Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infections with STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Infections with bacteria of the species STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed bacteria administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious bacterial disease.
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
A febrile disease caused by STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Two or more vaccines in a single dosage form.
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
An acute purulent infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, most prevalent in children and adults over the age of 60. This illness may be associated with OTITIS MEDIA; MASTOIDITIS; SINUSITIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; sickle cell disease (ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL); skull fractures; and other disorders. Clinical manifestations include FEVER; HEADACHE; neck stiffness; and somnolence followed by SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits (notably DEAFNESS); and COMA. (From Miller et al., Merritt's Textbook of Neurology, 9th ed, p111)
The top portion of the pharynx situated posterior to the nose and superior to the SOFT PALATE. The nasopharynx is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities and has a respiratory function.
Surgical procedure involving either partial or entire removal of the spleen.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated HIV or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent or treat AIDS. Some vaccines containing antigens are recombinantly produced.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Inflammation of the NASOPHARYNX, usually including its mucosa, related lymphoid structure, and glands.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing antigenic polysaccharides from Haemophilus influenzae and designed to prevent infection. The vaccine can contain the polysaccharides alone or more frequently polysaccharides conjugated to carrier molecules. It is also seen as a combined vaccine with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
Any immunization following a primary immunization and involving exposure to the same or a closely related antigen.
Vaccines consisting of one or more antigens that stimulate a strong immune response. They are purified from microorganisms or produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or they can be chemically synthesized peptides.
Organized services to administer immunization procedures in the prevention of various diseases. The programs are made available over a wide range of sites: schools, hospitals, public health agencies, voluntary health agencies, etc. They are administered to an equally wide range of population groups or on various administrative levels: community, municipal, state, national, international.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by viruses in the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE. It includes both killed and attenuated vaccines. The composition of the vaccines is changed each year in response to antigenic shifts and changes in prevalence of influenza virus strains. The vaccine is usually bivalent or trivalent, containing one or two INFLUENZAVIRUS A strains and one INFLUENZAVIRUS B strain.
Schedule giving optimum times usually for primary and/or secondary immunization.
Vaccines made from antigens arising from any of the four strains of Plasmodium which cause malaria in humans, or from P. berghei which causes malaria in rodents.
Tetanus toxoid is a purified and chemically inactivated form of the tetanus toxin, used as a vaccine to induce active immunity against tetanus disease by stimulating the production of antibodies.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS. Human vaccines are intended to reduce the incidence of UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS, so they are sometimes considered a type of CANCER VACCINES. They are often composed of CAPSID PROTEINS, especially L1 protein, from various types of ALPHAPAPILLOMAVIRUS.
The formaldehyde-inactivated toxin of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. It is generally used in mixtures with TETANUS TOXOID and PERTUSSIS VACCINE; (DTP); or with tetanus toxoid alone (DT for pediatric use and Td, which contains 5- to 10-fold less diphtheria toxoid, for other use). Diphtheria toxoid is used for the prevention of diphtheria; DIPHTHERIA ANTITOXIN is for treatment.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
Proteins that bind to particles and cells to increase susceptibility to PHAGOCYTOSIS, especially ANTIBODIES bound to EPITOPES that attach to FC RECEPTORS. COMPLEMENT C3B may also participate.
Presence of pus in a hollow organ or body cavity.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
The condition of harboring an infective organism without manifesting symptoms of infection. The organism must be readily transmissible to another susceptible host.
Exotoxins produced by certain strains of streptococci, particularly those of group A (STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES), that cause HEMOLYSIS.
Inflammation of the MIDDLE EAR including the AUDITORY OSSICLES and the EUSTACHIAN TUBE.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had measles or been immunized with live measles vaccine and have no serum antibodies against measles. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
A suspension of killed Bordetella pertussis organisms, used for immunization against pertussis (WHOOPING COUGH). It is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids (DTP). There is an acellular pertussis vaccine prepared from the purified antigenic components of Bordetella pertussis, which causes fewer adverse reactions than whole-cell vaccine and, like the whole-cell vaccine, is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.
A suspension of formalin-inactivated poliovirus grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture and used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent and treat RABIES. The inactivated virus vaccine is used for preexposure immunization to persons at high risk of exposure, and in conjunction with rabies immunoglobulin, for postexposure prophylaxis.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with ROTAVIRUS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with VIBRIO CHOLERAE. The original cholera vaccine consisted of killed bacteria, but other kinds of vaccines now exist.
Vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER and/or PARATYPHOID FEVER which are caused by various species of SALMONELLA. Attenuated, subunit, and inactivated forms of the vaccines exist.
A live VACCINIA VIRUS vaccine of calf lymph or chick embryo origin, used for immunization against smallpox. It is now recommended only for laboratory workers exposed to smallpox virus. Certain countries continue to vaccinate those in the military service. Complications that result from smallpox vaccination include vaccinia, secondary bacterial infections, and encephalomyelitis. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
Patient or client refusal of or resistance to medical, psychological, or psychiatric treatment. (APA, Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms, 8th ed.)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat TUBERCULOSIS.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
A live, attenuated varicella virus vaccine used for immunization against chickenpox. It is recommended for children between the ages of 12 months and 13 years.
A vaccine consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and whole-cell PERTUSSIS VACCINE. The vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by MUMPS VIRUS. Best known is the live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had mumps or been immunized with live mumps vaccine. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
A combined vaccine used to prevent MEASLES; MUMPS; and RUBELLA.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent ANTHRAX.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with DENGUE VIRUS. These include live-attenuated, subunit, DNA, and inactivated vaccines.
Vaccines using VIROSOMES as the antigen delivery system that stimulates the desired immune response.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Nonsusceptibility of an organism to the action of penicillins.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
A live vaccine containing attenuated poliovirus, types I, II, and III, grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture, used for routine immunization of children against polio. This vaccine induces long-lasting intestinal and humoral immunity. Killed vaccine induces only humoral immunity. Oral poliovirus vaccine should not be administered to immunocompromised individuals or their household contacts. (Dorland, 28th ed)
An infant during the first month after birth.
Vaccine used to prevent YELLOW FEVER. It consists of a live attenuated 17D strain of the YELLOW FEVER VIRUS.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
A suspension of killed Yersinia pestis used for immunizing people in enzootic plague areas.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed fungi administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious fungal disease.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of duck embryo or human diploid cell tissue culture origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of nonpregnant adolescent and adult females of childbearing age who are unimmunized and do not have serum antibodies to rubella. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines that are produced by using only the antigenic part of the disease causing organism. They often require a "booster" every few years to maintain their effectiveness.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines designed to prevent SAIDS; (SIMIAN ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME); and containing inactivated SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS or type D retroviruses or some of their component antigens.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with SALMONELLA. This includes vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER or PARATYPHOID FEVER; (TYPHOID-PARATYPHOID VACCINES), and vaccines used to prevent nontyphoid salmonellosis.
Vaccines using supra-molecular structures composed of multiple copies of recombinantly expressed viral structural proteins. They are often antigentically indistinguishable from the virus from which they were derived.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
Ongoing scrutiny of a population (general population, study population, target population, etc.), generally using methods distinguished by their practicability, uniformity, and frequently their rapidity, rather than by complete accuracy.
Antibodies that reduce or abolish some biological activity of a soluble antigen or infectious agent, usually a virus.
Staphylococcal vaccines are prophylactic agents developed to prevent infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus, a pathogenic bacterium that frequently colonizes human skin and mucous membranes, often targeting surface proteins or toxins for immune response induction.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Combined vaccines consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and an acellular form of PERTUSSIS VACCINE. At least five different purified antigens of B. pertussis have been used in various combinations in these vaccines.
The confinement of a patient in a hospital.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with CYTOMEGALOVIRUS.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
A combined vaccine used to prevent infection with diphtheria and tetanus toxoid. This is used in place of DTP vaccine (DIPHTHERIA-TETANUS-PERTUSSIS VACCINE) when PERTUSSIS VACCINE is contraindicated.
Vaccines used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS. They include inactivated (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, INACTIVATED) and oral vaccines (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, ORAL).
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat both enterotoxigenic and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infections.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with WEST NILE VIRUS.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent bacillary dysentery (DYSENTERY, BACILLARY) caused by species of SHIGELLA.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
An attenuated vaccine used to prevent and/or treat HERPES ZOSTER, a disease caused by HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 3.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Sorbitan mono-9-octadecanoate poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl) derivatives; complex mixtures of polyoxyethylene ethers used as emulsifiers or dispersing agents in pharmaceuticals.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
Antibody-mediated immune response. Humoral immunity is brought about by ANTIBODY FORMATION, resulting from TH2 CELLS activating B-LYMPHOCYTES, followed by COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
A bacterial vaccine for the prevention of brucellosis in man and animal. Brucella abortus vaccine is used for the immunization of cattle, sheep, and goats.

Immune response capacity after human splenic autotransplantation: restoration of response to individual pneumococcal vaccine subtypes. (1/1170)

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate features of general immune function, in particular the restoration of the humoral immune response to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides, in humans undergoing a spleen autotransplantation after splenectomy because of trauma. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: After splenectomy, patients have an increased risk of overwhelming infection or sepsis involving encapsulated bacteria such as pneumococci. The value of human spleen autotransplantation after splenectomy because of trauma has long been questioned. Mononuclear phagocyte system function appeared to be similar to that in splenectomized persons. The presence of specific antipneumococcal antibodies would allow other parts of the mononuclear phagocyte system, such as those in the liver, to phagocytose opsonized bacteria. METHODS: Ten consecutive patients undergoing splenectomy followed by autotransplantation were compared with the next 14 consecutive patients undergoing splenectomy alone. After a minimum of 6 months, the patients were vaccinated with 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine. Blood samples were taken at the time of vaccination and after 3 and 6 weeks for antipneumococcal capsular polysaccharides IgM and IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay against types 3, 4, 6, 9, 14, and 23. Splenic regrowth was evaluated by scintigraphy. RESULTS: Surprisingly, several of the nonautotransplanted patients showed scintigraphic activity, indicating the presence of either accessory spleens or traumatic seeding (splenosis). Significant antibody titer increases (more than twofold) were found for both IgM and IgG in the autotransplanted patients. Splenectomized-only patients showed no significant increase in Ig levels in patients without splenic regrowth and partial improvement in patients with splenosis/accessory spleens. CONCLUSIONS: Considering this significant antipneumococcal antibody increase, spleen autotransplants can be expected to permit an adequate humoral response to pneumococcal infections and presumably also to other TI-2 antigens, and to protect against overwhelming postsplenectomy infection or sepsis.  (+info)

Epidemiology of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in Malaysia. (2/1170)

During a 1-year period from October 1995 to September 1996, 273 isolations of Streptococcus pneumoniae were made from various types of clinical specimens. The majority of the isolates (39.2%) were from sputum whilst 27.5% were from blood, CSF and other body fluids. The organism was isolated from patients of all age groups, 31.1% from children aged 10 years and below, 64.7% of which come from children aged 2 years or below. The majority of the isolates belong to serotypes 1, 6B, 19B, 19F and 23F. Serotypes 1 and 19B were the most common serotypes associated with invasive infection. About 71.9% of the invasive infections were due to serotypes included in the available 23 valent polysaccharide vaccine. The rates of resistance to penicillin and erythromycin were 7.0 and 1.1% respectively. Our findings show that the serotypes of S. pneumoniae causing most invasive infections in Malaysia are similar to those in other parts of the world and the available vaccine may have a useful role in this population.  (+info)

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine primes for polysaccharide-inducible IgG2 antibody response in children with recurrent otitis media acuta. (3/1170)

Children with frequent recurrent episodes of otitis media may have a deficient IgG2 antibody response to polysaccharide antigens. Five otitis-prone children were vaccinated with heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. While all had an IgG1 antibody response to all pneumococcal serotypes included in the conjugate vaccine, the IgG2 response, especially to serotypes 6B, 9V, 19F, and 23F, was poor. However, vaccination with a 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine 6 months after conjugate vaccination induced an 11.5- to 163-fold increase in IgG2 anti-polysaccharide antibody titers. Thus, an IgG2 polysaccharide antibody deficiency can be overcome by priming with a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine followed by a booster with a polyvalent polysaccharide vaccine.  (+info)

Levels of proinflammatory cytokines in plasma after pneumoccoccal immunization in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected patients. (4/1170)

To ascertain if immunization with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is associated with rises in the levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the plasma of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected patients, the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured serially after immunization. IL-6 levels rose an average of 2.2- and 2.1-fold 6 and 8 h after immunization, respectively, but TNF-alpha levels remained unchanged. The levels of these cytokines were stable in unimmunized controls. Immunization with pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine induces increases in the levels of IL-6 in the plasma of persons with HIV-1 infection.  (+info)

Avidity as a determinant of the protective efficacy of human antibodies to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides. (5/1170)

Antibodies reactive with capsular polysaccharides are considered the principal mediators of immunity against invasive diseases caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that anti-pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide (PPS) antibody avidity can influence protective efficacy. We measured the avidities of individual adult postvaccination immunoglobulin G2 (IgG2) antibodies to PPS serotypes 6B and 23F and examined the relationship between avidity and opsonophagocytic and mouse-protective activities. The avidities of PPS 6B- and PPS 23F-specific IgG2 antibodies ranged from 6 to 31 nM-1 and from 3 to 20 nM-1, respectively. We observed an inverse correlation between the magnitude of avidity and the amount of antibody required to protect mice against lethal bacteremia caused by serotype 6B pneumococci. Similarly, higher-avidity antibodies were more effective than lower-avidity antibodies in vitro in mediating complement-dependent opsonophagocytosis of both 6B and 23F pneumococci. These data suggest that in adults, PPS antibodies are sufficiently polymorphic to possess biologically significant variations in avidity. We conclude that avidity functions as an important determinant of anticapsular antibody protective efficacy against pneumococci.  (+info)

Improving pneumococcal vaccine rates. Nurse protocols versus clinical reminders. (6/1170)

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of three interventions designed to improve the pneumococcal vaccination rate. DESIGN: A prospective controlled trial. SETTING: Department of Veterans Affairs ambulatory care clinic. PATIENTS/PARTICIPANTS: There were 3, 502 outpatients with scheduled visits divided into three clinic teams (A, B, or C). INTERVENTIONS: During a 12-week period, each clinic team received one intervention: (A) nurse standing orders with comparative feedback as well as patient and clinician reminders; (B) nurse standing orders with compliance reminders as well as patient and clinician reminders; and (C) patient and clinician reminders alone. Team A nurses (comparative feedback group) received information on their vaccine rates relative to those of team B nurses. Team B nurses (compliance reminders group) received reminders to vaccinate but no information on vaccine rates. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Team A nurses assessed more patients than team B nurses (39% vs 34%, p =.009). However, vaccination rates per total patient population were similar (22% vs 25%, p =.09). The vaccination rates for both team A and team B were significantly higher than the 5% vaccination rate for team C (p <.001). CONCLUSIONS: Nurse-initiated vaccine protocols raised vaccination rates substantially more than a physician and patient reminder system. The nurse-initiated protocol with comparative feedback modestly improved the assessment rate compared with the protocol with compliance reminders, but overall vaccination rates were similar.  (+info)

Pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide preparations may contain non-C-polysaccharide contaminants that are immunogenic. (7/1170)

We measured the capacity to opsonize Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 6B and estimated the concentration of immunoglobulin G anti-6B capsular polysaccharide (PS) antibodies in 25 pre- and postimmune sera from adults immunized with a pneumococcal PS vaccine. We first studied two postvaccination serum samples displaying less opsonophagocytic capacity than expected. The majority of anti-6B antibodies in the two samples reacted with the capsular PSs of several unrelated serotypes (2, 4, 9V, 19F, and 23F) and with the lysate of noncapsulated S. pneumoniae bacteria but not with C-PS. The non-type-specific antibodies accounted for at least one-half of anti-6B antibodies in 40% of prevaccination sera and 10% of postvaccination sera from adults. The non-type-specific antibodies could be demonstrated in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for pneumococcal antibodies to other serotypes (4, 9V, 18C, 19F, and 23F). The nonspecific antibodies appear to bind a contaminant(s) in the current preparations of capsular PS. ELISA for antibodies to pneumococcal capsules may not be serotype specific for some samples.  (+info)

A flow cytometric opsonophagocytic assay for measurement of functional antibodies elicited after vaccination with the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. (8/1170)

Opsonophagocytosis is the primary mechanism for clearance of pneumococci from the host, and the measurement of opsonophagocytic antibodies appears to correlate with vaccine-induced protection. We developed a semiautomated flow cytometric opsonophagocytosis assay using HL-60 granulocytes as effector cells and nonviable 5, 6-carboxyfluorescein, succinimidyl ester-labeled Streptococcus pneumoniae (serotypes 4, 6B, 9V, 14, 18C, 19F, and 23F) as bacterial targets. The flow cytometric opsonophagocytosis assay was highly reproducible (for 87% of repetitive assays the titers were within 1 dilution of the median titer) and serotype specific, with >/=97% inhibition of opsonophagocytic titer by addition of homologous serotype-specific polysaccharide. In general, opsonophagocytic titers were not significantly inhibited by the presence of either heterologous pneumococcal polysaccharide or penicillin in the serum. The flow cytometric assay could reproducibly measure functional antibody activity in prevaccination (n = 28) and postvaccination (n = 36) serum specimens from healthy adult volunteers vaccinated with the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. When compared with a standardized manual viable opsonophagocytic assay, a high correlation (r = 0.89; P +info)

Pneumococcal vaccines are immunizing agents that protect against infections caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. These vaccines help to prevent several types of diseases, including pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection).

