam of protons to irradiate - or deliver radiation - ... Stephanie rented an apartment in Houston and underwent proton therapy treatment at the MD Anderson Proton Therapy Center from ... "In Stephanies case, proton therapy offered the best way to target the radiation treatment directly to the tumor while ...
Proton sales continued to recover in March with 13,028 units sold, a 41.2% jump over the previous month, for a forecast market ... KUALA LUMPUR: Proton sales continued to recover in March with 13,028 units sold, a 41.2% jump over the previous month, for a ...
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  • Protons and neutrons, each with masses of approximately one atomic mass unit, are jointly referred to as "nucleons" (particles present in atomic nuclei). (wikipedia.org)
  • Although protons were originally considered to be elementary particles, in the modern Standard Model of particle physics, protons are now known to be composite particles, containing three valence quarks, and together with neutrons are now classified as hadrons. (wikipedia.org)
  • Protons and neutrons are both nucleons, which may be bound together by the nuclear force to form atomic nuclei. (wikipedia.org)
  • The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. (wikipedia.org)
  • All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. (wikipedia.org)
  • They measured a 30 parts per billion preference for gamma rays to be emitted antiparallel to the neutron spin when neutrons are captured by protons in liquid hydrogen. (ornl.gov)
  • Dec. 19, 2018-A team of scientists has for the first time measured the elusive weak interaction between protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. (ornl.gov)
  • Protons and neutrons are made of smaller particles called quarks that are bound together by the strong interaction, which is one of the four known forces of nature: strong force, electromagnetism, weak force and gravity. (ornl.gov)
  • the strong interaction confines quarks in neutrons and protons. (ornl.gov)
  • The weak force also connects the axial spin and direction of motion of the nuclear particles, revealing subtle aspects of how quarks move inside protons and neutrons. (ornl.gov)
  • When the manipulated neutrons smashed into the target, they interacted with the protons within the liquid hydrogen's atoms, sending out gamma rays that were measured by special sensors. (ornl.gov)
  • Alpha particles are charged particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons-essentially the nucleus of a helium atom. (medscape.com)
  • In this exhibition ping pong balls , iron balls and golf balls represents the electrons, protons and neutrons. (lu.se)
  • On a 100 square meter area has been built interactive experimental stations where ping pong balls, iron balls and golf balls represent electrons, protons and neutrons. (lu.se)
  • One gets the neutrons by what is known as spallation, which means that protons accelerate into the atom, which becomes unstable and releases the neutrons. (lu.se)
  • the nucleus of a helium atom, made up of two neutrons and two protons with a charge of +2. (cdc.gov)
  • the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. (cdc.gov)
  • Activation-- The process of making a material radioactive by bombardment with neutrons or protons. (cdc.gov)
  • It is identical to a helium nucleus, i.e., 2 neutrons and two protons, with a mass number of 4 and an electrostatic charge of +2. (cdc.gov)
  • An atom consists of one nucleus, made of protons and neutrons, and many smaller particles called electrons. (cdc.gov)
  • The neutrons neutralize this action and act as a kind of glue that holds the protons together in the nucleus. (cdc.gov)
  • The number of protons in an atom of a particular element is always the same, but the number of neutrons may vary. (cdc.gov)
  • Neutrons add to the weight of the atom, so an atom of cobalt that has 27 protons and 32 neutrons is called cobalt-59 because 27 plus 32 equals 59. (cdc.gov)
  • The technician will leave the room while you are having proton therapy. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proton beam therapy destroys tumor cells while sparing healthy brain tissue. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton beam therapy uses energized particles to aggressively treat brain tumors, instead of x-rays used in conventional radiation therapy. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Intensity Modulated Pencil Beam Scanning, the most advanced proton beam therapy, conforms to the shape of the tumor. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton therapy (also called proton beam therapy ) is most commonly used to shrink solid tumors that have not spread to other parts of the body. (kidshealth.org)
