A suspension of formalin-inactivated poliovirus grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture and used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS.
A live vaccine containing attenuated poliovirus, types I, II, and III, grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture, used for routine immunization of children against polio. This vaccine induces long-lasting intestinal and humoral immunity. Killed vaccine induces only humoral immunity. Oral poliovirus vaccine should not be administered to immunocompromised individuals or their household contacts. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A species of ENTEROVIRUS which is the causal agent of POLIOMYELITIS in humans. Three serotypes (strains) exist. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route, pharyngeal secretions, or mechanical vector (flies). Vaccines with both inactivated and live attenuated virus have proven effective in immunizing against the infection.
Vaccines used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS. They include inactivated (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, INACTIVATED) and oral vaccines (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, ORAL).
An acute infectious disease of humans, particularly children, caused by any of three serotypes of human poliovirus (POLIOVIRUS). Usually the infection is limited to the gastrointestinal tract and nasopharynx, and is often asymptomatic. The central nervous system, primarily the spinal cord, may be affected, leading to rapidly progressive paralysis, coarse FASCICULATION and hyporeflexia. Motor neurons are primarily affected. Encephalitis may also occur. The virus replicates in the nervous system, and may cause significant neuronal loss, most notably in the spinal cord. A rare related condition, nonpoliovirus poliomyelitis, may result from infections with nonpoliovirus enteroviruses. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp764-5)
A sultanate on the southeast coast of the Arabian peninsula. Its capital is Masqat. Before the 16th century it was ruled by independent emirs but was captured and controlled by the Portuguese 1508-1648. In 1741 it was recovered by a descendent of Yemen's imam. After its decline in the 19th century, it became virtually a political and economic dependency within the British Government of India, retaining close ties with Great Britain by treaty from 1939 to 1970 when it achieved autonomy. The name was recorded by Pliny in the 1st century A.D. as Omana, said to be derived from the founder of the state, Oman ben Ibrahim al-Khalil. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p890; Oman Embassy, Washington; Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p391)
Two or more vaccines in a single dosage form.
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
Schedule giving optimum times usually for primary and/or secondary immunization.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
The expelling of virus particles from the body. Important routes include the respiratory tract, genital tract, and intestinal tract. Virus shedding is an important means of vertical transmission (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
Organized services to administer immunization procedures in the prevention of various diseases. The programs are made available over a wide range of sites: schools, hospitals, public health agencies, voluntary health agencies, etc. They are administered to an equally wide range of population groups or on various administrative levels: community, municipal, state, national, international.
The injection of solutions into the skin by compressed air devices so that only the solution pierces the skin.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
A vaccine consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and whole-cell PERTUSSIS VACCINE. The vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough.
Combined vaccines consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and an acellular form of PERTUSSIS VACCINE. At least five different purified antigens of B. pertussis have been used in various combinations in these vaccines.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed bacteria administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious bacterial disease.
Any immunization following a primary immunization and involving exposure to the same or a closely related antigen.
The presence of organisms, or any foreign material that makes a drug preparation impure.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing antigenic polysaccharides from Haemophilus influenzae and designed to prevent infection. The vaccine can contain the polysaccharides alone or more frequently polysaccharides conjugated to carrier molecules. It is also seen as a combined vaccine with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated HIV or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent or treat AIDS. Some vaccines containing antigens are recombinantly produced.
An island in the Greater Antilles in the West Indies, south of Florida. With the adjacent islands it forms the Republic of Cuba. Its capital is Havana. It was discovered by Columbus on his first voyage in 1492 and conquered by Spain in 1511. It has a varied history under Spain, Great Britain, and the United States but has been independent since 1902. The name Cuba is said to be an Indian name of unknown origin but the language that gave the name is extinct, so the etymology is a conjecture. (From Webster's New Geographical Dictionary, 1988, p302 & Room, Brewer's Dictionary of Names, 1992, p132)
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
A country in northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula Its capital is Cairo.
A general term most often used to describe severe or complete loss of muscle strength due to motor system disease from the level of the cerebral cortex to the muscle fiber. This term may also occasionally refer to a loss of sensory function. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p45)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
Vaccines consisting of one or more antigens that stimulate a strong immune response. They are purified from microorganisms or produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or they can be chemically synthesized peptides.
Refuse liquid or waste matter carried off by sewers.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Afghanistan" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It is a country located in South-Central Asia. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, I would be happy to help answer those!
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Administration of a vaccine to large populations in order to elicit IMMUNITY.
The forcing into the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle, piercing the top skin layer.
Vaccines made from antigens arising from any of the four strains of Plasmodium which cause malaria in humans, or from P. berghei which causes malaria in rodents.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS. Human vaccines are intended to reduce the incidence of UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS, so they are sometimes considered a type of CANCER VACCINES. They are often composed of CAPSID PROTEINS, especially L1 protein, from various types of ALPHAPAPILLOMAVIRUS.
Proteins that form the CAPSID of VIRUSES.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Nonsusceptibility to the pathogenic effects of foreign microorganisms or antigenic substances as a result of antibody secretions of the mucous membranes. Mucosal epithelia in the gastrointestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts produce a form of IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) that serves to protect these ports of entry into the body.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had measles or been immunized with live measles vaccine and have no serum antibodies against measles. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
An infant during the first month after birth.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
The complete genetic complement contained in a DNA or RNA molecule in a virus.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
A suspension of killed Bordetella pertussis organisms, used for immunization against pertussis (WHOOPING COUGH). It is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids (DTP). There is an acellular pertussis vaccine prepared from the purified antigenic components of Bordetella pertussis, which causes fewer adverse reactions than whole-cell vaccine and, like the whole-cell vaccine, is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
The concept pertaining to the health status of inhabitants of the world.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent and treat RABIES. The inactivated virus vaccine is used for preexposure immunization to persons at high risk of exposure, and in conjunction with rabies immunoglobulin, for postexposure prophylaxis.
Ongoing scrutiny of a population (general population, study population, target population, etc.), generally using methods distinguished by their practicability, uniformity, and frequently their rapidity, rather than by complete accuracy.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with ROTAVIRUS.
A species of POLYOMAVIRUS originally isolated from Rhesus monkey kidney tissue. It produces malignancy in human and newborn hamster kidney cell cultures.
A specialized agency of the United Nations designed as a coordinating authority on international health work; its aim is to promote the attainment of the highest possible level of health by all peoples.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with VIBRIO CHOLERAE. The original cholera vaccine consisted of killed bacteria, but other kinds of vaccines now exist.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
Vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER and/or PARATYPHOID FEVER which are caused by various species of SALMONELLA. Attenuated, subunit, and inactivated forms of the vaccines exist.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
A genus of the family PICORNAVIRIDAE whose members preferentially inhabit the intestinal tract of a variety of hosts. The genus contains many species. Newly described members of human enteroviruses are assigned continuous numbers with the species designated "human enterovirus".
A live VACCINIA VIRUS vaccine of calf lymph or chick embryo origin, used for immunization against smallpox. It is now recommended only for laboratory workers exposed to smallpox virus. Certain countries continue to vaccinate those in the military service. Complications that result from smallpox vaccination include vaccinia, secondary bacterial infections, and encephalomyelitis. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat TUBERCULOSIS.
A live, attenuated varicella virus vaccine used for immunization against chickenpox. It is recommended for children between the ages of 12 months and 13 years.
A distribution function used to describe the occurrence of rare events or to describe the sampling distribution of isolated counts in a continuum of time or space.
The outer protein protective shell of a virus, which protects the viral nucleic acid.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by MUMPS VIRUS. Best known is the live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had mumps or been immunized with live mumps vaccine. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
A combined vaccine used to prevent MEASLES; MUMPS; and RUBELLA.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It is a geographical location, referring to the Republic of India, a country in South Asia. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help with those!
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent ANTHRAX.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with DENGUE VIRUS. These include live-attenuated, subunit, DNA, and inactivated vaccines.
A species of ENTEROVIRUS infecting humans and containing 36 serotypes. It is comprised of all the echoviruses and a few coxsackieviruses, including all of those previously named coxsackievirus B.
Vaccines using VIROSOMES as the antigen delivery system that stimulates the desired immune response.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
ENDOPEPTIDASES which have a cysteine involved in the catalytic process. This group of enzymes is inactivated by CYSTEINE PROTEINASE INHIBITORS such as CYSTATINS and SULFHYDRYL REAGENTS.
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
Vaccine used to prevent YELLOW FEVER. It consists of a live attenuated 17D strain of the YELLOW FEVER VIRUS.
A suspension of killed Yersinia pestis used for immunizing people in enzootic plague areas.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed fungi administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious fungal disease.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
An enzyme that catalyses RNA-template-directed extension of the 3'- end of an RNA strand by one nucleotide at a time, and can initiate a chain de novo. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, p293)
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.

Improved genotyping vaccine and wild-type poliovirus strains by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis: clinical diagnostic implications. (1/134)

The combination of preventive vaccination and diagnostic typing of viral isolates from patients with clinical poliomyelitis constitutes our main protective shield against polioviruses. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) adaptation of the reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR methodology has advanced diagnostic genotyping of polioviruses, although further improvements are definitely needed. We report here on an improved RFLP procedure for the genotyping of polioviruses. A highly conserved segment within the 5' noncoding region of polioviruses was selected for RT-PCR amplification by the UC(53)-UG(52) primer pair with the hope that it would be most resistant to the inescapable genetic alteration-drift experienced by the other segments of the viral genome. Complete inter- and intratypic genotyping of polioviruses by the present RFLP method was accomplished with a minimum set of four restriction endonucleases (HaeIII, DdeI, NcoI, and AvaI). To compensate for potential genetic drift within the recognition sites of HaeIII, DdeI, or NcoI in atypical clinical samples, the RFLP patterns generated with HpaII and StyI as replacements were analyzed. The specificity of the method was also successfully assessed by RFLP analysis of 55 reference nonpoliovirus enterovirus controls. The concerted implementation of these conditional protocols for diagnostic inter- and intratypic genotyping of polioviruses was evaluated with 21 clinical samples with absolute success.  (+info)

Routine vaccinations and child survival: follow up study in Guinea-Bissau, West Africa. (2/134)

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between routine childhood vaccinations and survival among infants in Guinea-Bissau. DESIGN: Follow up study. PARTICIPANTS: 15 351 women and their children born during 1990 and 1996. SETTING: Rural Guinea-Bissau. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Infant mortality over six months (between age 0-6 months and 7-13 months for BCG, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, and polio vaccines and between 7-13 months and 14-20 months for measles vaccine). RESULTS: Mortality was lower in the group vaccinated with any vaccine compared with those not vaccinated, the mortality ratio being 0.74 (95% confidence interval 0.53 to 1.03). After cluster, age, and other vaccines were adjusted for, BCG was associated with significantly lower mortality (0.55 (0.36 to 0.85)). However, recipients of one dose of diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis or polio vaccines had higher mortality than children who had received none of these vaccines (1.84 (1.10 to 3.10) for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis). Recipients of measles vaccine had a mortality ratio of 0.48 (0.27 to 0.87). When deaths from measles were excluded from the analysis the mortality ratio was 0.51 (0.28 to 0.95). Estimates were unchanged by controls for background factors. CONCLUSIONS: These trends are unlikely to be explained exclusively by selection biases since different vaccines were associated with opposite tendencies. Measles and BCG vaccines may have beneficial effects in addition to protection against measles and tuberculosis.  (+info)

The vaccine origin of the 1968 epidemic of type 3 poliomyelitis in Poland. (3/134)

A clear association was demonstrated between the use of USOL-D-bac type 3 poliovirus live-attenuated vaccine and the 1968 poliomyelitis epidemic in Poland. The epidemic followed small-scale trials with Sabin and USOL-D-bac type 3 vaccine strains carried out in seven countries including Poland. Factors that might have contributed to the genesis and development of the epidemic were the pattern of virus excretion from vaccinees, mutations found in viruses from the epidemic, and the particular vaccination policies in Poland during the previous years. These findings may provide essential insights into the strategies for stopping polio immunisation once wild poliovirus has been eradicated.  (+info)

Immunity to poliomyelitis in The Netherlands. (4/134)

Despite a vaccination coverage rate of 97%, several poliomyelitis outbreaks occurred in the Netherlands during the last three decades, all among sociogeographically clustered, unvaccinated persons. Therefore, to eradicate polio, insight into poliomyelitis immunity is particularly useful. In 1995-1996, the authors conducted a population-based study and determined neutralizing antibodies against poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3 in 9,274 sera from the general population and from religious groups rejecting vaccination. In the general population, the antibody prevalence (>/=1:8) was 96.6% (95% confidence interval (CI): 95.9, 97.2), 93.4% (95% CI: 92.3, 94.5), and 89.7% (95% CI: 88.3, 91.0) for poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Antibodies persisted for long periods in persons with natural immunity as well as in persons whose immunity was induced by inactivated polio vaccine. In Orthodox Reformed persons, the antibody prevalence of poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3 was 65.0% (95% CI: 57.2, 72.9), 59.0% (95% CI: 40.1, 77.9), and 68.7% (95% CI: 65.2, 72.2), respectively. The recent outbreaks clearly affected the seroprevalence profiles of Orthodox Reformed groups but not the general population. At present, there is an insufficient social and political basis for mandatory vaccination; therefore, global eradication of poliovirus seems to be the only way to protect these Orthodox Reformed persons against future poliomyelitis outbreaks.  (+info)

No evidence of HIV and SIV sequences in two separate lots of polio vaccines used in the first U.S. polio vaccine campaign. (5/134)

We obtained sealed vials of two different polio vaccine lots, expiration date 1955, which were used in the first U.S. polio vaccine campaign. These early lots were pulled from the market because they contained live infectious poliovirus which caused polio in some of the vaccines. Theoretically, these vaccines could have contained other infectious retroviruses, including HIV. No viral sequences were detected using RT-PCR analyses with primers capable of amplifying chimpanzee SIV and HIV-1-related viruses nor with primers for macaque SIV, sooty mangabey SIV, and HIV-2-related viruses. Poliovirus sequences were readily amplified by RT-PCR, suggesting that the technique used would have detected SIV or HIV sequences, if present.  (+info)

Humoral immunity to viral and bacterial antigens in lymphoma patients 4-10 years after high-dose therapy with ABMT. Serological responses to revaccinations according to EBMT guidelines. (6/134)

The aim of this study was to investigate the late effects of ABMT on the immune system with regard to protective humoral immunity against common antigens and responses to recall antigens (vaccines). The vaccines were given according to EBMT guidelines from 1995. The protocol included 35 patients with malignant lymphoma in CR 4-10 years after ABMT, and 35 controls. The results show that prior to ABMT the proportion of patients with protective immunity against poliomyelitis, tetanus and diphtheria was similar to that of controls. At study entry 4-10 years after ABMT, the proportion of patients with protective immunity against poliomyelitis and diphtheria was reduced, while all patients maintained protection against tetanus. A significant decrease in geometric mean antibody concentrations or titres was observed against all three antigens during this period. Serum levels of antibodies against different pneumococcal serotypes were lower in the patients than in the controls prior to vaccination. The responses to pneumococcal vaccination, which is considered to be a T cell-independent vaccine, were studied. Unlike controls, a minority of patients achieved protective levels of antibodies after a single vaccination. Despite persistent levels of protective antibodies in many patients post ABMT, secondary booster responses after one vaccination with T cell-dependent vaccines (tetanus, diphtheria and polio) were absent. In conclusion, this study shows that post ABMT, a full re-vaccination program was necessary to mount responses comparable to those observed after a single vaccination in controls.  (+info)

Poliovirus circulation among schoolchildren during the early phase of the 1992-1993 poliomyelitis outbreak in The Netherlands. (7/134)

