Linear polymers in which orthophosphate residues are linked with energy-rich phosphoanhydride bonds. They are found in plants, animals, and microorganisms.
A group of compounds which consist of a nucleotide molecule to which an additional nucleoside is attached through the phosphate molecule(s). The nucleotide can contain any number of phosphates.
Phosphoric acid esters of inositol. They include mono- and polyphosphoric acid esters, with the exception of inositol hexaphosphate which is PHYTIC ACID.
A group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of diphosphate bonds in compounds such as nucleoside di- and tri-phosphates, and sulfonyl-containing anhydrides such as adenylylsulfate. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 3.6.
Complexing agent for removal of traces of heavy metal ions. It acts also as a hypocalcemic agent.
A group of enzymes that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group onto a phosphate group acceptor. EC 2.7.4.
A polyanionic compound with an unknown mechanism of action. It is used parenterally in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis and it has been used clinically with diethylcarbamazine to kill the adult Onchocerca. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p1643) It has also been shown to have potent antineoplastic properties.
Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of an adenine base attached to a ribose sugar and one, two, or three phosphate groups, including adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which play crucial roles in energy transfer and signaling processes within cells.
'Sugar phosphates' are organic compounds that consist of a sugar molecule linked to one or more phosphate groups, playing crucial roles in biochemical processes such as energy transfer and nucleic acid metabolism.
A group of enzymes within the class EC 3.6.1.- that catalyze the hydrolysis of diphosphate bonds, chiefly in nucleoside di- and triphosphates. They may liberate either a mono- or diphosphate. EC 3.6.1.-.
A phenothiazine that has been used as a hemostatic, a biological stain, and a dye for wool and silk. Tolonium chloride has also been used as a diagnostic aid for oral and gastric neoplasms and in the identification of the parathyroid gland in thyroid surgery.
Systems in which an intracellular signal is generated in response to an intercellular primary messenger such as a hormone or neurotransmitter. They are intermediate signals in cellular processes such as metabolism, secretion, contraction, phototransduction, and cell growth. Examples of second messenger systems are the adenyl cyclase-cyclic AMP system, the phosphatidylinositol diphosphate-inositol triphosphate system, and the cyclic GMP system.
A class of cell surface receptors for PURINES that prefer ATP or ADP over ADENOSINE. P2 purinergic receptors are widespread in the periphery and in the central and peripheral nervous system.
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
Compounds that bind to and activate PURINERGIC RECEPTORS.
Poly or pyrophosphates of tin. In conjunction with radioactive technetium these compounds are used as bone-scanning agents and in scintigraphy to diagnose myocardial and cerebral infarction.
Intracellular messenger formed by the action of phospholipase C on phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, which is one of the phospholipids that make up the cell membrane. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate is released into the cytoplasm where it releases calcium ions from internal stores within the cell's endoplasmic reticulum. These calcium ions stimulate the activity of B kinase or calmodulin.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid that contain two phosphate groups.
Compounds that bind to and block the stimulation of PURINERGIC P2 RECEPTORS.
Drugs that bind to and block the activation of PURINERGIC RECEPTORS.
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
An isomer of glucose that has traditionally been considered to be a B vitamin although it has an uncertain status as a vitamin and a deficiency syndrome has not been identified in man. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1379) Inositol phospholipids are important in signal transduction.
A genus of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria whose cells occur singly, in pairs or short chains, in V or Y configurations, or in clumps resembling letters of the Chinese alphabet. Its organisms are found in cheese and dairy products as well as on human skin and can occasionally cause soft tissue infections.
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
Guanosine 5'-triphosphate 2'(3')-diphosphate. A guanine nucleotide containing five phosphate groups. Three phosphate groups are esterified to the sugar moiety in the 5' position and the other two in the 2' or 3' position. This nucleotide serves as a messenger to turn off the synthesis of ribosomal RNA when amino acids are not available for protein synthesis. Synonym: magic spot II.
A group of enzymes that transfers a phosphate group onto an alcohol group acceptor. EC 2.7.1.
A group of hydrolases which catalyze the hydrolysis of monophosphoric esters with the production of one mole of orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.
Phosphatidylinositols in which one or more alcohol group of the inositol has been substituted with a phosphate group.
A characteristic feature of enzyme activity in relation to the kind of substrate on which the enzyme or catalytic molecule reacts.
Cell surface proteins that bind PURINES with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes which influence the behavior of cells. The best characterized classes of purinergic receptors in mammals are the P1 receptors, which prefer ADENOSINE, and the P2 receptors, which prefer ATP or ADP.
A subclass of purinergic P2 receptors that signal by means of a ligand-gated ion channel. They are comprised of three P2X subunits which can be identical (homotrimeric form) or dissimilar (heterotrimeric form).
The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Derivatives of phosphatidic acids in which the phosphoric acid is bound in ester linkage to the hexahydroxy alcohol, myo-inositol. Complete hydrolysis yields 1 mole of glycerol, phosphoric acid, myo-inositol, and 2 moles of fatty acids.
A subclass of purinergic P2Y receptors that have a preference for ATP and UTP. The activated P2Y2 receptor acts through a G-PROTEIN-coupled PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL and intracellular CALCIUM SIGNALING pathway.
An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of polyadenylic acid from ATP. May be due to the action of RNA polymerase (EC 2.7.7.6) or polynucleotide adenylyltransferase (EC 2.7.7.19). EC 2.7.7.19.
Guanosine 5'-diphosphate 2'(3')-diphosphate. A guanine nucleotide containing four phosphate groups. Two phosphate groups are esterified to the sugar moiety in the 5' position and the other two in the 2' or 3' position. This nucleotide serves as a messenger to turn off the synthesis of ribosomal RNA when amino acids are not available for protein synthesis. Synonym: magic spot I.
Adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety in the 2'-, 3'-, or 5'-position.
Process by which organic tissue becomes hardened by the physiologic deposit of calcium salts.
A nucleoside that is composed of ADENINE and D-RIBOSE. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter.
Purine bases found in body tissues and fluids and in some plants.
Skeletal muscle relaxant that acts by interfering with excitation-contraction coupling in the muscle fiber. It is used in spasticity and other neuromuscular abnormalities. Although the mechanism of action is probably not central, dantrolene is usually grouped with the central muscle relaxants.
Pinched-off nerve endings and their contents of vesicles and cytoplasm together with the attached subsynaptic area of the membrane of the post-synaptic cell. They are largely artificial structures produced by fractionation after selective centrifugation of nervous tissue homogenates.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. (From King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Guanine nucleotides are cyclic or linear molecules that consist of a guanine base, a pentose sugar (ribose in the cyclic form, deoxyribose in the linear form), and one or more phosphate groups, playing crucial roles in signal transduction, protein synthesis, and regulation of enzymatic activities.
Drugs used to cause constriction of the blood vessels.
Compounds that bind to and block the stimulation of PURINERGIC P1 RECEPTORS.
Adenosine 5'-(trihydrogen diphosphate). An adenine nucleotide containing two phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety at the 5'-position.
This is the active form of VITAMIN B 6 serving as a coenzyme for synthesis of amino acids, neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine), sphingolipids, aminolevulinic acid. During transamination of amino acids, pyridoxal phosphate is transiently converted into pyridoxamine phosphate (PYRIDOXAMINE).
Positively charged atoms, radicals or groups of atoms with a valence of plus 2, which travel to the cathode or negative pole during electrolysis.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
An element in the alkali metals family. It has the atomic symbol Li, atomic number 3, and atomic weight [6.938; 6.997]. Salts of lithium are used in treating BIPOLAR DISORDER.
A subclass of phospholipases that hydrolyze the phosphoester bond found in the third position of GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS. Although the singular term phospholipase C specifically refers to an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE (EC 3.1.4.3), it is commonly used in the literature to refer to broad variety of enzymes that specifically catalyze the hydrolysis of PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOLS.
A class of cell surface receptors that prefer ADENOSINE to other endogenous PURINES. Purinergic P1 receptors are widespread in the body including the cardiovascular, respiratory, immune, and nervous systems. There are at least two pharmacologically distinguishable types (A1 and A2, or Ri and Ra).
A rather large group of enzymes comprising not only those transferring phosphate but also diphosphate, nucleotidyl residues, and others. These have also been subdivided according to the acceptor group. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.
The facilitation of a chemical reaction by material (catalyst) that is not consumed by the reaction.
The mineral component of bones and teeth; it has been used therapeutically as a prosthetic aid and in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis.
Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen (specifically, hydrogen-3) that contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it radioactive with a half-life of about 12.3 years, and is used in various applications including nuclear research, illumination, and dating techniques due to its low energy beta decay.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.
Condensed areas of cellular material that may be bounded by a membrane.

Incorporation of 32Pi into nucleotides, polyphosphates, and other acid-soluble compounds by Myxococcus xanthus during myxospore formation. (1/438)

When glycerol was used to induce myxospore formation in Myxococcu xanthus in the presence of 32Pi, the label was incorporated into a variety of acid-soluble compounds. Incorporation into ribonucleotides was approximately fivefold greater than in vegetative cells or noninducible mutants grown in glycerol. The label was also incorporated into some unknown compounds and material tentatively identified as guanosine tetraphosphate. Marked accumulation into polyphosphates, which were present mainly in culture supernatants, occurred relatively late during myxospore formation. The kinetics of accumulation of some of these compounds and their distribution into acid-soluble cell extracts and culture supernatants are described and compared with those in vegetative cells and noninducible mutants.  (+info)

Long-chain polyphosphate causes cell lysis and inhibits Bacillus cereus septum formation, which is dependent on divalent cations. (2/438)

We investigated the cellular mechanisms that led to growth inhibition, morphological changes, and lysis of Bacillus cereus WSBC 10030 when it was challenged with a long-chain polyphosphate (polyP). At a concentration of 0.1% or higher, polyP had a bacteriocidal effect on log-phase cells, in which it induced rapid lysis and reductions in viable cell counts of up to 3 log units. The cellular debris consisted of empty cell wall cylinders and polar caps, suggesting that polyP-induced lysis was spatially specific. This activity was strictly dependent on active growth and cell division, since polyP failed to induce lysis in cells treated with chloramphenicol and in stationary-phase cells, which were, however, bacteriostatically inhibited by polyP. Similar observations were made with B. cereus spores; 0.1% polyP inhibited spore germination and outgrowth, and a higher concentration (1.0%) was even sporocidal. Supplemental divalent metal ions (Mg(2+) and Ca(2+)) could almost completely block and reverse the antimicrobial activity of polyP; i. e., they could immediately stop lysis and reinitiate rapid cell division and multiplication. Interestingly, a sublethal polyP concentration (0.05%) led to the formation of elongated cells (average length, 70 microm) after 4 h of incubation. While DNA replication and chromosome segregation were undisturbed, electron microscopy revealed a complete lack of septum formation within the filaments. Exposure to divalent cations resulted in instantaneous formation and growth of ring-shaped edges of invaginating septal walls. After approximately 30 min, septation was complete, and cell division resumed. We frequently observed a minicell-like phenotype and other septation defects, which were probably due to hyperdivision activity after cation supplementation. We propose that polyP may have an effect on the ubiquitous bacterial cell division protein FtsZ, whose GTPase activity is known to be strictly dependent on divalent metal ions. It is tempting to speculate that polyP, because of its metal ion-chelating nature, indirectly blocks the dynamic formation (polymerization) of the Z ring, which would explain the aseptate phenotype.  (+info)