  • The Christie proton school is a partnership between the proton beam therapy centre at The Christie and The Christie School of Oncology. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • We have created the programme based on The Christie team's own experiences while developing the first high energy NHS proton beam therapy centre in the UK. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • We have developed the course programmes with a specialist faculty from the proton beam therapy centre at The Christie, including clinicians, scientists and project managers. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • The Christie proton school also offers a variety of bespoke observational opportunities (up to 2 weeks) and visiting proton fellowships (up to 1 year), based within our specialist teams at the proton beam therapy centre at The Christie. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • Hitachi got an order from the Mayo Clinic for two of its Proton Beam Therapy (PBT) systems. (medgadget.com)
  • The use of proton beam therapy is somewhat controversial, owing to its high cost. (medscape.com)
  • Recent research has expanded our understanding of the types of malignancies and clinical scenarios where proton beam therapy is most advantageous. (medscape.com)
  • Proton beam therapy offers a high degree of precision, allowing an escalated radiation dose to be targeted directly on a tumor while sparing the adjacent healthy tissue. (medscape.com)
  • Although not new, the use of proton beam therapy in medical settings has greatly increased during the past decade, but it remains controversial because of cost and also because there is little evidence as to how it compares with other forms of radiotherapy. (medscape.com)
  • There are currently 11 proton beam therapy centers in North America, and 13 more centers are in development. (medscape.com)
  • In the new model, ASTRO identifies two categories for the appropriate use of proton beam therapy. (medscape.com)
  • ASTRO Model Policies: Proton Beam Therapy (PBT) . (medscape.com)
  • Cite this: ASTRO Coverage Recommendations for Proton Beam Therapy - Medscape - Jul 20, 2017. (medscape.com)
  • Doctors can better aim proton beams onto a tumor, so there is less damage to the surrounding healthy tissue. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The radiation oncologist will use a computer to trace the tumor and outline the angles at which the proton beams will enter your body. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proton beams can be targeted more precisely, allowing doctors to attack a tumor with high doses of radiation while preserving the surrounding healthy tissue. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton beams can help minimize collateral damage to brain or other tissue by delivering precise radiation to the affected area. (mayoclinic.org)
  • How proton beams are created from water. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton therapy uses beams of protons to destroy cancer cells instead of X-rays. (healthline.com)
  • By sparing normal tissue from Flash irradiation with pulsed proton beams rather than electron beams, the research presents the opportunity to investigate how the FLASH "effect" scales with short pulses of ultra-high instantaneous dose rates at clinically significant depths, according to Rosenthal. (dotmed.com)
  • Bottom images: 3 proton beams enter the patient's brain from different angles. (chop.edu)
  • We designed a proton therapy plan that utilized 3 beams converging on the tumor target, each delivering a third of the needed dose. (chop.edu)
  • Using complex hardware and software," says Hill-Kayser, "we can make each proton beam stop exactly where we need it to - in Elena's case, we designed 3 beams to enter her brain from different angles and stop as soon as the tumor target had been treated. (chop.edu)
  • It will rotate around you and point the protons in the direction of the tumor. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Then the protons are removed from the machine and magnets direct them to the tumor. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proton Beam delivers high-dose radiation directly into the tumor, rendering the cancer cells unable to reproduce. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Protons are then sent down a channel into the treatment room and precisely delivered to the tumor. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton energy sends higher doses of radiation to the exact tumor site. (kidshealth.org)
  • Proton therapy is an advanced form of radiation therapy that sends a powerful beam of protons to the precise site of a tumor. (mdanderson.org)
  • Once the proton beam reaches the tumor, it conforms to its shape and depth, and only then releases its full energy. (mdanderson.org)
  • The diagnosis of a rare brain tumor led 30 year-old Stephanie Mullins to The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Proton Therapy Center, where she found hope and healing. (mdanderson.org)
  • Proton therapy is an advanced type of radiation treatment that uses a beam of protons to irradiate - or deliver radiation - directly to the tumor, destroying cancer cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissue and other critical areas or vital organs. (mdanderson.org)
  • In Stephanie's case, proton therapy offered the best way to target the radiation treatment directly to the tumor while minimizing damage to other areas of her brain," explained Stephanie's treating physician Dr. Anita Mahajan, medical director of the Proton Therapy Center and director of Clinical Pediatric Radiation Oncology at MD Anderson. (mdanderson.org)