During the 1992-1993 outbreak of poliomyelitis in The Netherlands, we examined 866 childrenat 7 schools for evidence of infection with the outbreak virus, poliovirus type 3(PV3), to determine the extent of the outbreak and the protection of the herd immunity. Seventy-seven children (8.9%) showed evidence of recent wild-type PV3 infection, as determined by virus isolation and/or poliovirus type-specific IgM assay. Most infected children lived in the same area as the index case patient, attended an orthodox-reformed (OR) primary school, and had not been vaccinated. At the OR school, as many as 22% of children immunized with inactive poliovirus vaccine were found to have evidence of recent infection, which is a significantly lower rate than that among unvaccinated children (59.5%). No evidence of vaccination was seen in 25.5%-43.1% of children at OR schools. Seroprevalence of antibodies against the 3 types of poliovirus suggested that no poliovirus circulation had occurred between the 1978 and 1992-1993 outbreaks.  (+info)

Thirty-five year mortality following receipt of SV40- contaminated polio vaccine during the neonatal period. (8/134)

Early poliovirus vaccines, both inactivated and live attenuated, were inadvertently contaminated with simian virus 40 (SV40), a monkey virus known to be oncogenic for newborn hamsters. Although large epidemiologic studies have not identified an elevated cancer risk in persons who received SV40-contaminated vaccines, fragments of SV40 DNA have recently been identified in certain human tumours. We report the follow-up of a cohort of 1073 persons, unique because they received SV40-contaminated poliovirus vaccines as newborns in 1961-63. A previous report of the status of these subjects as of 1977-79 identified 15 deaths, none due to cancer. The present study utilized the National Death Index to identify deaths in the cohort for the years 1979-96. Expected deaths were calculated from Cleveland area sex-, age-, race- and year-specific mortality rates. Increased mortality from all causes was not found. 4 deaths from cancer were found compared to 3.16 expected (P = 0.77). However, 2 deaths from testicular cancer occurred, compared to 0.05 expected (P = 0.002), which may be a chance finding due to multiple comparisons. There were 2 deaths due to leukaemia, a non-significant finding, and no deaths due to tumours of the types putatively associated with SV40. Although these results are, for the most part, consistent with other negative epidemiologic investigations of risks from SV40-contaminated vaccines, further study of testicular cancer may be warranted, and it will be important to continue monitoring this cohort which is now reaching middle-age.  (+info)

Poliovirus Vaccine, Inactivated (IPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio), a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. IPV contains inactivated (killed) polioviruses of all three poliovirus types. It works by stimulating an immune response in the body, but because the viruses are inactivated, they cannot cause polio. After vaccination, the immune system recognizes and responds to the inactivated viruses, producing antibodies that protect against future infection with wild, or naturally occurring, polioviruses. IPV is typically given as an injection in the leg or arm, and a series of doses are required for full protection. It is a safe and effective way to prevent polio and its complications.

Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral (OPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). It contains live attenuated (weakened) polioviruses, which stimulate an immune response in the body and provide protection against all three types of wild, infectious polioviruses. OPV is given by mouth, usually in drops, and it replicates in the gastrointestinal tract, where it induces a strong immune response. This response not only protects the individual who receives the vaccine but also helps to stop the spread of poliovirus in the community, providing indirect protection (herd immunity) to those who are not vaccinated. OPV is safe, effective, and easy to administer, making it an important tool for global polio eradication efforts. However, due to the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is recommended for routine immunization in some countries.

Poliovirus is a human enterovirus, specifically a type of picornavirus, that is the causative agent of poliomyelitis (polio). It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. There are three serotypes of Poliovirus (types 1, 2 and 3) which can cause different degrees of severity in the disease. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route and infects the gastrointestinal tract, from where it can invade the nervous system and cause paralysis.

The Poliovirus has an icosahedral symmetry, with a diameter of about 30 nanometers. It contains a single stranded RNA genome which is encapsidated in a protein shell called capsid. The capsid is made up of 60 units of four different proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4).

Poliovirus has been eradicated from most countries of the world through widespread vaccination with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) or oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). However, it still remains endemic in a few countries and is considered a major public health concern.

Poliovirus vaccines are preparations used for active immunization against poliomyelitis, a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. The two types of poliovirus vaccines available are:

1. Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): This vaccine contains inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. IPV is typically administered through an injection, usually in combination with other vaccines. It provides a strong immune response and does not carry the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), which is a rare but serious adverse event associated with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV).

2. Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV): This vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. OPV is administered orally and induces both humoral and intestinal immunity, which helps prevent the spread of the virus in a community. However, there is a small risk of VAPP associated with this vaccine, especially after multiple doses. In rare cases, the weakened virus can revert to its virulent form and cause paralytic polio in the vaccinated individual or their close contacts.

Both IPV and OPV have been instrumental in global efforts to eradicate polio. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using IPV in routine immunization programs, while using OPV during supplementary immunization activities in areas with a high risk of poliovirus transmission.

Poliomyelitis, also known as polio, is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus that invades the body through the mouth, usually from contaminated water or food. The virus multiplies in the intestine and can invade the nervous system, causing paralysis.

The medical definition of Poliomyelitis includes:

1. An acute viral infection caused by the poliovirus.
2. Characterized by inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord (poliomyelitis), leading to muscle weakness, and in some cases, paralysis.
3. The disease primarily affects children under 5 years of age.
4. Transmission occurs through the fecal-oral route or, less frequently, by respiratory droplets.
5. The virus enters the body via the mouth, multiplies in the intestines, and can invade the nervous system.
6. There are three types of poliovirus (types 1, 2, and 3), each capable of causing paralytic polio.
7. Infection with one type does not provide immunity to the other two types.
8. The disease has no cure, but vaccination can prevent it.
9. Two types of vaccines are available: inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) and oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV).
10. Rare complications of OPV include vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) and circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs).

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Oman" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country, which is located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. If you have any questions related to medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

Combined vaccines are defined in medical terms as vaccines that contain two or more antigens from different diseases, which are given to provide protection against multiple diseases at the same time. This approach reduces the number of injections required and simplifies the immunization schedule, especially during early childhood. Examples of combined vaccines include:

1. DTaP-Hib-IPV (e.g., Pentacel): A vaccine that combines diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease, and poliovirus components in one injection to protect against these five diseases.
2. MMRV (e.g., ProQuad): A vaccine that combines measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella (chickenpox) antigens in a single injection to provide immunity against all four diseases.
3. HepA-HepB (e.g., Twinrix): A vaccine that combines hepatitis A and hepatitis B antigens in one injection, providing protection against both types of hepatitis.
4. MenACWY-TT (e.g., MenQuadfi): A vaccine that combines four serogroups of meningococcal bacteria (A, C, W, Y) with tetanus toxoid as a carrier protein in one injection for the prevention of invasive meningococcal disease caused by these serogroups.
5. PCV13-PPSV23 (e.g., Vaxneuvance): A vaccine that combines 13 pneumococcal serotypes with PPSV23, providing protection against a broader range of pneumococcal diseases in adults aged 18 years and older.

Combined vaccines have been thoroughly tested for safety and efficacy to ensure they provide a strong immune response and an acceptable safety profile. They are essential tools in preventing various infectious diseases and improving overall public health.

Inactivated vaccines, also known as killed or non-live vaccines, are created by using a version of the virus or bacteria that has been grown in a laboratory and then killed or inactivated with chemicals, heat, or radiation. This process renders the organism unable to cause disease, but still capable of stimulating an immune response when introduced into the body.

Inactivated vaccines are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines since they cannot revert back to a virulent form and cause illness. However, they may require multiple doses or booster shots to maintain immunity because the immune response generated by inactivated vaccines is not as robust as that produced by live vaccines. Examples of inactivated vaccines include those for hepatitis A, rabies, and influenza (inactivated flu vaccine).

An immunization schedule is a series of planned dates when a person, usually a child, should receive specific vaccines in order to be fully protected against certain preventable diseases. The schedule is developed based on scientific research and recommendations from health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

The immunization schedule outlines which vaccines are recommended, the number of doses required, the age at which each dose should be given, and the minimum amount of time that must pass between doses. The schedule may vary depending on factors such as the individual's age, health status, and travel plans.

Immunization schedules are important for ensuring that individuals receive timely protection against vaccine-preventable diseases, and for maintaining high levels of immunity in populations, which helps to prevent the spread of disease. It is important to follow the recommended immunization schedule as closely as possible to ensure optimal protection.

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. It typically contains an agent that resembles the disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it encounters in the future.

Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight disease that is already present). The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccinations are generally administered through needle injections, but can also be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.

The term "vaccine" comes from Edward Jenner's 1796 use of cowpox to create immunity to smallpox. The first successful vaccine was developed in 1796 by Edward Jenner, who showed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox did not get smallpox. He reasoned that exposure to cowpox protected against smallpox and tested his theory by injecting a boy with pus from a cowpox sore and then exposing him to smallpox, which the boy did not contract. The word "vaccine" is derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 during a conversation with a fellow physician and later in the title of his 1801 Inquiry.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Virus shedding refers to the release of virus particles by an infected individual, who can then transmit the virus to others through various means such as respiratory droplets, fecal matter, or bodily fluids. This occurs when the virus replicates inside the host's cells and is released into the surrounding environment, where it can infect other individuals. The duration of virus shedding varies depending on the specific virus and the individual's immune response. It's important to note that some individuals may shed viruses even before they show symptoms, making infection control measures such as hand hygiene, mask-wearing, and social distancing crucial in preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

Immunization programs, also known as vaccination programs, are organized efforts to administer vaccines to populations or communities in order to protect individuals from vaccine-preventable diseases. These programs are typically implemented by public health agencies and involve the planning, coordination, and delivery of immunizations to ensure that a high percentage of people are protected against specific infectious diseases.

Immunization programs may target specific age groups, such as infants and young children, or populations at higher risk of certain diseases, such as travelers, healthcare workers, or individuals with weakened immune systems. The goals of immunization programs include controlling and eliminating vaccine-preventable diseases, reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases, and protecting vulnerable populations from outbreaks and epidemics.

Immunization programs may be delivered through a variety of settings, including healthcare facilities, schools, community centers, and mobile clinics. They often involve partnerships between government agencies, healthcare providers, non-governmental organizations, and communities to ensure that vaccines are accessible, affordable, and acceptable to the populations they serve. Effective immunization programs require strong leadership, adequate funding, robust data systems, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation to assess their impact and identify areas for improvement.

A jet injection is a type of medical injection that uses a high-pressure stream of medication to deliver the dose through the skin and into the underlying tissue. This method does not require the use of a hypodermic needle and is also known as a "needle-free" injection. Jet injectors have been used for various purposes, including vaccination, pain management, and treatment of some skin conditions. However, their use has declined in recent years due to concerns about potential safety issues, such as the risk of cross-contamination between patients and the possibility of injury to the tissue.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

A viral vaccine is a biological preparation that introduces your body to a specific virus in a way that helps your immune system build up protection against the virus without causing the illness. Viral vaccines can be made from weakened or inactivated forms of the virus, or parts of the virus such as proteins or sugars. Once introduced to the body, the immune system recognizes the virus as foreign and produces an immune response, including the production of antibodies. These antibodies remain in the body and provide immunity against future infection with that specific virus.

Viral vaccines are important tools for preventing infectious diseases caused by viruses, such as influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis A and B, rabies, rotavirus, chickenpox, shingles, and some types of cancer. Vaccination programs have led to the control or elimination of many infectious diseases that were once common.

It's important to note that viral vaccines are not effective against bacterial infections, and separate vaccines must be developed for each type of virus. Additionally, because viruses can mutate over time, it is necessary to update some viral vaccines periodically to ensure continued protection.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis (DTaP) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three bacterial diseases: diphtheria, tetanus (lockjaw), and pertussis (whooping cough).

Diphtheria is an upper respiratory infection that can lead to breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, or even death. Tetanus is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, leading to "lockjaw." Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection characterized by severe coughing fits, which can make it difficult to breathe and may lead to pneumonia, seizures, or brain damage.

The DTaP vaccine contains inactivated toxins (toxoids) from the bacteria that cause these diseases. It is typically given as a series of five shots, with doses administered at 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 15-18 months, and 4-6 years of age. The vaccine helps the immune system develop protection against the diseases without causing the actual illness.

It is important to note that there are other combination vaccines available that protect against these same diseases, such as DT (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids) and Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis), which contain higher doses of the diphtheria and pertussis components. These vaccines are recommended for different age groups and may be used as booster shots to maintain immunity throughout adulthood.

Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular Pertussis (DTaP) vaccines are a type of combination vaccine that protect against three serious diseases caused by bacteria: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (also known as whooping cough).

Diphtheria is a highly contagious respiratory infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, and even death. Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, which can be severe enough to cause broken bones or suffocation. Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection that causes severe coughing fits, making it difficult to breathe, eat, or drink.

The "a" in DTaP stands for "acellular," which means that the pertussis component of the vaccine contains only parts of the bacteria, rather than the whole cells used in older vaccines. This reduces the risk of side effects associated with the whole-cell pertussis vaccine while still providing effective protection against the disease.

DTaP vaccines are typically given as a series of five shots, starting at 2 months of age and ending at 4-6 years of age. Booster doses may be recommended later in life to maintain immunity. DTaP vaccines are an essential part of routine childhood immunization schedules and have significantly reduced the incidence of these diseases worldwide.

Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.

I could not find a specific medical definition for "Vaccines, DNA." However, I can provide you with some information about DNA vaccines.

DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses genetically engineered DNA to stimulate an immune response in the body. They work by introducing a small piece of DNA into the body that contains the genetic code for a specific antigen (a substance that triggers an immune response). The cells of the body then use this DNA to produce the antigen, which prompts the immune system to recognize and attack it.

DNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. They are relatively easy to produce, can be stored at room temperature, and can be designed to protect against a wide range of diseases. Additionally, because they use DNA to stimulate an immune response, DNA vaccines do not require the growth and culture of viruses or bacteria, which can make them safer than traditional vaccines.

DNA vaccines are still in the experimental stages, and more research is needed to determine their safety and effectiveness. However, they have shown promise in animal studies and are being investigated as a potential tool for preventing a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza, HIV, and cancer.

Bacterial vaccines are types of vaccines that are created using bacteria or parts of bacteria as the immunogen, which is the substance that triggers an immune response in the body. The purpose of a bacterial vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to develop protection against specific bacterial infections.

There are several types of bacterial vaccines, including:

1. Inactivated or killed whole-cell vaccines: These vaccines contain entire bacteria that have been killed or inactivated through various methods, such as heat or chemicals. The bacteria can no longer cause disease, but they still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response.
2. Subunit, protein, or polysaccharide vaccines: These vaccines use specific components of the bacterium, such as proteins or polysaccharides, that are known to trigger an immune response. By using only these components, the vaccine can avoid using the entire bacterium, which may reduce the risk of adverse reactions.
3. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain live bacteria that have been weakened or attenuated so that they cannot cause disease but still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine can provide long-lasting immunity, but it may not be suitable for people with weakened immune systems.

Bacterial vaccines are essential tools in preventing and controlling bacterial infections, reducing the burden of diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. They work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of the bacteria or its components, which triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and fight off future infections with that same bacterium.

It's important to note that while vaccines are generally safe and effective, they may cause mild side effects such as pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, fever, or fatigue. Serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccine.

Secondary immunization, also known as "anamnestic response" or "booster," refers to the enhanced immune response that occurs upon re-exposure to an antigen, having previously been immunized or infected with the same pathogen. This response is characterized by a more rapid and robust production of antibodies and memory cells compared to the primary immune response. The secondary immunization aims to maintain long-term immunity against infectious diseases and improve vaccine effectiveness. It usually involves administering additional doses of a vaccine or booster shots after the initial series of immunizations, which helps reinforce the immune system's ability to recognize and combat specific pathogens.