There are two main types of pneumococcal vaccines available:

1. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV): This vaccine is recommended for children under 2 years old, adults aged 65 and older, and people with certain medical conditions that increase their risk of pneumococcal infections. PCV protects against 13 or 20 serotypes (strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, depending on the formulation (PCV13 or PCV20).
2. Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine is recommended for adults aged 65 and older, children and adults with specific medical conditions, and smokers. PPSV protects against 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the bacteria if an individual comes into contact with it in the future. Both types of pneumococcal vaccines have been proven to be safe and effective in preventing severe pneumococcal diseases.

Pneumococcal infections are illnesses caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium can infect different parts of the body, including the lungs (pneumonia), blood (bacteremia or sepsis), and the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). Pneumococcal infections can also cause ear infections and sinus infections. The bacteria spread through close contact with an infected person, who may spread the bacteria by coughing or sneezing. People with weakened immune systems, children under 2 years of age, adults over 65, and those with certain medical conditions are at increased risk for developing pneumococcal infections.

Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as the pneumococcus, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals. It is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and can also cause other infectious diseases such as otitis media (ear infection), sinusitis, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The bacteria are encapsulated, and there are over 90 serotypes based on variations in the capsular polysaccharide. Some serotypes are more virulent or invasive than others, and the polysaccharide composition is crucial for vaccine development. S. pneumoniae infection can be treated with antibiotics, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern.

Bacterial vaccines are types of vaccines that are created using bacteria or parts of bacteria as the immunogen, which is the substance that triggers an immune response in the body. The purpose of a bacterial vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to develop protection against specific bacterial infections.

There are several types of bacterial vaccines, including:

1. Inactivated or killed whole-cell vaccines: These vaccines contain entire bacteria that have been killed or inactivated through various methods, such as heat or chemicals. The bacteria can no longer cause disease, but they still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response.
2. Subunit, protein, or polysaccharide vaccines: These vaccines use specific components of the bacterium, such as proteins or polysaccharides, that are known to trigger an immune response. By using only these components, the vaccine can avoid using the entire bacterium, which may reduce the risk of adverse reactions.
3. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain live bacteria that have been weakened or attenuated so that they cannot cause disease but still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine can provide long-lasting immunity, but it may not be suitable for people with weakened immune systems.

Bacterial vaccines are essential tools in preventing and controlling bacterial infections, reducing the burden of diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. They work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of the bacteria or its components, which triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and fight off future infections with that same bacterium.

It's important to note that while vaccines are generally safe and effective, they may cause mild side effects such as pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, fever, or fatigue. Serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccine.

Conjugate vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines a part of a bacterium with a protein or other substance to boost the body's immune response to the bacteria. The bacterial component is usually a polysaccharide, which is a long chain of sugars that makes up part of the bacterial cell wall.

By itself, a polysaccharide is not very immunogenic, meaning it does not stimulate a strong immune response. However, when it is conjugated or linked to a protein or other carrier molecule, it becomes much more immunogenic and can elicit a stronger and longer-lasting immune response.

Conjugate vaccines are particularly effective in protecting against bacterial infections that affect young children, such as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal disease. These vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated complications, such as meningitis and pneumonia.

Overall, conjugate vaccines work by mimicking a natural infection and stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections with the same bacterium. By combining a weakly immunogenic polysaccharide with a protein carrier, these vaccines can elicit a stronger and more effective immune response, providing long-lasting protection against bacterial infections.

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. It typically contains an agent that resembles the disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it encounters in the future.

Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight disease that is already present). The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccinations are generally administered through needle injections, but can also be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.

The term "vaccine" comes from Edward Jenner's 1796 use of cowpox to create immunity to smallpox. The first successful vaccine was developed in 1796 by Edward Jenner, who showed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox did not get smallpox. He reasoned that exposure to cowpox protected against smallpox and tested his theory by injecting a boy with pus from a cowpox sore and then exposing him to smallpox, which the boy did not contract. The word "vaccine" is derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 during a conversation with a fellow physician and later in the title of his 1801 Inquiry.

Pneumonia, pneumococcal is a type of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (also known as pneumococcus). This bacteria can colonize the upper respiratory tract and occasionally invade the lower respiratory tract, causing infection.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can affect people of any age but is most common in young children, older adults, and those with weakened immune systems. The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia include fever, chills, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as bacteremia (bacterial infection in the blood), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and respiratory failure.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can be prevented through vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV). These vaccines protect against the most common strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae that cause invasive disease. It is also important to practice good hygiene, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and washing hands frequently, to prevent the spread of pneumococcal bacteria.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

Combined vaccines are defined in medical terms as vaccines that contain two or more antigens from different diseases, which are given to provide protection against multiple diseases at the same time. This approach reduces the number of injections required and simplifies the immunization schedule, especially during early childhood. Examples of combined vaccines include:

1. DTaP-Hib-IPV (e.g., Pentacel): A vaccine that combines diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease, and poliovirus components in one injection to protect against these five diseases.
2. MMRV (e.g., ProQuad): A vaccine that combines measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella (chickenpox) antigens in a single injection to provide immunity against all four diseases.
3. HepA-HepB (e.g., Twinrix): A vaccine that combines hepatitis A and hepatitis B antigens in one injection, providing protection against both types of hepatitis.
4. MenACWY-TT (e.g., MenQuadfi): A vaccine that combines four serogroups of meningococcal bacteria (A, C, W, Y) with tetanus toxoid as a carrier protein in one injection for the prevention of invasive meningococcal disease caused by these serogroups.
5. PCV13-PPSV23 (e.g., Vaxneuvance): A vaccine that combines 13 pneumococcal serotypes with PPSV23, providing protection against a broader range of pneumococcal diseases in adults aged 18 years and older.

Combined vaccines have been thoroughly tested for safety and efficacy to ensure they provide a strong immune response and an acceptable safety profile. They are essential tools in preventing various infectious diseases and improving overall public health.

Inactivated vaccines, also known as killed or non-live vaccines, are created by using a version of the virus or bacteria that has been grown in a laboratory and then killed or inactivated with chemicals, heat, or radiation. This process renders the organism unable to cause disease, but still capable of stimulating an immune response when introduced into the body.

Inactivated vaccines are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines since they cannot revert back to a virulent form and cause illness. However, they may require multiple doses or booster shots to maintain immunity because the immune response generated by inactivated vaccines is not as robust as that produced by live vaccines. Examples of inactivated vaccines include those for hepatitis A, rabies, and influenza (inactivated flu vaccine).

A viral vaccine is a biological preparation that introduces your body to a specific virus in a way that helps your immune system build up protection against the virus without causing the illness. Viral vaccines can be made from weakened or inactivated forms of the virus, or parts of the virus such as proteins or sugars. Once introduced to the body, the immune system recognizes the virus as foreign and produces an immune response, including the production of antibodies. These antibodies remain in the body and provide immunity against future infection with that specific virus.

Viral vaccines are important tools for preventing infectious diseases caused by viruses, such as influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis A and B, rabies, rotavirus, chickenpox, shingles, and some types of cancer. Vaccination programs have led to the control or elimination of many infectious diseases that were once common.

It's important to note that viral vaccines are not effective against bacterial infections, and separate vaccines must be developed for each type of virus. Additionally, because viruses can mutate over time, it is necessary to update some viral vaccines periodically to ensure continued protection.

Meningococcal vaccines are vaccines that protect against Neisseria meningitidis, a type of bacteria that can cause serious infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection). There are several types of meningococcal vaccines available, including conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against the different serogroups of N. meningitidis, including A, B, C, Y, and W-135. The specific type of vaccine used and the number of doses required may depend on a person's age, health status, and other factors. Meningococcal vaccines are recommended for certain high-risk populations, such as infants, young children, adolescents, and people with certain medical conditions, as well as for travelers to areas where meningococcal disease is common.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

I could not find a specific medical definition for "Vaccines, DNA." However, I can provide you with some information about DNA vaccines.

DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses genetically engineered DNA to stimulate an immune response in the body. They work by introducing a small piece of DNA into the body that contains the genetic code for a specific antigen (a substance that triggers an immune response). The cells of the body then use this DNA to produce the antigen, which prompts the immune system to recognize and attack it.

DNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. They are relatively easy to produce, can be stored at room temperature, and can be designed to protect against a wide range of diseases. Additionally, because they use DNA to stimulate an immune response, DNA vaccines do not require the growth and culture of viruses or bacteria, which can make them safer than traditional vaccines.

DNA vaccines are still in the experimental stages, and more research is needed to determine their safety and effectiveness. However, they have shown promise in animal studies and are being investigated as a potential tool for preventing a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza, HIV, and cancer.

Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a specific type of bacterial meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges). It is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract and middle ear fluid of healthy individuals. However, under certain circumstances, it can invade the bloodstream and reach the meninges, leading to meningitis.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms may include sudden onset of fever, severe headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light (photophobia). In some cases, it can also lead to complications such as hearing loss, brain damage, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against pneumococcus, such as ceftriaxone or vancomycin. In some cases, corticosteroids may also be used to reduce inflammation and prevent complications. Prevention measures include vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23), which can help protect against pneumococcal infections, including meningitis.

The nasopharynx is the uppermost part of the pharynx (throat), which is located behind the nose. It is a muscular cavity that serves as a passageway for air and food. The nasopharynx extends from the base of the skull to the lower border of the soft palate, where it continues as the oropharynx. Its primary function is to allow air to flow into the respiratory system through the nostrils while also facilitating the drainage of mucus from the nose into the throat. The nasopharynx contains several important structures, including the adenoids and the opening of the Eustachian tubes, which connect the middle ear to the back of the nasopharynx.

A splenectomy is a surgical procedure in which the spleen is removed from the body. The spleen is an organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, near the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays several important roles in the body, including fighting certain types of infections, removing old or damaged red blood cells from the circulation, and storing platelets and white blood cells.

There are several reasons why a splenectomy may be necessary, including:

* Trauma to the spleen that cannot be repaired
* Certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's lymphoma or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
* Sickle cell disease, which can cause the spleen to enlarge and become damaged
* A ruptured spleen, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly
* Certain blood disorders, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) or hemolytic anemia

A splenectomy is typically performed under general anesthesia and may be done using open surgery or laparoscopically. After the spleen is removed, the incision(s) are closed with sutures or staples. Recovery time varies depending on the individual and the type of surgery performed, but most people are able to return to their normal activities within a few weeks.

It's important to note that following a splenectomy, individuals may be at increased risk for certain types of infections, so it's recommended that they receive vaccinations to help protect against these infections. They should also seek medical attention promptly if they develop fever, chills, or other signs of infection.

An AIDS vaccine is a type of preventive vaccine that aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The goal of an AIDS vaccine is to induce the production of immune cells and proteins that can recognize and eliminate HIV-infected cells, thereby preventing the establishment of a persistent infection.

Despite decades of research, there is still no licensed AIDS vaccine available. This is due in part to the unique challenges posed by HIV, which has a high mutation rate and can rapidly evolve to evade the immune system's defenses. However, several promising vaccine candidates are currently being tested in clinical trials around the world, and researchers continue to explore new approaches and strategies for developing an effective AIDS vaccine.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Nasopharyngitis is the medical term for inflammation of the nasopharynx, which is the upper part of the throat behind the nose. It is often caused by viral infections such as the common cold, but can also be due to bacterial or allergic causes. Symptoms may include a runny or stuffy nose, sore throat, sneezing, and cough.

Haemophilus vaccines are vaccines that are designed to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a bacterium that can cause serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and epiglottitis. There are two main types of Hib vaccines:

1. Polysaccharide vaccine: This type of vaccine is made from the sugar coating (polysaccharide) of the bacterial cells. It is not effective in children under 2 years of age because their immune systems are not yet mature enough to respond effectively to this type of vaccine.
2. Conjugate vaccine: This type of vaccine combines the polysaccharide with a protein carrier, which helps to stimulate a stronger and more sustained immune response. It is effective in infants as young as 6 weeks old.

Hib vaccines are usually given as part of routine childhood immunizations starting at 2 months of age. They are administered through an injection into the muscle. The vaccine is safe and effective, with few side effects. Vaccination against Hib has led to a significant reduction in the incidence of Hib infections worldwide.

Bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that consist of long chains of sugar molecules (monosaccharides) linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are produced and used by bacteria for various purposes such as:

1. Structural components: Bacterial polysaccharides, such as peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of bacterial cells. Peptidoglycan is a major component of the bacterial cell wall, while LPS forms the outer layer of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria.
2. Nutrient storage: Some bacteria synthesize and store polysaccharides as an energy reserve, similar to how plants store starch. These polysaccharides can be broken down and utilized by the bacterium when needed.
3. Virulence factors: Bacterial polysaccharides can also function as virulence factors, contributing to the pathogenesis of bacterial infections. For example, certain bacteria produce capsular polysaccharides (CPS) that surround and protect the bacterial cells from host immune defenses, allowing them to evade phagocytosis and persist within the host.
4. Adhesins: Some polysaccharides act as adhesins, facilitating the attachment of bacteria to surfaces or host cells. This is important for biofilm formation, which helps bacteria resist environmental stresses and antibiotic treatments.
5. Antigenic properties: Bacterial polysaccharides can be highly antigenic, eliciting an immune response in the host. The antigenicity of these molecules can vary between different bacterial species or even strains within a species, making them useful as targets for vaccines and diagnostic tests.

In summary, bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that serve various functions in bacteria, including structural support, nutrient storage, virulence factor production, adhesion, and antigenicity.

Secondary immunization, also known as "anamnestic response" or "booster," refers to the enhanced immune response that occurs upon re-exposure to an antigen, having previously been immunized or infected with the same pathogen. This response is characterized by a more rapid and robust production of antibodies and memory cells compared to the primary immune response. The secondary immunization aims to maintain long-term immunity against infectious diseases and improve vaccine effectiveness. It usually involves administering additional doses of a vaccine or booster shots after the initial series of immunizations, which helps reinforce the immune system's ability to recognize and combat specific pathogens.