  • Proton therapy delivers a more precise dose of radiation to a tumor and can avoid damage to healthy surrounding tissue better than conventional X-ray radiation. (newswise.com)
  • Proton therapy uses an aimed beam of protons directed at the tumor site. (newswise.com)
  • Proton therapy, which uses a highly precise beam to target radiation directly at a tumor site, is indicated for many different types of malignancies, but is mainly used for solid tumors. (chop.edu)
  • Hill-Kayser was confident Elena's tumor could be treated using only proton therapy, but reassured the family that CHOP has world-class pediatric neurosurgeons if that route was needed. (chop.edu)
  • Top left: Proton plan targeting the tumor. (chop.edu)
  • A machine called a synchrotron or cyclotron creates and speeds up the protons. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Protons from the atoms are sped up to 2/3 the speed of light through a synchrotron. (mayoclinic.org)
  • The unique design of Mevion's energy selection system allows, for the first time, the use the Bragg peak of the proton in the FLASH research," Skip Rosenthal, senior vice president of clinical relations, told HCB News. (dotmed.com)
  • A small 2022 study suggested that proton therapy might reduce heart and lung toxicity. (healthline.com)
  • In a small 2022 study, researchers looked at the combined use of proton therapy and chemotherapy for 17 people with esophageal cancer. (healthline.com)
  • The risk for dementia before age 90 years was significantly higher among people with a history of proton pump inhibitor (PPI) use and was highest among those diagnosed before age 70 years regardless of when PPI treatment was initiated. (medscape.com)
  • Cite this: Proton Pump Inhibitors Linked to Increased Dementia Risk - Medscape - Oct 10, 2023. (medscape.com)
  • Background: Interaction between proton pump inhibitors (PPI) and warfarin is controversial. (scirp.org)
  • Hungin, A.P., Rubin, G.P. and O'Flanagan, H. (1999) Co-Prescription of H2 Receptor Blockers and Proton Pump Inhibitors with Warfarin in General Practice. (scirp.org)
  • 2008) Proton Pump Inhibitors May Increase the Risk of Delayed Bleeding Complications after Open Heart Surgery If Used Concomitantly with Warfarin. (scirp.org)
  • 2011) Proton Pump Inhibitors and the Risk of Overanticoagulation during Acenocoumarol Maintenance Treatment. (scirp.org)
  • Millions of people around the world use proton pump inhibitors for conditions like heartburn, gastritis, and stomach ulcers. (genengnews.com)
  • Several pharmacoepidemiological studies indicate that proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) significantly increase the risk of dementia. (genengnews.com)
  • We've been able to show that proton pump inhibitors affect the synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which plays a significant part in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease," says Taher Darreh-Shori, PhD, senior researcher at the department of neurobiology, care sciences and society. (genengnews.com)
  • Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) work by blocking the pumps that transport acidic hydrogen ions from the cells that form the mucosa. (genengnews.com)
  • The agents used include antacids, H2 receptor antagonists, proton pump inhibitors, and prokinetic agents. (medscape.com)
  • Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) inhibit gastric acid secretion by inhibition of the H + /K + ATPase enzyme system in the gastric parietal cells. (medscape.com)
  • Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been the medications of choice in managing patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES). (medscape.com)
  • Corleto VD, Annibale B, Gibril F. Does the widespread use of proton pump inhibitors mask, complicate and/or delay the diagnosis of Zollinger-Ellison syndrome? (medscape.com)
  • Safe use of proton-pump inhibitors. (bvsalud.org)
  • Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are one of the most commonly prescribed drug groups in developed countries . (bvsalud.org)
  • Association Between Proton Pump Inhibitor Use and Risk of Progression of Chronic Kidney Disease. (janusinfo.se)
  • more unsolved problems in physics) Protons are spin-1/2 fermions and are composed of three valence quarks, making them baryons (a sub-type of hadrons). (wikipedia.org)
  • Proton therapy is not available at all cancer treatment centers because it uses very expensive specialized equipment. (kidshealth.org)
  • Proton therapy technology is expensive, and few centers have purchased the necessary equipment. (healthline.com)
  • Proton therapy still isn't widely available since only a few treatment centers have the necessary equipment. (healthline.com)
  • Demonstrating successful FLASH research on the most compact and affordable proton system will open research to a greater number of academic centers than otherwise possible. (dotmed.com)
  • There are 25 active proton therapy centers in the United States, most affiliated with major cancer centers. (newswise.com)
  • Concepts for the thermodynamically challenging synthesis of weak N-H bonds by photoinduced proton coupled electron transfer are explored. (rsc.org)
  • These high-energy protons can get rid of cancer cells, which makes tumors shrink. (kidshealth.org)