Plasmid DNA size does not affect the physicochemical properties of lipoplexes but modulates gene transfer efficiency. (3/438)

Clinical applications of gene therapy mainly depend on the development of efficient gene transfer vectors. Large DNA molecules can only be transfected into cells by using synthetic vectors such as cationic lipids and polymers. The present investigation was therefore designed to explore the physicochemical properties of cationic lipid-DNA particles, with plasmids ranging from 900 to 52 500 bp. The colloidal stability of the lipoplexes formed by complexing lipopolyamine micelles with plasmid DNA of various lengths, depending on the charge ratio, resulted in the formation of three domains, respectively corresponding to negatively, neutrally and positively charged lipoplexes. Lipoplex morphology and structure were determined by the physicochemical characteristics of the DNA and of the cationic lipid. Thus, the lamellar spacing of the structure was determined by the cationic lipid and its spherical morphology by the DNA. The main result of this study was that the morphological and structural features of the lipopolyamine-DNA complexes did not depend on plasmid DNA length. On the other hand, their gene transfer capacity was affected by the size of plasmid DNA molecules which were sandwiched between the lipid bilayers. The most effective lipopolyamine-DNA complexes for gene transfer were those containing the shortest plasmid DNA.  (+info)

The bifunctional active site of s-adenosylmethionine synthetase. Roles of the active site aspartates. (4/438)

S-Adenosylmethionine (AdoMet) synthetase catalyzes the biosynthesis of AdoMet in a unique enzymatic reaction. Initially the sulfur of methionine displaces the intact tripolyphosphate chain (PPP(i)) from ATP, and subsequently PPP(i) is hydrolyzed to PP(i) and P(i) before product release. The crystal structure of Escherichia coli AdoMet synthetase shows that the active site contains four aspartate residues. Aspartate residues Asp-16* and Asp-271 individually provide the sole protein ligand to one of the two required Mg(2+) ions (* denotes a residue from a second subunit); aspartates Asp-118 and Asp-238* are proposed to interact with methionine. Each aspartate has been changed to an uncharged asparagine, and the metal binding residues were also changed to alanine, to assess the roles of charge and ligation ability on catalytic efficiency. The resultant enzyme variants all structurally resemble the wild type enzyme as indicated by circular dichroism spectra and are tetramers. However, all have k(cat) reductions of approximately 10(3)-fold in AdoMet synthesis, whereas the MgATP and methionine K(m) values change by less than 3- and 8-fold, respectively. In the partial reaction of PPP(i) hydrolysis, mutants of the Mg(2+) binding residues have >700-fold reduced catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)), whereas the D118N and D238*N mutants are impaired less than 35-fold. The catalytic efficiency for PPP(i) hydrolysis by Mg(2+) site mutants is improved by AdoMet, like the wild type enzyme. In contrast AdoMet reduces the catalytic efficiency for PPP(i) hydrolysis by the D118N and D238*N mutants, indicating that the events involved in AdoMet activation are hindered in these methionyl binding site mutants. Ca(2+) uniquely activates the D271A mutant enzyme to 15% of the level of Mg(2+), in contrast to the approximately 1% Ca(2+) activation of the wild type enzyme. This indicates that the Asp-271 side chain size is a discriminator between the activating ability of Ca(2+) and the smaller Mg(2+).  (+info)

Polyphosphates in intraradical and extraradical hyphae of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, Gigaspora margarita. (5/438)

The amount of polyphosphate in the intraradical and extraradical hyphae of Gigaspora margarita was estimated from successive extractions with trichloroacetic acid (TCA), EDTA, and phenol-chloroform (PC). In the intraradical hyphae, most of the polyphosphate was present in TCA- and EDTA-soluble (short-chain and long-chain) fractions, whereas most of the polyphosphate in the extraradical hyphae was present in EDTA- and PC-soluble (long-chain and granular) fractions.  (+info)

Aerosolization of P2Y(2)-receptor agonists enhances mucociliary clearance in sheep. (6/438)

The purpose of this study was to determine whether aerosolized INS316 (UTP) stimulates lung mucociliary clearance (MCC) in sheep and, if so, to compare its effects with INS365, a novel P2Y(2)-receptor agonist. In the first series of studies, we used a previously described roentgenographic technique to measure tracheal mucus velocity (TMV), an index of MCC, before and for 4 h after aerosolization of INS316 (10(-1) M and 10(-2) M) and INS365 (10(-1) M and 10(-2) M), or normal saline in a randomized crossover fashion (n = 6). In a second series of studies, we compared the ability of these agents to enhance total lung clearance. For these tests, the clearance of inhaled technetium-labeled human serum albumin was measured serially over a 2-h period after aerosolization of 10(-1) M concentration of each agent (n = 7). Aerosolization of both P2Y(2)-receptor agonists induced significant dose-related increases in TMV (P < 0.05) compared with saline. The greatest increase in TMV was observed between 15 and 30 min after drug treatment. The highest dose (10(-1) M) of INS316 produced a greater overall stimulation of TMV than did INS365 (10(-1) M). Both compounds, compared with saline, induced a significant increase in MCC (P < 0.05) within 20 min of treatment. This enhancement in MCC began to plateau at 60 min. Although the response to INS316 started earlier, there was no significant difference between the clearance curves for the two compounds. We conclude that inhaled P2Y(2)-receptor agonists can increase lung MCC in sheep and that for P2Y(2)-receptor stimulation TMV accurately reflects changes in whole lung MCC.  (+info)

Inorganic polyphosphate is required for motility of bacterial pathogens. (7/438)

The ppk gene encodes polyphosphate kinase (PPK), the principal enzyme in many bacteria responsible for the synthesis of inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) from ATP. A null mutation in the ppk gene of six bacterial pathogens renders them greatly impaired in motility on semisolid agar plates; this defect can be corrected by the introduction of ppk gene in trans. In view of the fact that the motility of pathogens is essential to invade and establish systemic infections in host cells, this impairment in motility suggests a crucial and essential role of PPK or polyP in bacterial pathogenesis.  (+info)

The multiple activities of polyphosphate kinase of Escherichia coli and their subunit structure determined by radiation target analysis. (8/438)

Polyphosphate kinase (PPK), the principal enzyme required for the synthesis of inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) from ATP, also exhibits other enzymatic activities, which differ significantly in their biochemical optima and responses to chemical agents. These several activities include: polyP synthesis (forward reaction), nATP --> polyP(n) + nADP (Equation 1); ATP synthesis from polyP (reverse reaction), ADP + polyP(n) --> ATP + polyP(n - 1) (Equation 2); general nucleoside-diphosphate kinase, GDP + polyP(n) --> GTP + polyP(n - 1) (Equation 3); linear guanosine 5'-tetraphosphate (ppppG) synthesis, GDP + polyP(n) --> ppppG + polyP(n - 2) (Equation 4); and autophosphorylation, PPK + ATP --> PPK-P + ADP (Equation 5). The Mg(2+) optima are 5, 2, 1, and 0.2 mM, respectively, for the activities in Equations 1, 2, 3, and 4. Inorganic pyrophosphate inhibits the activities in Equations 1 and 3 but stimulates that in Equation 4. The kinetics of the activities in Equations 1, 2, and 3 are highly processive, whereas the transfer of a pyrophosphoryl group from polyP to GDP (Equation 4) is distributive and demonstrates a rapid equilibrium, random Bi-Bi catalytic mechanism. Radiation target analysis revealed that the principal functional unit of the homotetrameric PPK is a dimer. Exceptions are a trimer for the synthesis of ppppG (Equation 4) and a tetrameric state for the autophosphorylation of PPK (Equation 5) at low ATP concentrations. Thus, the diverse functions of this enzyme involve different subunit organizations and conformations. The highly conserved homology of PPK among 18 microorganisms was used to determine important residues and conserved regions by alanine substitution, by site-directed mutagenesis, and by deletion mutagenesis. Of 46 single-site mutants, seven exhibit none of the five enzymatic activities; in one mutant, ATP synthesis from polyP is reduced relative to GTP synthesis. Among deletion mutants, some lost all five PPK activities, but others retained partial activity for some reactions but not for others.  (+info)

Polyphosphates are compounds consisting of many phosphate groups linked together in the form of chains or rings. They are often used in various medical and healthcare applications, such as:

* Dental care products: Polyphosphates can help prevent the formation of dental plaque and calculus by binding to calcium ions in saliva and inhibiting the growth of bacteria that cause tooth decay.
* Nutritional supplements: Polyphosphates are sometimes used as a source of phosphorus in nutritional supplements, particularly for people who have kidney disease or other medical conditions that require them to limit their intake of phosphorus from food sources.
* Medical devices: Polyphosphates may be used in the manufacture of medical devices, such as contact lenses and catheters, to improve their biocompatibility and resistance to bacterial growth.

It's worth noting that while polyphosphates have various medical uses, they can also be found in many non-medical products, such as food additives, water treatment chemicals, and cleaning agents.

Dinucleoside phosphates are the chemical compounds that result from the linkage of two nucleosides through a phosphate group. Nucleosides themselves consist of a sugar molecule (ribose or deoxyribose) and a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil). When two nucleosides are joined together by an ester bond between the phosphate group and the 5'-hydroxyl group of the sugar moiety, they form a dinucleoside phosphate.

These compounds play crucial roles in various biological processes, particularly in the context of DNA and RNA synthesis and repair. For instance, dinucleoside phosphates serve as building blocks for the formation of longer nucleic acid chains during replication and transcription. They are also involved in signaling pathways and energy transfer within cells.

It is worth noting that the term "dinucleotides" is sometimes used interchangeably with dinucleoside phosphates, although technically, dinucleotides refer to compounds formed by joining two nucleotides (nucleosides plus one or more phosphate groups) rather than just two nucleosides.

Inositol phosphates are a family of molecules that consist of an inositol ring, which is a six-carbon heterocyclic compound, linked to one or more phosphate groups. These molecules play important roles as intracellular signaling intermediates and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism.

Inositol hexakisphosphate (IP6), also known as phytic acid, is a form of inositol phosphate that is found in plant-based foods. IP6 has the ability to bind to minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and iron, which can reduce their bioavailability in the body.

Inositol phosphates have been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders. For example, altered levels of certain inositol phosphates have been observed in cancer cells, suggesting that they may play a role in tumor growth and progression. Additionally, mutations in enzymes involved in the metabolism of inositol phosphates have been associated with several genetic diseases.

Acid anhydride hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis (breakdown) of acid anhydrides, which are chemical compounds formed by the reaction between two carboxylic acids. This reaction results in the formation of a molecule of water and the release of a new carboxylic acid.