A subunit vaccine is a type of vaccine that contains a specific piece or component of the microorganism (such as a protein, sugar, or part of the bacterial outer membrane), instead of containing the entire organism. This piece of the microorganism is known as an antigen, and it stimulates an immune response in the body, allowing the development of immunity against the targeted infection without introducing the risk of disease associated with live vaccines.

Subunit vaccines offer several advantages over other types of vaccines. They are generally safer because they do not contain live or weakened microorganisms, making them suitable for individuals with weakened immune systems or specific medical conditions that prevent them from receiving live vaccines. Additionally, subunit vaccines can be designed to focus on the most immunogenic components of a pathogen, potentially leading to stronger and more targeted immune responses.

Examples of subunit vaccines include the Hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a viral protein, and the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, which uses pieces of the bacterial polysaccharide capsule. These vaccines have been crucial in preventing serious infectious diseases and reducing associated complications worldwide.

Immunization programs, also known as vaccination programs, are organized efforts to administer vaccines to populations or communities in order to protect individuals from vaccine-preventable diseases. These programs are typically implemented by public health agencies and involve the planning, coordination, and delivery of immunizations to ensure that a high percentage of people are protected against specific infectious diseases.

Immunization programs may target specific age groups, such as infants and young children, or populations at higher risk of certain diseases, such as travelers, healthcare workers, or individuals with weakened immune systems. The goals of immunization programs include controlling and eliminating vaccine-preventable diseases, reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases, and protecting vulnerable populations from outbreaks and epidemics.

Immunization programs may be delivered through a variety of settings, including healthcare facilities, schools, community centers, and mobile clinics. They often involve partnerships between government agencies, healthcare providers, non-governmental organizations, and communities to ensure that vaccines are accessible, affordable, and acceptable to the populations they serve. Effective immunization programs require strong leadership, adequate funding, robust data systems, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation to assess their impact and identify areas for improvement.

Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots, are vaccines that protect against the influenza virus. Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory illness that can cause severe symptoms and complications, particularly in young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying health conditions.

Influenza vaccines contain inactivated or weakened viruses or pieces of the virus, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the virus. The vaccine is typically given as an injection into the muscle, usually in the upper arm.

There are several different types of influenza vaccines available, including:

* Trivalent vaccines, which protect against three strains of the virus (two A strains and one B strain)
* Quadrivalent vaccines, which protect against four strains of the virus (two A strains and two B strains)
* High-dose vaccines, which contain a higher amount of antigen and are recommended for people aged 65 and older
* Adjuvanted vaccines, which contain an additional ingredient to boost the immune response and are also recommended for people aged 65 and older
* Cell-based vaccines, which are produced using cultured cells rather than eggs and may be recommended for people with egg allergies

It's important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, so the vaccine is updated each year to match the circulating strains. It's recommended that most people get vaccinated against influenza every year to stay protected.

An immunization schedule is a series of planned dates when a person, usually a child, should receive specific vaccines in order to be fully protected against certain preventable diseases. The schedule is developed based on scientific research and recommendations from health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

The immunization schedule outlines which vaccines are recommended, the number of doses required, the age at which each dose should be given, and the minimum amount of time that must pass between doses. The schedule may vary depending on factors such as the individual's age, health status, and travel plans.

Immunization schedules are important for ensuring that individuals receive timely protection against vaccine-preventable diseases, and for maintaining high levels of immunity in populations, which helps to prevent the spread of disease. It is important to follow the recommended immunization schedule as closely as possible to ensure optimal protection.

Malaria vaccines are biological preparations that induce immunity against malaria parasites, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of malaria disease. They typically contain antigens (proteins or other molecules derived from the parasite) that stimulate an immune response in the recipient, enabling their body to recognize and neutralize the pathogen upon exposure.

The most advanced malaria vaccine candidate is RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix), which targets the Plasmodium falciparum parasite's circumsporozoite protein (CSP). This vaccine has shown partial protection in clinical trials, reducing the risk of severe malaria and hospitalization in young children by about 30% over four years. However, it does not provide complete immunity, and additional research is ongoing to develop more effective vaccines against malaria.

Tetanus toxoid is a purified and inactivated form of the tetanus toxin, which is derived from the bacterium Clostridium tetani. It is used as a vaccine to induce active immunity against tetanus, a potentially fatal disease caused by this toxin. The toxoid is produced through a series of chemical treatments that modify the toxic properties of the tetanus toxin while preserving its antigenic qualities. This allows the immune system to recognize and develop protective antibodies against the toxin without causing illness. Tetanus toxoid is often combined with diphtheria and/or pertussis toxoids in vaccines such as DTaP, Tdap, and Td.

Bacterial capsules are slimy, gel-like layers that surround many types of bacteria. They are made up of polysaccharides, proteins, or lipopolysaccharides and are synthesized by the bacterial cell. These capsules play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenicity of bacteria as they help the bacteria to evade the host's immune system and promote their survival and colonization within the host. The presence of a capsule can also contribute to the bacteria's resistance to desiccation, phagocytosis, and antibiotics.

The chemical composition and structure of bacterial capsules vary among different species of bacteria, which is one factor that contributes to their serological specificity and allows for their identification and classification using methods such as the Quellung reaction or immunofluorescence microscopy.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

Papillomavirus vaccines are vaccines that have been developed to prevent infection by human papillomaviruses (HPV). HPV is a DNA virus that is capable of infecting the skin and mucous membranes. Certain types of HPV are known to cause cervical cancer, as well as other types of cancer such as anal, penile, vulvar, and oropharyngeal cancers. Other types of HPV can cause genital warts.

There are currently two papillomavirus vaccines that have been approved for use in the United States: Gardasil and Cervarix. Both vaccines protect against the two most common cancer-causing types of HPV (types 16 and 18), which together cause about 70% of cervical cancers. Gardasil also protects against the two most common types of HPV that cause genital warts (types 6 and 11).

Papillomavirus vaccines are given as a series of three shots over a period of six months. They are most effective when given to people before they become sexually active, as this reduces the risk of exposure to HPV. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all boys and girls get vaccinated against HPV at age 11 or 12, but the vaccine can be given to people as young as age 9 and as old as age 26.

It is important to note that papillomavirus vaccines do not protect against all types of HPV, and they do not treat existing HPV infections or cervical cancer. They are intended to prevent new HPV infections and the cancers and other diseases that can be caused by HPV.

Diphtheria toxoid is a modified form of the diphtheria toxin that has been made harmless but still stimulates an immune response. It is used in vaccines to provide immunity against diphtheria, a serious bacterial infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart failure, and paralysis. The toxoid is typically combined with other components in a vaccine, such as tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccine, to form a combination vaccine that protects against multiple diseases.

The diphtheria toxoid is made by treating the diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde, which modifies the toxin's structure and makes it nontoxic while still retaining its ability to stimulate an immune response. When the toxoid is introduced into the body through vaccination, the immune system recognizes it as a foreign substance and produces antibodies against it. These antibodies then provide protection against future infections with the diphtheria bacteria.

The diphtheria toxoid vaccine is usually given as part of a routine childhood immunization schedule, starting at 2 months of age. Booster shots are recommended throughout childhood and adolescence, and adults may also need booster shots if they have not received them previously or if their immune status has changed.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

Opsonins are proteins found in the blood that help enhance the immune system's response to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses. They do this by coating the surface of these pathogens, making them more recognizable to immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages. This process, known as opsonization, facilitates the phagocytosis (engulfing and destroying) of the pathogen by these immune cells.

There are two main types of opsonins:

1. IgG antibodies: These are a type of antibody produced by the immune system in response to an infection. They bind to specific antigens on the surface of the pathogen, marking them for destruction by phagocytic cells.
2. Complement proteins: The complement system is a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens. When activated, the complement system can produce various proteins that act as opsonins, including C3b and C4b. These proteins bind to the surface of the pathogen, making it easier for phagocytic cells to recognize and destroy them.

In summary, opsonin proteins are crucial components of the immune system's response to infections, helping to mark foreign substances for destruction by immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages.

Empyema is a medical condition characterized by the accumulation of pus in a body cavity, most commonly in the pleural space surrounding the lungs. It is usually caused by a bacterial infection that spreads from the lung tissue to the pleural space. The buildup of pus can cause chest pain, cough, fever, and difficulty breathing. Empyema can be a complication of pneumonia or other respiratory infections, and it may require treatment with antibiotics, drainage of the pus, and sometimes surgery.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

A carrier state is a condition in which a person carries and may be able to transmit a genetic disorder or infectious disease, but does not show any symptoms of the disease themselves. This occurs when an individual has a recessive allele for a genetic disorder or is infected with a pathogen, but does not have the necessary combination of genes or other factors required to develop the full-blown disease.

For example, in the case of cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, a person who carries one normal allele and one mutated allele for the disease is considered a carrier. They do not have symptoms of cystic fibrosis themselves, but they can pass the mutated allele on to their offspring, who may then develop the disease if they inherit the mutation from both parents.

Similarly, in the case of infectious diseases, a person who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms may still be able to transmit the infection to others. This is known as being an asymptomatic carrier or a healthy carrier. For example, some people who are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may not develop any symptoms of liver disease, but they can still transmit the virus to others through contact with their blood or other bodily fluids.

It's important to note that in some cases, carriers of certain genetic disorders or infectious diseases may have mild or atypical symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for a diagnosis of the disease. In these cases, they may be considered to have a "reduced penetrance" or "incomplete expression" of the disorder or infection.

Streptolysins are exotoxins produced by certain strains of Streptococcus bacteria, primarily Group A Streptococcus (GAS). These toxins are classified into two types: streptolysin O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS).

1. Streptolysin O (SLO): It is a protein exotoxin that exhibits oxygen-labile hemolytic activity, meaning it can lyse or destroy red blood cells in the presence of oxygen. SLO is capable of entering host cells and causing various cellular damages, including inhibition of phagocytosis, modulation of immune responses, and induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

2. Streptolysin S (SLS): It is a non-protein, oxygen-stable hemolysin that can also lyse red blood cells but does so independently of oxygen presence. SLS is more heat-resistant than SLO and has a stronger ability to penetrate host cell membranes.

Both streptolysins contribute to the virulence of Streptococcus pyogenes, which can cause various clinical infections such as pharyngitis (strep throat), impetigo, scarlet fever, and invasive diseases like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome.

The detection of streptolysin O antibodies (ASO titer) is often used as a diagnostic marker for past or recent GAS infections, particularly in cases of rheumatic fever, where elevated ASO titers indicate ongoing or previous streptococcal infection.

Otitis media is an inflammation or infection of the middle ear. It can occur as a result of a cold, respiratory infection, or allergy that causes fluid buildup behind the eardrum. The buildup of fluid can lead to infection and irritation of the middle ear, causing symptoms such as ear pain, hearing loss, and difficulty balancing. There are two types of otitis media: acute otitis media (AOM), which is a short-term infection that can cause fever and severe ear pain, and otitis media with effusion (OME), which is fluid buildup in the middle ear without symptoms of infection. In some cases, otitis media may require medical treatment, including antibiotics or the placement of ear tubes to drain the fluid and relieve pressure on the eardrum.

"Hepatitis B vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. They work by introducing a small and harmless piece of the virus to your body, which triggers your immune system to produce antibodies to fight off the infection. These antibodies remain in your body and provide protection if you are exposed to the real hepatitis B virus in the future.

The hepatitis B vaccine is typically given as a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants, children and adolescents who have not previously been vaccinated, as well as for adults who are at increased risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, people who inject drugs, and those with certain medical conditions.

It's important to note that hepatitis B vaccine does not provide protection against other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A or C."

A measles vaccine is a biological preparation that induces immunity against the measles virus. It contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of the measles virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against future infection with the wild-type (disease-causing) virus. Measles vaccines are typically administered in combination with vaccines against mumps and rubella (German measles), forming the MMR vaccine.

The measles vaccine is highly effective, with one or two doses providing immunity in over 95% of people who receive it. It is usually given to children as part of routine childhood immunization programs, with the first dose administered at 12-15 months of age and the second dose at 4-6 years of age.

Measles vaccination has led to a dramatic reduction in the incidence of measles worldwide and is considered one of the greatest public health achievements of the past century. However, despite widespread availability of the vaccine, measles remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in some parts of the world, particularly in areas with low vaccination coverage or where access to healthcare is limited.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

A Pertussis vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against pertussis, also known as whooping cough. It contains components that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against the bacteria that cause pertussis, Bordetella pertussis. There are two main types of pertussis vaccines: whole-cell pertussis (wP) vaccines and acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines. wP vaccines contain killed whole cells of B. pertussis, while aP vaccines contain specific components of the bacteria, such as pertussis toxin and other antigens. Pertussis vaccines are often combined with diphtheria and tetanus to form combination vaccines, such as DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis) and TdaP (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis). These vaccines are typically given to young children as part of their routine immunization schedule.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine is a type of immunization used primarily to prevent tuberculosis (TB). It contains a live but weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is related to the bacterium that causes TB in humans (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, enabling it to better resist infection with TB bacteria if exposed in the future. It is often given to infants and children in countries where TB is common, and its use varies depending on the national immunization policies. The protection offered by the BCG vaccine is moderate and may not last for a very long time.

In addition to its use against TB, the BCG vaccine has also been investigated for its potential therapeutic role in treating bladder cancer and some other types of cancer. The mechanism of action in these cases is thought to be related to the vaccine's ability to stimulate an immune response against abnormal cells.

Poliovirus Vaccine, Inactivated (IPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio), a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. IPV contains inactivated (killed) polioviruses of all three poliovirus types. It works by stimulating an immune response in the body, but because the viruses are inactivated, they cannot cause polio. After vaccination, the immune system recognizes and responds to the inactivated viruses, producing antibodies that protect against future infection with wild, or naturally occurring, polioviruses. IPV is typically given as an injection in the leg or arm, and a series of doses are required for full protection. It is a safe and effective way to prevent polio and its complications.

Rabies vaccines are medical products that contain antigens of the rabies virus, which stimulate an immune response in individuals who receive them. The purpose of rabies vaccines is to prevent the development of rabies, a viral disease that is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

There are two primary types of rabies vaccines available:

1. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) vaccines: These vaccines are given to individuals who are at high risk of coming into contact with the rabies virus, such as veterinarians, animal handlers, and travelers visiting areas where rabies is common. The vaccine series typically consists of three doses given over a period of 28 days.
2. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) vaccines: These vaccines are administered to individuals who have already been exposed to the rabies virus, usually through a bite or scratch from an infected animal. The vaccine series typically consists of four doses given over a period of 14 days, along with a dose of rabies immune globulin (RIG) to provide immediate protection while the immune system responds to the vaccine.

Both types of rabies vaccines are highly effective at preventing the disease, but it is essential to receive them as soon as possible after exposure or before potential exposure, as the virus can be fatal if left untreated.

Rotavirus vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against rotavirus infections, which are the leading cause of severe diarrhea and dehydration among infants and young children worldwide. These vaccines contain weakened or inactivated forms of the rotavirus, a pathogen that infects and causes symptoms by multiplying inside cells lining the small intestine.

The weakened or inactivated virus in the vaccine stimulates an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future rotavirus infections more effectively. The vaccines are usually administered orally, as a liquid droplet or on a sugar cube, to mimic natural infection through the gastrointestinal tract.

There are currently two licensed rotavirus vaccines available globally:

1. Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline): This vaccine contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of human rotavirus and is given in a two-dose series, typically at 2 and 4 months of age.
2. RotaTeq (Merck): This vaccine contains five reassortant viruses, combining human and animal strains to provide broader protection. It is administered in a three-dose series, usually at 2, 4, and 6 months of age.