  • This innovative technology delivers a precise dose of protons to tumors embedded in hard-to-reach places. (mdanderson.org)
  • Proton therapy offers the opportunity to successfully treat pediatric tumors and minimize the risk for side effects later in life. (newswise.com)
  • Proton therapy uses protons (positively charged particles) instead of X-rays. (kidshealth.org)
  • Proton therapy is a type of radiation therapy that uses protons instead of X-rays. (healthline.com)
  • Unlike other types of radiation therapy that use radiation rays to destroy cancer cells, proton therapy uses a beam of special particles called protons. (medlineplus.gov)
  • One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom. (wikipedia.org)
  • The number of protons in the nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number (represented by the symbol Z). Since each element has a unique number of protons, each element has its own unique atomic number, which determines the number of atomic electrons and consequently the chemical characteristics of the element. (wikipedia.org)
  • The word proton is Greek for "first", and this name was given to the hydrogen nucleus by Ezegbudo Kenechukwu (Khae_GEE) in 1920. (wikipedia.org)
  • The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom (with the chemical symbol "H") is a lone proton. (wikipedia.org)
  • They had chosen the simplest nucleus consisting of one neutron and one proton for the study. (ornl.gov)
  • the total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. (cdc.gov)
  • The number of protons in the atom's nucleus determines which element it is. (cdc.gov)
  • Protons are composed of two up quarks of charge +2/3e and one down quark of charge −1/3e. (wikipedia.org)
  • Unsolved problem in physics: How do the quarks and gluons carry the spin of protons? (wikipedia.org)
  • The two up quarks and one down quark of a proton are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons. (wikipedia.org)
  • 21-22 A modern perspective has a proton composed of the valence quarks (up, up, down), the gluons, and transitory pairs of sea quarks. (wikipedia.org)
  • There is a theory for the weak force between the quarks inside the proton and neutron, but the way that the strong force between the quarks translates into the force between the proton and the neutron is not fully understood," said W. Michael Snow, co-author and professor of experimental nuclear physics at Indiana University. (ornl.gov)
  • In the present standard model of particle physics the proton is a stable bound state (of quarks ). (ncatlab.org)
  • Protons were therefore a candidate to be a fundamental or elementary particle, and hence a building block of nitrogen and all other heavier atomic nuclei. (wikipedia.org)
  • A fast proton moving through matter will slow by interactions with electrons and nuclei, until it is captured by the electron cloud of an atom. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because it causes less damage to healthy tissue, proton therapy is often used for cancers that are very close to critical parts of the body. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proton therapy can potentially expose healthy tissue to less radiation while effectively treating the cancer. (healthline.com)
  • In some cases, proton therapy may be useful in treating cancer that has metastasized, or spread into surrounding tissue, due to its focused dose advantages. (newswise.com)
  • File photo of a Proton rocket launching from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. (spaceflightnow.com)
  • A Russian Proton rocket rolled out to a launch pad at the Baikonur Cosmodrome on Sunday with a commercial communications satellite to broadcast high-definition television channels to millions of homes across Latin America. (spaceflightnow.com)
  • After firing away from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the Proton rocket will turn northeast riding more than 1.5 million pounds of thrust, accelerate through the speed of sound in about one minute and drop its six-engine first stage at about T+plus 2 minutes. (spaceflightnow.com)
  • Proton therapy is an advanced type of radiation therapy used to treat some cancers . (kidshealth.org)
  • Protons are easier to get to a specific location than the X-rays used in standard radiation therapy. (kidshealth.org)
  • How Is Proton Therapy Different From Radiation Therapy? (kidshealth.org)
  • Proton therapy is a type of radiation therapy that's under investigation for treating esophageal cancer. (healthline.com)
  • Despite the higher cost, relatively little research is available examining the survival rates of people who have received proton therapy compared with people who have received traditional radiation therapy. (healthline.com)
  • Proton therapy may make a good alternative to traditional radiation therapy for people who can afford and access the procedure. (healthline.com)
  • The UAB Proton Center will consist of a three-story building to house the proton therapy system, manufactured by Varian Medical Systems, a longtime partner with UAB in the delivery of radiation therapy. (newswise.com)