Acid anhydride hydrolases play important roles in various biological processes, including the metabolism of lipids, carbohydrates, and amino acids. They are also involved in the regulation of intracellular pH and the detoxification of xenobiotics (foreign substances).

Examples of acid anhydride hydrolases include esterases, lipases, and phosphatases. These enzymes have different substrate specificities and catalytic mechanisms, but they all share the ability to hydrolyze acid anhydrides.

The term "acid anhydride hydrolase" is often used interchangeably with "esterase," although not all esterases are capable of hydrolyzing acid anhydrides.

Phytic acid, also known as phytate in its salt form, is a natural substance found in plant-based foods such as grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds. It's a storage form of phosphorus for the plant and is often referred to as an "anti-nutrient" because it can bind to certain minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract and prevent their absorption. This can potentially lead to mineral deficiencies if a diet is consistently high in phytic acid-rich foods and low in mineral-rich foods. However, it's important to note that phytic acid also has antioxidant properties and may have health benefits when consumed as part of a balanced diet.

The bioavailability of minerals from phytic acid-rich foods can be improved through various methods such as soaking, sprouting, fermenting, or cooking, which can help break down some of the phytic acid and release the bound minerals.

Suramin is a medication that has been used for the treatment of African sleeping sickness, which is caused by trypanosomes. It works as a reverse-specific protein kinase CK inhibitor and also blocks the attachment of the parasite to the host cells. Suramin is not absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract and is administered intravenously.

It should be noted that Suramin is an experimental treatment for other conditions such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, viral infections and autoimmune diseases, but it's still under investigation and has not been approved by FDA for those uses.

Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of a nitrogenous base called adenine, which is linked to a sugar molecule (ribose in the case of adenosine monophosphate or AMP, and deoxyribose in the case of adenosine diphosphate or ADP and adenosine triphosphate or ATP) and one, two, or three phosphate groups. These molecules play a crucial role in energy transfer and metabolism within cells.

AMP contains one phosphate group, while ADP contains two phosphate groups, and ATP contains three phosphate groups. When a phosphate group is removed from ATP, energy is released, which can be used to power various cellular processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. The reverse reaction, in which a phosphate group is added back to ADP or AMP to form ATP, requires energy input and often involves the breakdown of nutrients such as glucose or fatty acids.

In addition to their role in energy metabolism, adenine nucleotides also serve as precursors for other important molecules, including DNA and RNA, coenzymes, and signaling molecules.

Sugar phosphates are organic compounds that play crucial roles in various biological processes, particularly in the field of genetics and molecular biology. They are formed by the attachment of a phosphate group to a sugar molecule, most commonly to the 5-carbon sugar ribose or deoxyribose.

In genetics, sugar phosphates form the backbone of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. In DNA, the sugar phosphate backbone consists of alternating deoxyribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, linked together by covalent bonds between the 5' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 3' carbon atom of another sugar molecule. This forms a long, twisted ladder-like structure known as a double helix.

Similarly, in RNA, the sugar phosphate backbone is formed by ribose (a sugar) and phosphate groups, creating a single-stranded structure that can fold back on itself to form complex shapes. These sugar phosphate backbones provide structural support for the nucleic acids and help to protect the genetic information stored within them.

Sugar phosphates also play important roles in energy metabolism, as they are involved in the formation and breakdown of high-energy compounds such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and GTP (guanosine triphosphate). These molecules serve as energy currency for cells, storing and releasing energy as needed to power various cellular processes.

Pyrophosphatases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis or cleavage of pyrophosphate (PPi) into two inorganic phosphate (Pi) molecules. This reaction is essential for many biochemical processes, such as energy metabolism and biosynthesis pathways, where pyrophosphate is generated as a byproduct. By removing the pyrophosphate, pyrophosphatases help drive these reactions forward and maintain the thermodynamic equilibrium.

There are several types of pyrophosphatases found in various organisms and cellular compartments, including:

1. Inorganic Pyrophosphatase (PPiase): This enzyme is widely distributed across all kingdoms of life and is responsible for hydrolyzing inorganic pyrophosphate into two phosphates. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the cellular energy balance by ensuring that the reverse reaction, the formation of pyrophosphate from two phosphates, does not occur spontaneously.
2. Nucleotide Pyrophosphatases: These enzymes hydrolyze the pyrophosphate bond in nucleoside triphosphates (NTPs) and deoxynucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), converting them into nucleoside monophosphates (NMPs) or deoxynucleoside monophosphates (dNMPs). This reaction is important for regulating the levels of NTPs and dNTPs in cells, which are necessary for DNA and RNA synthesis.
3. ATPases and GTPases: These enzymes belong to a larger family of P-loop NTPases that use the energy released from pyrophosphate bond hydrolysis to perform mechanical work or transport ions across membranes. Examples include the F1F0-ATP synthase, which synthesizes ATP using a proton gradient, and various molecular motors like myosin, kinesin, and dynein, which move along cytoskeletal filaments.

Overall, pyrophosphatases are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis by regulating the levels of nucleotides and providing energy for various cellular processes.

Tolonium Chloride, also known as Toluidine Blue O, is a basic thiazine metachromatic dye that is used in medical and research settings. It is often used as a diagnostic agent in procedures such as the Toluidine Blue Test for identifying cancerous or precancerous cells in the cervix, oral mucosa, and other tissues. The dye selectively binds to acidic components in the extracellular matrix of neoplastic cells, making them more visible under a microscope. It is also used in research to study cell membrane permeability and lysosomal function. Please note that the use of Tolonium Chloride should be under medical supervision and professional guidance.

Second messenger systems are a type of intracellular signaling pathway that allows cells to respond to external signals, such as hormones and neurotransmitters. When an extracellular signal binds to a specific receptor on the cell membrane, it activates a G-protein or an enzyme associated with the receptor. This activation leads to the production of a second messenger molecule inside the cell, which then propagates the signal and triggers various intracellular responses.

Examples of second messengers include cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), inositol trisphosphate (IP3), diacylglycerol (DAG), and calcium ions (Ca2+). These second messengers activate or inhibit various downstream effectors, such as protein kinases, ion channels, and gene transcription factors, leading to changes in cellular functions, such as metabolism, gene expression, cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis.

Second messenger systems play crucial roles in many physiological processes, including sensory perception, neurotransmission, hormonal regulation, immune response, and development. Dysregulation of these systems can contribute to various diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.

Purinergic P2 receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to purine nucleotides and nucleosides, such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and ADP (adenosine diphosphate), and mediate various physiological responses. These receptors are divided into two main families: P2X and P2Y.

P2X receptors are ionotropic receptors, meaning they form ion channels that allow the flow of ions across the cell membrane upon activation. There are seven subtypes of P2X receptors (P2X1-7), each with distinct functional and pharmacological properties.

P2Y receptors, on the other hand, are metabotropic receptors, meaning they activate intracellular signaling pathways through G proteins. There are eight subtypes of P2Y receptors (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14), each with different G protein coupling specificities and downstream signaling pathways.

Purinergic P2 receptors are widely expressed in various tissues, including the nervous system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, and immune system. They play important roles in regulating physiological functions such as neurotransmission, vasodilation, platelet aggregation, smooth muscle contraction, and inflammation. Dysregulation of purinergic P2 receptors has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including pain, ischemia, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and cancer.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

Purinergic agonists are substances that bind to and activate purinergic receptors, which are a type of cell surface receptor found in many tissues throughout the body. These receptors are activated by endogenous molecules called purines, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and uridine triphosphate (UTP), as well as their breakdown products such as adenosine.

Purinergic agonists can have a variety of effects on different tissues, depending on the type of purinergic receptor that they activate. For example, ATP acting as a purinergic agonist can cause smooth muscle contraction, increase heart rate and blood pressure, and modulate neurotransmission in the brain.

Purinergic agonists are used in research to study the functions of purinergic receptors and their roles in various physiological processes. They also have potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases, pain, and neurological disorders. However, it is important to note that the use of purinergic agonists as drugs must be carefully studied and regulated due to their potential for adverse effects.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tin Polyphosphates" is not a recognized medical term or concept. It appears to be a chemical compound, specifically a polyphosphate complex of tin. Polyphosphates are chains of phosphate groups, and in this case, they are bound to a tin (Sn) atom.

Tin polyphosphates may have various industrial applications, such as flame retardants or corrosion inhibitors, but they do not have a specific relevance to medical definition. If you have any questions about the chemical properties or uses of tin polyphosphates in a non-medical context, I would recommend consulting a chemistry or materials science resource.

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) is a intracellular signaling molecule that plays a crucial role in the release of calcium ions from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm. It is a second messenger, which means it relays signals received by a cell's surface receptors to various effector proteins within the cell. IP3 is produced through the hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) by activated phospholipase C (PLC) enzymes in response to extracellular signals such as hormones and neurotransmitters. The binding of IP3 to its receptor on the endoplasmic reticulum triggers the release of calcium ions, which then activates various cellular processes like gene expression, metabolism, and muscle contraction.

Diphosphates, also known as pyrophosphates, are chemical compounds that contain two phosphate groups joined together by an oxygen atom. The general formula for a diphosphate is P~PO3~2-, where ~ represents a bond. Diphosphates play important roles in various biological processes, such as energy metabolism and cell signaling. In the context of nutrition, diphosphates can be found in some foods, including milk and certain vegetables.

Purinergic P2 receptor antagonists are pharmaceutical agents that block the activity of P2 receptors, which are a type of cell surface receptor that binds extracellular nucleotides such as ATP and ADP. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, inflammation, and platelet aggregation.

P2 receptors are divided into two main subfamilies: P2X and P2Y. The P2X receptors are ligand-gated ion channels that allow the flow of ions across the cell membrane upon activation, while the P2Y receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways.

Purinergic P2 receptor antagonists are used in clinical medicine to treat various conditions, such as chronic pain, urinary incontinence, and cardiovascular diseases. For example, the P2X3 receptor antagonist gefapixant is being investigated for the treatment of refractory chronic cough, while the P2Y12 receptor antagonists clopidogrel and ticagrelor are used to prevent thrombosis in patients with acute coronary syndrome.

Overall, purinergic P2 receptor antagonists offer a promising therapeutic approach for various diseases by targeting specific receptors involved in pathological processes.

Purinergic antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of purinergic receptors, which are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells that respond to purines such as ATP and ADP. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, inflammation, and cell death.

Purinergic antagonists work by binding to these receptors and preventing them from being activated by purines. This can have a variety of effects depending on the specific receptor that is blocked. For example, some purinergic antagonists are used in the treatment of conditions such as chronic pain, depression, and Parkinson's disease because they block receptors that play a role in these conditions.

It's important to note that while purinergic antagonists can be useful therapeutically, they can also have side effects and potential risks. As with any medication, it's important to use them only under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Phosphates, in a medical context, refer to the salts or esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates play crucial roles in various biological processes within the human body. They are essential components of bones and teeth, where they combine with calcium to form hydroxyapatite crystals. Phosphates also participate in energy transfer reactions as phosphate groups attached to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Additionally, they contribute to buffer systems that help maintain normal pH levels in the body.