Rotavirus vaccines have been shown to significantly reduce the incidence of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis and related hospitalizations among infants and young children. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the inclusion of rotavirus vaccination in national immunization programs, particularly in countries with high child mortality rates due to diarrheal diseases.

Cholera vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against the infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. There are several types of cholera vaccines available, including:

1. Inactivated oral vaccine (ICCV): This vaccine contains killed whole-cell bacteria and is given in two doses, with each dose administered at least 14 days apart. It provides protection for up to six months and can be given to adults and children over the age of one year.
2. Live attenuated oral vaccine (LCV): This vaccine contains weakened live bacteria that are unable to cause disease but still stimulate an immune response. The most commonly used LCV is called CVD 103-HgR, which is given in a single dose and provides protection for up to three months. It can be given to adults and children over the age of six years.
3. Injectable cholera vaccine: This vaccine contains inactivated bacteria and is given as an injection. It is not widely available and its effectiveness is limited compared to oral vaccines.

Cholera vaccines are recommended for travelers visiting areas with known cholera outbreaks, particularly if they plan to eat food or drink water that may be contaminated. They can also be used in response to outbreaks to help control the spread of the disease. However, it is important to note that vaccination alone is not sufficient to prevent cholera infection and good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, should always be followed.

Typhoid-Paratyphoid vaccines are immunizations that protect against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers, which are caused by the Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi, respectively. These vaccines contain inactivated or attenuated bacteria or specific antigens that stimulate an individual's immune system to develop immunity against these diseases without causing the illness itself. There are several types of typhoid-paratyphoid vaccines available, including:

1. Ty21a (oral live attenuated vaccine): This is a live but weakened form of the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. It is given orally in capsule form and requires a series of 4 doses taken every other day. The vaccine provides protection for about 5-7 years.
2. Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) typhoid vaccine: This vaccine contains purified Vi antigens from the Salmonella Typhi bacterium's outer capsular layer. It is given as an injection and provides protection for approximately 2-3 years.
3. Combined typhoid-paratyphoid A and B vaccines (Vi-rEPA): This vaccine combines Vi polysaccharide antigens from Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi A and B. It is given as an injection and provides protection for about 3 years against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers A and B.
4. Typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs): These vaccines combine the Vi polysaccharide antigen from Salmonella Typhi with a protein carrier to enhance the immune response, particularly in children under 2 years of age. TCVs are given as an injection and provide long-lasting protection against typhoid fever.

It is important to note that none of these vaccines provides 100% protection, but they significantly reduce the risk of contracting typhoid or paratyphoid fevers. Additionally, good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, can further minimize the risk of infection.

The Smallpox vaccine is not a live virus vaccine but is instead made from a vaccinia virus, which is a virus related to the variola virus (the virus that causes smallpox). The vaccinia virus used in the vaccine does not cause smallpox, but it does cause a milder illness with symptoms such as a fever and a rash of pustules or blisters at the site of inoculation.

The smallpox vaccine was first developed by Edward Jenner in 1796 and is one of the oldest vaccines still in use today. It has been highly effective in preventing smallpox, which was once a major cause of death and disability worldwide. In fact, smallpox was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980, thanks in large part to the widespread use of the smallpox vaccine.

Despite the eradication of smallpox, the smallpox vaccine is still used today in certain circumstances. For example, it may be given to laboratory workers who handle the virus or to military personnel who may be at risk of exposure to the virus. The vaccine may also be used as an emergency measure in the event of a bioterrorism attack involving smallpox.

It is important to note that the smallpox vaccine is not without risks and can cause serious side effects, including a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle). As a result, it is only given to people who are at high risk of exposure to the virus and who have been determined to be good candidates for vaccination by a healthcare professional.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Cross reactions, in the context of medical diagnostics and immunology, refer to a situation where an antibody or a immune response directed against one antigen also reacts with a different antigen due to similarities in their molecular structure. This can occur in allergy testing, where a person who is allergic to a particular substance may have a positive test result for a different but related substance because of cross-reactivity between them. For example, some individuals who are allergic to birch pollen may also have symptoms when eating certain fruits, such as apples, due to cross-reactive proteins present in both.

Treatment refusal, in a medical context, refers to the situation where a patient declines or denies recommended medical treatment or intervention for their health condition. This decision is made with full understanding and awareness of the potential consequences of not receiving the proposed medical care.

It's important to note that patients have the right to accept or refuse medical treatments based on their personal values, beliefs, and preferences. Healthcare providers must respect this right, while also ensuring that patients are well-informed about their health status, treatment options, and associated benefits, risks, and outcomes. In some cases, it might be necessary to explore the reasons behind the refusal and address any concerns or misconceptions the patient may have, in order to support informed decision-making.

A tuberculosis vaccine, also known as the BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, is a type of immunization used to prevent tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The BCG vaccine contains a weakened strain of the bacteria that causes TB in cattle.

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, which helps to protect against severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and TB in children. However, it is not very effective at preventing pulmonary TB (TB that affects the lungs) in adults.

The BCG vaccine is not routinely recommended for use in the United States due to the low risk of TB infection in the general population. However, it may be given to people who are at high risk of exposure to TB, such as healthcare workers, laboratory personnel, and people traveling to countries with high rates of TB.

It is important to note that the BCG vaccine does not provide complete protection against TB and that other measures, such as testing and treatment for latent TB infection, are also important for controlling the spread of this disease.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

The chickenpox vaccine, also known as varicella vaccine, is a preventive measure against the highly contagious viral infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus. The vaccine contains a live but weakened form of the virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce a response without causing the disease itself.

The chickenpox vaccine is typically given in two doses, with the first dose administered between 12 and 15 months of age and the second dose between 4 and 6 years of age. In some cases, the vaccine may be given to older children, adolescents, or adults who have not previously been vaccinated or who have never had chickenpox.

The chickenpox vaccine is highly effective at preventing severe cases of the disease and reducing the risk of complications such as bacterial infections, pneumonia, and encephalitis. It is also effective at preventing transmission of the virus to others.

Like any vaccine, the chickenpox vaccine can cause mild side effects such as soreness at the injection site, fever, or a mild rash. However, these side effects are generally mild and short-lived. Serious side effects are rare but may include allergic reactions or severe immune responses.

Overall, the chickenpox vaccine is a safe and effective way to prevent this common childhood disease and its potential complications.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis (DTaP) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three bacterial diseases: diphtheria, tetanus (lockjaw), and pertussis (whooping cough).

Diphtheria is an upper respiratory infection that can lead to breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, or even death. Tetanus is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, leading to "lockjaw." Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection characterized by severe coughing fits, which can make it difficult to breathe and may lead to pneumonia, seizures, or brain damage.

The DTaP vaccine contains inactivated toxins (toxoids) from the bacteria that cause these diseases. It is typically given as a series of five shots, with doses administered at 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 15-18 months, and 4-6 years of age. The vaccine helps the immune system develop protection against the diseases without causing the actual illness.

It is important to note that there are other combination vaccines available that protect against these same diseases, such as DT (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids) and Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis), which contain higher doses of the diphtheria and pertussis components. These vaccines are recommended for different age groups and may be used as booster shots to maintain immunity throughout adulthood.

The Mumps Vaccine is a biological preparation intended to induce immunity against mumps, a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands. The vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) mumps virus, which stimulates the immune system to develop a protective response without causing the disease.

There are two types of mumps vaccines available:

1. The Jeryl Lynn strain is used in the United States and is part of the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine and the Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella (MMRV) vaccine. This strain is derived from a clinical isolate obtained from the throat washings of a child with mumps in 1963.
2. The Urabe AM9 strain was used in some countries but has been discontinued in many places due to an increased risk of meningitis as a rare complication.

The MMR vaccine is typically given to children at 12-15 months of age and again at 4-6 years of age, providing long-lasting immunity against mumps in most individuals. The vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of mumps and its complications worldwide.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Hepatitis A vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated viral vaccines that are administered to prevent infection and illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that protect against future infection with the virus.

The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is made from viruses that have been chemically treated to destroy their ability to cause disease while preserving their ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is typically given in two doses, six months apart, and provides long-term protection against the virus.

The live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine contains a weakened form of the virus that is unable to cause illness but can still stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is given as a single dose and provides protection against the virus for at least 20 years.

Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for people who are at increased risk of infection, including travelers to areas where hepatitis A is common, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs, and people with chronic liver disease or clotting factor disorders. The vaccine is also recommended for children in certain states and communities where hepatitis A is endemic.

Immunologic adjuvants are substances that are added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response to the antigens contained in the vaccine. They work by stimulating the immune system and promoting the production of antibodies and activating immune cells, such as T-cells and macrophages, which help to provide a stronger and more sustained immune response to the vaccine.

Immunologic adjuvants can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Some common examples include aluminum salts (alum), oil-in-water emulsions (such as MF59), and bacterial components (such as lipopolysaccharide or LPS).

The use of immunologic adjuvants in vaccines can help to improve the efficacy of the vaccine, particularly for vaccines that contain weak or poorly immunogenic antigens. They can also help to reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine, which can be beneficial for vaccines that are difficult or expensive to produce.

It's important to note that while adjuvants can enhance the immune response to a vaccine, they can also increase the risk of adverse reactions, such as inflammation and pain at the injection site. Therefore, the use of immunologic adjuvants must be carefully balanced against their potential benefits and risks.

The Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three infectious diseases: measles, mumps, and rubella. It contains live attenuated viruses of each disease, which stimulate an immune response in the body similar to that produced by natural infection but do not cause the diseases themselves.

The MMR vaccine is typically given in two doses, the first at 12-15 months of age and the second at 4-6 years of age. It is highly effective in preventing these diseases, with over 90% effectiveness reported after a single dose and near 100% effectiveness after the second dose.

Measles is a highly contagious viral disease that can cause fever, rash, cough, runny nose, and red, watery eyes. It can also lead to serious complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and even death.

Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing swelling and tenderness in the cheeks and jaw. It can also cause fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. Mumps can lead to serious complications such as deafness, meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and inflammation of the testicles or ovaries.

Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection that typically causes a mild fever, rash, and swollen lymph nodes. However, if a pregnant woman becomes infected with rubella, it can cause serious birth defects such as hearing impairment, heart defects, and developmental delays in the fetus.

The MMR vaccine is an important tool in preventing these diseases and protecting public health.

Streptococcal vaccines are immunizations designed to protect against infections caused by Streptococcus bacteria. These vaccines contain antigens, which are substances that trigger an immune response and help the body recognize and fight off specific types of Streptococcus bacteria. There are several different types of streptococcal vaccines available or in development, including:

1. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV): This vaccine protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, a type of bacteria that can cause pneumonia, meningitis, and other serious infections. PCV is recommended for all children under 2 years old, as well as older children and adults with certain medical conditions.
2. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine also protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, but it is recommended for adults 65 and older, as well as younger people with certain medical conditions.
3. Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group A Streptococcus (GAS), which can cause a variety of infections, including strep throat, skin infections, and serious diseases like rheumatic fever and toxic shock syndrome. There are several different GAS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.
4. Streptococcus agalactiae vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group B Streptococcus (GBS), which can cause serious infections in newborns, pregnant women, and older adults with certain medical conditions. There are several different GBS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.

Overall, streptococcal vaccines play an important role in preventing bacterial infections and reducing the burden of disease caused by Streptococcus bacteria.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

Anthrax vaccines are biological preparations designed to protect against anthrax, a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax can affect both humans and animals, and it is primarily transmitted through contact with contaminated animal products or, less commonly, through inhalation of spores.

There are two types of anthrax vaccines currently available:

1. Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA): This vaccine is licensed for use in the United States and is approved for pre-exposure prophylaxis in high-risk individuals, such as military personnel and laboratory workers who handle the bacterium. AVA contains a cell-free filtrate of cultured B. anthracis cells that have been chemically treated to render them non-infectious. The vaccine works by stimulating the production of antibodies against protective antigens (PA) present in the bacterial culture.
2. Recombinant Anthrax Vaccine (rPA): This vaccine, also known as BioThrax, is a newer generation anthrax vaccine that was approved for use in the United States in 2015. It contains only the recombinant protective antigen (rPA) of B. anthracis, which is produced using genetic engineering techniques. The rPA vaccine has been shown to be as effective as AVA in generating an immune response and offers several advantages, including a more straightforward manufacturing process, fewer side effects, and a longer shelf life.

Both vaccines require multiple doses for initial immunization, followed by periodic booster shots to maintain protection. Anthrax vaccines are generally safe and effective at preventing anthrax infection; however, they may cause mild to moderate side effects, such as soreness at the injection site, fatigue, and muscle aches. Severe allergic reactions are rare but possible.

It is important to note that anthrax vaccines do not provide immediate protection against anthrax infection. They require several weeks to stimulate an immune response, so they should be administered before potential exposure to the bacterium. In cases of known or suspected exposure to anthrax, antibiotics are used as a primary means of preventing and treating the disease.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

Dengue vaccines are designed to protect against dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral disease that can cause severe flu-like symptoms and potentially life-threatening complications. Dengue is caused by four distinct serotypes of the virus (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), and infection with one serotype does not provide immunity against the others.

The first licensed dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia (CYD-TDV), is a chimeric yellow fever-dengue tetravalent vaccine developed by Sanofi Pasteur. It is approved for use in several countries and has demonstrated efficacy against dengue fever caused by all four serotypes in clinical trials. However, the vaccine has raised concerns about the risk of severe disease in individuals who have not been previously exposed to dengue. As a result, it is recommended primarily for people with a documented past dengue infection or living in areas with high dengue prevalence and where the benefits outweigh the risks.

Another dengue vaccine candidate, Takeda's TAK-003 (also known as TDV), is a live attenuated tetravalent dengue vaccine that has shown efficacy against all four serotypes in clinical trials. It was granted approval by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and several other countries for use in individuals aged 4-16 years old, living in endemic areas.

Research and development of additional dengue vaccine candidates are ongoing to address concerns about safety, efficacy, and accessibility, particularly for at-risk populations in low- and middle-income countries where dengue is most prevalent.

Virosomes are artificially constructed spherical vesicles composed of lipids and viral envelope proteins. They are used as a delivery system for vaccines and other therapeutic agents. In the context of vaccines, virosomes can be used to present viral antigens to the immune system in a way that mimics a natural infection, thereby inducing a strong immune response.

Virosome-based vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. For example, they are non-infectious, meaning they do not contain live or attenuated viruses, which makes them safer for certain populations such as immunocompromised individuals. Additionally, virosomes can be engineered to target specific cells in the body, leading to more efficient uptake and presentation of antigens to the immune system.

Virosome-based vaccines have been developed for a variety of diseases, including influenza, hepatitis A, and HIV. While they are not yet widely used, they show promise as a safe and effective alternative to traditional vaccine approaches.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.

One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.

Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.

The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.

It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.

Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral (OPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). It contains live attenuated (weakened) polioviruses, which stimulate an immune response in the body and provide protection against all three types of wild, infectious polioviruses. OPV is given by mouth, usually in drops, and it replicates in the gastrointestinal tract, where it induces a strong immune response. This response not only protects the individual who receives the vaccine but also helps to stop the spread of poliovirus in the community, providing indirect protection (herd immunity) to those who are not vaccinated. OPV is safe, effective, and easy to administer, making it an important tool for global polio eradication efforts. However, due to the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is recommended for routine immunization in some countries.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

The Yellow Fever Vaccine is a vaccine that protects against the yellow fever virus, which is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The vaccine contains live, weakened yellow fever virus, and it works by stimulating the immune system to produce an immune response that provides protection against the disease.