Drug contamination refers to the presence of impurities or foreign substances in a pharmaceutical drug or medication. These impurities can include things like bacteria, chemicals, or other drugs that are not intended to be present in the final product. Drug contamination can occur at any stage during the production, storage, or distribution of a medication and can potentially lead to reduced effectiveness, increased side effects, or serious health risks for patients. It is closely monitored and regulated by various health authorities to ensure the safety and efficacy of medications.

Haemophilus vaccines are vaccines that are designed to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a bacterium that can cause serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and epiglottitis. There are two main types of Hib vaccines:

1. Polysaccharide vaccine: This type of vaccine is made from the sugar coating (polysaccharide) of the bacterial cells. It is not effective in children under 2 years of age because their immune systems are not yet mature enough to respond effectively to this type of vaccine.
2. Conjugate vaccine: This type of vaccine combines the polysaccharide with a protein carrier, which helps to stimulate a stronger and more sustained immune response. It is effective in infants as young as 6 weeks old.

Hib vaccines are usually given as part of routine childhood immunizations starting at 2 months of age. They are administered through an injection into the muscle. The vaccine is safe and effective, with few side effects. Vaccination against Hib has led to a significant reduction in the incidence of Hib infections worldwide.

An AIDS vaccine is a type of preventive vaccine that aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The goal of an AIDS vaccine is to induce the production of immune cells and proteins that can recognize and eliminate HIV-infected cells, thereby preventing the establishment of a persistent infection.

Despite decades of research, there is still no licensed AIDS vaccine available. This is due in part to the unique challenges posed by HIV, which has a high mutation rate and can rapidly evolve to evade the immune system's defenses. However, several promising vaccine candidates are currently being tested in clinical trials around the world, and researchers continue to explore new approaches and strategies for developing an effective AIDS vaccine.

I am not aware of a specific medical definition for "Cuba." Cuba is actually a country, specifically an island nation located in the Caribbean Sea. It is south of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. The term "Cuba" would not typically be used in a medical context unless it was referring to something or someone that is related to or originates from this country. For example, a "Cuban immigrant" might be mentioned in a medical history, or a patient might have traveled to Cuba for medical treatment. In these cases, the relevant medical information would relate to the individual's personal history or the specific medical care they received, rather than to any inherent qualities of the country itself.

Attenuated vaccines consist of live microorganisms that have been weakened (attenuated) through various laboratory processes so they do not cause disease in the majority of recipients but still stimulate an immune response. The purpose of attenuation is to reduce the virulence or replication capacity of the pathogen while keeping it alive, allowing it to retain its antigenic properties and induce a strong and protective immune response.

Examples of attenuated vaccines include:

1. Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV): This vaccine uses live but weakened polioviruses to protect against all three strains of the disease-causing poliovirus. The weakened viruses replicate in the intestine and induce an immune response, which provides both humoral (antibody) and cell-mediated immunity.
2. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: This combination vaccine contains live attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella viruses. It is given to protect against these three diseases and prevent their spread in the population.
3. Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: This vaccine uses a weakened form of the varicella-zoster virus, which causes chickenpox. By introducing this attenuated virus into the body, it stimulates an immune response that protects against future infection with the wild-type virus.
4. Yellow fever vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to prevent yellow fever, a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and South America. The vaccine contains a weakened form of the yellow fever virus that cannot cause the disease but still induces an immune response.
5. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to protect against tuberculosis (TB). It contains a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which does not cause TB in humans but stimulates an immune response that provides some protection against the disease.

Attenuated vaccines are generally effective at inducing long-lasting immunity and can provide robust protection against targeted diseases. However, they may pose a risk for individuals with weakened immune systems, as the attenuated viruses or bacteria could potentially cause illness in these individuals. Therefore, it is essential to consider an individual's health status before administering live attenuated vaccines.

I am not aware of any medical definition for the term "Egypt." Egypt is a country located in the northeastern corner of Africa, known for its rich history and cultural heritage. It is home to various ancient artifacts and monuments, including the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx.

If you have any specific medical or health-related questions related to Egypt, such as information about diseases prevalent in the country or healthcare practices there, I would be happy to try to help answer those for you.

Paralysis is a loss of muscle function in part or all of your body. It can be localized, affecting only one specific area, or generalized, impacting multiple areas or even the entire body. Paralysis often occurs when something goes wrong with the way messages pass between your brain and muscles. In most cases, paralysis is caused by damage to the nervous system, especially the spinal cord. Other causes include stroke, trauma, infections, and various neurological disorders.

It's important to note that paralysis doesn't always mean a total loss of movement or feeling. Sometimes, it may just cause weakness or numbness in the affected area. The severity and extent of paralysis depend on the underlying cause and the location of the damage in the nervous system.

"Hepatitis B vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. They work by introducing a small and harmless piece of the virus to your body, which triggers your immune system to produce antibodies to fight off the infection. These antibodies remain in your body and provide protection if you are exposed to the real hepatitis B virus in the future.

The hepatitis B vaccine is typically given as a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants, children and adolescents who have not previously been vaccinated, as well as for adults who are at increased risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, people who inject drugs, and those with certain medical conditions.

It's important to note that hepatitis B vaccine does not provide protection against other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A or C."

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

Conjugate vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines a part of a bacterium with a protein or other substance to boost the body's immune response to the bacteria. The bacterial component is usually a polysaccharide, which is a long chain of sugars that makes up part of the bacterial cell wall.

By itself, a polysaccharide is not very immunogenic, meaning it does not stimulate a strong immune response. However, when it is conjugated or linked to a protein or other carrier molecule, it becomes much more immunogenic and can elicit a stronger and longer-lasting immune response.

Conjugate vaccines are particularly effective in protecting against bacterial infections that affect young children, such as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal disease. These vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated complications, such as meningitis and pneumonia.

Overall, conjugate vaccines work by mimicking a natural infection and stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections with the same bacterium. By combining a weakly immunogenic polysaccharide with a protein carrier, these vaccines can elicit a stronger and more effective immune response, providing long-lasting protection against bacterial infections.

A subunit vaccine is a type of vaccine that contains a specific piece or component of the microorganism (such as a protein, sugar, or part of the bacterial outer membrane), instead of containing the entire organism. This piece of the microorganism is known as an antigen, and it stimulates an immune response in the body, allowing the development of immunity against the targeted infection without introducing the risk of disease associated with live vaccines.

Subunit vaccines offer several advantages over other types of vaccines. They are generally safer because they do not contain live or weakened microorganisms, making them suitable for individuals with weakened immune systems or specific medical conditions that prevent them from receiving live vaccines. Additionally, subunit vaccines can be designed to focus on the most immunogenic components of a pathogen, potentially leading to stronger and more targeted immune responses.

Examples of subunit vaccines include the Hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a viral protein, and the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, which uses pieces of the bacterial polysaccharide capsule. These vaccines have been crucial in preventing serious infectious diseases and reducing associated complications worldwide.

Sewage is not typically considered a medical term, but it does have relevance to public health and medicine. Sewage is the wastewater that is produced by households and industries, which contains a variety of contaminants including human waste, chemicals, and other pollutants. It can contain various pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites, which can cause diseases in humans if they come into contact with it or consume contaminated food or water. Therefore, the proper treatment and disposal of sewage is essential to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and protect public health.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

'Afghanistan' is a country and not a medical term or condition. It is located in Central Asia and is bordered by Pakistan, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, China, and the Arabian Sea. The country has a complex history with ongoing political and security challenges. If you are looking for information related to medical tourism or healthcare in Afghanistan, I can provide some general insights. However, please note that the medical facilities and services in Afghanistan may not be comparable to those in developed countries due to various factors such as infrastructure, resources, and expertise.

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Mass vaccination is a coordinated effort to administer vaccine doses to a large portion of a population in a short amount of time. This strategy is often used during outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as influenza or measles, to quickly build up community immunity (herd immunity) and reduce the spread of the disease. Mass vaccination campaigns can also be implemented as part of public health initiatives to control or eliminate vaccine-preventable diseases in a population. These campaigns typically involve mobilizing healthcare workers, volunteers, and resources to reach and vaccinate as many people as possible, often through mobile clinics, community centers, and other accessible locations.

An "injection, intradermal" refers to a type of injection where a small quantity of a substance is introduced into the layer of skin between the epidermis and dermis, using a thin gauge needle. This technique is often used for diagnostic or research purposes, such as conducting allergy tests or administering immunizations in a way that stimulates a strong immune response. The injection site typically produces a small, raised bump (wheal) that disappears within a few hours. It's important to note that intradermal injections should be performed by trained medical professionals to minimize the risk of complications.

Malaria vaccines are biological preparations that induce immunity against malaria parasites, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of malaria disease. They typically contain antigens (proteins or other molecules derived from the parasite) that stimulate an immune response in the recipient, enabling their body to recognize and neutralize the pathogen upon exposure.

The most advanced malaria vaccine candidate is RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix), which targets the Plasmodium falciparum parasite's circumsporozoite protein (CSP). This vaccine has shown partial protection in clinical trials, reducing the risk of severe malaria and hospitalization in young children by about 30% over four years. However, it does not provide complete immunity, and additional research is ongoing to develop more effective vaccines against malaria.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

"Intramuscular injections" refer to a medical procedure where a medication or vaccine is administered directly into the muscle tissue. This is typically done using a hypodermic needle and syringe, and the injection is usually given into one of the large muscles in the body, such as the deltoid (shoulder), vastus lateralis (thigh), or ventrogluteal (buttock) muscles.

Intramuscular injections are used for a variety of reasons, including to deliver medications that need to be absorbed slowly over time, to bypass stomach acid and improve absorption, or to ensure that the medication reaches the bloodstream quickly and directly. Common examples of medications delivered via intramuscular injection include certain vaccines, antibiotics, and pain relievers.

It is important to follow proper technique when administering intramuscular injections to minimize pain and reduce the risk of complications such as infection or injury to surrounding tissues. Proper site selection, needle length and gauge, and injection technique are all critical factors in ensuring a safe and effective intramuscular injection.

Papillomavirus vaccines are vaccines that have been developed to prevent infection by human papillomaviruses (HPV). HPV is a DNA virus that is capable of infecting the skin and mucous membranes. Certain types of HPV are known to cause cervical cancer, as well as other types of cancer such as anal, penile, vulvar, and oropharyngeal cancers. Other types of HPV can cause genital warts.

There are currently two papillomavirus vaccines that have been approved for use in the United States: Gardasil and Cervarix. Both vaccines protect against the two most common cancer-causing types of HPV (types 16 and 18), which together cause about 70% of cervical cancers. Gardasil also protects against the two most common types of HPV that cause genital warts (types 6 and 11).

Papillomavirus vaccines are given as a series of three shots over a period of six months. They are most effective when given to people before they become sexually active, as this reduces the risk of exposure to HPV. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all boys and girls get vaccinated against HPV at age 11 or 12, but the vaccine can be given to people as young as age 9 and as old as age 26.

It is important to note that papillomavirus vaccines do not protect against all types of HPV, and they do not treat existing HPV infections or cervical cancer. They are intended to prevent new HPV infections and the cancers and other diseases that can be caused by HPV.

Capsid proteins are the structural proteins that make up the capsid, which is the protective shell of a virus. The capsid encloses the viral genome and helps to protect it from degradation and detection by the host's immune system. Capsid proteins are typically arranged in a symmetrical pattern and can self-assemble into the capsid structure when exposed to the viral genome.

The specific arrangement and composition of capsid proteins vary between different types of viruses, and they play important roles in the virus's life cycle, including recognition and binding to host cells, entry into the cell, and release of the viral genome into the host cytoplasm. Capsid proteins can also serve as targets for antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Meningococcal vaccines are vaccines that protect against Neisseria meningitidis, a type of bacteria that can cause serious infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection). There are several types of meningococcal vaccines available, including conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against the different serogroups of N. meningitidis, including A, B, C, Y, and W-135. The specific type of vaccine used and the number of doses required may depend on a person's age, health status, and other factors. Meningococcal vaccines are recommended for certain high-risk populations, such as infants, young children, adolescents, and people with certain medical conditions, as well as for travelers to areas where meningococcal disease is common.

HeLa cells are a type of immortalized cell line used in scientific research. They are derived from a cancer that developed in the cervical tissue of Henrietta Lacks, an African-American woman, in 1951. After her death, cells taken from her tumor were found to be capable of continuous division and growth in a laboratory setting, making them an invaluable resource for medical research.

HeLa cells have been used in a wide range of scientific studies, including research on cancer, viruses, genetics, and drug development. They were the first human cell line to be successfully cloned and are able to grow rapidly in culture, doubling their population every 20-24 hours. This has made them an essential tool for many areas of biomedical research.

It is important to note that while HeLa cells have been instrumental in numerous scientific breakthroughs, the story of their origin raises ethical questions about informed consent and the use of human tissue in research.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Mucosal immunity refers to the immune system's defense mechanisms that are specifically adapted to protect the mucous membranes, which line various body openings such as the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts. These membranes are constantly exposed to foreign substances, including potential pathogens, and therefore require a specialized immune response to maintain homeostasis and prevent infection.

Mucosal immunity is primarily mediated by secretory IgA (SIgA) antibodies, which are produced by B cells in the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). These antibodies can neutralize pathogens and prevent them from adhering to and invading the epithelial cells that line the mucous membranes.

In addition to SIgA, other components of the mucosal immune system include innate immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils, which can recognize and respond to pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). T cells also play a role in mucosal immunity, particularly in the induction of cell-mediated immunity against viruses and other intracellular pathogens.

Overall, mucosal immunity is an essential component of the body's defense system, providing protection against a wide range of potential pathogens while maintaining tolerance to harmless antigens present in the environment.

A measles vaccine is a biological preparation that induces immunity against the measles virus. It contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of the measles virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against future infection with the wild-type (disease-causing) virus. Measles vaccines are typically administered in combination with vaccines against mumps and rubella (German measles), forming the MMR vaccine.

The measles vaccine is highly effective, with one or two doses providing immunity in over 95% of people who receive it. It is usually given to children as part of routine childhood immunization programs, with the first dose administered at 12-15 months of age and the second dose at 4-6 years of age.

Measles vaccination has led to a dramatic reduction in the incidence of measles worldwide and is considered one of the greatest public health achievements of the past century. However, despite widespread availability of the vaccine, measles remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in some parts of the world, particularly in areas with low vaccination coverage or where access to healthcare is limited.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

A Pertussis vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against pertussis, also known as whooping cough. It contains components that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against the bacteria that cause pertussis, Bordetella pertussis. There are two main types of pertussis vaccines: whole-cell pertussis (wP) vaccines and acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines. wP vaccines contain killed whole cells of B. pertussis, while aP vaccines contain specific components of the bacteria, such as pertussis toxin and other antigens. Pertussis vaccines are often combined with diphtheria and tetanus to form combination vaccines, such as DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis) and TdaP (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis). These vaccines are typically given to young children as part of their routine immunization schedule.

"World Health" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. However, it is often used in the context of global health, which can be defined as:

"The area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide. It emphasizes trans-national health issues, determinants, and solutions; involves many disciplines within and beyond the health sciences and engages stakeholders from across sectors and societies." (World Health Organization)

Therefore, "world health" could refer to the overall health status and health challenges faced by populations around the world. It encompasses a broad range of factors that affect the health of individuals and communities, including social, economic, environmental, and political determinants. The World Health Organization (WHO) plays a key role in monitoring and promoting global health, setting international standards and guidelines, and coordinating responses to global health emergencies.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine is a type of immunization used primarily to prevent tuberculosis (TB). It contains a live but weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is related to the bacterium that causes TB in humans (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, enabling it to better resist infection with TB bacteria if exposed in the future. It is often given to infants and children in countries where TB is common, and its use varies depending on the national immunization policies. The protection offered by the BCG vaccine is moderate and may not last for a very long time.