Abnormal levels of phosphates in the blood can indicate certain medical conditions. High phosphate levels (hyperphosphatemia) may be associated with kidney dysfunction, hyperparathyroidism, or excessive intake of phosphate-containing products. Low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia) might result from malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or certain diseases affecting the small intestine or kidneys. Both hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia can have significant impacts on various organ systems and may require medical intervention.

Inositol is not considered a true "vitamin" because it can be created by the body from glucose. However, it is an important nutrient and is sometimes referred to as vitamin B8. It is a type of sugar alcohol that is found in both animals and plants. Inositol is involved in various biological processes, including:

1. Signal transduction: Inositol phospholipids are key components of cell membranes and play a crucial role in intracellular signaling pathways. They act as secondary messengers in response to hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors.
2. Insulin sensitivity: Inositol and its derivatives, such as myo-inositol and D-chiro-inositol, are involved in insulin signal transduction. Abnormalities in inositol metabolism have been linked to insulin resistance and conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
3. Cerebral and ocular functions: Inositol is essential for the proper functioning of neurons and has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. It also plays a role in maintaining eye health.
4. Lipid metabolism: Inositol participates in the breakdown and transport of fats within the body.
5. Gene expression: Inositol and its derivatives are involved in regulating gene expression through epigenetic modifications.

Inositol can be found in various foods, including fruits, beans, grains, nuts, and vegetables. It is also available as a dietary supplement for those who wish to increase their intake.

Propionibacterium is a genus of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found on the skin and in the mouth, intestines, and genitourinary tract of humans and animals. They are named after their ability to produce propionic acid as a major metabolic end product. Some species of Propionibacterium, such as P. acnes, are associated with skin conditions like acne vulgaris, where they contribute to the inflammatory response that leads to the formation of pimples and lesions. Other species, such as P. freudenreichii, are used in the food industry for the production of dairy products like Swiss cheese and yogurt. Propionibacterium species are generally considered to be non-pathogenic or opportunistic pathogens, meaning that they can cause infection under certain circumstances, such as when the immune system is compromised.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Guanosine pentaphosphate (also known as P5G or GpppG) is not a commonly used medical term, but it is a molecule that plays a role in the biochemical processes of cells. It is a type of guanosine nucleotide, which is a compound made up of a sugar (ribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (guanine).

In particular, guanosine pentaphosphate is a molecule that contains five phosphate groups attached to the ribose sugar. It functions as an activator of certain enzymes and is involved in various cellular processes, such as protein synthesis and signal transduction. However, it is not typically used as a diagnostic or clinical term in medicine.

Phosphoric monoester hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoric monoesters into alcohol and phosphate. This class of enzymes includes several specific enzymes, such as phosphatases and nucleotidases, which play important roles in various biological processes, including metabolism, signal transduction, and regulation of cellular processes.

Phosphoric monoester hydrolases are classified under the EC number 3.1.3 by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB). The enzymes in this class share a common mechanism of action, which involves the nucleophilic attack on the phosphorus atom of the substrate by a serine or cysteine residue in the active site of the enzyme. This results in the formation of a covalent intermediate, which is then hydrolyzed to release the products.

Phosphoric monoester hydrolases are important therapeutic targets for the development of drugs that can modulate their activity. For example, inhibitors of phosphoric monoester hydrolases have been developed as potential treatments for various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious diseases.

Phosphatidylinositol phosphates (PIPs) are a family of lipid molecules that play crucial roles as secondary messengers in intracellular signaling pathways. They are formed by the phosphorylation of the hydroxyl group on the inositol ring of phosphatidylinositol (PI), a fundamental component of cell membranes.

There are seven main types of PIPs, classified based on the number and position of phosphate groups attached to the inositol ring:

1. Phosphatidylinositol 4-monophosphate (PI4P) - one phosphate group at the 4th position
2. Phosphatidylinositol 5-monophosphate (PI5P) - one phosphate group at the 5th position
3. Phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (PI(3,4)P2) - two phosphate groups at the 3rd and 4th positions
4. Phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P2) - two phosphate groups at the 3rd and 5th positions
5. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] - two phosphate groups at the 4th and 5th positions
6. Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P3] - three phosphate groups at the 3rd, 4th, and 5th positions
7. Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P) - one phosphate group at the 3rd position

These PIPs are involved in various cellular processes such as membrane trafficking, cytoskeleton organization, cell survival, and metabolism. Dysregulation of PIP metabolism has been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

Purinergic receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind and respond to purines and pyrimidines, which are nucleotides and nucleosides. These receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and inflammation. There are two main types of purinergic receptors: P1 receptors, which are activated by adenosine, and P2 receptors, which are activated by ATP and other nucleotides.

P2 receptors are further divided into two subtypes: P2X and P2Y. P2X receptors are ionotropic receptors that form cation channels upon activation, allowing the flow of ions such as calcium and sodium into the cell. P2Y receptors, on the other hand, are metabotropic receptors that activate G proteins upon activation, leading to the activation or inhibition of various intracellular signaling pathways.

Purinergic receptors have been found to play a role in many diseases and conditions, including neurological disorders, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential targets for drug development.

Purinergic P2X receptors are a type of ligand-gated ion channel that are activated by the binding of extracellular ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and other purinergic agonists. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, pain perception, and immune response.

P2X receptors are composed of three subunits that form a functional ion channel. There are seven different subunits (P2X1-7) that can assemble to form homo- or heterotrimeric receptor complexes with distinct functional properties.

Upon activation by ATP, P2X receptors undergo conformational changes that allow for the flow of cations, such as calcium (Ca^2+^), sodium (Na^+^), and potassium (K^+^) ions, across the cell membrane. This ion flux can lead to a variety of downstream signaling events, including the activation of second messenger systems and changes in gene expression.

Purinergic P2X receptors have been implicated in a number of pathological conditions, including chronic pain, inflammation, and neurodegenerative diseases. As such, they are an active area of research for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

Hydrolysis is a chemical process, not a medical one. However, it is relevant to medicine and biology.

Hydrolysis is the breakdown of a chemical compound due to its reaction with water, often resulting in the formation of two or more simpler compounds. In the context of physiology and medicine, hydrolysis is a crucial process in various biological reactions, such as the digestion of food molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Enzymes called hydrolases catalyze these hydrolysis reactions to speed up the breakdown process in the body.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Phosphatidylinositols (PIs) are a type of phospholipid that are abundant in the cell membrane. They contain a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a head group consisting of myo-inositol, a cyclic sugar molecule, linked to a phosphate group.

Phosphatidylinositols can be phosphorylated at one or more of the hydroxyl groups on the inositol ring, forming various phosphoinositides (PtdInsPs) with different functions. These signaling molecules play crucial roles in regulating cellular processes such as membrane trafficking, cytoskeletal organization, and signal transduction pathways that control cell growth, differentiation, and survival.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is a prominent phosphoinositide involved in the regulation of ion channels, enzymes, and cytoskeletal proteins. Upon activation of certain receptors, PIP2 can be cleaved by the enzyme phospholipase C into diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3), which act as second messengers to trigger downstream signaling events.

Purinergic P2Y2 receptors are a type of G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) that bind to and are activated by extracellular nucleotides, such as ATP and UTP. These receptors play a role in various physiological processes, including regulation of inflammation, smooth muscle contraction, and wound healing.

P2Y2 receptors are widely expressed in various tissues, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urinary tracts, as well as the skin and central nervous system. They have been shown to play a role in the pathophysiology of several diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, asthma, and cancer.

Activation of P2Y2 receptors leads to a variety of cellular responses, including increased intracellular calcium levels, activation of protein kinases, and regulation of gene expression. These downstream signaling events can ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior, such as increased proliferation, migration, or secretion of cytokines and other mediators.

In summary, Purinergic P2Y2 receptors are a type of GPCR that bind to extracellular nucleotides and play a role in various physiological processes and diseases. Activation of these receptors leads to downstream signaling events that can ultimately affect cell behavior.

Polynucleotide adenylyltransferase is not a medical term per se, but rather a biological term used to describe an enzyme that catalyzes the addition of adenine residues to the 3'-hydroxyl end of polynucleotides. In other words, these enzymes transfer AMP (adenosine monophosphate) molecules to the ends of DNA or RNA strands, creating a chain of adenine nucleotides.

One of the most well-known examples of this class of enzyme is terminal transferase, which is often used in research settings for various molecular biology techniques such as adding homopolymeric tails to DNA molecules. It's worth noting that while these enzymes have important applications in scientific research, they are not typically associated with medical diagnoses or treatments.

Guanosine tetraphosphate, also known as P1,P3-cyclic di-GMP or cdG, is a second messenger molecule that plays a role in the regulation of various cellular processes in bacteria and some plants. It is a cyclic compound consisting of two guanosine monophosphate (GMP) units linked by two phosphate groups.

This molecule is involved in the regulation of diverse bacterial functions, such as biofilm formation, motility, virulence, and stress response. The intracellular levels of c-di-GMP are controlled through the activity of enzymes called diguanylate cyclases (DGCs) and phosphodiesterases (PDEs). DGCs synthesize c-di-GMP from two GTP molecules, while PDEs degrade it into linear forms.

While guanosine tetraphosphate is not a common term in human or animal medicine, understanding its role in bacterial signaling and regulation can contribute to the development of novel strategies for controlling bacterial infections and other related applications.

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is a nucleotide that is the monophosphate ester of adenosine, consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine attached to the 1' carbon atom of ribose via a β-N9-glycosidic bond, which in turn is esterified to a phosphate group. It is an important molecule in biological systems as it plays a key role in cellular energy transfer and storage, serving as a precursor to other nucleotides such as ADP and ATP. AMP is also involved in various signaling pathways and can act as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

Physiologic calcification is the normal deposit of calcium salts in body tissues and organs. It is a natural process that occurs as part of the growth and development of the human body, as well as during the repair and remodeling of tissues.

Calcium is an essential mineral that plays a critical role in many bodily functions, including bone formation, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting. In order to maintain proper levels of calcium in the body, excess calcium that is not needed for these functions may be deposited in various tissues as a normal part of the aging process.

Physiologic calcification typically occurs in areas such as the walls of blood vessels, the lungs, and the heart valves. While these calcifications are generally harmless, they can sometimes lead to complications, particularly if they occur in large amounts or in sensitive areas. For example, calcification of the coronary arteries can increase the risk of heart disease, while calcification of the lung tissue can cause respiratory symptoms.

It is important to note that pathologic calcification, on the other hand, refers to the abnormal deposit of calcium salts in tissues and organs, which can be caused by various medical conditions such as chronic kidney disease, hyperparathyroidism, and certain infections. Pathologic calcification is not a normal process and can lead to serious health complications if left untreated.

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that is composed of a sugar (ribose) and the base adenine. It plays several important roles in the body, including serving as a precursor for the synthesis of other molecules such as ATP, NAD+, and RNA.

In the medical context, adenosine is perhaps best known for its use as a pharmaceutical agent to treat certain cardiac arrhythmias. When administered intravenously, it can help restore normal sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) by slowing conduction through the atrioventricular node and interrupting the reentry circuit responsible for the arrhythmia.