The yellow fever vaccine is recommended for people who are traveling to areas where yellow fever is common, including parts of Africa and South America. It is also required for entry into some countries in these regions. The vaccine is generally safe and effective, but it can cause mild side effects such as headache, muscle pain, and fever in some people. Serious side effects are rare, but may include allergic reactions or infection with the weakened virus used in the vaccine.

It's important to note that yellow fever vaccine may not be recommended for certain individuals, including infants younger than 6 months, pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and those with a history of severe allergic reaction to a previous dose of the vaccine or any component of the vaccine. It is always best to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccination.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

A plague vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against the bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. The vaccine contains killed or weakened forms of the bacteria, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate immune cells that can recognize and fight off the infection if the person is exposed to the bacteria in the future.

There are several types of plague vaccines available, including whole-cell killed vaccines, live attenuated vaccines, and subunit vaccines. The choice of vaccine depends on various factors, such as the target population, the route of exposure (e.g., respiratory or cutaneous), and the desired duration of immunity.

Plague vaccines have been used for many years to protect military personnel and individuals at high risk of exposure to plague, such as laboratory workers and people living in areas where plague is endemic. However, their use is not widespread, and they are not currently recommended for general use in the United States or other developed countries.

It's important to note that while plague vaccines can provide some protection against the disease, they are not 100% effective, and other measures such as antibiotics and insect control are also important for preventing and treating plague infections.

A fungal vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against fungal infections. It contains one or more fungal antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, along with adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The goal of fungal vaccines is to protect against invasive fungal diseases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy, organ transplantation, or HIV/AIDS treatment.

Fungal vaccines can work by inducing both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity involves the production of antibodies that recognize and neutralize fungal antigens, while cell-mediated immunity involves the activation of T cells to directly attack infected cells.

Currently, there are no licensed fungal vaccines available for human use, although several candidates are in various stages of development and clinical trials. Some examples include vaccines against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Pneumocystis jirovecii.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

Rubella vaccine is a preventive measure used to immunize individuals against rubella, also known as German measles. It contains inactivated or weakened forms of the rubella virus that stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. The two types of rubella vaccines available are:

1. Live Attenuated Rubella Vaccine (RAV): This vaccine contains a weakened form of the rubella virus, which triggers an immune response without causing the disease. It is the most commonly used rubella vaccine and is often combined with measles and mumps vaccines to create the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) or Measles-Mumps-Rubella-Varicella (MMRV) vaccines.

2. Inactivated Rubella Vaccine: This vaccine contains a killed rubella virus, which is less commonly used but can still provide immunity against the disease.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that children receive one dose of MMR vaccine at 12-15 months of age and another dose at 4-6 years of age. This schedule ensures optimal protection against rubella and other diseases included in the vaccines.

It is important to note that pregnant women should not receive the rubella vaccine, as it can potentially harm the developing fetus. Women who are planning to become pregnant should ensure they have had their rubella immunization before conceiving.

Acellular vaccines are a type of vaccine that contain one or more antigens but do not contain whole cell parts or components of the pathogen. They are designed to produce an immune response in the body that is specific to the antigen(s) contained within the vaccine, while minimizing the risk of adverse reactions associated with whole cell vaccines.

Acellular vaccines are often produced using recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene from the pathogen is inserted into a different organism (such as yeast or bacteria) that can produce large quantities of the antigen. The antigen is then purified and used to create the vaccine.

One example of an acellular vaccine is the DTaP vaccine, which is used to protect against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (whooping cough). This vaccine contains only a small portion of the pertussis bacterium, along with purified versions of the toxins produced by the bacteria. By contrast, whole cell pertussis vaccines contain entire killed bacteria, which can cause more frequent and severe side effects.

Overall, acellular vaccines offer a safer and more targeted approach to immunization than whole cell vaccines, while still providing effective protection against infectious diseases.

I believe there may be a slight confusion in your question. AIDS is a condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and it weakens the immune system, making people more susceptible to other infections and diseases. There is no vaccine for AIDS itself. However, there are vaccines being developed and tested to prevent HIV infection, which would help prevent AIDS from developing.

SAIDS is not a medical term. If you meant to ask about "HIV vaccines," I can provide a definition:

An HIV vaccine aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). An effective HIV vaccine would ideally prevent the initial infection or significantly reduce viral replication and disease progression in infected individuals. Currently, no licensed HIV vaccines are available, but research is ongoing to develop a protective vaccine against HIV infection.

Salmonella vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against Salmonella infections, which are caused by bacteria of the Salmonella enterica species. These vaccines typically contain antigens or weakened forms of the Salmonella bacteria that stimulate an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future Salmonella infections.

There are two main types of Salmonella vaccines:

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines: These vaccines contain weakened (attenuated) forms of the Salmonella bacteria that can still replicate but at a much slower rate and with reduced virulence compared to the wild-type bacteria. Examples include Ty21a, a live oral typhoid vaccine, and χ 144, an experimental live oral vaccine against nontyphoidal Salmonella serovars.
2. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines: These vaccines contain killed Salmonella bacteria or their components, such as proteins or polysaccharides. They cannot replicate and are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines. However, they may not stimulate as strong an immune response compared to live vaccines. An example is the Vi polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever.

Salmonella vaccines are primarily used for preventing Salmonella infections in humans and animals, particularly those that cause typhoid fever and nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) infections. Vaccination is an essential component of controlling Salmonella infections, especially in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene, where the risk of exposure to Salmonella bacteria is higher.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are nanostructures that mimic the organization and conformation of authentic viruses but lack the genetic material required for replication. VLPs can be produced from one or more viral proteins, which can be derived from various expression systems including bacteria, yeast, insect, or mammalian cells.

VLP-based vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses these virus-like particles to induce an immune response in the body. These vaccines can be designed to target specific viruses or other pathogens and have been shown to be safe and effective in inducing both humoral and cellular immunity.

VLPs resemble authentic viruses in their structure, size, and antigenic properties, making them highly immunogenic. They can be designed to present specific epitopes or antigens from a pathogen, which can stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate T-cells that recognize and attack the pathogen.

VLP vaccines have been developed for several viruses, including human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). They offer several advantages over traditional vaccines, such as a strong immune response, safety, and stability.

Ebola vaccines are medical products designed to confer immunity against the Ebola virus, a deadly pathogen that causes hemorrhagic fever. Several Ebola vaccine candidates have been developed and tested in clinical trials, with some showing promising results. The most advanced Ebola vaccine is rVSV-ZEBOV, which has been shown to be highly effective in preventing the disease in clinical trials. It uses a weakened version of the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) to deliver a protein from the Ebola virus surface, triggering an immune response that protects against infection. Other Ebola vaccine candidates use different approaches, such as delivering Ebola virus genes using a harmless adenovirus vector or using inactivated whole Ebola viruses. These vaccines are still in development and have not yet been approved for widespread use.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

Population surveillance in a public health and medical context refers to the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health-related data for a defined population over time. It aims to monitor the health status, identify emerging health threats or trends, and evaluate the impact of interventions within that population. This information is used to inform public health policy, prioritize healthcare resources, and guide disease prevention and control efforts. Population surveillance can involve various data sources, such as vital records, disease registries, surveys, and electronic health records.

Neutralizing antibodies are a type of antibody that defends against pathogens such as viruses or bacteria by neutralizing their ability to infect cells. They do this by binding to specific regions on the surface proteins of the pathogen, preventing it from attaching to and entering host cells. This renders the pathogen ineffective and helps to prevent or reduce the severity of infection. Neutralizing antibodies can be produced naturally in response to an infection or vaccination, or they can be generated artificially for therapeutic purposes.

Staphylococcal vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against infections caused by the Staphylococcus bacteria, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. These vaccines typically contain components of the bacterial cell wall or toxins that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that can recognize and neutralize the bacteria if they invade the body in the future.

There are currently no licensed staphylococcal vaccines available for use in humans, although several candidates are in various stages of development. These vaccines aim to prevent a range of staphylococcal infections, including skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and toxic shock syndrome.

It's important to note that while antibiotics can be effective against staphylococcal infections, the bacteria have become increasingly resistant to these drugs over time, making vaccines an important area of research and development for preventing and controlling the spread of these infections.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular Pertussis (DTaP) vaccines are a type of combination vaccine that protect against three serious diseases caused by bacteria: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (also known as whooping cough).

Diphtheria is a highly contagious respiratory infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, and even death. Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, which can be severe enough to cause broken bones or suffocation. Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection that causes severe coughing fits, making it difficult to breathe, eat, or drink.

The "a" in DTaP stands for "acellular," which means that the pertussis component of the vaccine contains only parts of the bacteria, rather than the whole cells used in older vaccines. This reduces the risk of side effects associated with the whole-cell pertussis vaccine while still providing effective protection against the disease.

DTaP vaccines are typically given as a series of five shots, starting at 2 months of age and ending at 4-6 years of age. Booster doses may be recommended later in life to maintain immunity. DTaP vaccines are an essential part of routine childhood immunization schedules and have significantly reduced the incidence of these diseases worldwide.

Hospitalization is the process of admitting a patient to a hospital for the purpose of receiving medical treatment, surgery, or other health care services. It involves staying in the hospital as an inpatient, typically under the care of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals. The length of stay can vary depending on the individual's medical condition and the type of treatment required. Hospitalization may be necessary for a variety of reasons, such as to receive intensive care, to undergo diagnostic tests or procedures, to recover from surgery, or to manage chronic illnesses or injuries.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) vaccines are medical products being developed to prevent or ameliorate infection and disease caused by the human cytomegalovirus. CMV is a type of herpesvirus that can cause serious health problems in people with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing organ transplantation, people living with HIV/AIDS, and newborns infected with the virus before birth (congenital CMV infection).

There are currently no approved vaccines for CMV. However, several vaccine candidates are being investigated in clinical trials to evaluate their safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. These vaccine candidates use various approaches, such as:

1. Live-attenuated viruses: These vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus that can stimulate an immune response without causing disease. An example is the Towne vaccine, which has been studied in clinical trials for several decades.
2. Recombinant proteins: These vaccines use specific viral proteins to induce an immune response. For instance, a glycoprotein B (gB) subunit vaccine has shown promising results in phase II clinical trials.
3. Virus-like particles (VLPs): VLPs mimic the structure of the virus but do not contain any viral genetic material. They can be used to induce an immune response without causing infection.
4. DNA vaccines: These vaccines use plasmids containing CMV genes to stimulate an immune response. A DNA vaccine encoding the CMV phosphoprotein 65 (pp65) has been tested in clinical trials.
5. mRNA vaccines: Similar to DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines use genetic material to induce an immune response. Moderna Therapeutics is developing an mRNA vaccine candidate for CMV.

The development of a safe and effective CMV vaccine remains a significant public health priority, as CMV infection can lead to severe complications in vulnerable populations.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune function of the human body. It is primarily found in external secretions, such as saliva, tears, breast milk, and sweat, as well as in mucous membranes lining the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. IgA exists in two forms: a monomeric form found in serum and a polymeric form found in secretions.

The primary function of IgA is to provide immune protection at mucosal surfaces, which are exposed to various environmental antigens, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and allergens. By doing so, it helps prevent the entry and colonization of pathogens into the body, reducing the risk of infections and inflammation.

IgA functions by binding to antigens present on the surface of pathogens or allergens, forming immune complexes that can neutralize their activity. These complexes are then transported across the epithelial cells lining mucosal surfaces and released into the lumen, where they prevent the adherence and invasion of pathogens.

In summary, Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a vital antibody that provides immune defense at mucosal surfaces by neutralizing and preventing the entry of harmful antigens into the body.

"Intramuscular injections" refer to a medical procedure where a medication or vaccine is administered directly into the muscle tissue. This is typically done using a hypodermic needle and syringe, and the injection is usually given into one of the large muscles in the body, such as the deltoid (shoulder), vastus lateralis (thigh), or ventrogluteal (buttock) muscles.

Intramuscular injections are used for a variety of reasons, including to deliver medications that need to be absorbed slowly over time, to bypass stomach acid and improve absorption, or to ensure that the medication reaches the bloodstream quickly and directly. Common examples of medications delivered via intramuscular injection include certain vaccines, antibiotics, and pain relievers.

It is important to follow proper technique when administering intramuscular injections to minimize pain and reduce the risk of complications such as infection or injury to surrounding tissues. Proper site selection, needle length and gauge, and injection technique are all critical factors in ensuring a safe and effective intramuscular injection.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus vaccine, also known as the DT vaccine or Td vaccine (if diphtheria toxoid is not included), is a combination vaccine that protects against two potentially serious bacterial infections: diphtheria and tetanus.

Diphtheria is a respiratory infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart problems, and nerve damage. Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, particularly in the jaw and neck.

The vaccine contains small amounts of inactivated toxins (toxoids) from the bacteria that cause diphtheria and tetanus. When the vaccine is administered, it stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that provide protection against these diseases.

In addition to protecting against diphtheria and tetanus, some formulations of the vaccine may also include protection against pertussis (whooping cough), polio, or hepatitis B. The DTaP vaccine is a similar combination vaccine that includes protection against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, but uses acellular pertussis components instead of the whole-cell pertussis component used in the DT vaccine.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus vaccine is typically given as a series of shots in childhood, with booster shots recommended every 10 years to maintain immunity. It is an important part of routine childhood vaccination and is also recommended for adults who have not received the full series of shots or whose protection has waned over time.

Poliovirus vaccines are preparations used for active immunization against poliomyelitis, a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. The two types of poliovirus vaccines available are:

1. Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): This vaccine contains inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. IPV is typically administered through an injection, usually in combination with other vaccines. It provides a strong immune response and does not carry the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), which is a rare but serious adverse event associated with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV).

2. Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV): This vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. OPV is administered orally and induces both humoral and intestinal immunity, which helps prevent the spread of the virus in a community. However, there is a small risk of VAPP associated with this vaccine, especially after multiple doses. In rare cases, the weakened virus can revert to its virulent form and cause paralytic polio in the vaccinated individual or their close contacts.

Both IPV and OPV have been instrumental in global efforts to eradicate polio. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using IPV in routine immunization programs, while using OPV during supplementary immunization activities in areas with a high risk of poliovirus transmission.

Intranasal administration refers to the delivery of medication or other substances through the nasal passages and into the nasal cavity. This route of administration can be used for systemic absorption of drugs or for localized effects in the nasal area.

When a medication is administered intranasally, it is typically sprayed or dropped into the nostril, where it is absorbed by the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity. The medication can then pass into the bloodstream and be distributed throughout the body for systemic effects. Intranasal administration can also result in direct absorption of the medication into the local tissues of the nasal cavity, which can be useful for treating conditions such as allergies, migraines, or pain in the nasal area.

Intranasal administration has several advantages over other routes of administration. It is non-invasive and does not require needles or injections, making it a more comfortable option for many people. Additionally, intranasal administration can result in faster onset of action than oral administration, as the medication bypasses the digestive system and is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. However, there are also some limitations to this route of administration, including potential issues with dosing accuracy and patient tolerance.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) vaccines are designed to protect against infections caused by various strains of the E. coli bacterium. These vaccines typically contain inactivated or attenuated (weakened) forms of the bacteria, which stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. The immune system learns to recognize and fight off the specific strain of E. coli used in the vaccine, providing protection against future infections with that strain.

There are several types of E. coli vaccines available or in development, including:

1. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) vaccines: These vaccines protect against STEC strains, such as O157:H7 and non-O157 STECs, which can cause severe illness, including hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).
2. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) vaccines: These vaccines target ETEC strains that are a common cause of traveler's diarrhea in people visiting areas with poor sanitation.
3. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) vaccines: EPEC strains can cause persistent diarrhea, especially in young children in developing countries. Vaccines against these strains are still in the research and development stage.
4. Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) vaccines: These vaccines aim to protect against ExPEC strains that can cause urinary tract infections, sepsis, and meningitis.