In addition to its use against TB, the BCG vaccine has also been investigated for its potential therapeutic role in treating bladder cancer and some other types of cancer. The mechanism of action in these cases is thought to be related to the vaccine's ability to stimulate an immune response against abnormal cells.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Rabies vaccines are medical products that contain antigens of the rabies virus, which stimulate an immune response in individuals who receive them. The purpose of rabies vaccines is to prevent the development of rabies, a viral disease that is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

There are two primary types of rabies vaccines available:

1. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) vaccines: These vaccines are given to individuals who are at high risk of coming into contact with the rabies virus, such as veterinarians, animal handlers, and travelers visiting areas where rabies is common. The vaccine series typically consists of three doses given over a period of 28 days.
2. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) vaccines: These vaccines are administered to individuals who have already been exposed to the rabies virus, usually through a bite or scratch from an infected animal. The vaccine series typically consists of four doses given over a period of 14 days, along with a dose of rabies immune globulin (RIG) to provide immediate protection while the immune system responds to the vaccine.

Both types of rabies vaccines are highly effective at preventing the disease, but it is essential to receive them as soon as possible after exposure or before potential exposure, as the virus can be fatal if left untreated.

Population surveillance in a public health and medical context refers to the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health-related data for a defined population over time. It aims to monitor the health status, identify emerging health threats or trends, and evaluate the impact of interventions within that population. This information is used to inform public health policy, prioritize healthcare resources, and guide disease prevention and control efforts. Population surveillance can involve various data sources, such as vital records, disease registries, surveys, and electronic health records.

Rotavirus vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against rotavirus infections, which are the leading cause of severe diarrhea and dehydration among infants and young children worldwide. These vaccines contain weakened or inactivated forms of the rotavirus, a pathogen that infects and causes symptoms by multiplying inside cells lining the small intestine.

The weakened or inactivated virus in the vaccine stimulates an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future rotavirus infections more effectively. The vaccines are usually administered orally, as a liquid droplet or on a sugar cube, to mimic natural infection through the gastrointestinal tract.

There are currently two licensed rotavirus vaccines available globally:

1. Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline): This vaccine contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of human rotavirus and is given in a two-dose series, typically at 2 and 4 months of age.
2. RotaTeq (Merck): This vaccine contains five reassortant viruses, combining human and animal strains to provide broader protection. It is administered in a three-dose series, usually at 2, 4, and 6 months of age.

Rotavirus vaccines have been shown to significantly reduce the incidence of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis and related hospitalizations among infants and young children. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the inclusion of rotavirus vaccination in national immunization programs, particularly in countries with high child mortality rates due to diarrheal diseases.

Simian Virus 40 (SV40) is a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. It is a DNA virus that has been extensively studied in laboratory settings due to its ability to transform cells and cause tumors in animals. In fact, SV40 was discovered as a contaminant of poliovirus vaccines that were prepared using rhesus monkey kidney cells in the 1950s and 1960s.

SV40 is not typically associated with human disease, but there has been some concern that exposure to the virus through contaminated vaccines or other means could increase the risk of certain types of cancer, such as mesothelioma and brain tumors. However, most studies have failed to find a consistent link between SV40 infection and cancer in humans.

The medical community generally agrees that SV40 is not a significant public health threat, but researchers continue to study the virus to better understand its biology and potential impact on human health.

The World Health Organization (WHO) is not a medical condition or term, but rather a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. Here's a brief description:

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as the global authority on public health issues. Established in 1948, WHO's primary role is to coordinate and collaborate with its member states to promote health, prevent diseases, and ensure universal access to healthcare services. WHO is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has regional offices around the world. It plays a crucial role in setting global health standards, monitoring disease outbreaks, and providing guidance on various public health concerns, including infectious diseases, non-communicable diseases, mental health, environmental health, and maternal, newborn, child, and adolescent health.

Cholera vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against the infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. There are several types of cholera vaccines available, including:

1. Inactivated oral vaccine (ICCV): This vaccine contains killed whole-cell bacteria and is given in two doses, with each dose administered at least 14 days apart. It provides protection for up to six months and can be given to adults and children over the age of one year.
2. Live attenuated oral vaccine (LCV): This vaccine contains weakened live bacteria that are unable to cause disease but still stimulate an immune response. The most commonly used LCV is called CVD 103-HgR, which is given in a single dose and provides protection for up to three months. It can be given to adults and children over the age of six years.
3. Injectable cholera vaccine: This vaccine contains inactivated bacteria and is given as an injection. It is not widely available and its effectiveness is limited compared to oral vaccines.

Cholera vaccines are recommended for travelers visiting areas with known cholera outbreaks, particularly if they plan to eat food or drink water that may be contaminated. They can also be used in response to outbreaks to help control the spread of the disease. However, it is important to note that vaccination alone is not sufficient to prevent cholera infection and good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, should always be followed.

Seroepidemiologic studies are a type of epidemiological study that measures the presence and levels of antibodies in a population's blood serum to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of infectious diseases. These studies help to identify patterns of infection and immunity within a population, which can inform public health policies and interventions.

Seroepidemiologic studies typically involve collecting blood samples from a representative sample of individuals in a population and testing them for the presence of antibodies against specific pathogens. The results are then analyzed to estimate the prevalence of infection and immunity within the population, as well as any factors associated with increased or decreased risk of infection.

These studies can provide valuable insights into the spread of infectious diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections, and help to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination programs. Additionally, seroepidemiologic studies can also be used to investigate the transmission dynamics of infectious agents, such as identifying sources of infection or tracking the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Typhoid-Paratyphoid vaccines are immunizations that protect against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers, which are caused by the Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi, respectively. These vaccines contain inactivated or attenuated bacteria or specific antigens that stimulate an individual's immune system to develop immunity against these diseases without causing the illness itself. There are several types of typhoid-paratyphoid vaccines available, including:

1. Ty21a (oral live attenuated vaccine): This is a live but weakened form of the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. It is given orally in capsule form and requires a series of 4 doses taken every other day. The vaccine provides protection for about 5-7 years.
2. Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) typhoid vaccine: This vaccine contains purified Vi antigens from the Salmonella Typhi bacterium's outer capsular layer. It is given as an injection and provides protection for approximately 2-3 years.
3. Combined typhoid-paratyphoid A and B vaccines (Vi-rEPA): This vaccine combines Vi polysaccharide antigens from Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi A and B. It is given as an injection and provides protection for about 3 years against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers A and B.
4. Typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs): These vaccines combine the Vi polysaccharide antigen from Salmonella Typhi with a protein carrier to enhance the immune response, particularly in children under 2 years of age. TCVs are given as an injection and provide long-lasting protection against typhoid fever.

It is important to note that none of these vaccines provides 100% protection, but they significantly reduce the risk of contracting typhoid or paratyphoid fevers. Additionally, good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, can further minimize the risk of infection.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

An enterovirus is a type of virus that primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract. There are over 100 different types of enteroviruses, including polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. These viruses are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, or by consuming food or water contaminated with the virus.

While many people infected with enteroviruses may not experience any symptoms, some may develop mild to severe illnesses such as hand, foot and mouth disease, herpangina, meningitis, encephalitis, myocarditis, and paralysis (in case of poliovirus). Infection can occur in people of all ages, but young children are more susceptible to infection and severe illness.

Prevention measures include practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently with soap and water, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and not sharing food or drinks with someone who is ill. There are also vaccines available to prevent poliovirus infection.

The Smallpox vaccine is not a live virus vaccine but is instead made from a vaccinia virus, which is a virus related to the variola virus (the virus that causes smallpox). The vaccinia virus used in the vaccine does not cause smallpox, but it does cause a milder illness with symptoms such as a fever and a rash of pustules or blisters at the site of inoculation.

The smallpox vaccine was first developed by Edward Jenner in 1796 and is one of the oldest vaccines still in use today. It has been highly effective in preventing smallpox, which was once a major cause of death and disability worldwide. In fact, smallpox was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980, thanks in large part to the widespread use of the smallpox vaccine.

Despite the eradication of smallpox, the smallpox vaccine is still used today in certain circumstances. For example, it may be given to laboratory workers who handle the virus or to military personnel who may be at risk of exposure to the virus. The vaccine may also be used as an emergency measure in the event of a bioterrorism attack involving smallpox.

It is important to note that the smallpox vaccine is not without risks and can cause serious side effects, including a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle). As a result, it is only given to people who are at high risk of exposure to the virus and who have been determined to be good candidates for vaccination by a healthcare professional.

A tuberculosis vaccine, also known as the BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, is a type of immunization used to prevent tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The BCG vaccine contains a weakened strain of the bacteria that causes TB in cattle.

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, which helps to protect against severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and TB in children. However, it is not very effective at preventing pulmonary TB (TB that affects the lungs) in adults.

The BCG vaccine is not routinely recommended for use in the United States due to the low risk of TB infection in the general population. However, it may be given to people who are at high risk of exposure to TB, such as healthcare workers, laboratory personnel, and people traveling to countries with high rates of TB.

It is important to note that the BCG vaccine does not provide complete protection against TB and that other measures, such as testing and treatment for latent TB infection, are also important for controlling the spread of this disease.

The chickenpox vaccine, also known as varicella vaccine, is a preventive measure against the highly contagious viral infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus. The vaccine contains a live but weakened form of the virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce a response without causing the disease itself.

The chickenpox vaccine is typically given in two doses, with the first dose administered between 12 and 15 months of age and the second dose between 4 and 6 years of age. In some cases, the vaccine may be given to older children, adolescents, or adults who have not previously been vaccinated or who have never had chickenpox.

The chickenpox vaccine is highly effective at preventing severe cases of the disease and reducing the risk of complications such as bacterial infections, pneumonia, and encephalitis. It is also effective at preventing transmission of the virus to others.

Like any vaccine, the chickenpox vaccine can cause mild side effects such as soreness at the injection site, fever, or a mild rash. However, these side effects are generally mild and short-lived. Serious side effects are rare but may include allergic reactions or severe immune responses.

Overall, the chickenpox vaccine is a safe and effective way to prevent this common childhood disease and its potential complications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but Poisson Distribution is actually a statistical concept rather than a medical term. Here's a general definition:

Poisson Distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time or space, as long as these events occur with a known average rate and independently of each other. It is often used in fields such as physics, engineering, economics, and medical research to model rare events or low-probability phenomena.

In the context of medical research, Poisson Distribution might be used to analyze the number of adverse events that occur during a clinical trial, the frequency of disease outbreaks in a population, or the rate of successes or failures in a series of experiments.

A capsid is the protein shell that encloses and protects the genetic material of a virus. It is composed of multiple copies of one or more proteins that are arranged in a specific structure, which can vary in shape and symmetry depending on the type of virus. The capsid plays a crucial role in the viral life cycle, including protecting the viral genome from host cell defenses, mediating attachment to and entry into host cells, and assisting with the assembly of new virus particles during replication.

The Mumps Vaccine is a biological preparation intended to induce immunity against mumps, a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands. The vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) mumps virus, which stimulates the immune system to develop a protective response without causing the disease.

There are two types of mumps vaccines available:

1. The Jeryl Lynn strain is used in the United States and is part of the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine and the Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella (MMRV) vaccine. This strain is derived from a clinical isolate obtained from the throat washings of a child with mumps in 1963.
2. The Urabe AM9 strain was used in some countries but has been discontinued in many places due to an increased risk of meningitis as a rare complication.

The MMR vaccine is typically given to children at 12-15 months of age and again at 4-6 years of age, providing long-lasting immunity against mumps in most individuals. The vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of mumps and its complications worldwide.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Hepatitis A vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated viral vaccines that are administered to prevent infection and illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that protect against future infection with the virus.

The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is made from viruses that have been chemically treated to destroy their ability to cause disease while preserving their ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is typically given in two doses, six months apart, and provides long-term protection against the virus.

The live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine contains a weakened form of the virus that is unable to cause illness but can still stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is given as a single dose and provides protection against the virus for at least 20 years.

Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for people who are at increased risk of infection, including travelers to areas where hepatitis A is common, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs, and people with chronic liver disease or clotting factor disorders. The vaccine is also recommended for children in certain states and communities where hepatitis A is endemic.

Immunologic adjuvants are substances that are added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response to the antigens contained in the vaccine. They work by stimulating the immune system and promoting the production of antibodies and activating immune cells, such as T-cells and macrophages, which help to provide a stronger and more sustained immune response to the vaccine.

Immunologic adjuvants can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Some common examples include aluminum salts (alum), oil-in-water emulsions (such as MF59), and bacterial components (such as lipopolysaccharide or LPS).

The use of immunologic adjuvants in vaccines can help to improve the efficacy of the vaccine, particularly for vaccines that contain weak or poorly immunogenic antigens. They can also help to reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine, which can be beneficial for vaccines that are difficult or expensive to produce.

It's important to note that while adjuvants can enhance the immune response to a vaccine, they can also increase the risk of adverse reactions, such as inflammation and pain at the injection site. Therefore, the use of immunologic adjuvants must be carefully balanced against their potential benefits and risks.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

The Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three infectious diseases: measles, mumps, and rubella. It contains live attenuated viruses of each disease, which stimulate an immune response in the body similar to that produced by natural infection but do not cause the diseases themselves.

The MMR vaccine is typically given in two doses, the first at 12-15 months of age and the second at 4-6 years of age. It is highly effective in preventing these diseases, with over 90% effectiveness reported after a single dose and near 100% effectiveness after the second dose.

Measles is a highly contagious viral disease that can cause fever, rash, cough, runny nose, and red, watery eyes. It can also lead to serious complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and even death.

Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing swelling and tenderness in the cheeks and jaw. It can also cause fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. Mumps can lead to serious complications such as deafness, meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and inflammation of the testicles or ovaries.

Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection that typically causes a mild fever, rash, and swollen lymph nodes. However, if a pregnant woman becomes infected with rubella, it can cause serious birth defects such as hearing impairment, heart defects, and developmental delays in the fetus.

The MMR vaccine is an important tool in preventing these diseases and protecting public health.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

Streptococcal vaccines are immunizations designed to protect against infections caused by Streptococcus bacteria. These vaccines contain antigens, which are substances that trigger an immune response and help the body recognize and fight off specific types of Streptococcus bacteria. There are several different types of streptococcal vaccines available or in development, including:

1. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV): This vaccine protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, a type of bacteria that can cause pneumonia, meningitis, and other serious infections. PCV is recommended for all children under 2 years old, as well as older children and adults with certain medical conditions.
2. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine also protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, but it is recommended for adults 65 and older, as well as younger people with certain medical conditions.
3. Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group A Streptococcus (GAS), which can cause a variety of infections, including strep throat, skin infections, and serious diseases like rheumatic fever and toxic shock syndrome. There are several different GAS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.
4. Streptococcus agalactiae vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group B Streptococcus (GBS), which can cause serious infections in newborns, pregnant women, and older adults with certain medical conditions. There are several different GBS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.

Overall, streptococcal vaccines play an important role in preventing bacterial infections and reducing the burden of disease caused by Streptococcus bacteria.

Anthrax vaccines are biological preparations designed to protect against anthrax, a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax can affect both humans and animals, and it is primarily transmitted through contact with contaminated animal products or, less commonly, through inhalation of spores.

There are two types of anthrax vaccines currently available:

1. Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA): This vaccine is licensed for use in the United States and is approved for pre-exposure prophylaxis in high-risk individuals, such as military personnel and laboratory workers who handle the bacterium. AVA contains a cell-free filtrate of cultured B. anthracis cells that have been chemically treated to render them non-infectious. The vaccine works by stimulating the production of antibodies against protective antigens (PA) present in the bacterial culture.
2. Recombinant Anthrax Vaccine (rPA): This vaccine, also known as BioThrax, is a newer generation anthrax vaccine that was approved for use in the United States in 2015. It contains only the recombinant protective antigen (rPA) of B. anthracis, which is produced using genetic engineering techniques. The rPA vaccine has been shown to be as effective as AVA in generating an immune response and offers several advantages, including a more straightforward manufacturing process, fewer side effects, and a longer shelf life.