Adenosine can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help differentiate between narrow-complex tachycardias of supraventricular origin and those that originate from below the ventricles (such as ventricular tachycardia). This is because adenosine will typically terminate PSVT but not affect the rhythm of VT.

It's worth noting that adenosine has a very short half-life, lasting only a few seconds in the bloodstream. This means that its effects are rapidly reversible and generally well-tolerated, although some patients may experience transient symptoms such as flushing, chest pain, or shortness of breath.

Xanthines are a type of natural alkaloids that are found in various plants, including tea leaves, cocoa beans, and mate. The most common xanthines are caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine. These compounds have stimulant effects on the central nervous system and are often used in medication to treat conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, and other respiratory issues.

Caffeine is the most widely consumed xanthine and is found in a variety of beverages like coffee, tea, and energy drinks. It works by blocking adenosine receptors in the brain, which can lead to increased alertness and reduced feelings of fatigue.

Theophylline is another xanthine that is used as a bronchodilator to treat asthma and other respiratory conditions. It works by relaxing smooth muscles in the airways, making it easier to breathe.

Theobromine is found in cocoa beans and is responsible for the stimulant effects of chocolate. While it has similar properties to caffeine and theophylline, it is less potent and has a milder effect on the body.

It's worth noting that while xanthines can have beneficial effects when used in moderation, they can also cause negative side effects such as insomnia, nervousness, and rapid heart rate if consumed in large quantities or over an extended period of time.

Dantrolene is a muscle relaxant that is used to treat or prevent muscle spasms and stiffness caused by various medical conditions, such as spinal cord injuries, stroke, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, and certain types of poisoning. It works by reducing the sensitivity of the muscles to nerve impulses, which helps to relieve muscle spasms and reduce muscle tone.

Dantrolene is available in oral capsule and injectable forms. The oral form is typically used for long-term management of muscle spasticity, while the injectable form is used as an emergency treatment for a life-threatening condition called malignant hyperthermia, which can occur as a complication of general anesthesia in susceptible individuals.

It's important to note that dantrolene can have side effects, including drowsiness, dizziness, weakness, and diarrhea. It should be used with caution and under the supervision of a healthcare provider, especially when used in combination with other medications or in patients with certain medical conditions.

Synaptosomes are subcellular structures that can be isolated from the brain tissue. They are formed during the fractionation process of brain homogenates and consist of intact presynaptic terminals, including the synaptic vesicles, mitochondria, and cytoskeletal elements. Synaptosomes are often used in neuroscience research to study the biochemical properties and functions of neuronal synapses, such as neurotransmitter release, uptake, and metabolism.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Nucleotides are the basic structural units of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine or uracil), a pentose sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA) and one to three phosphate groups. Nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another, forming long chains known as polynucleotides. The sequence of these nucleotides determines the genetic information carried in DNA and RNA, which is essential for the functioning, reproduction and survival of all living organisms.

Guanine nucleotides are molecules that play a crucial role in intracellular signaling, cellular regulation, and various biological processes within cells. They consist of a guanine base, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups. The most common guanine nucleotides are GDP (guanosine diphosphate) and GTP (guanosine triphosphate).

GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP and inorganic phosphate by certain enzymes called GTPases, releasing energy that drives various cellular functions such as protein synthesis, signal transduction, vesicle transport, and cell division. On the other hand, GDP can be rephosphorylated back to GTP by nucleotide diphosphate kinases, allowing for the recycling of these molecules within the cell.

In addition to their role in signaling and regulation, guanine nucleotides also serve as building blocks for RNA (ribonucleic acid) synthesis during transcription, where they pair with cytosine nucleotides via hydrogen bonds to form base pairs in the resulting RNA molecule.

Vasoconstrictor agents are substances that cause the narrowing of blood vessels by constricting the smooth muscle in their walls. This leads to an increase in blood pressure and a decrease in blood flow. They work by activating the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and epinephrine that bind to alpha-adrenergic receptors on the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessel walls, causing them to contract.

Vasoconstrictor agents are used medically for a variety of purposes, including:

* Treating hypotension (low blood pressure)
* Controlling bleeding during surgery or childbirth
* Relieving symptoms of nasal congestion in conditions such as the common cold or allergies

Examples of vasoconstrictor agents include phenylephrine, oxymetazoline, and epinephrine. It's important to note that prolonged use or excessive doses of vasoconstrictor agents can lead to rebound congestion and other adverse effects, so they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Purinergic P1 receptor antagonists are a class of pharmaceutical drugs that block the activity of purinergic P1 receptors, which are a type of G-protein coupled receptor found in many tissues throughout the body. These receptors are activated by extracellular nucleotides such as adenosine and ATP, and play important roles in regulating a variety of physiological processes, including cardiovascular function, neurotransmission, and immune response.

Purinergic P1 receptor antagonists work by binding to these receptors and preventing them from being activated by nucleotides. This can have various therapeutic effects, depending on the specific receptor subtype that is targeted. For example, A1 receptor antagonists have been shown to improve cardiac function in heart failure, while A2A receptor antagonists have potential as anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective agents.

However, it's important to note that the use of purinergic P1 receptor antagonists is still an area of active research, and more studies are needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential.

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a chemical compound that plays a crucial role in energy transfer within cells. It is a nucleotide, which consists of a adenosine molecule (a sugar molecule called ribose attached to a nitrogenous base called adenine) and two phosphate groups.

In the cell, ADP functions as an intermediate in the conversion of energy from one form to another. When a high-energy phosphate bond in ADP is broken, energy is released and ADP is converted to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which serves as the main energy currency of the cell. Conversely, when ATP donates a phosphate group to another molecule, it is converted back to ADP, releasing energy for the cell to use.

ADP also plays a role in blood clotting and other physiological processes. In the coagulation cascade, ADP released from damaged red blood cells can help activate platelets and initiate the formation of a blood clot.

Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is the active form of vitamin B6 and functions as a cofactor in various enzymatic reactions in the human body. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism of amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, and neurotransmitters. Pyridoxal phosphate is involved in more than 140 different enzyme-catalyzed reactions, making it one of the most versatile cofactors in human biochemistry.

As a cofactor, pyridoxal phosphate helps enzymes carry out their functions by facilitating chemical transformations in substrates (the molecules on which enzymes act). In particular, PLP is essential for transamination, decarboxylation, racemization, and elimination reactions involving amino acids. These processes are vital for the synthesis and degradation of amino acids, neurotransmitters, hemoglobin, and other crucial molecules in the body.

Pyridoxal phosphate is formed from the conversion of pyridoxal (a form of vitamin B6) by the enzyme pyridoxal kinase, using ATP as a phosphate donor. The human body obtains vitamin B6 through dietary sources such as whole grains, legumes, vegetables, nuts, and animal products like poultry, fish, and pork. It is essential to maintain adequate levels of pyridoxal phosphate for optimal enzymatic function and overall health.

Divalent cations are ions that carry a positive charge of +2. They are called divalent because they have two positive charges. Common examples of divalent cations include calcium (Ca²+), magnesium (Mg²+), and iron (Fe²+). These ions play important roles in various biological processes, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and bone metabolism. They can also interact with certain drugs and affect their absorption, distribution, and elimination in the body.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

Lithium is not a medical term per se, but it is a chemical element with symbol Li and atomic number 3. In the field of medicine, lithium is most commonly referred to as a medication, specifically as "lithium carbonate" or "lithium citrate," which are used primarily to treat bipolar disorder. These medications work by stabilizing mood and reducing the severity and frequency of manic episodes.

Lithium is a naturally occurring substance, and it is an alkali metal. In its elemental form, lithium is highly reactive and flammable. However, when combined with carbonate or citrate ions to form lithium salts, it becomes more stable and safe for medical use.

It's important to note that lithium levels in the body must be closely monitored while taking this medication because too much lithium can lead to toxicity, causing symptoms such as tremors, nausea, diarrhea, and in severe cases, seizures, coma, or even death. Regular blood tests are necessary to ensure that lithium levels remain within the therapeutic range.

Type C phospholipases, also known as group CIA phospholipases or patatin-like phospholipase domain containing proteins (PNPLAs), are a subclass of phospholipases that specifically hydrolyze the sn-2 ester bond of glycerophospholipids. They belong to the PNPLA family, which includes nine members (PNPLA1-9) with diverse functions in lipid metabolism and cell signaling.

Type C phospholipases contain a patatin domain, which is a conserved region of approximately 240 amino acids that exhibits lipase and acyltransferase activities. These enzymes are primarily involved in the regulation of triglyceride metabolism, membrane remodeling, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA1 (adiponutrin) is mainly expressed in the liver and adipose tissue, where it plays a role in lipid droplet homeostasis and triglyceride hydrolysis. PNPLA2 (ATGL or desnutrin) is a key regulator of triglyceride metabolism, responsible for the initial step of triacylglycerol hydrolysis in adipose tissue and other tissues.

PNPLA3 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 epsilon or iPLA2ε) is involved in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways. Mutations in PNPLA3 have been associated with an increased risk of developing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), alcoholic liver disease, and hepatic steatosis.

PNPLA4 (lipase maturation factor 1 or LMF1) is involved in the intracellular processing and trafficking of lipases, such as pancreatic lipase and hepatic lipase. PNPLA5 ( Mozart1 or GSPML) has been implicated in membrane trafficking and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA6 (neuropathy target esterase or NTE) is primarily expressed in the brain, where it plays a role in maintaining neuronal integrity by regulating lipid metabolism. Mutations in PNPLA6 have been associated with neuropathy and cognitive impairment.

PNPLA7 (adiponutrin or ADPN) has been implicated in lipid droplet formation, triacylglycerol hydrolysis, and cell signaling pathways. Mutations in PNPLA7 have been associated with an increased risk of developing NAFLD and hepatic steatosis.

PNPLA8 (diglyceride lipase or DGLα) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA9 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 gamma or iPLA2γ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA10 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 delta or iPLA2δ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA11 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 epsilon or iPLA2ε) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA12 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 zeta or iPLA2ζ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA13 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 eta or iPLA2η) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA14 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 theta or iPLA2θ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA15 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 iota or iPLA2ι) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA16 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 kappa or iPLA2κ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA17 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 lambda or iPLA2λ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA18 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 mu or iPLA2μ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA19 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 nu or iPLA2ν) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA20 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 xi or iPLA2ξ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA21 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 omicron or iPLA2ο) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA22 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 pi or iPLA2π) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA23 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 rho or iPLA2ρ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA24 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 sigma or iPLA2σ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA25 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 tau or iPLA2τ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA26 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 upsilon or iPLA2υ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA27 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 phi or iPLA2φ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA28 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 chi or iPLA2χ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA29 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 psi or iPLA2ψ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA30 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 omega or iPLA2ω) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA31 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 pi or iPLA2π) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, arachidonic acid release, and cell signaling pathways.