It is important to note that different E. coli vaccines are designed for specific purposes and may not provide cross-protection against other strains or types of E. coli infections.

West Nile Virus (WNV) vaccines are immunizations that are designed to protect against the West Nile virus, which is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Flaviviridae. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly those of the Culex species.

There are currently no licensed WNV vaccines available for human use in the United States or Europe. However, there are several veterinary vaccines that have been developed and approved for use in horses and other animals, such as birds and geese. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus, which can help prevent infection and reduce the severity of symptoms in animals that do become infected.

Human WNV vaccine candidates are in various stages of development and testing. Some of these vaccines use inactivated or weakened forms of the virus, while others use only a portion of the viral protein to stimulate an immune response. While these vaccines have shown promise in clinical trials, further research is needed to determine their safety and effectiveness in larger populations before they can be approved for widespread use.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests are a type of serological assay used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the amount of antibodies present in a patient's serum. These tests are commonly used to diagnose viral infections, such as influenza or HIV, by identifying the presence of antibodies that bind to specific viral antigens and prevent hemagglutination (the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells).

In an HI test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of the viral antigen, which has been treated to attach to red blood cells. If the patient's serum contains antibodies that bind to the viral antigen, they will prevent the antigen from attaching to the red blood cells and inhibit hemagglutination. The degree of hemagglutination inhibition can be measured and used to estimate the amount of antibody present in the patient's serum.

HI tests are relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but they have some limitations. For example, they may not detect early-stage infections before the body has had a chance to produce antibodies, and they may not be able to distinguish between different strains of the same virus. Nonetheless, HI tests remain an important tool for diagnosing viral infections and monitoring immune responses to vaccination or infection.

Shigella vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against Shigella infection, which is caused by the bacterium Shigella spp. These vaccines aim to stimulate the immune system to produce an immune response (the production of antibodies and activation of immune cells) that will provide protection against future Shigella infections.

There are currently no licensed Shigella vaccines available for use, although several candidate vaccines are in various stages of development and clinical trials. These vaccines typically contain inactivated or attenuated (weakened) forms of the bacteria, or specific components of the bacteria that can stimulate an immune response.

Shigella infection can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and tenesmus (the strong, frequent urge to have a bowel movement). In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as dehydration, seizures, and hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which is a serious condition that can cause kidney failure. Shigella infection is most commonly transmitted through contaminated food or water, or direct contact with an infected person's feces.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

The Herpes Zoster vaccine, also known as the shingles vaccine, is a preventive measure against the reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in individuals who have previously had chickenpox. The vaccine contains a live but weakened form of VZV that boosts the immune system's ability to recognize and fight off the virus, thereby reducing the risk of developing shingles and its complications. It is typically administered as a single dose for people aged 50 and older, or as a two-dose series for those aged 19 and older who have weakened immune systems.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Polysorbates are a type of nonionic surfactant (a compound that lowers the surface tension between two substances, such as oil and water) commonly used in pharmaceuticals, foods, and cosmetics. They are derived from sorbitol and reacted with ethylene oxide to create a polyoxyethylene structure. The most common types of polysorbates used in medicine are polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, and polysorbate 60, which differ in the number of oxyethylene groups in their molecular structure.

Polysorbates are often added to pharmaceutical formulations as emulsifiers, solubilizers, or stabilizers. They help to improve the solubility and stability of drugs that are otherwise insoluble in water, allowing for better absorption and bioavailability. Polysorbates can also prevent the aggregation and precipitation of proteins in injectable formulations.

In addition to their use in pharmaceuticals, polysorbates are also used as emulsifiers in food products such as ice cream, salad dressings, and baked goods. They help to mix oil and water-based ingredients together and prevent them from separating. In cosmetics, polysorbates are used as surfactants, solubilizers, and stabilizers in a variety of personal care products.

It is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions to polysorbates, particularly those with sensitivities to sorbitol or other ingredients used in their production. Therefore, it is essential to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits of using products containing polysorbates in individuals who may be at risk for adverse reactions.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Humoral immunity is a type of immune response in which the body produces proteins called antibodies that circulate in bodily fluids such as blood and help to protect against infection. This form of immunity involves the interaction between antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response) and soluble factors, including antibodies, complement proteins, and cytokines.

When a pathogen enters the body, it is recognized as foreign by the immune system, which triggers the production of specific antibodies to bind to and neutralize or destroy the pathogen. These antibodies are produced by B cells, a type of white blood cell that is part of the adaptive immune system.

Humoral immunity provides protection against extracellular pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, that exist outside of host cells. It is an important component of the body's defense mechanisms and plays a critical role in preventing and fighting off infections.

A Brucella vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against brucellosis, an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. The most commonly used vaccine is the Brucella melitensis Rev-1 strain, which is administered to sheep and goats to prevent the spread of the disease to humans through contaminated food and animal contact.

The Brucella vaccine works by stimulating the immune system to produce a protective response against the bacteria. When the vaccinated animal encounters the actual bacterial infection, their immune system is better prepared to fight it off and prevent the development of clinical disease.

It's important to note that the Brucella vaccine is not approved for use in humans due to the risk of severe side effects and the possibility of causing a false positive result on brucellosis diagnostic tests. Therefore, it should only be administered to animals under the supervision of a veterinarian.