Both vaccines require multiple doses for initial immunization, followed by periodic booster shots to maintain protection. Anthrax vaccines are generally safe and effective at preventing anthrax infection; however, they may cause mild to moderate side effects, such as soreness at the injection site, fatigue, and muscle aches. Severe allergic reactions are rare but possible.

It is important to note that anthrax vaccines do not provide immediate protection against anthrax infection. They require several weeks to stimulate an immune response, so they should be administered before potential exposure to the bacterium. In cases of known or suspected exposure to anthrax, antibiotics are used as a primary means of preventing and treating the disease.

Dengue vaccines are designed to protect against dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral disease that can cause severe flu-like symptoms and potentially life-threatening complications. Dengue is caused by four distinct serotypes of the virus (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), and infection with one serotype does not provide immunity against the others.

The first licensed dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia (CYD-TDV), is a chimeric yellow fever-dengue tetravalent vaccine developed by Sanofi Pasteur. It is approved for use in several countries and has demonstrated efficacy against dengue fever caused by all four serotypes in clinical trials. However, the vaccine has raised concerns about the risk of severe disease in individuals who have not been previously exposed to dengue. As a result, it is recommended primarily for people with a documented past dengue infection or living in areas with high dengue prevalence and where the benefits outweigh the risks.

Another dengue vaccine candidate, Takeda's TAK-003 (also known as TDV), is a live attenuated tetravalent dengue vaccine that has shown efficacy against all four serotypes in clinical trials. It was granted approval by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and several other countries for use in individuals aged 4-16 years old, living in endemic areas.

Research and development of additional dengue vaccine candidates are ongoing to address concerns about safety, efficacy, and accessibility, particularly for at-risk populations in low- and middle-income countries where dengue is most prevalent.

Enterovirus B, Human (HEVB) is a type of enterovirus that infects humans. Enteroviruses are small viruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family and are named after the Greek word "pico" meaning small. They are further classified into several species, including Human Enterovirus B (HEV-B).

HEVB includes several serotypes, such as Coxsackievirus A9, A16, and B types, and Echoviruses. These viruses are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route or respiratory droplets and can cause a range of illnesses, from mild symptoms like fever, rash, and sore throat to more severe diseases such as meningitis, myocarditis, and paralysis.

HEVB infections are common worldwide, and people of all ages can be affected. However, young children and individuals with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for severe illness. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. There is no specific treatment for HEVB infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few days to a week. However, hospitalization may be necessary for severe cases.

Virosomes are artificially constructed spherical vesicles composed of lipids and viral envelope proteins. They are used as a delivery system for vaccines and other therapeutic agents. In the context of vaccines, virosomes can be used to present viral antigens to the immune system in a way that mimics a natural infection, thereby inducing a strong immune response.

Virosome-based vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. For example, they are non-infectious, meaning they do not contain live or attenuated viruses, which makes them safer for certain populations such as immunocompromised individuals. Additionally, virosomes can be engineered to target specific cells in the body, leading to more efficient uptake and presentation of antigens to the immune system.

Virosome-based vaccines have been developed for a variety of diseases, including influenza, hepatitis A, and HIV. While they are not yet widely used, they show promise as a safe and effective alternative to traditional vaccine approaches.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

Cysteine endopeptidases are a type of enzymes that cleave peptide bonds within proteins. They are also known as cysteine proteases or cysteine proteinases. These enzymes contain a catalytic triad consisting of three amino acids: cysteine, histidine, and aspartate. The thiol group (-SH) of the cysteine residue acts as a nucleophile and attacks the carbonyl carbon of the peptide bond, leading to its cleavage.

Cysteine endopeptidases play important roles in various biological processes, including protein degradation, cell signaling, and inflammation. They are involved in many physiological and pathological conditions, such as apoptosis, immune response, and cancer. Some examples of cysteine endopeptidases include cathepsins, caspases, and calpains.

It is important to note that these enzymes require a reducing environment to maintain the reduced state of their active site cysteine residue. Therefore, they are sensitive to oxidizing agents and inhibitors that target the thiol group. Understanding the structure and function of cysteine endopeptidases is crucial for developing therapeutic strategies that target these enzymes in various diseases.

Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.

The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.

It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.

The Yellow Fever Vaccine is a vaccine that protects against the yellow fever virus, which is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The vaccine contains live, weakened yellow fever virus, and it works by stimulating the immune system to produce an immune response that provides protection against the disease.

The yellow fever vaccine is recommended for people who are traveling to areas where yellow fever is common, including parts of Africa and South America. It is also required for entry into some countries in these regions. The vaccine is generally safe and effective, but it can cause mild side effects such as headache, muscle pain, and fever in some people. Serious side effects are rare, but may include allergic reactions or infection with the weakened virus used in the vaccine.

It's important to note that yellow fever vaccine may not be recommended for certain individuals, including infants younger than 6 months, pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and those with a history of severe allergic reaction to a previous dose of the vaccine or any component of the vaccine. It is always best to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccination.

A plague vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against the bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. The vaccine contains killed or weakened forms of the bacteria, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate immune cells that can recognize and fight off the infection if the person is exposed to the bacteria in the future.

There are several types of plague vaccines available, including whole-cell killed vaccines, live attenuated vaccines, and subunit vaccines. The choice of vaccine depends on various factors, such as the target population, the route of exposure (e.g., respiratory or cutaneous), and the desired duration of immunity.

Plague vaccines have been used for many years to protect military personnel and individuals at high risk of exposure to plague, such as laboratory workers and people living in areas where plague is endemic. However, their use is not widespread, and they are not currently recommended for general use in the United States or other developed countries.

It's important to note that while plague vaccines can provide some protection against the disease, they are not 100% effective, and other measures such as antibiotics and insect control are also important for preventing and treating plague infections.

A fungal vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against fungal infections. It contains one or more fungal antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, along with adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The goal of fungal vaccines is to protect against invasive fungal diseases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy, organ transplantation, or HIV/AIDS treatment.

Fungal vaccines can work by inducing both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity involves the production of antibodies that recognize and neutralize fungal antigens, while cell-mediated immunity involves the activation of T cells to directly attack infected cells.