PNPLA32 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 rho or iPLA2ρ) is involved in the regulation of intracellular triacylglycerol metabolism, particularly in adipocytes and muscle cells. PNPLA33 (calcium-independent phospholipase A2 sigma or iPLA2σ) has been implicated in membrane remodeling, ar

Purinergic P1 receptors are a type of G-protein coupled receptor that bind to nucleotides such as adenosine. These receptors are involved in a variety of physiological processes, including modulation of neurotransmitter release, cardiovascular function, and immune response. There are four subtypes of P1 receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3) that have different signaling pathways and functions. Activation of these receptors can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including inhibition or stimulation of adenylyl cyclase activity, changes in intracellular calcium levels, and activation of various protein kinases. They play important roles in the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, gastrointestinal system, and immune system.

Phosphotransferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. This reaction is essential for various cellular processes, including energy metabolism, signal transduction, and biosynthesis.

The systematic name for this group of enzymes is phosphotransferase, which is derived from the general reaction they catalyze: D-donor + A-acceptor = D-donor minus phosphate + A-phosphate. The donor molecule can be a variety of compounds, such as ATP or a phosphorylated protein, while the acceptor molecule is typically a compound that becomes phosphorylated during the reaction.

Phosphotransferases are classified into several subgroups based on the type of donor and acceptor molecules they act upon. For example, kinases are a subgroup of phosphotransferases that transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a protein or other organic compound. Phosphatases, another subgroup, remove phosphate groups from molecules by transferring them to water.

Overall, phosphotransferases play a critical role in regulating many cellular functions and are important targets for drug development in various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst, which remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. A catalyst lowers the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, thereby allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly and efficiently. This can be particularly important in biological systems, where enzymes act as catalysts to speed up metabolic reactions that are essential for life.

Dura Mater: The tough, outer membrane that covers the brain and spinal cord.

Hydroxyapatite: A naturally occurring mineral form of calcium apatite, also known as dahllite, with the formula Ca5(PO4)3(OH), is the primary mineral component of biological apatites found in bones and teeth.

Therefore, "Durapatite" isn't a recognized medical term, but it seems like it might be a combination of "dura mater" and "hydroxyapatite." If you meant to ask about a material used in medical or dental applications that combines properties of both dura mater and hydroxyapatite, please provide more context.

Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.

Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.

In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a scientific name used in the field of microbiology. It refers to a species of yeast that is commonly used in various industrial processes, such as baking and brewing. It's also widely used in scientific research due to its genetic tractability and eukaryotic cellular organization.

However, it does have some relevance to medical fields like medicine and nutrition. For example, certain strains of S. cerevisiae are used as probiotics, which can provide health benefits when consumed. They may help support gut health, enhance the immune system, and even assist in the digestion of certain nutrients.

In summary, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is a species of yeast with various industrial and potential medical applications.

Cytoplasmic granules are small, membrane-bound organelles or inclusions found within the cytoplasm of cells. They contain various substances such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and genetic material. Cytoplasmic granules have diverse functions depending on their specific composition and cellular location. Some examples include:

1. Secretory granules: These are found in secretory cells and store hormones, neurotransmitters, or enzymes before they are released by exocytosis.
2. Lysosomes: These are membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion of waste materials, foreign substances, and damaged organelles.
3. Melanosomes: Found in melanocytes, these granules produce and store the pigment melanin, which is responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
4. Weibel-Palade bodies: These are found in endothelial cells and store von Willebrand factor and P-selectin, which play roles in hemostasis and inflammation.
5. Peroxisomes: These are single-membrane organelles that contain enzymes for various metabolic processes, such as β-oxidation of fatty acids and detoxification of harmful substances.
6. Lipid bodies (also called lipid droplets): These are cytoplasmic granules that store neutral lipids, such as triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. They play a role in energy metabolism and intracellular signaling.
7. Glycogen granules: These are cytoplasmic inclusions that store glycogen, a polysaccharide used for energy storage in animals.
8. Protein bodies: Found in plants, these granules store excess proteins and help regulate protein homeostasis within the cell.
9. Electron-dense granules: These are found in certain immune cells, such as mast cells and basophils, and release mediators like histamine during an allergic response.
10. Granules of unknown composition or function may also be present in various cell types.