  • In a vacuum, when free electrons are present, a sufficiently slow proton may pick up a single free electron, becoming a neutral hydrogen atom, which is chemically a free radical. (wikipedia.org)
  • Knowing that the protein lets one hydrogen ion -- or proton -- into the cell for every zinc ion it sends out, the team suspected there was a hidden channel that opened up to allow the ions to switch places. (sciencedaily.com)
  • years , this translates to saying that on average at most one proton in 10 kilotons of protons (essentially 10 kilotons of hydrogen atoms ) decays per year . (ncatlab.org)
  • For example, an atom with one proton is hydrogen and an atom with 27 protons is cobalt. (cdc.gov)
  • In a small 2023 study , researchers found that proton therapy could be safe and effective for treating cancer that has spread to lymph nodes after surgery. (healthline.com)
  • In the small 2023 study mentioned above, researchers found 4 out of 11 people who received proton therapy for recurrent esophageal cancer had died, according to an average follow-up period of 20.2 months. (healthline.com)
  • MD Anderson's team of experts pioneered intensity modulated proton therapy (IMPT), also called pencil-beam scanning proton therapy. (mdanderson.org)
  • A significant advantage to the Proteus ONE™ development is its ability to leverage existing, proven IBA technology, including the Pencil Beam Scanning proton delivery method and advanced treatment planning software. (medgadget.com)
  • At sufficiently low temperatures and kinetic energies, free protons will bind to electrons. (wikipedia.org)
  • IN the centre of mass frame the kinetic energy of each proton is equal to its rest energy. (physicsforums.com)
  • Rates of electron-proton transfer within the H-bonded exciplexes are evaluated using the free energy correlation with donor's H-bonding acidity. (rsc.org)
  • The trial will utilize Varian's ProBeam proton particle accelerator modified with a specialized module with FLASH capabilities to treat 10 patients with bone metastases. (dotmed.com)
  • Proton beam radiotherapy, one form of charged particle therapy, allows for excellent dose distributions, with the added benefit of no exit dose. (nature.com)
  • Protons have a positive charge distribution, which decays approximately exponentially, with a root mean square charge radius of about 0.8 fm. (wikipedia.org)
  • Construction for both facilities is scheduled to commence later this year, and proton therapy patient treatment is expected to be offered in the summer of 2015 and spring 2016, respectively. (medgadget.com)
  • Wednesday's flight will be the 412th launch of a Proton rocket since 1965, and the third Proton mission of 2016. (spaceflightnow.com)
  • The family decided to travel to CHOP from Ohio for proton therapy in spring 2016. (chop.edu)
  • Our Proton Therapy Center is the world's first proton therapy facility to be located within a comprehensive cancer center. (mdanderson.org)
  • Proton International, one of the world's leading developers of proton radiation facilities, will build the UAB Proton Center on the current site of parking lot 55, at 20th Street and Fifth Avenue. (newswise.com)
  • For irradiation of a tumour, the proton beam energy and intensity are varied in order to achieve the desired dose over the tumour volume. (nature.com)
  • Proton therapy is a kind of radiation used to treat cancer. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Like other types of radiation, proton therapy kills cancer cells and stops them from growing. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Proton beam renders the cancer cells unable to reproduce. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Proton therapy is sometimes used along with other cancer treatments, such as standard radiation, chemotherapy , surgery, and immunotherapy . (kidshealth.org)
  • Because proton therapy targets cancer cells so precisely, it's an excellent treatment option for children with some types of cancer. (kidshealth.org)
  • Does Proton Therapy Treat Esophageal Cancer? (healthline.com)
  • What is proton therapy for esophageal cancer? (healthline.com)
  • There's still little research comparing the outcomes of people who undergo proton therapy for esophageal cancer with those who don't. (healthline.com)
  • What are the benefits of proton therapy for esophageal cancer? (healthline.com)
  • What are the disadvantages of proton therapy for esophageal cancer? (healthline.com)
  • Research examining the outcomes of using proton therapy for treating esophageal cancer is still in the early stages. (healthline.com)
  • Who should consider proton therapy for esophageal cancer? (healthline.com)
  • Newswise - BIRMINGHAM, Ala. - The University of Alabama at Birmingham will partner with Proton International to bring proton therapy, one of the most technically advanced forms of cancer-killing radiation, to Alabama. (newswise.com)
  • Proton therapy is an extremely advanced cancer-fighting radiation technology. (newswise.com)
  • Coupled with the skill, experience and resources of the UAB Comprehensive Cancer Center, the UAB Proton Therapy Center will be a life-changing resource for thousands of cancer patients throughout our region. (newswise.com)
  • Experts conservatively estimate that about 250,000 cancer patients in the United States alone could benefit from proton therapy. (newswise.com)