Currently, there are no licensed fungal vaccines available for human use, although several candidates are in various stages of development and clinical trials. Some examples include vaccines against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Pneumocystis jirovecii.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, also known as RNA replicase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the production of RNA from an RNA template. It plays a crucial role in the replication of certain viruses, such as positive-strand RNA viruses and retroviruses, which use RNA as their genetic material. The enzyme uses the existing RNA strand as a template to create a new complementary RNA strand, effectively replicating the viral genome. This process is essential for the propagation of these viruses within host cells and is a target for antiviral therapies.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2006). "Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. ... While the new vaccine is pricier than the traditional oral polio vaccine (OPV) and requires that a doctor or nurse administer ... The total count of wild poliovirus cases in Pakistan in 2018 was 12. By 1991, only 83 percent of Pakistani children had been ... Research by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in April 1998 cited a failure to vaccinate, vaccine failure, and inadequate ...
The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), consists of an injected dose of killed poliovirus. In 1954, the ... 1960). "Live, orally given poliovirus vaccine. Effects of rapid mass immunization on population under conditions of massive ... Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children. ... Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957 and it was licensed in 1962. Following the development of oral polio vaccine, a ...
"Efficacy of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in India". Science. 345 (6199): 922-925. Bibcode:2014Sci...345..922J. doi:10.1126/ ... "Vaccines: VPD-VAC/Polio/main page". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 9 February 2016. "Vaccines: VPD-VAC/Tetanus/main page". www.cdc.gov ... In the case of the polio vaccine, the memory B and T cells produced in response to the vaccine persist only six months after ... It can be combined with all other vaccines and may be more effective with mRNA vaccines than mRNA boosters. Booster shots can ...
Suppression of virulent poliovirus (PV) by attenuated virus in poliovirus vaccines. Suppression of pathogenic lymphocytic ... Vaccines should include repertoires of B cell and T cell epitopes to evoke an ample immune response. The broad response should ... Attenuated RNA virus vaccines can revert to virulent forms. RNA viruses released in nature for pest control purposes can mutate ... Vaccines exposing multiple epitopes and combination therapies follow the same strategy whose aim is to limit possible escape ...
"Implications of a Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus in Nigeria". New England Journal of Medicine. 362 (25): 2360-2369. doi ... "Outbreak of Type 2 Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus in Nigeria: Emergence and Widespread Circulation in an Underimmunized Population ... In February 2023, Muhammad Ali Pate was appointed chief executive officer of GAVI, the Vaccine Alliance, which works to provide ... "Predictive spatial risk model of poliovirus to aid prioritization and hasten eradication in Nigeria". BMC Medicine. 12: 92. doi ...
Nathanson, Neal (2005-02-01). "David Bodian's Contribution to the Development of Poliovirus Vaccine". American Journal of ... He also found that large quantities of serum antibody were not necessary to block the invasion of polio virus into the nervous ... In the early 1940s he helped lay the groundwork for the eventual development of polio vaccines by combining neurological ... Together, they found out that there were three basic immunological types of poliovirus, explaining the phenomenon of second ...
Furesz J (2006). "Developments in the production and quality control of poliovirus vaccines - Historical perspectives". ... which led to the development of vaccines to combat Rocky Mountain spotted fever and vaccines for several strains of typhus. The ... he announced an oral polio vaccine. Meanwhile, human trials of Albert Sabin's successful oral vaccine had begun in 1957, and it ... At that time, public health attention focused on finding a vaccine for polio. Cox was one of many researchers competing to find ...
The first, a polio vaccine developed by Jonas Salk, is an inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), consisting of a mixture of ... The second vaccine, an oral polio vaccine (OPV), is a live-attenuated vaccine, produced by the passage of the virus through non ... Osterrieth P (May 2004). "Oral polio vaccine: fact versus fiction". Vaccine. 22 (15-16): 1831-1835. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine. ... Kew O, Sutter R, de Gourville E, Dowdle W, Pallansch M (2005). "Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for ...
This is important because countries with high incidence of polio are now using live oral poliovirus vaccine. When polio is ... poliovirus vaccine was effective in vaccinating children in tropical conditions. The Collaborative Group consisted of the Cuban ... placebo-controlled trial of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in Cuba". N Engl J Med. 356 (15): 1536-44. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa054960 ... The Cuban vaccine is used throughout Latin America. After outbreaks of meningitis B in the United States, the U.S. Treasury ...
Oral polio vaccine (OPV, or Sabin vaccine) contains attenuated poliovirus. Attenuated poliovirus is 10,000 times less able than ... There are two kinds of polio vaccine-oral polio vaccine (OPV), which uses weakened poliovirus, and inactivated polio vaccine ( ... and the much more prevalent mutated oral vaccine strains, known as circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV). Vaccines ... "Managing the risk of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus during the endgame: oral poliovirus vaccine needs". BMC Infectious ...
"Polio Vaccine: Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus , CDC". 25 March 2021. "Vaccines: Breaking down and debunking 10 myths". USA Today. ... killed-virus vaccines), viral vector vaccine, RNA vaccines (that contain no virus), or subunit vaccines (a vaccine technology ... Most vaccines are not attenuated (live virus) vaccines, and therefore cannot cause vaccine-induced viral shedding. The specific ... vaccine. The only human vaccine to have caused any significant number of infections is the oral polio vaccine (OPV), which ...
... inactivated poliovirus vaccine) portion of the DTap-IPV-HeB vaccine, children no longer have to take the oral vaccine (OPV) ... IPV stands for inactivated poliovirus vaccine, which means that is does not use a live strand of the polio virus and cannot ... Since 2016, the United States requires all polio vaccines administered to be IPV and not OPV to eliminate the use of live polio ... With the DTaP vaccine on its own, it is to be administered in five doses. However, when the DTaP vaccine is administered ...
"Update on Vaccine-Derived Polioviruses - Worldwide, January 2014-March 2015". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 64 (23): ... after their initial exposure to the oral Sabin vaccine. Carriers of the attenuated virus unintentionally spread the attenuated ...
"Vaccination with inactivated poliovirus vaccine and oral poliovirus vaccine in Denmark." Reviews of infectious diseases 6. ... Virologist Jonas Salk published his pioneering work in the spring of 1953 announcing a new polio vaccine, which was inactivated ... I. The Production of Formalinized Polio Vaccine and Preliminary Results." Danish medical bulletin 2.8 (1955): 226-33. ... Herdis von Magnus insisted on continuing vaccine distribution in Denmark because she was confident that the serum created in ...
ISBN 978-0-470-02386-0. Kew OM, Sutter RW, de Gourville EM, Dowdle WR, Pallansch MA (2005). "Vaccine-derived polioviruses and ... poliovirus. DNA encoding the RNA genome of poliovirus was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus ... The development of the TgPVR mouse has had a profound effect on oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) production. Previously, ... Individuals who are exposed to poliovirus, either through infection or by immunization with polio vaccine, develop immunity. In ...
"Poliomyelitis prevention: recommendations for use of inactivated poliovirus vaccine and live oral poliovirus vaccine. American ... caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is indistinguishable from that caused by wild polioviruses. Outbreaks of vaccine- ... Polio vaccines are vaccines used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). Two types are used: an inactivated poliovirus given by ... Inactivated vaccines, Live vaccines, Vaccines, World Health Organization essential medicines (vaccines), Wikipedia medicine ...
Mass Vaccination with Oral Poliovirus Vaccine - CDC, Last accessed June 1, 2007. Vaccine-preventable Diseases and Immunization ...
Gardner, P. S.; Cooper, Christine E. (1964-06-01). "The feeding of oral poliovirus vaccine to a closed community excreting ...
"Biochemist rocked poliovirus into vaccine" Archived 2020-11-29 at the Wayback Machine. The Kingston Whig-Standard, July 16, ... The live polio virus was then shipped to the United States to be killed for use in Jonas Salk's field trials, as the Toronto ... science.ca Black, Karen, "Making a vaccine is not the same as mass-producing it. This Canadian scientist solved the problem for ... She began studying dysentery toxin in 1941 for use as a vaccine due to the wartime rise in infections. In 1943, Connaught ...
His vaccines for type 2 and type 3 polioviruses were licensed in 1962. At first, the monovalent poliovirus vaccines were ... Sabin's first oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV), for use against type 1 polioviruses, was licensed in the United States in 1961. ... Salk developed an inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), a "dead" vaccine given by injection, which was released for use in 1955 ... The Sabin vaccine worked in the intestines to block the poliovirus from entering the bloodstream. Between 1955 and 1961, the ...
"Public Health Dispatch: Acute Flaccid Paralysis Associated with Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus - Philippines, 2001". ... Kelly H, Brussen KA, Lawrence A, Elliot E, Pearn J, Thorley B (June 2006). "Polioviruses and other enteroviruses isolated from ...
Albert Sabin, Live Poliovirus Vaccine and the Soviets. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 56 (1982), 460-83 Swanson, W. Birth ... In 1955 he organized a new research institute near Moscow to work on vaccines against poliomyelitis. His work on vaccines ... Chumakov also created a number of other human and veterinarian vaccines, including inactivated vaccine against TBE, measles, ... The vaccine produced by Chumakov's Institute was exported into more than 60 countries, and was instrumental in stopping large ...
"Cancer Incidence in Denmark Following Exposure to Poliovirus Vaccine Contaminated with Simian Virus 40". JNCI Journal of the ... A mutated p53 gene may contribute to uncontrolled cellular proliferation, leading to a tumor.[citation needed] Some vaccines ... Hilleman MR (1998). "Discovery of simian virus 40 (SV40) and its relationship to poliomyelitis virus vaccines". Dev Biol Stand ... November 2001). "Thirty-five year mortality following receipt of SV40- contaminated polio vaccine during the neonatal period". ...
Acute Flaccid Paralysis Associated with Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus --- Philippines, 2001". Morbidity and Mortality ... "A Look at Each Vaccine: Hepatitis B Vaccine". Vaccine Education Center. The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. Archived from ... vaccine system is practiced to assure that all vaccines are utilized before its expiry date. Proper arrangement of vaccines and ... These include storage and transport of vaccines from the primary vaccine store down to the end-user at the health facility, and ...
The Salk vaccine, or inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), is based on poliovirus grown in a type of monkey kidney tissue ... There are two broad types of polio vaccine; an injected vaccine using inactivated poliovirus and an oral vaccine containing ... Use of this inactivated poliovirus vaccine and subsequent widespread use of the oral poliovirus vaccine developed by Albert ... "Poliomyelitis prevention: recommendations for use of inactivated poliovirus vaccine and live oral poliovirus vaccine. American ...
... inactivated poliovirus, and haemophilus B conjugate vaccine and guidance for use in infants and children". MMWR Morb. Mortal. ... Toxoid vaccines, Vaccines, World Health Organization essential medicines (vaccines), Wikipedia medicine articles ready to ... The first vaccine is given in infancy. The baby is injected with the DTaP vaccine, which is three inactive toxins in one ... Tetanus vaccine, also known as tetanus toxoid (TT), is a toxoid vaccine used to prevent tetanus. During childhood, five doses ...
... vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV ... Djibouti is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); ... routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine Djiboutien or Djiboutian Afar 35%, Somali ... or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk ...
... vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV ... Mozambique is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); ... routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine noun: Mozambican(s) adjective: Mozambican ... or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk ...
... vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV ... routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine total: 5,7 % (2021 est.) male: 4.4 % ( ... Ethiopia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); ... or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk ...
... vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain of the weakened poliovirus that was initially included in oral polio vaccine (OPV ... routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine There are officially 17 ethnic groups ... Liberia is currently considered a high risk to travelers for circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV); ... or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk ...
Learn about vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV), including cases found in the United States. ... What is a vaccine-derived poliovirus?. A vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain related to the weakened live poliovirus ... homeVaccines & Preventable Diseases Home. *Vaccines by Diseaseplus icon *Chickenpox (Varicella)plus icon *What Everyone Should ... Where do vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs) come from, and should I be concerned if there is a case in the United States?. ...
... MMWR 43(32);595-596 Publication date: 08/19/1994. Table of ... There is a shortage of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) in the United States. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the ... Inadequately or fully vaccinated adults who have previously received IPV or OPV and need poliovirus vaccine can be given OPV (1 ... never-vaccinated persons aged greater than 18 years who are at risk for exposure to wild poliovirus (e.g., who will be ...
Главная » Disease Outbreak News: Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2, Syrian Arab Republic ... Disease Outbreak News: Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2, Syrian Arab Republic ... Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2: http://www.who.int/csr/don/13-June-2017-polio-syrian-arab-republic/en/ ...
News Category: Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus. Stopping any polio outbreak starts with vaccine procurement, transport ... Vaccine development. There are two types of polio vaccines - an inactivated (killed) polio vaccine (IPV) developed by Dr Jonas ... this is called a circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV).. Although IPV is an effective vaccine and valuable in ... the primary means of tracking poliovirus transmission. With an explosive outbreak of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus ...
This report describes an update on vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks. ... This report describes an update on vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks. ... circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus; OPV = oral poliovirus; VDPV = vaccine-derived poliovirus; VP1 = viral protein 1.. * In ... Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus. Global circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) as of 30 November 2021; Geneva, ...
... poliovirus vaccine inactivated), frequency-based adverse effects, comprehensive interactions, contraindications, pregnancy & ... poliovirus vaccine injection POLIOVIRUS VACCINE - INJECTION (POE-lee-oh) COMMON BRAND NAME(S): Ipol USES: This vaccine is used ... encoded search term (poliovirus vaccine inactivated (IPOL%2C IPV)) and poliovirus vaccine inactivated (IPOL, IPV) What to Read ... dengue vaccine. Monitor Closely (1)dengue vaccine, poliovirus vaccine inactivated. unspecified interaction mechanism. Use ...
The answer to this question requires a brief visit to the history of poliovirus vaccines. The inactivated poliovirus vaccine ( ... The Sabin infectious, attenuated poliovirus vaccines are known to cause vaccine-associated paralysis in a small number of ... Why do we still use Sabin poliovirus vaccine?. 26 Comments / Basic virology, Information / By Vincent Racaniello ... In contrast, the Salk inactivated vaccine does not cause poliomyelitis. Why are the Sabin vaccines still used globally? ...
WCAX) - By this time next week Vermont 5 to 11-year-olds could be cleared to get the COVID vaccine. Decades ago, families would ... But she says reluctance really took root in the age of the internet, which is probably why vaccine hesitancy rates are highest ... "What we know -- certainly across not just the United States but across the world as well -- vaccine hesitancy is becoming an ... People may have questions about one vaccine but have gotten all the rest," said Dr. Jan Carney, associate dean for public ...
Statement on stopping the outbreak of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 in Somalia and concurrent outbreaks of vaccine-derived ... on stopping the outbreak of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 in Somalia and concurrent outbreaks of vaccine-derived poliovirus ... Noting with deep concern the ongoing and expanding outbreaks of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) in the ... Delivering on a Promise to secure a lasting world free of all forms of poliovirus, including circulating vaccine-derived ...
... Journal Article Overview ... BACKGROUND: In 2008, a diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, and inactivated poliovirus combined vaccine (DTaP-IPV) was ... Ninety-seven percent of DTaP-IPV recipients also received other vaccines on the same day, typically measles-mumps-rubella and ... Continued surveillance of DTaP-IPV vaccine safety may be warranted to monitor for rare adverse events, such as Guillain-Barre ...
... - Express Healthcare Management ... Study Shows Long-Term Immunity of Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine. September 19, 2023. Sandeep Kunchikor ... This suggests that using attenuated Sabin strains to prepare inactivated poliovirus vaccines, such as sIPV, could be a viable ... researchers assessed the immune persistence of the Sabin strain-derived inactivated poliovirus vaccine (sIPV) compared to wild ...
For the post-eradication era, an Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV) based on attenuated Sabin strains is recommended, as ... Here we describe three novel poliovirus strains that cannot replicate at 37°C. Their lack of pathogenicity was confirmed by ... Furthermore, when used as vaccines, these viruses were capable of inducing a potent immune response in rats. At low temperature ... as previously shown for conventional poliovirus strains. Taken together, these new strains could contribute to a safe, ...
Burney, Leroy E. (1960). Oral poliovirus vaccine. 75(10). Burney, Leroy E. "Oral poliovirus vaccine" 75, no. 10 (1960). Burney ... Title : Oral poliovirus vaccine Personal Author(s) : Burney, Leroy E. Published Date : Oct 1960;10-1960; Source : Public Health ... Oral poliomyelitis vaccine program in Cincinnati Cite CITE. Title : Oral poliomyelitis vaccine program in Cincinnati Personal ... Education in oral polio vaccine program Cite CITE. Title : Education in oral polio vaccine program Personal Author(s) : Reed, ...
Results of search for su:{Poliovirus vaccine, Inactivated.} Refine your search. *. Availability. * Limit to currently ... poliomyelitis vaccine (oral, smallpox vaccine, report of a WHO Expert Group [meeting held in Geneva from 16 to 22 March 1965] ... of Vaccines and Biologicals.. Material type: Text; Format: print Publication details: Geneva : World Health Organization, 2000 ... of Vaccines and Biologicals.. Material type: Text; Format: print Publication details: Ginebra : Organización Mundial de la ...
... inactivated vaccine), frequency-based adverse effects, comprehensive interactions, contraindications, pregnancy & lactation ... diphtheria & tetanus toxoids/acellular pertussis/poliovirus, inactivated vaccine (Rx). Brand and Other Names:Kinrix, Quadracel ... encoded search term (diphtheria & tetanus toxoids/acellular pertussis/poliovirus%2C inactivated vaccine (Kinrix%2C Quadracel)) ... Suspected adverse events after administration of any vaccine may be reported to Vaccine Adverse Events Reporting System (VAERS ...
Andiran N, Sentürk GB, Bükülmez G. Combined vaccination by measles and hepatitis B vaccines: a new cause of Gianotti-Crosti ... Erkek E, Senturk GB, Ozkaya O, Bükülmez G. Gianotti-Crosti syndrome preceded by oral polio vaccine and followed by varicella ... Gianotti-Crosti syndrome after H1N1-influenza vaccine. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011 Sep-Oct. 28(5):595-6. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ... Atypical Gianotti-Crosti syndrome following administration of the AS03-adjuvanted H1N1 vaccine. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011 Oct. ...
This report describes results of a house-to-house poliovirus vaccination campaign in Nigeria. ... This report describes results of a house-to-house poliovirus vaccination campaign in Nigeria. ... Risk factors for the spread of vaccine-derived type 2 polioviruses after global withdrawal of trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine ... Evaluation of novel oral polio vaccine type 2 SIA impact in a large outbreak of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus in ...
Replacement of the trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine (tOPV) with bivalent types 1 and 3 oral poliovirus vaccine (bOPV) and ... immunity induced by new schedules of bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine and one or two doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in ... global introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) are major steps in the polio endgame strategy. In this study, we ... Infants in all groups were challenged with monovalent type 2 vaccine (mOPV2) at 18 weeks (groups 1, 3, and 4) or 40 weeks ( ...
Emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 after using monovalent type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine in an outbreak response, ... Emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 after using monovalent type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine in an outbreak response, ... After use of the monovalent vaccine, the emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus unrelated to the outbreak virus was detected ... vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks have occurred in communities that are immunologically naive to poliovirus type 2 and in ...
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... www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/ipv.html. ... www.cdc.gov/vaccines/hcp/vis/vis-statements/ipv.html. ... All content below is taken in its entirety from the CDC Polio Vaccine Information Statement (VIS): ... All content below is taken in its entirety from the CDC Polio Vaccine Information Statement (VIS): ... Polio vaccine can prevent polio.. Polio (or poliomyelitis) is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by poliovirus, ...
Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (cVDPV2) - Algeria *Home. *Disease *Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 ...
High-quality Inactivated Polio Vaccine offering comprehensive protection against poliovirus. Easy to administer, safe, well- ... Inactivated Polio Vaccine - 10 Dose Vial , Comprehensive Protection from Poliovirus , WHO-Approved Quality No Reviews ... Our Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) delivers comprehensive protection against all three types of poliovirus. Concentrated and ... Inactivated Polio Vaccine - 10 Dose Vial , Comprehensive Protection Against Poliovirus. Achieve exceptional protection against ...
Achieving High Poliovirus Antibody Seroprevalence in Areas at Risk of Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus Transmission - Niger ... A Survey to Assess Serological Prevalence of Poliovirus Antibodies in Areas with High-Risk for Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus ... Estimated US Infection- and Vaccine-Induced SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence Based on Blood Donations, July 2020-May 2021. JAMA. 2021 ... Modeling Poliovirus Transmission in Borno and Yobe, Northeast Nigeria. Risk Analysis. 2020. doi:10.1111/risa.13485 ...
Rapid emergence and transmission of virulence-associated mutations in the oral poliovirus vaccine following vaccination ... Vaccine-induced CD8+ T cells are key to protection from SARS-CoV-2 After vaccination, spike-specific CD8+ T cells play an ... Vaccine-induced CD8+ T cells are key to protection from SARS-CoV-2 After vaccination, spike-specific CD8+ T cells play an ... Immunogenicity of an AS01-adjuvanted respiratory syncytial virus prefusion F (RSVPreF3) vaccine in animal models *Badiaa Bouzya ...
  • Polio vaccination protects people against naturally occurring polioviruses and VDPVs. (cdc.gov)
  • If supplies are not available locally, poliovirus vaccination of persons for whom OPV is contraindicated should be delayed until IPV becomes available. (cdc.gov)
  • Because no case of polio resulting from indigenously transmitted wild poliovirus has been reported in the United States since 1979, postponing vaccination for these persons until IPV is available is not likely to pose a risk to those persons. (cdc.gov)
  • Unvaccinated adults who may be exposed to wild poliovirus during travel to polio-endemic areas and cannot obtain IPV should consider vaccination with OPV but should be informed that the risk for vaccine-associated paralytic polio is slightly higher in adults than in children (1,2). (cdc.gov)
  • 10. All authorities in Yemen to facilitate resumption of house-to-house vaccination campaigns in all areas to ensure delivery of vaccine to the youngest and most vulnerable children, who are likely to be missed by delivery of vaccine through health facilities alone. (who.int)
  • Use of OPV, especially in areas with low vaccination coverage, is associated with low risk of emergence of vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPVs). (cdc.gov)
  • Gaps in strategic implementation of vaccination activities significantly increase the likelihood that poliovirus transmission will continue throughout 2020, and most likely beyond. (who.int)
  • The refusal of polio vaccines, predominantly due to religious reasons, coupled with the apprehension surrounding the COVID-19 vaccination and its potential side effects, are of increasing concern. (who.int)
  • This vaccination should be avoided by individuals with acute fever, allergy to vaccine elements, or HIV infection. (procure-net.com)
  • discuss the history of polio globally and the United States, outline the current investigation and response to the case of paralytic polio New York, describe how to recognize, diagnose, and report suspected paralytic polio cases in the United States, and distinguish the differences between inactivated polio vaccine and oral polio vaccine and the importance of maintaining high polio vaccination coverage. (cdc.gov)
  • understand the history of polio in the U.S. and globally, describe polioviruses, understand the incubation period and transmission of poliovirus, and understand the impact of polio vaccination and the different types of vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • Here the authors evaluate neutralizing antibodies following COVID-19 bivalent vaccination and find that both Pfizer BA.5 (BNT162b2) and Moderna BA.1 (mRNA-1273) vaccines elicit similar neutralization against Omicron subvariants BA.1, BA.5, BQ.1.1, and XBB.1.5 in patients with end-stage kidney disease. (nature.com)
  • The New York State Department of Health (DOH) updated its advisory on poliovirus for adult polio vaccination to align with the updated recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (gnyha.org)
  • GNYHA encourages members to review the attached advisory for information on polio vaccination and billing and coverage for the inactivated poliovirus vaccine for Medicaid FFS and MMC patients. (gnyha.org)
  • 6 GPEI estimates that in the same period, without vaccination with OPV, more than 6.5 million children would have been paralysed by wild poliovirus. (bmj.com)
  • A primary vaccination series with either vaccine produces immunity to all three types of poliovirus in more than 95 percent of recipients. (ihs.gov)
  • Although immunization with the human papillomavirus vaccine is recommended for all boys and girls, vaccination rates remain low. (aafp.org)
  • Family physicians should gather accurate information about the harms and benefits of vaccines to advocate for vaccination and decrease the incidence of vaccine-preventable diseases. (aafp.org)
  • 2 , 5 Administration of acetaminophen at the time of vaccination or shortly afterward may alleviate some adverse effects, but there may be a decreased antibody response to some vaccine antigens in children who receive antipyretics. (aafp.org)
  • But data from the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS), which is under the CDC, showed that 57,622 children (aged 0 to 17) have suffered an injury because of COVID-19 vaccination as of September 29, 2022. (newstarget.com)
  • The report discovered that compared to the 2021-22 school year, vaccination coverage reduced the most for the DTaP vaccine, dropping in 31 states for the 2022-23 school year. (newstarget.com)
  • To further the control of disease by vaccination, we must develop safe and effective new vaccines to combat infectious diseases, and address the public's concerns. (nature.com)
  • Countries like the U.S. and Belgium already offer a booster dose of the vaccine to prevent polio as part of their ordinary childhood vaccination schedule. (politico.eu)
  • Defining surrogate serologic tests with respect to predicting protective vaccine efficacy: Poliovirus vaccination. (who.int)
  • The inactivated poliovirus rows of the catch-up schedule have been edited to clarify the catch-up recommendations for children 4 years of age and older, and the poliovirus vaccine footnote was revised to include updated guidance for persons who received oral polio vaccine as part of their vaccination series. (medscape.com)
  • Unimmunized adults who are potentially exposed to wild poliovirus and have not been adequately immunized: 2 doses at a 1-2 month interval and a third dose 6-12 months later. (empr.com)
  • OPV is a safe and effective vaccine that contains a combination of one, two, or three strains of live, weakened poliovirus, and is given in the form of oral drops. (cdc.gov)
  • In a recent study published in eClinicalMedicine, researchers assessed the immune persistence of the Sabin strain-derived inactivated poliovirus vaccine (sIPV) compared to wild poliovirus seed strains (wIPV) in children. (expresshealthcaremgmt.com)
  • This suggests that using attenuated Sabin strains to prepare inactivated poliovirus vaccines, such as sIPV, could be a viable option for preventing poliomyelitis. (expresshealthcaremgmt.com)
  • Wild poliovirus type 3 has not been detected globally since November 2012 and both strains have been certified as globally eradicated (in September 2015 and October 2019, respectively). (who.int)
  • Since the 2016 removal of type 2 strains from the OPV, vaccine-derived poliovirus outbreaks have occurred in communities that are immunologically naive to poliovirus type 2 and in areas with recent use of monovalent OPV. (who.int)
  • In the United States inapparent Infection with wild poliovirus strains no longer contributes significantly to establishing or maintaining immunity. (ihs.gov)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine is made from the polysaccharide capsules of 23 different bacteria strains. (ihs.gov)
  • Recent polio outbreaks in both endemic and non-endemic countries stem from poliovirus strains originally contained in OPV, called circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPV) . (asm.org)
  • Unfortunately, cVDPV strains 'are a major challenge to accomplishing this goal,' as they promote community spread of poliovirus, which can only be combatted with OPV, thus perpetuating the cycle. (asm.org)
  • Of the 3 types of cVDPV, type 2 strains (cVDPV2) are responsible for over 90% of vaccine-associated outbreaks worldwide . (asm.org)
  • OPV was made by weakening the three strains of poliovirus that caused disease by growing them in monkey kidney cells. (chop.edu)
  • Modified RFLP profiles were found to be strongly correlated with the presence of mutations and recombination events in vaccine strains. (hal.science)
  • We found that a substantial proportion of vaccine strains had high percentages of nucleotide substitutions (>0.5%), including a type 3 VDPV with 1.4% nucleotide divergence. (hal.science)
  • These findings indicate that VDPV or pre-VDPV strains are not rare in certain populations with high levels of vaccine coverage. (hal.science)
  • History of Sabin attenuated poliovirus oral live vaccine strains. (who.int)
  • The ful data concerning the history of attenuated poliovirus strains developed by one of us (Sabin, 1965) for vaccine production do not appear in a single journal. (who.int)
  • Over the past few years we have had frequent requests for the details such as isolation and attenuation and accordingly we felt that bringing the data together in the report below would be both helpful and informative to those involved in the production and control of poliovirus vaccine (oral) prepared from these strains. (who.int)
  • C.04.123 Poliomyelitis vaccine shall be prepared in acceptable tissue culture medium from strains of poliomyelitis virus proven capable of producing vaccine of acceptable potency. (gc.ca)
  • OPV has been instrumental in eradicating wild polioviruses around the world, including in the United States, because it stops the spread of the virus by inducing immunity in the gut. (cdc.gov)
  • Circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses (cVDPVs) can emerge in settings with low poliovirus population immunity and cause paralysis. (cdc.gov)
  • The study aimed to determine the duration of immunity conferred by sIPV and its potential as an alternative to oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). (expresshealthcaremgmt.com)
  • These findings are particularly significant for developing nations in the postpolio era, as vaccines with long-lasting immunity are crucial for polio eradication efforts. (expresshealthcaremgmt.com)
  • Humoral and intestinal immunity induced by new schedules of bivalent oral poliovirus vaccine and one or two doses of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in Latin American infants: an open-label randomised controlled trial. (bvsalud.org)
  • It provides a trivalent solution that holds a purified and highly concentrated suspension of three poliovirus types ensuring comprehensive immunity. (procure-net.com)
  • however, epidemics could occur if the high immunity level of the general population is not maintained by immunizing children routinely or If wild poliovirus is introduced into susceptible populations in communities with low immunization levels. (ihs.gov)
  • The relative immunity induced by sequential administration of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) produced in human diploid cells and live attenuated oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) was evaluated by randomization of 510 infants to receive IPV and OPV sequentially according to one of three experimental schedules, IPV only, or OPV only. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • These children had already had polio, so Salk's test was designed to prove that his vaccine would create a higher level of immunity than a natural infection. (si.edu)
  • The oral vaccine is safe and provides better immunity in the gut (where polio replicates), than the inactivated vaccine. (thehindu.com)
  • Advances in our understanding of the determinants of protective immunity and immunological memory, of the mechanisms by which adjuvants affect the quality and magnitude of immunological responses, and of microbial genomics, offer the promise for new and more effective vaccines in the near future. (nature.com)
  • New combination vaccines should induce similar or superior levels of neutralizing antibody in serum for individual protection against paralytic disease and mucosal immunity that effectively decreases viral replication in the intestine and pharynx for population protection against transmission of poliovirus. (who.int)
  • VDPVs can cause outbreaks in places where vaccine coverage is low. (cdc.gov)
  • Circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) outbreaks* occur when transmission of Sabin strain poliovirus is prolonged in underimmunized populations, allowing viral genetic reversion to neurovirulence, resulting in cases of paralytic polio ( 1 - 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Despite this, VDPV2 outbreaks have continued-a reflection of residual vaccine virus circulating in large populations. (bmj.com)
  • Here is the perspective: over the past 10 years-during which more than 10 billion doses of oral polio vaccine were given worldwide-circulating VDPV outbreaks remained rare. (bmj.com)
  • However, the oral vaccine is still used in some countries, particularly to respond to polio outbreaks. (politico.eu)
  • BACKGROUND: In 2008, a diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis, and inactivated poliovirus combined vaccine (DTaP-IPV) was licensed for use in children 4 through 6 years of age. (healthpartners.com)
  • 3 The fourth dose of the diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis (DTaP) vaccine is associated with an increased incidence of fever and injection site reactions compared with the first dose (one in four children). (aafp.org)
  • or tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine. (aafp.org)
  • For the first 2 doses of Ipol: may administer at separate sites using separate syringes concomitantly with DTaP, acellular pertussis, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), and hepatitis B vaccines. (empr.com)
  • From historical data on the antibody responses to diphtheria, tetanus, whole-cell or acellular pertussis, Hib, or hepatitis B vaccines used concomitantly with IPOL vaccine, no interferences have been observed on the immunological endpoints accepted for clinical protection. (empr.com)
  • It begins with a humble stool sample - a thumb-sized smudge of poop - taken from a child with acute flaccid paralysis (AFP), then delivered to the nearest laboratory that can test the sample specifically for poliovirus. (polioeradication.org)
  • The Sabin infectious, attenuated poliovirus vaccines are known to cause vaccine-associated paralysis in a small number of recipients. (virology.ws)
  • Polio (or poliomyelitis) is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by poliovirus, which can infect a person's spinal cord, leading to paralysis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • However, for adults who have not had a primary series and are at greater- risk than the general population of exposure to wild polioviruses because of foreign travel or health occupation, IPV Is preferred since the risk of OPV-associated paralysis is slightly higher In adults than in children. (ihs.gov)
  • The IPV is indicated because of the slightly increased risk to adults of vaccine-associated paralysis after OPV administration. (ihs.gov)
  • Polio is caused by the poliovirus , a serotype of the Enterovirus C species and member of the Picornaviridae family, which resides in the gut and throat but can invade the nervous system to cause paralysis. (asm.org)
  • In about 1 of every 2.4 million recipients, the live, weakened virus contained in the oral polio vaccine causes paralysis. (chop.edu)
  • There are two types of polioviruses that can cause paralysis in humans. (thehindu.com)
  • The mutations are different from the wild poliovirus, though they too can cause paralysis. (thehindu.com)
  • During this period, the virus can mutate and take on a form that can cause paralysis just like the wild poliovirus. (thehindu.com)
  • About 2,500 cases of paralysis from circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus paralysis have been registered. (thehindu.com)
  • The poliovirus is a virus that causes paralysis. (massgeneral.org)
  • The poliovirus is a virus that can cause paralysis. (massgeneral.org)
  • In March, the World Health Organization was also notified of vaccine-derived poliovirus in Israel, with pediatric paralysis being detected in a child. (politico.eu)
  • After eradication, the routine use of oral polio vaccine (OPV) must end to avoid cases of paralysis related to the vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • The refusal of polio vaccines, cases, geographical constraints, the use predominantly due to religious reasons, of homeopathy, and misconceptions has seen a larger attention share in about the measles vaccine hinder social media when coupled with lasting vaccine acceptance in some regions of apprehension surrounding the Kenya. (who.int)
  • There are 2 types of polio vaccines: the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) and oral polio vaccines (OPV) . (asm.org)
  • Poor and developing countries may not have access to the current polio vaccines. (massgeneral.org)
  • It occurs if the weakened live virus in oral polio vaccines - which does not cause polio in the recipient, and is shed by vaccinated kids through their digestive system - circulates in under-vaccinated communities long enough for it to mutate into a version that resembles wild polio, regaining the ability to paralyze. (politico.eu)
  • In 2019 and early 2020, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative developed the draft Strategy for Control of cVDPV2 2019-2021 to more effectively address the evolving circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 epidemiology. (who.int)
  • containing Sabin strain types 1 and 3) subsequent to the certified eradication of wild type poliovirus (WPV) type 2 in 2015 ( 1 - 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • In November 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) Emergency Use Listing procedure authorized limited use of type 2 novel OPV (nOPV2), a vaccine modified to be more genetically stable than the Sabin strain, for cVDPV2 outbreak response ( 3 , 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Why do we still use Sabin poliovirus vaccine? (virology.ws)
  • Why are the Sabin vaccines still used globally? (virology.ws)
  • After the 2015 documentation of global eradication of wild poliovirus type 2,* Sabin type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) was withdrawn from routine immunization (RI) in all OPV-using countries in 2016, in a global synchronized switch from trivalent OPV (containing vaccine virus serotypes 1, 2, and 3) to bivalent OPV (containing serotypes 1 and 3), to reduce the rare risks for type 2 vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis. (cdc.gov)
  • 3 Vaccine derived polioviruses arise when genetic reversion events in the Sabin oral polio vaccine (OPV) increase their, otherwise attenuated, transmissibility and neurovirulence. (bmj.com)
  • An advisory committee to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) voted on October 20, 2022, in favor of including the Wuhan coronavirus (COVID-19) vaccine in the recommended immunization schedule for children aged six months and over. (newstarget.com)
  • Facilitate the integration of new vaccines into the childhood immunization schedule. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • Although the development, evaluation, and use of combination vaccines is complex, these types of vaccines should simplify the immunization schedule and reduce the number of injections that children receive. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • A table has been added outlining each vaccine type, its abbreviation, and the brand names for vaccines discussed in the child/adolescent immunization schedule. (medscape.com)
  • MPSV4 (4-valent meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine) is no longer available and has been removed from the adult immunization schedule. (medscape.com)
  • The most common misinformation pieces claimed that vaccines were unsafe and that they could cause other diseases. (polioeradication.org)
  • Children may miss routine immunizations, making them more vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases. (who.int)
  • The diseases that vaccines prevent are often more serious for babies and young children than they are for adults. (webmd.com)
  • However, in developed countries, the public's fear of vaccine-preventable diseases has waned, and awareness of potential adverse effects has increased, which is threatening vaccine acceptance. (nature.com)
  • In the ensuing years, vaccines for more than 20 infectious diseases have been developed, and in 1977, Jenner's original experiment was brought to full fruition when smallpox was eradicated worldwide 6 . (nature.com)
  • Routine use of these vaccines has nearly eliminated meningitis and other diseases caused by H. influenzae type b 6 . (nature.com)
  • Vaccines are unique among medical interventions in that they are given to healthy individuals to prevent diseases that often do not pose an immediate threat to the recipient. (nature.com)