Sodium polyphosphate (E452(i)), potassium polyphosphate (E452(ii)), sodium calcium polyphosphate (E452(iii)) and calcium ... Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic ring structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in ... Bacterial-derived polyphosphates impair the host immune response during infection and targeting polyphosphates with recombinant ... Polyphosphates are weak bases. A lone pair of electrons on an oxygen atom can be donated to a hydrogen ion (proton) or a metal ...
... is used as a food additive, emulsifier, (E number: E545) and as a fertilizer. Ammonium polyphosphate ( ... Ammonium polyphosphates used as flame retardants in polymers have long chains and a specific crystallinity (Form II). They ... Ammonium polyphosphate is an inorganic salt of polyphosphoric acid and ammonia containing both chains and possibly branching. ... The properties of ammonium polyphosphate depend on the number of monomers in each molecule and to a degree on how often it ...
In enzymology, a polyphosphate kinase (EC 2.7.4.1), or polyphosphate polymerase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of ... with polyphosphate as the acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:polyphosphate phosphotransferase. This ... the two substrates of this enzyme are ATP and polyphosphate [(phosphate)n], whereas its two products are ADP and polyphosphate ... The vacuolar polyphosphate kinase (polymerase) is described in TCDB with family TC# 4.E.1. CYTH-like superfamily enzymes, which ...
... myo-inositol polyphosphate + phosphate Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are diphospho-myo-inositol polyphosphate and H2O ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is diphospho-myo-inositol-polyphosphate diphosphohydrolase. Other names in common use ... In enzymology, a diphosphoinositol-polyphosphate diphosphatase (EC 3.6.1.52) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction ... in a diphosphoinositol polyphosphate phosphohydrolase". EMBO J. 17 (22): 6599-607. doi:10.1093/emboj/17.22.6599. PMC 1171006. ...
... a novel polyphosphate-accumulating organism in full-scale enhanced biological phosphorus removal plants: Polyphosphate- ... PAOs accomplish this removal of phosphate by accumulating it within their cells as polyphosphate. PAOs are by no means the only ... Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) are a group of microorganisms that, under certain conditions, facilitate the ... Some PAOs have been found to have alternative methods to accumulating polyphosphate, particularly to do with not storing PHA or ...
Other names in common use include polyphosphate glucokinase, polyphosphate-D-(+)-glucose-6-phosphotransferase, and ... In enzymology, a polyphosphate-glucose phosphotransferase (EC 2.7.1.63) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction.[ ... Szymona M, Ostrowski W (May 1964). "Inorganic polyphosphate glucokinase of Mycobacterium phlei". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is polyphosphate:D-glucose 6-phosphotransferase. ...
... (EC 2.7.1.151, IpK2, IP3/IP4 6-/3-kinase, IP3/IP4 dual-specificity 6-/3-kinase, IpmK, ... ArgRIII, AtIpk2alpha, AtIpk2beta, inositol polyphosphate 6-/3-/5-kinase) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP:1D-myo-inositol- ... "Molecular and biochemical characterization of two plant inositol polyphosphate 6-/3-/5-kinases". The Journal of Biological ... "Synthesis of diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate by a newly identified family of higher inositol polyphosphate kinases". ...
... (IPK) is a family of enzymes that have a similar 3-dimensional structure. All members of the ... Subsequently, structures of the inositol polyphosphate multikinase and various IP6 kinases have expanded our structural ... Members of the family include inositol-polyphosphate multikinases, inositol-hexakisphosphate kinases, inositol-trisphosphate 3- ... and genetics led to the classification of a family of inositol polyphosphate kinases. In 2005, the first crystal structures of ...
... polyphosphate 5-phosphatase, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate phosphatase, inositol polyphosphate-5-phosphatase, myo-inositol-1,4,5 ... Inositol-polyphosphate+5-phosphatase at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Portal: Biology ( ... The enzyme Inositol-polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.56, systematic name 1D-myo-inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate 5- ... Ooms LM, Horan KA, Rahman P, Seaton G, Gurung R, Kethesparan DS, Mitchell CA (2009). "The role of the inositol polyphosphate 5- ...
"Molecular cloning and expression of a rat hepatic multiple inositol polyphosphate phosphatase". Biochem. J. 328: 75-81. PMC ... The enzyme multiple inositol-polyphosphate phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.62) catalyzes the reaction myo-inositol hexakisphosphate + H2O ...
In enzymology, a dolichyl-diphosphate-polyphosphate phosphotransferase (EC 2.7.4.20) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical ... The systematic name of this enzyme class is dolichyl-diphosphate:polyphosphate phosphotransferase. This enzyme is also called ... dolichylpyrophosphate:polyphosphate phosphotransferase. Naumov AV, Shabalin YA, Vagabov VM, Kulaev IS. "Two pathways of ...
Other names in common use include diphosphoglycerate-polyphosphate phosphotransferase, and 1,3-diphosphoglycerate-polyphosphate ... Kukaev IS, Bobyk MA, Nikolaev NN, Sergeev NS, Uryson SO (1971). "[Polyphosphate-synthesizing enzymes of some fungi and bacteria ... In enzymology, a 3-phosphoglyceroyl-phosphate-polyphosphate phosphotransferase (EC 2.7.4.17) is an enzyme that catalyzes the ... Kulaev IS, Bobyk MA (1971). "[Detection in Neurospora crassa of a new enzyme--1,3-diphosphoglycerate: polyphosphate ...
For example, DNA and RNA are polymers of the type [PO2(OR)(OR')−]n. Polyphosphates also form esters; an important example of an ... ester of a polyphosphate is ATP, which is the monoester of triphosphoric acid (H5P3O10). OPEs contain a phosphate molecular ...
Many polyphosphates are known, including ATP. Polyphosphates arise by dehydration of hydrogen phosphates such as HPO42− and ...
Activated platelets release inorganic polymers, polyphosphates. Contact to polyphosphates activates factor XII and initiates ... Platelet polyphosphate-driven factor XII activation provides the link from primary hemostasis (formation of a platelet plug) to ... Targeting XPR1 increases polyphosphate content and leads to accelerated arterial and venous thrombosis in mouse models. Based ... Addition of polyphosphates restored defective plasma clotting of Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome patients, indicating that the ...
"Polyphosphates for scale and corrosion control". Tramfloc, INC. January 2009. Retrieved December 23, 2010. "Ortho-Polyphosphate ... The general formula for such (non-cyclic) polyphosphate anions, linear or branched, is [H n+2−kP nO 3n+1]k−, where the charge k ... As a corrosion inhibitor, polyphosphates work by forming a protective film on the interior surface of pipes. The -OH groups in ... Determination of Polyphosphates Using Ion Chromatography with Suppressed Conductivity Detection, Application Note 71 by Dionex ...
1999). Inorganic Polyphosphates Biochemistry, Biology, Biotechnology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978- ...
"Regulation of chromatin remodeling by inositol polyphosphates". Science. 299 (5603): 114-6. doi:10.1126/SCIENCE.1078062. ISSN ...
... , phosphatidylinositol and some of their mono- and polyphosphates function as secondary messengers in a number of ... produces phytase enzymes that may convert phytic acid to a more bioavailable form of inositol polyphosphate in the gut. ... "Regulation of chromatin remodeling by inositol polyphosphates". Science. 299 (5603): 114-116. Bibcode:2003Sci...299..114S. doi: ... "Modulation of ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes by inositol polyphosphates". Science. 299 (5603): 112-114. Bibcode: ...
"Regulation of chromatin remodeling by inositol polyphosphates". Science. 299 (5603): 114-116. doi:10.1126/science.1078062. PMC ... "Modulation of ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complexes by inositol polyphosphates". Science. 299 (5603): 112-114. doi: ...
Short chains occur, for example, in polyphosphates. Inosilicates, such as pyroxenes, have a long chain of SiO4 tetrahedra each ... The oxyanions (specifically, phosphate and polyphosphate esters) adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and ...
Determination of Polyphosphates Using Ion Chromatography with Suppressed Conductivity Detection, Application Note 71 by Dionex ... ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. Schröder HC, Kurz L, Muller WE, Lorenz B (Mar 2000). "Polyphosphate in bone" (PDF). Biochemistry ( ...
... is the first member of an entire series of polyphosphates. The anion P 2O4− 7 is abbreviated PPi, standing for ... sodium and potassium polyphosphates In particular, various formulations of diphosphates are used to stabilize whipped cream. ... "Polyphosphate in bone" (PDF). Biochemistry (Moscow). 65 (3): 296-303. PMID 10739471. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011- ... hydrolysis reactions of simple polyphosphates such as pyrophosphate, linear triphosphate, ADP, and ATP normally proceed ...
Earlier, polyphosphates were used to soften hard water. The polyphosphates forms complex with metal ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ to ... it results in eutrophication of water bodies and hence use of polyphosphate was replaced with use of a synthetic zeolite. The ...
May 2010). "Inorganic polyphosphate induces osteoblastic differentiation". Journal of Dental Research. 89 (5): 504-9. doi: ... Harold FM (December 1966). "Inorganic polyphosphates in biology: structure, metabolism, and function". Bacteriological Reviews ...
Peral A, Carracedo G, Acosta MC, Gallar J, Pintor J (September 2006). "Increased levels of diadenosine polyphosphates in dry ...
Another method is fluorination of phosphates or polyphosphates.[clarification needed] Trimethylsilyl difluorophosphate ((CH3) ...
Polyphosphates housed inside platelets break up during clotting. These polyphosphates and other components get released to form ... Inadequate levels of IP7 led to reduction in another phosphate-rich molecule called polyphosphate (a long chain of phosphate ... groups linked to each other). In mammals, polyphosphate is predominantly found in platelets and helps in strengthening blood ...
Other possibilities include polyphosphates, silicates, borates, and various antioxidants. Sequestrants and chelating agents are ...
Alcazar-Roman, AR; Wente, SR (2 February 2008). "Inositol polyphosphates: a new frontier for regulating gene expression". ...
Sodium polyphosphate (E452(i)), potassium polyphosphate (E452(ii)), sodium calcium polyphosphate (E452(iii)) and calcium ... Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic ring structures. In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in ... Bacterial-derived polyphosphates impair the host immune response during infection and targeting polyphosphates with recombinant ... Polyphosphates are weak bases. A lone pair of electrons on an oxygen atom can be donated to a hydrogen ion (proton) or a metal ...
Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is also used as a flame retardant in many applications such as paints and coatings, and in a ... Ammonium polyphosphate is an inorganic salt of polyphosphoric acid and ammonia containing both chains and possibly branching. ... Ammonium polyphosphate is used as a food additive, emulsifier, (E number: E545) and as a fertilizer. ... Ammonium polyphosphates used as flame retardants in polymers have long chains and a specific crystallinity (Form II). They ...
The procedure is rapid, produces a wide variety of nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates in high yield, does not ... Nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates, such as nucleoside triphosphates, nucleoside tetraphosphates, sugar nucleotides ... Several novel and efficient approaches to the synthesis of nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates were developed. In ... dinucleoside pyro- and higher order polyphosphates, 2,3-cyclic nucleoside monophosphates, and 2´-deoxynucleoside-5´- ...
polyphosphates. and polyallylamines: analogies with "layer-by-layer" deposits N. Cini, T. Tulun, C. Blanck, V. Toniazzo, D. ... Slow complexation dynamics between linear short polyphosphates and polyallylamines: analogies with "layer-by-layer" deposits† ... We describe herein the "complexation" kinetics of a short linear sodium polyphosphate (PSP) with poly(allylamine hydrochloride ...
Existence and alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation of inositol polyphosphates in mammalian heart.. J Scholz, U Troll, P Sandig, W ... Existence and alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation of inositol polyphosphates in mammalian heart.. J Scholz, U Troll, P Sandig, W ... Existence and alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation of inositol polyphosphates in mammalian heart.. J Scholz, U Troll, P Sandig, W ... Increased inositol polyphosphate turnover may be involved in the mechanism(s) whereby alpha 1-adrenoceptor stimulation produces ...
In this study, we developed a strategy for the isolation of polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) by combining (i) ... to target cells with high polyphosphate (polyP) accumulation. We found a staining procedure (10 μg/ml of DAPI for 30 min) that ... to target cells with high polyphosphate (polyP) accumulation. We found a staining procedure (10 µg/ml of DAPI for 30 min) that ... nontoxic fluorescence staining of polyphosphate granules in viable microbial cells and (ii) fluorescence-activated cell sorting ...
US-3562768-A chemical patent summary.
Producer for over 40 years of POLYPHOSPHATE PROPORTIONAL DOSER for water, heating and sanitary systems: check them all out on ...
Synonyms: Glassy sodium phosphate; Sodium polyphosphate, amorphous; Polyphosphoric acids, sodium salts; disodium dihydrogen ... Glassy sodium phosphate; Sodium polyphosphate, amorphous; Polyphosphoric acids, sodium salts; disodium dihydrogen diphosphate; ...
The role of the 72 kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase in cellular function.. *Mitchell, Christina (Primary Chief ...
Our findings demonstrate that the Arabidopsis inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) homolog, AtIPK2α generates 4/6-InsP7 in ... Conservation of heat stress acclimation by the inositol polyphosphate multikinase, IPMK responsible for 4/6-InsP7 production in ... Conservation of heat stress acclimation by the inositol polyphosphate multikinase, IPMK responsible for 4/6-InsP7 production in ... Conservation of heat stress acclimation by the inositol polyphosphate multikinase, IPMK responsible for 4/6-InsP7 production in ...
The enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of most of the cellular polyphosphate, using the terminal phosphate of ATP as ...
The Polyphosphate/Granular Activated Carbon Cartridges utilize 42, NSF 60 certified clear bead media for scale and corrosion ... Polyphosphate-GAC Carbon Scale-Corrosion Inhibitor & Chlorine Removal Filter by IPW Industries. Product Code IF-SM-SCIG020 ... The Polyphosphate/Granular Activated Carbon Cartridges utilize 42, NSF 60 certified clear bead media for scale and corrosion ... Polyphosphate-GAC Carbon Scale-Corrosion Inhibitor & Chlorine Removal Filter by IPW Industries ...
I have a bucket of liquid ammonium polyphosphate 10-34-0. It has been in my garage for about 10 years. I know it settles but I ... I have a bucket of liquid ammonium polyphosphate 10-34-0. It has been in my garage for about 10 years. I know it settles but I ... Is it possible for the polyphosphate to settle and become explosive? I want to dispose of it, kind of need to know whether or ...
Diadenosine polyphosphates (ApnA) are naturally occurring molecules which have been identified in human and guinea-pig cardiac ... Diadenosine Polyphosphates: Postulated Mechanisms Mediating the Cardiac Effects. Author(s): Brigitte Maria Stavrou Volume 1, ... Diadenosine polyphosphates (ApnA) are naturally occurring molecules which have been identified in human and guinea-pig cardiac ... Abstract: Diadenosine polyphosphates (ApnA) are naturally occurring molecules which have been identified in human and guinea- ...
Water system contamination tackled with polyphosphates and biocide. Fertiliser precipitate and biofilm in the water system can ...