  • The Proteus ONE™ is an even smaller, more affordable Proton Therapy treatment room for cancer patients than the Proteus Nano®, a two-room treatment solution introduced by IBA Particle Therapy in the fall of 2009. (medgadget.com)
  • So go ahead and drum loose electrons in the cannon , compete for the best time in the linear accelerator , shoot protons in spallation experiment or tickle electrons in the storage ring! (lu.se)
  • Shoot protons & tickle electrons - an interactive exhibition about ESS & MAX IV (pdf 3.73 MB, new tab). (lu.se)
  • Visitors can drum loose electrons in the cannon, compete for the best time in the linear accelerator, pushing protons in the spallation experiment and tickle electrons in the storage ring. (lu.se)
  • more than one port may be required with protons if adequate skin sparing is to be achieved in patients being treated to high doses with only protons. (nature.com)
  • Stephanie rented an apartment in Houston and underwent proton therapy treatment at the MD Anderson Proton Therapy Center from March to April of 2009. (mdanderson.org)
  • article{1a5afff7-709d-459d-91a7-8e2a41a6d7af, abstract = {{Five prompt proton decay lines have been identified between deformed states in Cu-59 and three spherical states in Ni-58 by means of high-resolution in-beam particle-gammagamma coincidence spectroscopy. (lu.se)
  • Find answers to the most commonly asked questions about proton therapy. (mdanderson.org)
  • A single clinical proton field, in contrast to a single photon field, can achieve dose conformation to the target volume. (nature.com)
  • ASTRO's policy paper provides guidance to all insurers, including Medicare, Medicaid, and commercial payers, about the clinical indications that are appropriate for proton bean therapy and that should be covered. (medscape.com)
  • Volume-responsive sodium and proton movements in dog red blood cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Led by Dr Ed Smith and supported by Dr Cathy Heaven from The Christie School of Oncology, the proton school education programme is focused on service development and delivery. (christie.nhs.uk)
  • Mevion Medical Systems has shown progress in utilizing the FLASH effect in a preclinical trial involving its S250i proton accelerator, according to findings presented at the American Society for Radiation Oncology (ASTRO) Annual Meeting. (dotmed.com)
  • Proton therapy will allow us to treat deep-seeded cancers and minimize the radiation dose delivered to surrounding normal structures," said James A. Bonner, M.D., the Merle M. Salter Endowed Professor, Chairman of the UAB School of Medicine Department of Radiation Oncology and president of the University of Alabama Health Services Foundation. (newswise.com)
  • Recent advances in imaging have made proton therapy much more viable," said John Fiveash, M.D., professor in the UAB Department of Radiation Oncology. (newswise.com)
  • Proton therapy is particularly beneficial for children, as they are especially vulnerable to damage from radiation," said Alyssa Reddy, M.D., professor of hematology/oncology in the UAB Department of Pediatrics. (newswise.com)
  • Last week at the annual meeting of the American Society for Radiation Oncology, IBA Particle Therapy , a Florida subsidiary of IBA , a Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium firm, has unveiled a new, relatively more compact proton therapy system. (medgadget.com)
  • This allows doctors to use a higher dose of radiation with proton therapy than they can use with x-rays. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Scientists analyzed the gamma rays emitted during the NPDGamma Experiment and found parity-violating asymmetry, which is a specific change in behavior in the force between a neutron and a proton. (ornl.gov)
  • If doctors recommend proton therapy for your child, be sure to talk with your insurance provider to see what is covered. (kidshealth.org)
  • In June of 2017 ANOVOS was granted permission by Sony, Sony Archives, and Ghostcorp to mold and cast the original Dr. Spengler Hero Proton Pack (named this because of the "Spengler" annotation written on the back of the piece). (geekalerts.com)
  • Proton therapy is used to treat cancers that have not spread. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Lotus Cars has also floundered under Proton management since being acquired for 51 million pounds in 1996. (industryweek.com)
  • Powered by six RD-276 engines generating nearly 2.5 million pounds of thrust, the Proton rocket launched at 1509 GMT (11:09 a.m. (spaceflightnow.com)
  • But in some hypothetical extensions of the standard model, notably in many GUT models , the proton would be unstable, albeit with an extremely long decay time, and hence could decay (e.g. (ncatlab.org)
  • Proton also has a ready-made sales network in Malaysia that Geely could use to sell its cars. (industryweek.com)
  • I was quite unhappy with the new Firefox Proton design, so I made a CSS file and copied the following code from a website. (mozilla.org)
  • In general, a set of proton fields achieves significant dose reduction to uninvolved normal tissues compared to a matched set of photon fields. (nature.com)