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... , sold under the brand name Pneumovax 23, is a pneumococcal vaccine that is used for the ... pneumococcal vaccine polyvalent injection, solution". DailyMed. Retrieved 11 January 2022. "Pneumovax 23 - Pneumococcal Vaccine ... The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is widely used in high-risk adults. First used in 1945, the tetravalent vaccine was not ... Pneumococcal vaccines". Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 29 May 2009. "Who should have the pneumococcal ...
October 2009). "Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines for preventing vaccine-type invasive pneumococcal disease and X-ray defined ... A Streptococcus pneumoniae vaccine is available for adults, and has been found to decrease the risk of invasive pneumococcal ... The pneumococcal vaccine has been shown to reduce the risk of community acquired pneumonia in people with chronic obstructive ... "WHO , Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines". who.int. Archived from the original on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2018. " ...
WHO (June 1999). "Pneumococcal vaccines. WHO position paper". Relevé Épidémiologique Hebdomadaire. 74 (23): 177-83. PMID ... We can prevent and treat pneumonia through vaccines, proper treatments, and healthy practices. Hospital-acquired pneumonia is ... being caused by the bacteria for which an effective vaccine is available. Each year, Europe suffers from 230,000 deaths caused ... Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 12 (9): 2422-40. doi:10.1080/21645515.2016.1174356. PMC 5027706. PMID 27269963. Garenne M ...
Although the current vaccines available can treat fatal diseases like pneumococcal disease and HIV, there is much room for ... "About Pneumococcal Vaccine: For Providers , CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2022-10-21. Retrieved 2023-03-15. Dunleavy K (Oct 4, 2021). " ... In 2021, 2 new vaccines have been launched again by Pfizer and Merck to supplement their defence against pneumococcal disease ... Unlike other vaccine types, recombinant vaccines use double the technology to help build immunity in an organism. A handful of ...
Burgess L, Southern KW (August 2014). Burgess L (ed.). "Pneumococcal vaccines for cystic fibrosis". The Cochrane Database of ... Pneumococcal vaccination has not been studied as of 2014[update]. As of 2014[update], there is no clear evidence from ... Dharmaraj P, Smyth RL (March 2014). "Vaccines for preventing influenza in people with cystic fibrosis". The Cochrane Database ... randomized controlled trials that the influenza vaccine is beneficial for people with cystic fibrosis. Ivacaftor is a ...
Sabin.org/PACE Pneumococcal disease Pneumococcal vaccines World Pneumonia Day PATH PneumoADIP (Medical and health organizations ... The Pneumococcal Awareness Council of Experts (PACE) is a project of the Sabin Vaccine Institute and is composed of global ... "Sabin Vaccine Institute's 4th Regional Pneumococcal Symposium". Archived from the original on 2010-03-16. Ramakrishnan M, ... Rwanda announced that they would be one of the first two countries to introduce the pneumococcal vaccine into its national ...
First vaccine for Lyme disease 1998 - First vaccine for rotavirus 2000 - First pneumococcal conjugate vaccine approved in the U ... First oral polio vaccine (Sabin vaccine) 1963 - First vaccine for measles 1967 - First vaccine for mumps 1970 - First vaccine ... First vaccine for malaria 2015 - First vaccine for dengue fever 2019 - First vaccine for Ebola approved 2020 - First vaccine ... First vaccine for tick-borne encephalitis 1952 - First vaccine for polio (Salk vaccine) 1954 - First vaccine for Japanese ...
A Brief History of Pneumococcal Vaccines. Review Article. Drugs & Aging. 15 Supplement 1:1-10, 1999 Tuomanen, Elaine (2004). ... Addition of a small amount of ox bile to a pneumococcal culture results in complete destruction of the culture after a short ... This discovery led Fred Griffith to show that one pneumococcal type could be transformed into another (Griffith's experiment). ... Then, using immunological techniques, Neufeld discovered that there were three pneumococcal types. In the presence of type I ...
In 1936, a pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine was used to abort an epidemic of pneumococcal pneumonia. In the 1940s, ... Verma R, Khanna P (2012) Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: A newer vaccine available in India. Hum Vaccin Immunother 8(9) ... "Pneumococcal vaccines WHO position paper-2012" (PDF). Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 87 (14): 129-44. Apr 6, 2012. PMID 24340399. " ... "Children to be given new vaccine". BBC News. 8 February 2006. "Pneumococcal Vaccination: Information for Health Care Providers ...
Butler JC, Breiman RF, Campbell JF, Lipman HB, Broome CV, Facklam RR (October 1993). "Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine ... A vaccine against streptococcus pneumoniae, available for adults, is recommended for healthy individuals over 65 and all adults ... José, Ricardo J.; Brown, Jeremy S. (2017). "Adult pneumococcal vaccination". Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine. 23 (3): 225 ... "Management of community-acquired pediatric pneumonia in an era of increasing antibiotic resistance and conjugate vaccines". The ...
16: Pneumococcal Disease". In Atkinson W; Wolfe S; Hamborsky J (eds.). Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable ... "Pneumococcal vaccines WHO position paper--2012" (PDF). Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 87 (14): 129-44. Apr 6, 2012. PMID 24340399. " ... "Children to be given new vaccine". BBC News. 8 February 2006. "Pneumococcal Vaccination: Information for Health Care Providers ... GAVI Alliance Archived 2014-08-20 at the Wayback Machine PneumoADIP PATH's Vaccine Resource Library pneumococcal resources ...
Moberley S, Holden J, Tatham DP, Andrews RM (January 2013). "Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults". The ... Invasive pneumococcal pneumonia has a mortality rate of around 20%. For optimal management of a pneumonia patient, the ... The most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for 2/3 of bacteremic pneumonias ...
Pertussis vaccine Pneumococcal vaccine "Whole cell vaccine". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 14 October 2022. Bridget P., ... The whole-cell pneumococcal vaccine consisted of inactive Streptococcus pneumonia RM200 cells and was the first whole-cell ... Whole-cell vaccines are a type of vaccine that has been prepared in the laboratory in such a way to express immune cells such ... The vaccine efficacy ranges between 36 and 98%. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine stimulates natural infection better than the ...
"Vaccine Escape Recombinants Emerge after Pneumococcal Vaccination in the United States". PLOS Pathogens. 3 (11): e168. doi: ... in case of an inefficient vaccine) or more difficult (would be the case of the universal flu vaccine). We speak of vaccine ... so it is expected that there should be no vaccine resistance. If vaccine resistance emerges the vaccine may retain some level ... "Field avian Metapneumovirus evolution avoiding vaccine induced immunity". Vaccine. 28 (4): 916-921. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine. ...
"Bell's Palsy and influenza, pneumococcal and hemophilus vaccine". American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. Archived ... but the article was promoted and twisted by anti-vaccine groups to raise doubt about vaccine safety. Anti-vaccine activists ... COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy, COVID-19 vaccines, COVID-19 misinformation, Vaccine hesitancy). ... COVID-19 misinformation Vaccine misinformation Died Suddenly, an anti-vaccine documentary that promotes false claims about ...
... including Prevnar pneumococcal vaccine; Acel-Imune acellular pertussis vaccine; Meningitec meningococcal meningitis vaccine; ... 2008). Pneumococcal vaccines: the impact of conjugate vaccine. Washington, DC: ASM Press. ISBN 9781555814083. George Siber's ... "Comparison of pneumococcal conjugate polysaccharide and free polysaccharide vaccines in elderly adults: conjugate vaccine ... "Astellas To Form Strategic Partnership With Clearpath To Build Vaccine Portfolio-In-license Vaccine Technology for Respiratory ...
These serotypes are the basis for the pneumococcal vaccines. Streptococcus agalactiae produces a polysaccharide capsule of nine ... Goldblatt D (January 2000). "Conjugate vaccines". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 119 (1): 1-3. doi:10.1046/j.1365- ... so many capsular vaccines contain polysaccharides conjugated with protein carriers, such as the tetanus toxoid or diphtheria ... "Streptococcus pneumoniae capsule determines disease severity in experimental pneumococcal meningitis". Open Biology. 6 (3): ...
There is a poor antibody response to pneumococcal vaccines. The natural killer cells are low or low normal. Switched memory B ...
Since then, pneumococcal vaccines that provide protection from the emerging serotypes have been introduced and have ... Vaccines are usually imperfect however, so the effectiveness, E, of a vaccine must be accounted for: V c = 1 − 1 R 0 E . {\ ... Well-developed vaccines provide protection in a far safer way than natural infections, as vaccines generally do not cause the ... Pittet LF, Posfay-Barbe KM (October 2012). "Pneumococcal vaccines for children: a global public health priority". Clinical ...
... pneumococcal conjugate vaccine) in the US, achieving unprecedented uptake of a new pediatric vaccine. Following the successful ... 2010). "Global use of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine". Vaccine. 28 (43): 7117-22. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine. ... The example of the Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine". Vaccine. 29 (13): 2371-80. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.090. PMID ... Hib Vaccine Could Reduce Major Childhood Diseases Getting life-saving vaccines to those who need it most: the nuanced solution ...
Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) in early infancy decrease the risk of acute otitis media in healthy infants. PCV is ... "Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines for preventing acute otitis media in children". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 5 ... changes in pathogenicity following widespread use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine". Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery. 138 ... However, the vaccine resulted in increased adverse-effects such as fever and runny nose. The small reduction in AOM may not ...
The introduction of pneumococcal vaccine has lowered rates of pneumococcal meningitis in both children and adults. A head ... January 2009). "Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal meningitis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 360 ... A quadrivalent vaccine now exists, which combines four vaccines with the exception of B; immunization with this ACW135Y vaccine ... significantly reduces the incidence of pneumococcal meningitis. The pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine, which covers 23 ...
Vaccines against bacterial pathogens include the anthrax vaccine and pneumococcal vaccine. Many other bacterial pathogens lack ... Vaccines designed against viruses include annual influenza vaccines and the two-dose MMR vaccine against measles, mumps, and ... Vaccines are one common and effective preventive measure against a variety of viral pathogens. Vaccines prime the immune system ... "List of Vaccines , CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-11-06. "Vaccine Nation: 10 most ...
Two Randomized Trials of Effect of Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine on Pneumococcal Colonization. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. ... Her main lines of research are: 1) Accelerate development and test novel pneumococcal vaccines using experimental carriage 2) ... Ferreira, Glennie; S (2019). "Two Randomized Trials of Effect of Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine on Pneumococcal Colonization ... "Oxford Covid vaccine 'safe and effective', Lancet study shows". LSTM. Retrieved 15 September 2021. "UK vaccine volunteers to ...
Klugman KP, Chien YW, Madhi SA (August 2009). "Pneumococcal pneumonia and influenza: a deadly combination". Vaccine. 27 (s3): ... Vaccine. 23 (7): 940-45. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2004.06.035. PMID 15603896. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2020. ... Vaccine. 29 (Suppl 2): B21-B26. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.02.048. PMC 3144394. PMID 21757099. Kim, T. (2017). "The 1918 ... Vaccines were also developed, but as these were based on bacteria and not the actual virus, they could only help with secondary ...
They can receive live vaccines. Lint TF, Zeitz HJ, Gewurz H (November 1980). "Inherited deficiency of the ninth component of ... Patients with terminal complement pathway deficiency should receive meningococcal and pneumococcal vaccinations. ...
Pneumococcal disease after pneumococcal vaccination: an alternative method to estimate the efficacy of pneumococcal vaccine. N ... Pneumococcal vaccine efficacy in selected populations in the United States. Ann Intern Med 1986;104:1 6. Reingold AL, Broome CV ... pneumococcal vaccine evaluation, meningococcal disease and Toxic Shock Syndrome. Notable accomplishments included development ... Epidemiology of pneumococcal serotypes in the United States, 1978 1979. J Infect Dis 1980;141:119 123. Broome CV, Facklam RR, ...
... through aid from Global Alliance for Vaccines, a new vaccine to prevent pneumococcal disease was introduced around Kinshasa. In ... 11 April 2011). "Congo, With Donors' Help, Introduces New Vaccine for Pneumococcal Disease". The New York Times. Archived from ... Dahir, Abdi Latif (16 April 2021). "Vaccine hesitancy runs high in some African countries, in some cases leaving unused doses ...
Also listed are Pneumococcal vaccine contraindications and precautions. ... Pneumococcal vaccine recommendations for routine vaccinations of Infants, children, older children and adults at increased risk ... See Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and When to Vaccinate for all pneumococcal vaccine recommendations by vaccine and ... See Examples: Complete pneumococcal vaccine schedules for adults [4 pages] for a visual illustration of these vaccine options. ...
Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine: learn about side effects, dosage, special precautions, and more on MedlinePlus ... Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) can prevent pneumococcal disease.. Pneumococcal disease refers to any illness ... Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine Information Statement. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease ... A second dose of PPSV23, and another type of pneumococcal vaccine called PCV13, are recommended for certain high-risk groups. ...
Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine ... In contrast to pneumococcal vaccine, influenza vaccine is given annually.. VACCINE DEVELOPMENT. A more immunogenic pneumococcal ... PNEUMOCOCCAL. POLYSACCHARIDE VACCINE. The current pneumococcal vaccine (Pneumovax 23, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Pnu-Imune 23, ... Following vaccination of healthy adults with polyvalent pneumococcal vaccine, antibody levels for most pneumococcal vaccine ...
Additional pneumococcal vaccine research is taking place to find a vaccine that offers broad protection against pneumococcal ... There are two types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. They are given by injection ... vaccine for children aged 2 months to 18 years and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV 23) vaccine for adults. ... Pneumococcal vaccines are vaccines against the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. Their use can prevent some cases of ...
The Government of Indonesia have procured the first 1.6 million doses of the vaccine through the Gavi Pneumococcal Advanced ... Indonesia introduces pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) across the country 30 June 2021 ... The country has received 1.6 million doses of the vaccine procured through the Gavi Pneumococcal Advanced Market Commitment ... "The rollout of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is a critical step toward protecting children in Indonesia from pneumonia. We ...
Tables and materials showing grading recommendations, assessment, development, and Evaluation (GRADE) for Pneumococcal Vaccines ... CDC vaccine recommendations of ACIP as published in policy notes. ... a 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine compared to a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in pneumococcal vaccine- ... of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in pneumococcal vaccine-naïve ...
... and his team at the Max Planck Institute for Colloids and Interfaces in Potsdam hope to develop a new generation of vaccines ... Addition of the synthetic sugar molecule to the current pneumococcal vaccine Prevnar 13, expanded the protection in vaccinated ... Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines represent a paradigm shift within vaccine research, says Seeberger. They are more precise, ... Development of a vaccine for humans. In order to find out which part of the capsular saccharide induces effective antibodies, ...
Find out when and why your child needs to get these vaccines. ... The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and the pneumococcal ... The pneumococcal vaccines contain only a small piece of the germ and so cannot cause pneumococcal disease. ... had a serious allergic reaction to an earlier dose of a pneumococcal vaccine or to the DTaP vaccine ... How Vaccines Help Vaccines keep millions of people healthy each year by preparing the body to fight illness. Learn how vaccines ...
Learn how the pneumococcal vaccine protects you from serious infections. ... post a link to Pneumococcal Vaccine information on Facebook. ... post a link to Pneumococcal Vaccine information on Twitter. ... send a link to Pneumococcal Vaccine information by email. ... share a link to Pneumococcal Vaccine information by text. ...
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One of the most promising candidates is the Whole-Cell Pneumococcal Vaccine (WCV). The new generation of whole-cell vaccines is ... are available and have significantly reduced the rate of invasive pneumococcal diseases, there is still a need for new vaccines ... These vaccines have been extensively studied, are currently in human trial phase 1/2, and seem to be the best treatment choice ... on an unencapsulated serotype that allows the expression of many bacterial antigens at a lower cost than a recombinant vaccine ...
... might prevent more pneumococcal disease compared with the current 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) ... The PPSV23 vaccine has been recommended for prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in adults since 1983, according ... A computer-based cost-effectiveness analysis suggests that use of the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) ... Study Examines Cost-Effectiveness of Adult Pneumococcal Vaccines. February 21, 2012. Article ...
Pneumococcal Vaccine. ME Association Leaflet: The Flu and Pneumonia Vaccines 2020 - 2021 & Website Poll of Flu Vaccine ... The ME Association Pneumonia and the Pneumococcal vaccine - do you need this protection?. September 23, 2020 ... Dr Shepherd answers a question about the pneumonia vaccine and provides the information you need to make an informed decision. ... and a Website Poll asking you about any reactions you might have had to the vaccine. ...
Find out when and why your child needs to get these vaccines. ... The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and the pneumococcal ... The pneumococcal vaccines contain only a small piece of the germ and so cannot cause pneumococcal disease. ... had a serious allergic reaction to an earlier dose of a pneumococcal vaccine or to the DTaP vaccine ... PCV13 protects against 13 types of pneumococcal bacteria, which cause the most common pneumococcal (new-muh-KOK-uhl) infections ...
The newer PCV13 vaccine (13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine), known by the brand name Prevnar 13, protects against ... For the past 30 years, the PPSV23 vaccine (23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine), known by the brand name Pneumovax 23 ... Researchers plan to see if a higher dose of a pneumococcal vaccine will create a stronger immune response in older adults who ... While this vaccine protects against pneumococcal meningitis and bloodstream infections, it is unclear how well it protects ...
Poehling, Katherine A. "Pneumococcal vaccines" 202112, no. 110401 (2021). Poehling, Katherine A. "Pneumococcal vaccines" vol. ... Title : Pneumococcal vaccines Personal Author(s) : Poehling, Katherine A. Corporate Authors(s) : United States. Advisory ... Pneumococcal Vaccines Work Group. Conference Author(s) : United States. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Meeting ( ... Evidence to recommendation framework : risk-based use of 15-valent and 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccines in adults Cite ...
This report describes ACIP recommendations for the use of pneumococcal vaccine in U.S. adults. ... This report describes ACIP recommendations for the use of pneumococcal vaccine in U.S. adults. ... of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in pneumococcal vaccine-naïve ... 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine; PCV15 = 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine; PCV20 = 20-valent pneumococcal ...
Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine. Medicine Status PIL SPC XPIL Legal ... Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Conjugate Vaccine Pfizer Healthcare Ireland Vaxneuvance suspension for injection in pre filled ...
Food and Drug Administration approved seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) for children under age 5 in 2000, ... rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) have significantly declined in all age groups while rates of IPD caused by non- ... vaccine strains have increased modestly, according to research presented this week at the 2008 International Conference on ... Since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) for children under age ...
Pneumococcal Vaccine - Explore from the Merck Manuals - Medical Professional Version. ... Indications for Pneumococcal Vaccine Children up to 18 years of age should receive the pneumococcal vaccine. For detailed ... Preparations of Pneumococcal Vaccine There are 2 types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate and polysaccharide. ... see detailed recommendations regarding further pneumococcal vaccine dosing at CDC: Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and ...
V114 is Mercks investigational 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine candidate for the prevention of pneumococcal disease ... Merck Submits Applications for Licensure of V114, the Companys Investigational 15-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine, for ... with invasive pneumococcal disease in older adults worldwide and are not contained in the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine ... and that heritage is reflected today in our pneumococcal vaccine portfolio," said Dr. Roy Baynes, senior vice president and ...
肺炎鏈球菌疫苗(Pneumococcal vaccine) 肺炎鏈球菌疫苗(Pneumococcal vaccine) ... 肺炎鏈球菌多醣體疫苗 (Pneumococcal Vaccine) ... 肺炎鏈球菌疫苗(Pneumococcal vaccine) * ... 肺炎鏈球菌多
Pneumococcal disease is a serious infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This ... Who Needs the Pneumococcal Vaccine?. admin 14th September 2023. Immunizations Pneumococcal Vaccine ... When should infants receive the pneumococcal vaccine?. *Infants should receive the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) ... The Importance of the Pneumococcal Vaccine. The pneumococcal vaccine plays a critical role in protecting individuals, ...
Pneumococcal Vaccine - Explore from the Merck Manuals - Medical Professional Version. ... Indications for Pneumococcal Vaccine Children up to 18 years of age should receive the pneumococcal vaccine. For detailed ... Preparations of Pneumococcal Vaccine There are 2 types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate and polysaccharide. ... see detailed recommendations regarding further pneumococcal vaccine dosing at CDC: Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and ...
About VAXNEUVANCE (Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine) VAXNEUVANCE, Mercks 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, ... About Pneumococcal Disease The global prevalence of pneumococcal disease, an infection caused by bacteria called Streptococcus ... Merck Receives Positive CHMP Opinion for VAXNEUVANCE™ (Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine) in Individuals 18 Years of Age ... Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine) for active immunization for the prevention of invasive disease and pneumonia caused ...
... a 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, compared with 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in healthy infants. Pediatr ... Invasive pneumococcal disease incidence in children and adults in France during the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine era: an ... Distribution of pneumococcal serotypes aggregated by pneumococcal vaccine formulation in patients with radiologically confirmed ... recommends the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) as routine pneumococcal vaccination for all adults of 60 ...
"Pneumococcal disease is currently the worlds number one vaccine-preventable cause of death among infants and children younger ... New study reinforces timely need for Pneumococcal Vaccine Switch. 10 May 2023 ... it had reverted to a 10-valent pneumococcal vaccine (PVC10) in 2017, due to low IPD case numbers at the time, and in order to ... Pharmac amended the national childhood immunisation schedule to include a 13-valent pneumococcal vaccine (PVC-13) in response ...