  • For that reason-and because more vaccines against fatal diseases are being developed-manufacturers have been developing combination vaccines. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • With the use of combination vaccines the number of injections can be reduced without reducing the number of diseases against which a child is protected. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • Combination vaccines aim to prevent multiple diseases or 1 disease caused by different types of the same organism. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • Any detectable titer of neutralizing antibody against poliovirus is considered protective against clinical paralytic diseases. (who.int)
  • The polio eradication program is not a typical vertical program-polio resources and infrastructure fill in many gaps in the immunization systems that protect hundreds of millions of children from vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) worldwide each year. (cdc.gov)
  • In response to an outbreak of circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus (cVDPV) type 2 in the Philippines in 2019-2020, several rounds of supplementary immunization activities using the monovalent type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) were conducted for the first time in the Western Pacific Region. (who.int)
  • To prevent the emergence and further spread of cVDPV type 2, several interventions could be implemented including optimizing outbreak responses by using the monovalent type 2 OPV, accelerating the availability of the novel type 2 OPV, strengthening routine immunization using inactivated polio vaccine and eventually replacing OPV with inactivated poliovirus vaccine for routine immunization. (who.int)
  • circulating vaccine-derived polioviruses , or cVDPV. (thehindu.com)
  • The vaccine has been shown to be about 80 percent protective against pneumococcal pneumonia and bacteremia. (ihs.gov)
  • The vaccine should be administered to a pregnant woman only if protection against pneumococcal disease is clearly needed. (ihs.gov)
  • Other vaccines might be needed if the doctor determines that your child is at risk for conditions like meningococcal or pneumococcal disease. (kidshealth.org)
  • Pneumococcal vaccine (PCV13) - It comes in four doses, starting at 2 months. (webmd.com)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (contains seven types of the bacterium Str. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • In addition, there is clarification of the recommendations for rotavirus and pneumococcal vaccines. (medscape.com)
  • The pneumococcal row for the heart disease/chronic lung disease, chronic liver disease, and diabetes columns has been stippled to clarify that, in some situations, an additional dose of vaccine may be recommended for children with these conditions. (medscape.com)
  • Indeed, of the 3 serotypes of wild poliovirus (the causative agent of the disease), only type 1 remains in Afghanistan and Pakistan , the 2 countries where polio (i.e., wild poliovirus) is still endemic. (asm.org)
  • Of the three wild poliovirus serotypes, only one - the wild poliovirus type 1 - remains in circulation, and in Pakistan and Afghanistan. (thehindu.com)
  • Wild poliovirus is the most commonly known form of the poliovirus, with three serotypes 1, 2 and 3. (thehindu.com)
  • Inactivated and trivalent oral poliovirus vaccines contain either formalin- inactivated or live, attenuated poliovirus, respectively, of the three serotypes. (who.int)
  • Interference among the three attenuated poliovirus serotypes was minimized with a 'balanced- formulation' vaccine, and serologic responses after IPV were optimized by adjusting the antigenic content of each inactivated poliovirus serotype. (who.int)
  • RESULTS: During the study period, 201,116 children received DTaP-IPV vaccine. (healthpartners.com)
  • Ninety-seven percent of DTaP-IPV recipients also received other vaccines on the same day, typically measles-mumps-rubella and varicella vaccines. (healthpartners.com)
  • CONCLUSIONS: In this safety surveillance study of more than 200,000 DTaP-IPV vaccine recipients, there was no evidence of increased risk for any of the pre-specified adverse events monitored. (healthpartners.com)
  • Continued surveillance of DTaP-IPV vaccine safety may be warranted to monitor for rare adverse events, such as Guillain-Barre syndrome. (healthpartners.com)
  • Tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (Tdap ) - This is a follow-up shot to the DTaP vaccine kids get when they're younger. (webmd.com)
  • Replacement of the trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine (tOPV) with bivalent types 1 and 3 oral poliovirus vaccine (bOPV) and global introduction of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) are major steps in the polio endgame strategy. (bvsalud.org)
  • this patient developed paralytic poliomyelitis 7 years after the last administration of trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine. (medscape.com)
  • The certification of the eradication of wild poliovirus in the WHO African Region could occur as early as June 2020. (who.int)
  • Children should usually get 4 doses of polio vaccine, at ages 2 months, 4 months, 6 -18 months, and 4 - 6 years of age. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The vaccine comes in vials, each containing 10 doses. (procure-net.com)
  • Travelers who have previously received less than a full primary course of OPV or IPV should be given the remaining required doses of either vaccine, regardless of the interval since the last dose and the type of vaccine previously received. (ihs.gov)
  • Between 1961 and 1996, children in the United States received four doses of the oral vaccine. (chop.edu)
  • This changed beginning in 1997 and continued throughout 1999 when children typically received two doses of the shot followed by two doses of the oral vaccine. (chop.edu)
  • Three months after the final dose, 96%-99%, 99%-100%, and 81%-100% of infants had antibodies to poliovirus types 1, 2, and 3, respectively, and subjects with two or more prior OPV doses were significantly less likely than those with none or one prior OPV dose to excrete virus in feces after an OPV challenge. (johnshopkins.edu)
  • More than 10 billion doses of oral polio vaccine have been given to nearly three billion children worldwide since 2000. (thehindu.com)
  • Babies get 2 or 3 oral doses between ages 2-6 months (depending on the vaccine brand). (webmd.com)
  • Inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) - Four doses protect against polio. (webmd.com)
  • Children should get 2 doses of the vaccine starting at age 1. (webmd.com)
  • Previously unvaccinated with risk of exposure to poliovirus: 2 doses at a 1-2 month interval and a 3rd dose 6-12 months later. (empr.com)
  • Persons ≥ 12 months who previously received ≤ two doses of mumps-containing vaccine and are identified by public health authorities to be at increased risk during a mumps outbreak should receive a dose of mumps virus-containing vaccine. (medscape.com)
  • Administer one dose of MMR to adults who previously received ≤ two doses of mumps-containing vaccine and are identified by a public health authority to be at increased risk during a mumps outbreak. (medscape.com)
  • Since that time, all cases of paralytic poliomyelitis due to wild poliovirus have been caused by wild poliovirus type 1. (who.int)
  • The answer to this question requires a brief visit to the history of poliovirus vaccines. (virology.ws)
  • I'm happy to be with you all here today to present an overview and history of poliovirus. (cdc.gov)
  • UPDATE: In July 2022, CDC was notified of a case of polio caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus type 2 (VDPV2) in an unvaccinated individual from Rockland County, New York, and is consulting with the New York State Department of Health on their investigation. (cdc.gov)
  • However, polio returned to the wider consciousness in the UK last week with the detection of vaccine derived poliovirus type 2 (VDPV2) in sewage samples taken in north London. (bmj.com)
  • Meningococcal conjugate vaccine (MCV4) - This protects against four types of meningococcal bacteria that causes meningitis, a disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. (webmd.com)
  • Stopping any polio outbreak starts with vaccine procurement, transport by airplanes and trucks, distribution involving complex logistics, and eventually the oral administration of the vaccine by drops in the mouths of every eligible child. (polioeradication.org)
  • The World Health Organisation has expressed concerns over the possible outbreak of the vaccine-derived poliovirus, also known as CVDPV2, and is also concerned about the poor quality of supplementary immunisation activities conducted to date and routine immunisation, and urged the country to focus its efforts to address these two factors. (punchng.com)
  • After use of the monovalent vaccine, the emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus unrelated to the outbreak virus was detected in healthy children and environmental samples. (who.int)
  • This report describes the detection of this poliovirus in the Philippines after use of the monovalent type 2 OPV for outbreak response. (who.int)
  • We describe the emergence of vaccine-derived poliovirus unrelated to the outbreak detected after supplementary immunization activities using the monovalent type 2 OPV. (who.int)
  • The MMR footnote was updated to include guidance regarding the use of a third dose of mumps-containing vaccine during a mumps outbreak. (medscape.com)
  • While IPV does an excellent job at protecting individuals from paralytic disease, it cannot stop community transmission of poliovirus-but OPV can. (asm.org)
  • Health-care personnel in close contact with patients who may be excreting wild polioviruses, and laboratory personnel handling specimens that may contain wild polioviruses, should have completed a primary series of poliovirus vaccine. (ihs.gov)
  • A vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) is a strain related to the weakened live poliovirus contained in oral polio vaccine (OPV). (cdc.gov)
  • IPV is given as an injection in the leg or arm, depending on the person's age and protects against paralytic disease caused by any type of poliovirus, including VDPV. (cdc.gov)
  • Because OPV has not been used in the United States since 2000 and vaccine coverage with IPV is high, it is unlikely that any VDPV would become widespread in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • Since the announcement of the WHO program for the global eradication of poliomyelitis and the establishment of epidemiological and virological surveillance, the emergence and circulation of pathogenic vaccine-derived polioviruses (VDPV) presenting >1% nucleotide divergence from the sequence of the original vaccine strain have been demonstrated in certain regions. (hal.science)
  • We developed and used a multiple restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method to investigate the frequency of these VDPV in a population with a high level of oral poliovirus vaccine coverage in northwestern Russia. (hal.science)
  • The control of poliomyelitis by live poliovirus vaccine. (szaktars.hu)
  • The most recently detected poliovirus genetically linked to the cVDPV1 emergence (PHL-NCR-2) § circulating during the previous reporting period was found in environmental surveillance samples (sewage) in Malaysia during March 2020 ( 3 ) ( Table ) ( Figure 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • It's important to note that vaccine-derived poliovirus and circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus are not indicative of a re-emergence of wild poliovirus. (thehindu.com)
  • Infants in all groups were challenged with monovalent type 2 vaccine (mOPV2) at 18 weeks (groups 1, 3, and 4) or 40 weeks (groups 2 and 5). (bvsalud.org)
  • We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis to measure vaccine shedding in 300 seronegative infants aged 6-11 months and in 218 children aged 1-4 years 7 days after administration of monovalent or bivalent OPV. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • The effect of azithromycin on the immunogenicity of oral poliovirus vaccine: a double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial in seronegative Indian infants. (ox.ac.uk)
  • METHODS: We did a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of azithromycin on the immunogenicity of serotype-3 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine given to healthy infants living in 14 blocks of Vellore district, India. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Infants were eligible to participate if they were 6-11 months old, available for the study duration, and lacked serum neutralising antibodies to serotype-3 poliovirus. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Infants were randomly assigned (1:1) at enrolment to receive oral 10 mg/kg azithromycin or placebo once daily for 3 days, followed by serotype-3 monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine on day 14. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Safety and effectiveness of Ipol vaccine in infants below 6 weeks of age have not been established. (empr.com)
  • Travelers to areas where wild poliovirus is epidemic or endemic should have completed a primary series of poliovirus vaccine. (ihs.gov)
  • Vaccine- associated paralytic poliomyelitis: a review of the epidemiology and estimation of the global burden. (who.int)
  • When developing vaccine recommendations for children and adults, ACIP considers many factors, including disease epidemiology, vaccine safety and effectiveness, feasibility of program implementation, and economics of immunization policy. (medscape.com)
  • This is particularly true for applications concerning vaccine candidates containing or consisting of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). (intechopen.com)
  • Based on the state-of-play in Belgium, this chapter discusses examples of regulatory journeys of applications with genetically modified viral vectors and novel vaccine candidates that have been reviewed by GMO national competent authorities in Belgium and in Europe. (intechopen.com)
  • Furthermore, enhanced surveillance for non-paralytic polio (non-specific viral symptoms or meningitis) has been expanded to include non-New York City counties in which the poliovirus genetically related to the virus strain from the case-patient has been found. (gnyha.org)
  • Poliomyelitis prevention: enhanced-potency inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine -- supplementary statement. (cdc.gov)
  • Recommendations to assure the quality, safety and efficacy of live attenuated poliomyelitis vaccine (oral). (who.int)
  • C.04.122 Poliomyelitis vaccine shall be an aqueous suspension of killed poliomyelitis viruses, Types I, II, and III. (gc.ca)
  • C.04.124 Poliomyelitis vaccine in its final form shall contain not more than 0.35 milligram per millilitre of total nitrogen, nor more than one part per million of animal serum. (gc.ca)
  • C.04.125 No person shall sell poliomyelitis vaccine unless it has been tested by an acceptable method for potency and safety and when so tested it shall be safe and of acceptable potency. (gc.ca)
  • C.04.127 The expiration date of the poliomyelitis vaccine shall be not later than 12 months after the date of the last satisfactory potency test unless evidence, satisfactory to the Minister, is presented that a longer period is appropriate. (gc.ca)
  • On 17 March 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that health officials in Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) had detected cases of vaccine-derived poliovirus . (thehindu.com)
  • In recent months, cases of vaccine-derived polio have been detected in the US and Israel. (politico.eu)
  • In recent months, cases of vaccine-derived polio have been detected in the U.S. and Israel. (politico.eu)
  • Vaccine- associated paralytic poliomyelitis (VAPP) is a rare adverse event associated with oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV). (who.int)
  • In Africa, no wild poliovirus has been detected from any source since it was last detected in north-eastern Nigeria in September 2016. (who.int)
  • Indeed, wild poliovirus type 2 was eradicated globally in 2015, 7 and since April 2016, no OPV in use for routine immunisation around the world has contained the type 2 virus. (bmj.com)
  • Available at http://www.who.int/biologicals/vaccines/BS2185_OPV_Post_ECBS_DB_TZ_DBFinal12Feb2013.pdf, accessed February 2016. (who.int)
  • Because of strong partnerships, 155 countries and territories switched from trivalent OPV (containing types 1, 2, and 3 poliovirus) to bivalent OPV (containing types 1 and 3 poliovirus) during a two-week period in 2016. (cdc.gov)
  • The primary outcome was detection of serum neutralising antibodies to serotype-3 poliovirus at a dilution of one in eight or more on day 35 and was assessed in the per-protocol population (ie, all those who received azithromycin or placebo, oral poliovirus vaccine, and provided a blood sample according to the study protocol). (ox.ac.uk)
  • In a sense, because the vaccine induces antibodies in the bloodstream, and not the intestines, IPV induces a "second line" of defense against infection. (chop.edu)
  • A vaccine helps your immune system build the tools, called antibodies, it needs to fight viruses and bacteria that cause illnesses. (webmd.com)
  • Poliovirus Vaccine Inactivated induces the production of neutralizing antibodies against each type of virus which are related to protective efficacy. (empr.com)
  • VDPVs emerge when not enough people are vaccinated against polio, and the weakened strain of the poliovirus from OPV spreads among under-immunized populations. (cdc.gov)
  • But she says reluctance really took root in the age of the internet, which is probably why vaccine hesitancy rates are highest among younger populations. (wcax.com)
  • An example of a combination vaccine is the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine . (immunizationinfo.org)
  • Thimerosal is currently used only in multidose vials of influenza vaccine, and exposure through vaccines is not associated with adverse neurologic outcomes. (aafp.org)
  • Influenza (flu) - The CDC recommends that everyone age 6 months of age and older get this vaccine every year before the start of flu season. (webmd.com)
  • Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) - The vaccine protects against a bacteria that causes dangerous brain, lung, and windpipe infections. (webmd.com)
  • An example is the development of polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae type b. (nature.com)
  • Other vaccines that combine DTP and/or Haemophilus influenzae type b and/or hepatitis B with IPV appear feasible but require further investigation. (who.int)
  • Oral polio vaccine (OPV) is no longer available and is not recommended for routine immunization. (empr.com)
  • persons for whom oral polio vaccine (OPV) is contraindicated (i.e., persons diagnosed with or living in a household with a person with a congenital or acquired immune deficiency). (cdc.gov)
  • Both biopharmaceuticals are regarded as vaccines because they elicit an immune response, either against a pathogenic microorganism or against the host's own tumour cells. (intechopen.com)
  • Poliovirus that was grown in these cells was so "weakened" that, after it was swallowed, it induced an immune response but didn't cause disease. (chop.edu)
  • This suggests that the immune response to OPV is on a continuum, rather than an all-or-nothing phenomenon, that depends on efficient vaccine virus replication. (liverpool.ac.uk)
  • Viral interference and innate antiviral immune mechanisms might be more important determinants of the immunogenicity of live-virus oral vaccines. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The age when a vaccine works best in the immune system. (webmd.com)
  • A combination vaccine is a vaccine that consists of 2 or more separate immunogens (elements that produce an immune response from the body) physically combined into a single product. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • So researchers compare immune responses and adverse reactions of the separate components of the vaccine to those for the candidate combination vaccine. (immunizationinfo.org)
  • Pakistan began using inactivated poliovirus vaccine alongside oral vaccine in mass campaigns to accelerate eradication of This research was supported by the Research Program on wild-type poliovirus in 2014. (cdc.gov)
  • Agency for Medical Research and Development (JP17fk0108304) found that these campaigns reduced wild-type poliovirus de- and Keio Gijuku Academic Development Funds. (cdc.gov)
  • Otherwise, these persons should avoid activities or travel that might result in exposure to wild poliovirus. (cdc.gov)
  • The last reported case of poliomyelitis due to wild poliovirus type 2 was reported in 1999. (who.int)
  • In 2019, cases of wild poliovirus type 1 continued to be detected in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. (who.int)
  • 2 Africa was declared free of wild polio in August 2020 and only two small pockets of wild poliovirus type 1 remain, in Afghanistan and Pakistan. (bmj.com)
  • These are the wild poliovirus and the vaccine-derived poliovirus. (thehindu.com)
  • Global efforts since 1988, using oral polio vaccine to immunise children, have reduced wild poliovirus cases by 99.9% . (thehindu.com)
  • The use of the oral polio vaccine containing attenuated or weakened virus, has brought the wild poliovirus to the brink of eradication. (thehindu.com)
  • The poliovirus that has been found in sewage in the boroughs of Barnet, Brent, Camden, Enfield, Hackney, Haringey, Islington and Waltham Forest is not wild virus but derived from the vaccine. (politico.eu)
  • Currently, wild poliovirus affects Pakistan and Afghanistan. (politico.eu)
  • Three wild polioviruses cause paralytic polio-types 1, 2, and 3. (cdc.gov)
  • Polio vaccine may be given as a stand-alone vaccine, or as part of a combination vaccine (a type of vaccine that combines more than one vaccine together into one shot). (medlineplus.gov)
  • However, the children at the Watson Home received only one type of vaccine matching the strain of their original polio infection. (si.edu)
  • Adverse reactions should be reported to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). (medlineplus.gov)
  • Because of this, parents are increasingly questioning the necessity of immunizing their children, especially because no vaccine is completely free of adverse effects or the risk of complications. (aafp.org)
  • The Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System and National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program track adverse events and allow compensation for documented harms from vaccinations. (aafp.org)
  • Some parents express concern that physicians are not well educated on the adverse effects of vaccines or that physicians purposefully withhold information on adverse effects. (aafp.org)
  • The most common adverse effects of the human papillomavirus vaccine are transient and similar to those of other vaccines, including mild pain and bruising at the injection site, headache, lightheadedness, and syncope. (aafp.org)
  • Follow VaccineInjuryNews.com for more news about the adverse effects of COVID-19 vaccines. (newstarget.com)