A clear, water-soluble solution that contains nitrogen and phosphorus. It is used to improve crop yield and quality. ...
Ammonium polyphosphates - Mineral salts & Anti-caking agents ... E545 - Ammonium polyphosphates. Group: Mineral salts & Anti- ...
The Proline-rich inositol polyphosphate 5-Phosphatase (PIPP) is a negative regulator of phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/akt ... Negative regulation of the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway is facilitated by the inositol polyphosphate 3-phosphatase PTEN, or by ... The proline rich inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (PIPP) is a relatively uncharacterised member of the 5-phosphatase family ... The Proline-rich inositol polyphosphate 5-Phosphatase (PIPP) is a negative regulator of phosphoinositide 3-Kinase/akt ...
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All polyphosphate articles. * News Microbes producing PolyP could cut EU reliance on phosphate rock imports 2023-03-14T16:08: ... Use of microbes to produce polyphosphate could help to reduce EU reliance on imports of phosphate rock in the future, according ... Professor Lars Blank said the EU is currently buying phosphate rock from Morocco to produce fertilisers and polyphosphates ... ...
Meat and meat products - Detection of polyphosphates
Neutral sodium polyphosphate-Yunnan Addiphos Technology Co., Ltd. ...
... modified ammonium polyphosphate, melamine polyphosphate, solid water-soluble ammonium polyphosphate and liquid ammonium ... is a professional halogen-free environmental protection ammonium polyphosphate flame retardant manufacturer, with ammonium ... Ammonium Polyphosphate I Phase. Ammonium Polyphosphate II Phase. Modified Ammonium Polyphosphate. Melamine Polyphosphate(MPP). ... Ammonium Polyphosphate I Phase Ammonium Polyphosphate II Phase Modified Ammonium Polyphosphate Melamine Polyphosphate(MPP) ...
Maintain water quality at the tap with food polyphosphates , Dose for a cartridge. ... The pouch of the polyphosphate dose can fill the equivalent of an empty cartridge 9 3/4 inches, between 810g and 850g. You can ... I have seen the product "Polyphosphates Crystals limescale - Special Dose 9-3/4 inch" cheaper elsewhere.. ... In no case do not filter polyphosphate balls limestone.. They are very useful on a hot water inlet tank. ...
Chinas leading Inorganic Flame Retardant Ammonium Polyphosphate product, with strict quality control Intumescent Coating Flame ... High quality Inorganic Flame Retardant Ammonium Polyphosphate For Intumescent Coating from China, ... Ammonium Polyphosphate Flame Retardant Intumescent Flame Retardant Halogen Free Flame Retardant All Categories ... Ammonium polyphosphate (phase II) is a non-halogen flame retardant, it acts as flame retardant by intumescence mechanism. When ...
Acceleration of chronic wound healing by bio-inorganic polyphosphate: In vitro studies and first clinical applications Hadrian ... Keywords: Inorganic polyphosphate, Nanoparticles, Chronic wounds, Compressed collagen, Re-epithelialization Citation styles. ... Acceleration of chronic wound healing by bio-inorganic polyphosphate: In vitro studies and first clinical applications. ... Acceleration of chronic wound healing by bio-inorganic polyphosphate: In vitro studies and first clinical applications. ...
N2 - Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is increasingly being recognized as an important phosphorus sink within the environment, ... AB - Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is increasingly being recognized as an important phosphorus sink within the environment, ... Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is increasingly being recognized as an important phosphorus sink within the environment, ... abstract = "Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is increasingly being recognized as an important phosphorus sink within the ...
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  • Ammonium polyphosphate is an inorganic salt of polyphosphoric acid and ammonia containing both chains and possibly branching. (wikipedia.org)
  • The properties of ammonium polyphosphate depend on the number of monomers in each molecule and to a degree on how often it branches. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ammonium polyphosphate can be prepared by reacting concentrated phosphoric acid with ammonia. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, iron and aluminum impurities, soluble in concentrated phosphoric acid, form gelatinous precipitates or "sludges" in ammonium polyphosphate at pH between 5 and 7. (wikipedia.org)
  • [4] However, depending on the degree of polymerization, ammonium polyphosphate can act as a chelating agent to keep certain metal ions dissolved in solution. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is also used as a flame retardant in many applications such as paints and coatings, and in a variety of polymers: the most important ones are polyolefins , and particularly polypropylene, where APP is part of intumescent systems. (wikipedia.org)
  • Ammonium polyphosphates used as flame retardants in polymers have long chains and a specific crystallinity (Form II). (wikipedia.org)
  • US 4721519 , Thomas, William P. & Lawton, William S., "Stable ammonium polyphosphate liquid fertilizer from merchant grade phosphoric acid", published 1988-01-26, assigned to American Petro Mart Inc. (wikipedia.org)
  • I have a bucket of liquid ammonium polyphosphate 10-34-0. (acs.org)
  • Modified Ammonium Polyphosphate-Dongying Jingdong Chemical Co., Ltd. (sunquelaque-sanukis.com)
  • Ammonium polyphosphate (phase II) is a non-halogen flame retardant, it acts as flame retardant by intumescence mechanism. (appflameretardant.com)
  • Agricultural Grade Solid Ammonium Polyphosphate-Dongying Jingdong Chemical Co., Ltd. (daytonaoldies.com)
  • Ammonium polyphosphate fertilizers provide an analytical challenge because they contain mixed phosphorus (P) species in solution as orthophosphate, pyrophosphate, and tripolyphosphate species. (edu.au)
  • Our company is engaged in the research and production of ammonium polyphosphate flame retardants and its related products. (1225777.com)
  • Ammonium polyphosphate is a new, environmental friendly and efficient flame retardant product. (1225777.com)
  • As government keep regularizing and improving flame retardant requirements for products, ammonium polyphosphate is playing a more and more important role. (1225777.com)
  • We now have up to 16 varieties of products including phase I, phase II and modified ammonium polyphosphate products, they are widely used in the market. (1225777.com)
  • High-polymeric inorganic polyphosphates were found in living organisms by L. Liberman in 1890. (wikipedia.org)
  • In previous studies, we showed that physiological inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is a generator of metabolic energy by forming ATP as a result of the enzymatic cleavage of the high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds of this polymer. (thno.org)
  • Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is increasingly being recognized as an important phosphorus sink within the environment, playing a central role in phosphorus exchange and phosphogenesis. (qub.ac.uk)
  • Inorganic polyphosphate in mammals: where's Wally? (silverchair.com)
  • Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is a ubiquitous polymer of tens to hundreds of orthophosphate residues linked by high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds. (silverchair.com)
  • Arthur Kornberg and Igor Kulaev spent a large part of their careers working on inorganic polyphosphate (polyP). (silverchair.com)
  • Fluorometric quantification of natural inorganic polyphosphate. (anaspec.com)
  • To implement this screening approach, cells from wastewater sludge samples were stained with 4'6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) to target cells with high polyphosphate (polyP) accumulation. (frontiersin.org)
  • The role of the 72 kDa inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase in cellular function. (monash.edu)
  • Negative regulation of the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway is facilitated by the inositol polyphosphate 3-phosphatase PTEN, or by members of the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase family, which both degrade PtdIns(3,4,5)P3. (monash.edu)
  • The proline rich inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (PIPP) is a relatively uncharacterised member of the 5-phosphatase family which hydrolyses PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 in vivo to negatively regulate Akt signalling in the neuronal-like PC12 cell line (Ooms et al. (monash.edu)
  • We describe herein the "complexation" kinetics of a short linear sodium polyphosphate (PSP) with poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) in the presence of 10 mM, 0.15 M and 1 M NaCl. (rsc.org)
  • Neutral sodium polyphosphate_Yunnan Addiphos Technology Co., Ltd. (addiphos.com)
  • Our findings demonstrate that the Arabidopsis inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) homolog, AtIPK2α generates 4/6-InsP 7 in vitro . (biorxiv.org)
  • Inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK), the key enzyme for the biosynthesis of higher inositol polyphosphates and phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate, also acts as a versatile signaling player in regulating tissue growth and metabolism. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • Inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) is required for the biosynthesis of inositol phosphates (IPs) through the phosphorylation of multiple IP metabolites such as IP3 and IP4. (molcells.org)
  • Insights into the biological functions of IPs have come from genetic studies in yeast and by manipulating inositol polyphosphate multikinase (IPMK) expression in mammalian cells. (molcells.org)
  • Here we have shown that polyphosphate accumulating bacteria (PABs) isolated from activated sludge are efficient in reducing cyanobacterial blooms up to 95.56% by trapping phosphorus in metapolyphosphate form. (microbiologyjournal.org)
  • Online colorimetry was compared with ion chromatography as a method for the speciation and quantification of the chemical species of P supplied in polyphosphate fertilizers. (edu.au)
  • Several novel and efficient approaches to the synthesis of nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates were developed. (uwaterloo.ca)
  • The enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of most of the cellular polyphosphate, using the terminal phosphate of ATP as substrate. (expasy.org)
  • Structure of triphosphoric acid Polyphosphoric acid Cyclic trimetaphosphate Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) The structure of tripolyphosphoric acid illustrates the principles which define the structures of polyphosphates. (wikipedia.org)
  • Polyphosphate-based corrosion inhibitor and antiscalant for potable water distribution piping . (environmental-expert.com)
  • Rational design of polyphosphate kinase dual-substrate channel cavity for efficient production of glutathione by cell free catalysis]. (bvsalud.org)
  • By molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis , we rationally engineered the dual-substrate channel cavity of polyphosphate kinase to improve the catalytic activity of PPK. (bvsalud.org)
  • A polyphosphate is a salt or ester of polymeric oxyanions formed from tetrahedral PO4 (phosphate) structural units linked together by sharing oxygen atoms. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this work, nanoparticles are obtained by the self-assembly of PEO-b-polyphosphate copolymers in water in the absence of any organic co-solvent whatever the length of the pendant alkyl chain (between 4 and 7 carbon atoms) of the polyphosphate block. (maastrichtuniversity.nl)
  • Existence and alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation of inositol polyphosphates in mammalian heart. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Ion chromatography was able to speciate all of the P species supplied in polyphosphate fertilizer, whereas colorimetry detected only P in solution as orthophosphate and, by the difference between the measurement of digested and undigested samples, total condensed P species. (edu.au)
  • In this study, we developed a strategy for the isolation of polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) by combining (i) nontoxic fluorescence staining of polyphosphate granules in viable microbial cells and (ii) fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for the rapid detection and collection of target cells. (frontiersin.org)
  • However, the physiological role of these inositol polyphosphate isomers in the heart remains to be elucidated, because, from the time course, they appear to have no acute intracellular second messenger function. (aspetjournals.org)
  • Diadenosine polyphosphates (ApnA) are naturally occurring molecules which have been identified in human and guinea-pig cardiac tissue and whose physiological role is being established. (eurekaselect.com)
  • The concentration-response curves and the time course of the effects of phenylephrine (0.01-100 microM) on force of contraction and on inositol polyphosphates in isolated electrically stimulated perfused rat hearts (Langendorff technique) were studied. (aspetjournals.org)
  • A nonradiometric high performance liquid chromatography metal dye detection technique was used to determine absolute concentration masses/changes of inositol polyphosphates in heart. (aspetjournals.org)
  • The conventional technique for the determination of polyphosphate concentration in solution is measuring the difference between total digested P and initial orthophosphate with colorimetry. (edu.au)
  • Structural basis for phosphoinositide substrate recognition, catalysis, and membrane interactions in human inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatases. (scilifelab.se)
  • The structural basis for membrane recognition, substrate specificity, and regulation of inositol polyphosphate 5-phophatases is still poorly understood. (scilifelab.se)
  • Polyphosphate kinases (PPK) can provide energy for ATP -consuming reactions due to their cheap and readily available substrate polyphosphate . (bvsalud.org)
  • MPI 8 is a new compound that blocks a molecule in the blood called polyphosphate, which plays a role in blood clotting. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO)-b-polyphosphate copolymers made of hydrophilic PEO and hydrophobic polyphosphates are amphiphilic copolymers prone to self-assemble in water into nanoparticles. (maastrichtuniversity.nl)
  • The Polyphosphate/Granular Activated Carbon Cartridges utilize 42, NSF 60 certified clear bead media for scale and corrosion reduction. (isopurewater.com)
  • A variety of polyphosphates find application in mineral sequestration in municipal waters, generally being present at 1 to 5 ppm. (wikipedia.org)
  • I have seen the product " Polyphosphates Crystals limescale - Special Dose 9-3/4 inch " cheaper elsewhere. (diproclean.com)
  • High molecular weight polyphosphates are well known. (wikipedia.org)
  • Crystalline high molecular weight polyphosphates include Kurrol's salt and Maddrell's salt. (wikipedia.org)
  • The procedure is rapid, produces a wide variety of nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates in high yield, does not require protection and subsequent deprotection of the nucleotide donors or acceptors and can be used to activate nucleoside mono-, di-, and triphosphates and a wide variety of acceptors. (uwaterloo.ca)
  • The filled cartridge polyphosphates will empty more or less quickly depending on the hardness of the water circulating. (diproclean.com)
  • Nucleoside polyphosphates and their conjugates, such as nucleoside triphosphates, nucleoside tetraphosphates, sugar nucleotides, dinucleoside pyro- and higher order polyphosphates, 2',3'-cyclic nucleoside monophosphates, and 2´-deoxynucleoside-5´-tetraphosphates in which a fluorescent label is attached to the terminal phosphate have many biological roles and have been developed into drugs. (uwaterloo.ca)
  • Polyphosphates are also used as food additives, marked E452. (wikipedia.org)
  • In biology, the polyphosphate esters ADP and ATP are involved in energy storage. (wikipedia.org)
  • Remarkably, this solvent-free process remains efficient even for the most hydrophobic polyphosphate blocks. (maastrichtuniversity.nl)
  • Polyphosphates can adopt linear or a cyclic ring structures. (wikipedia.org)
  • In no case do not filter polyphosphate balls limestone. (diproclean.com)