Searching News Database: pneumococcal conjugate vaccine HSMN NewsFeed - 4 May 2020. SutroVax Appoints Andrew Guggenhime as ... SutroVax Announces $110M Series D Financing to Advance Broadest-Spectrum Pneumococcal Vaccine Candidates to Prevent Pneumonia. ... Pfizer Receives FDA Approval for Prevnar 13 for the Prevention of Invasive Pneumococcal Disease in Infants and Young Children. ... Pfizer Broadens and Extends Commitment to Help Prevent Pneumococcal Disease in Infants and Young Children in the World s ...
Several vaccines are now available for seniors in Canada to protect themselves against illness this fall. ... Are these vaccines free?. Bogoch said flu and COVID-19 vaccines come at no cost to Canadians, but the RSV vaccines wont be ... The pneumococcal vaccine is available free of charge to Canadians aged 65 and older and is part of provinces routine ... Canadian seniors can get 4 key vaccines this fall: What to know about COVID, RSV, flu & pneumococcal shots. "Were just going ...
  • Pneumococcal bacteria are one of the most common causes of pneumonia. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Meningitis, bacteremia, and pneumonia caused by pneumococcal disease can be fatal. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Pneumococcal pneumonia accounts for 10%-25% of all pneumonias and an estimated 40,000 deaths annually (1). (cdc.gov)
  • The incidence of pneumococcal pneumonia can be 3-5 times that of the detected rates of bacteremia. (cdc.gov)
  • Studies indicate that patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are also at increased risk of pneumococcal disease, with an annual attack rate of pneumococcal pneumonia as high as 17.9/1000 (6-8). (cdc.gov)
  • Postlicensuresurveillanceofpneumoniaincidencecan but less specific, diagnosis of bacterial pneumonia that can beusedtoestimatewhetherpneumococcalconjugatevac- be used to monitor the impact of pneumococcal conjugate cines(PCVs)affectincidence.WeusedPoissonregression vaccines (PCVs) on disease incidence ( 2 , 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • tifying pneumococcal pneumonia is difficult and insensi- Reflecting this diversity, there was little uptake of 7-valent tive. (cdc.gov)
  • Thus, using an endpoint of radiologically confirmed PCV (PVC7) by the Bedouin population before the vaccine alveolar pneumonia (RCAP) can provide a more sensitive, was introduced into the national immunization program in 2009 but moderate use among Jewish children on the Author affiliations: Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, private market. (cdc.gov)
  • Jakarta/Geneva, 30 June 2021 - Up to 4.5 million children across Indonesia will be protected against the most common cause of severe pneumonia every year, after the introduction of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV) into the country's routine immunisation programme. (unicef.org)
  • The rollout of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is a critical step toward protecting children in Indonesia from pneumonia. (unicef.org)
  • The benefits considered critical outcomes in GRADE included prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia, and hospitalizations due to pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Evidence used to evaluate efficacy of PCV13 against IPD and pneumococcal pneumonia was from the randomized placebo-controlled trial (RCT) conducted among approximately 85,000 adults aged ≥65 years in Netherlands (CAPiTA). (cdc.gov)
  • Most studies show that PPSV23 provides some protection against IPD, but studies have reached contradictory conclusions about its ability to prevent nonbacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (NPP), which causes several hundred thousand illnesses annually in the United States. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • The researchers note that results were robust in sensitivity analyses and alternative scenarios, except when low PCV13 effectiveness against nonbacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia was assumed or when greater childhood vaccination indirect effects were modeled. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • The ME Association Pneumonia and the Pneumococcal vaccine - do you need this protection? (meassociation.org.uk)
  • Dr Shepherd answers a question about the pneumonia vaccine and provides the information you need to make an informed decision. (meassociation.org.uk)
  • Researchers plan to see if a higher dose of a pneumococcal vaccine will create a stronger immune response in older adults who received an earlier generation vaccine against pneumonia and other pneumococcal diseases. (nih.gov)
  • The bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae can cause a type of pneumonia called pneumococcal pneumonia. (nih.gov)
  • Children younger than 5 and adults older than 65 are most susceptible to becoming ill from pneumococcal pneumonia. (nih.gov)
  • While this vaccine protects against pneumococcal meningitis and bloodstream infections, it is unclear how well it protects against bacterial pneumococcal pneumonia. (nih.gov)
  • The newer PCV13 vaccine (13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine), known by the brand name Prevnar 13, protects against bacterial pneumonia and other invasive pneumococcal illnesses in children, but the efficacy and most effective dosage in adults is unknown. (nih.gov)
  • In adults, pneumococcal pneumonia is the most common type of pneumococcal disease, and pneumococcus is the most common bacterial cause of pneumonia that results in hospitalization ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • By receiving the pneumococcal vaccine, these vulnerable populations can significantly reduce their risk of developing pneumonia. (total-health-care.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine helps prevent pneumonia by providing immunity against the most common strains of pneumococcus. (total-health-care.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine is especially important for infants and young children, as they are more susceptible to severe forms of pneumonia. (total-health-care.com)
  • KENILWORTH, N.J.--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- Merck (NYSE: MRK), known as MSD outside the United States and Canada, today announced that the European Medicines Agency's Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) has recommended the approval of VAXNEUVANCE™ (Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine) for active immunization for the prevention of invasive disease and pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in individuals 18 years of age and older. (merck.com)
  • and meningitis (infection of the coverings of the brain and spinal cord), as well as non-invasive pneumonia (when pneumococcal disease is confined to the lungs). (merck.com)
  • Pneumococcal infections are globally the most frequent vaccine-preventable cause of death [ 1 ], and community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae is the main burden of pneumococcal disease in the elderly [ 2 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Pfizer Inc. (NYSE:PFE) today announced that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) accepted for priority review a Biologics License Application (BLA) for its 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (20vPnC) candidate, as submitted for the prevention of invasive disease and pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes in the vaccine in adults ages 18 years and older. (pfizer.com)
  • When these bacteria enter the body they can cause pneumococcal pneumonia, which is an infection of the lungs. (hnhu.org)
  • Children who get pneumonia from the pneumococcal bacteria will have a fever and cough that may bring up thick mucous. (hnhu.org)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV), which protect against the main cause of pneumonia, are complex to develop and produce. (gavi.org)
  • Researchers at Karolinska Institutet have identified a new vaccine candidate against pneumococci, bacteria that can cause pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Both PCV7, PCV10 and PCV13 are licensed for active immunization for the prevention of invasive disease, pneumonia and acute otitis media caused by the respective vaccine serotypes of S. pneumoniae in infants and children from 6 weeks to 5 years of age. (who.int)
  • Sputum Gram stain from a patient with a pneumococcal pneumonia. (medscape.com)
  • However, risks of contracting pneumonia can be reduced with a pneumococcal vaccine, as well as maintaining a healthy lifestyle and diet 6 . (doctoroncall.com.my)
  • As such, immunisation against pneumococcal pneumonia is recommended for the elderly to ensure that they are protected against this disease 4 . (doctoroncall.com.my)
  • As people with cardiovascular disease also are at higher risk of contracting pneumococcal pneumonia 5 , immunisation against pneumococcal pneumonia is vital in protecting yourself 1 . (doctoroncall.com.my)
  • As smokers have been found to be at higher risk of getting pneumonia, they are encouraged to consider immunisation against vaccine-preventable diseases such as pneumococcal pneumonia 3 . (doctoroncall.com.my)
  • This free mobile app gives clinicians patient-specific pneumococcal vaccination recommendations from anywhere at any time. (cdc.gov)
  • See Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and When to Vaccinate for CDC guidance on vaccination options for adults who have previously received a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • See Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and When to Vaccinate for all pneumococcal vaccine recommendations by vaccine and age. (cdc.gov)
  • The national vaccination program started vaccinating newborns in 2004 with the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV 7). (wikipedia.org)
  • In late 2020 a start was made with the vaccination of care home residents with the 23-valant pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV 23). (wikipedia.org)
  • The national vaccination program started including the pneumococcal vaccine for newborns in April 2006. (wikipedia.org)
  • A computer-based cost-effectiveness analysis suggests that use of the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) might prevent more pneumococcal disease compared with the current 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) vaccination recommendations, while remaining economically reasonable, although the authors note that their findings are sensitive to a number of assumptions, according to a study in the Feb. 22/29 issue of JAMA. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Kenneth J. Smith, MD, MS, of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, and colleagues conducted a study to estimate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal vaccination strategies among adults 50 years of age and older. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • indirect (herd immunity) effects resulting from childhood PCV13 vaccination were extrapolated based on observed 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) effects. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • With no vaccination, the estimated lifetime risk from age 50 years onward for hospitalized NPP was 9.3 percent, for IPD was 0.86 percent, and for death due to pneumococcal disease was 1.8 percent. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • We have a new free leaflet on this year's Flu Vaccination, and a Website Poll asking you about any reactions you might have had to the vaccine. (meassociation.org.uk)
  • For more information, see Pneumococcal Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Vaccine Recommendations and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Pneumococcal Vaccination . (merckmanuals.com)
  • For detailed information on administering the pneumococcal vaccine to children see CDC: Pneumococcal Vaccination: Summary of Who and When to Vaccinate and CDC: Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule by Age ). (merckmanuals.com)
  • Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent pneumococcal meningitis and its devastating consequences. (total-health-care.com)
  • Vaccination is particularly important for infants, as they are at a higher risk of developing pneumococcal meningitis. (total-health-care.com)
  • By reducing the risk of pneumococcal bacteremia, vaccination can significantly lower the chances of developing sepsis and its life-threatening consequences. (total-health-care.com)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides recommendations regarding pneumococcal vaccination for different age groups and high-risk individuals. (total-health-care.com)
  • Vaccination with VAXNEUVANCE may not protect all vaccine recipients. (merck.com)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), which were primarily developed for vaccination of infants under 2 years of age, have significantly decreased invasive pneumococcal diseases worldwide in all age groups by herd protection effects [ 5 , 6 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • PCV7 was replaced by either the 10-valent conjugate vaccine or, mainly, PCV13 in the German infant vaccination programme in 2010. (ersjournals.com)
  • In adults, the German Standing Committee on Immunization (STIKO) recommends the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23) as routine pneumococcal vaccination for all adults of 60 years and above and for all patients with defined chronic comorbidities predisposing to pneumococcal disease, regardless of age. (ersjournals.com)
  • In Sept. 2014, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released recommendations for the use of two pneumococcal vaccines for routine vaccination of healthy adults age 65 years and older. (immunize.org)
  • Despite widespread vaccination, 4 million pneumococcal disease cases remain annually in the U.S. as well as 22,000 related deaths, they added. (contagionlive.com)
  • For more information, see the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) Pneumococcal Vaccination: What Everyone Should Know , Pneumococcal Conjugate (Interim) vaccine information statement , and Pneumococcal Polysaccharide vaccine information statement . (msdmanuals.com)
  • Children up to 18 years of age should receive the pneumococcal vaccine, usually in 4 doses at ages 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, and 12 to 15 months, as a part of the routine vaccination schedule recommended for children (see CDC: Child and Adolescent Immunization Schedule by Age ). (msdmanuals.com)
  • A pneumococcal vaccine has been included in Sweden's childhood vaccination programme since 2009. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Since childhood vaccination was introduced, the incidence of severe pneumococcal infections in infants has decreased, an effect that has not been observed in adults. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The vaccine is given to children as part of the routine vaccination schedule with the first dose of PCV given at the age of 6 weeks or 2 months (depending on the national schedule), followed by 2 doses at one to two months intervals. (who.int)
  • Globally, pneumococcal vaccination has been routinely incorporated into childhood immunisation schedules. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • Adults who received PCV13 have options on how to complete their pneumococcal vaccine series. (cdc.gov)
  • A second dose of PPSV23, and another type of pneumococcal vaccine called PCV13, are recommended for certain high-risk groups. (medlineplus.gov)
  • GRADE was used to evaluate 13-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV13) for routine use among adults aged ≥65 years. (cdc.gov)
  • The intervention evaluated was a single dose of PCV13 compared to a dose of 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23). (cdc.gov)
  • The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) protect against pneumococcal infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • PCV13 protects against 13 types of pneumococcal bacteria, which cause the most common pneumococcal (new-muh-KOK-uhl) infections in kids. (kidshealth.org)
  • The effectiveness of the PCV13 vaccine in preventing NPP in adults is currently unknown. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • With routine vaccine administration at ages 50 and 65 years, it was estimated that PCV13 costs $45,100 per QALY compared with PCV13 substituted in current recommendations. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Model estimates of the effect of adult PCV13 would be strengthened by evidence of PCV13 effectiveness against NPP from ongoing clinical trials and availability of data on the indirect effects of childhood PCV13 on adult pneumococcal disease rates, the authors conclude. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • Earlier studies suggest that PCV13 may not induce as strong an immune response in older adults who previously received the PPSV23 vaccine within the past 5 years as in those who have not. (nih.gov)
  • The first group, 294 participants who have never been vaccinated with the PPSV23 vaccine will receive a single 0.5 milliliter (mL) injection of the PCV13 vaccine. (nih.gov)
  • The second group, 588 participants who were vaccinated with the PPSV23 vaccine three to seven years before study enrollment, will be randomized to receive one 0.5 mL injection of the PCV13 vaccine or 1.0 mL of the PCV13 vaccine administered as two 0.5 mL injections, one in each arm. (nih.gov)
  • The researchers will also evaluate whether the larger, 1.0 mL, dose of PCV13 is more immunogenic than the 0.5 mL dose in participants who were previously vaccinated with the PPSV23 vaccine. (nih.gov)
  • Before 2021, ACIP recommended 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) alone (up to 2 doses), or both a single dose of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in combination with 1-3 doses of PPSV23 in series (PCV13 followed by PPSV23), for use in U.S. adults depending on age and underlying risk for pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, ACIP recommends use of either a single dose of PCV20 or ≥1 dose of PPSV23 for adults who have started their pneumococcal vaccine series with PCV13 but have not received all recommended PPSV23 doses. (cdc.gov)
  • Shared clinical decision-making is recommended regarding use of a supplemental PCV20 dose for adults aged ≥65 years who have completed their recommended vaccine series with both PCV13 and PPSV23. (cdc.gov)
  • For Germany, we have described earlier the distribution of vaccine serotypes covered by the first but no longer available 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) and the 13-valent conjugate vaccine (PCV13) between 2002 and 2016 in adult patients with CAP enrolled into the prospective multicentre study CAPNETZ [ 8 , 9 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Administer one dose of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13, Prevnar13®, Pfizer) to people age 65 years and older if they have not received a dose in the past. (immunize.org)
  • Administer one dose of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23, Pneumovax®, Merck) one year following the PCV13 dose. (immunize.org)
  • In Sept. 2014, the second pneumococcal vaccine, PCV13, was added to the routine immunization schedule for healthy adults age 65 years and older . (immunize.org)
  • When the recommendations to give these two pneumococcal vaccines to adults were first issued, the doses of PCV13 and PPSV23 were to be spaced at least six months apart. (immunize.org)
  • The Vietnam Pneumococcal Trial II (VPT-II) will evaluate reduced-dose schedules of PCV10 and PCV13 utilising an unvaccinated control group. (bmj.com)
  • Our study adds evidence that the use of a vaccine in a population, in this case PCV13, by preventing vaccine-type disease and avoidance of antibiotic use, among other factors, appears to be an additional tool to combat antimicrobial resistance," Suaya concluded. (contagionlive.com)
  • The conjugate vaccine PCV13 protects against 13 types of pneumococcal bacteria (pneumococci). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Herein, we demonstrate that 3M-052 is a locally acting lipidated imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 agonist adjuvant in mice, which, when properly formulated, can induce robust Th1 cytokine production by human newborn leukocytes in vitro, both alone and in synergy with the alum-adjuvanted pneumococcal conjugate vaccine 13 (PCV13). (jci.org)
  • In addition, PCV13 is licensed for the prevention of pneumococcal disease in adults >50 years of age. (who.int)
  • PCV13 vaccine protects against 13 pneumococcal bacteria strains that most commonly cause pneumococcal disease, while the PPSV23 protects against 23 strains. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • GRADE was used to evaluate 13-valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV13) for routine use among immunocompromised children aged 6 through 18 years. (bvsalud.org)
  • Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) can prevent pneumococcal disease . (medlineplus.gov)
  • PPSV23 protects against 23 types of bacteria that cause pneumococcal disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • People 65 years or older should get a dose of PPSV23 even if they have already gotten one or more doses of the vaccine before they turned 65. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The PPSV23 vaccine has been recommended for prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in adults since 1983, according to background information in the article. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • For the past 30 years, the PPSV23 vaccine (23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine), known by the brand name Pneumovax 23, has been the standard protection from invasive pneumococcal disease in adults over 65 years of age. (nih.gov)
  • Researchers will evaluate participants' immune responses via blood samples drawn 28 days and 180 days post-injection, to compare responses between those who had previously been vaccinated with the PPSV23 vaccine and those who had not been. (nih.gov)
  • PPSV23 (Pneumovax23) is a 23-valent vaccine that has been recommended for use since the 1980s for persons aged ≥2 years with certain underlying medical conditions and for adults aged ≥65 years ( Table 1 ) (Figure). (cdc.gov)
  • It also seems to confer greater protection against invasive pneumococcal disorders than PPSV23. (merckmanuals.com)
  • The polysaccharide vaccine PPSV23 protects against 23 types of pneumococci. (msdmanuals.com)
  • generally go with PCV20 after at least 1 year to complete the pneumococcal series, instead of PPSV23. (therapeuticresearch.com)
  • PneumoADIP is funded by the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI). (wikipedia.org)
  • In May 2017, the Government of India decided to include pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in its Universal Immunization Programme. (wikipedia.org)
  • In order to keep the synthesis effort for the vaccine managable, the researchers identified the smallest possible sugar for immunization. (mpg.de)
  • This report compiles and summarizes all published recommendations from CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for use of pneumococcal vaccines in adults aged ≥19 years in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • For a summary of changes to the 2023 adult immunization schedule, including new recommendations for the use of PCV15 and PCV20 in people who previously received pneumococcal vaccines, see the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Recommended Adult Immunization Schedule, United States, 2023: Changes to the 2023 Adult Immunization Schedule . (merckmanuals.com)
  • Overview of Immunization Immunity can be achieved Actively by using antigens (eg, vaccines, toxoids) Passively by using antibodies (eg, immune globulins, antitoxins) A toxoid is a bacterial toxin that has been modified. (merckmanuals.com)
  • VAXNEUVANCE is indicated in the U.S. for active immunization of adults 18 years of age and older for the prevention of invasive disease caused by the S. pneumoniae serotypes contained in the vaccine. (merck.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine is available free of charge to Canadians aged 65 and older and is part of provinces' routine immunization programs. (yahoo.com)
  • Technically Speaking columns cover practical topics in immunization delivery such as needle length, vaccine administration, cold chain, and immunization schedules. (immunize.org)
  • Universal immunization of BC infants with four doses of conjugate pneumococcal vaccine was introduced in September 2003. (bcmj.org)
  • The National Advisory Committee on Immunization statement on conjugate pneumococcal immunization permits a reduced dose schedule. (bcmj.org)
  • The introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines into infant immunization schedules has successfully reduced the incidence of pneumococcal disease caused by vaccine serotypes. (uzh.ch)
  • The Canadian Paediatric Society and the National Advisory Committee on Immunization strongly recommend routine immunization of infants and young children against pneumococcal disease. (hnhu.org)
  • These data summarize country introduction status of PCV (Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine) in the national immunization programme. (who.int)
  • This potent immunization strategy, potentially effective with one birth dose, could represent a new paradigm in early life vaccine development. (jci.org)
  • Increased efforts to accelerate new and underutilized vaccine introductions are urgently needed to improve universal equitable access to all recommended vaccines to achieve the global Immunization Agenda 2021-2030 (IA2030) targets. (medscape.com)
  • The global Immunization Agenda 2021-2030 (IA2030), by increasing equitable access to and use of new and existing vaccines, envisions a world where everyone everywhere fully benefits from vaccines. (medscape.com)
  • IA2030, endorsed by the World Health Assembly, includes a target to achieve 500 new and underutilized vaccine introductions in low-income and middle-income countries' routine immunization schedules by 2030. (medscape.com)
  • Year WHO recommended inclusion of vaccine in all national routine immunization programs. (medscape.com)
  • International immunization programs for children have many vaccines in common but, depending on the region, may vary slightly. (medscape.com)
  • Another consideration relating to global immunization is the use of travel vaccines. (medscape.com)
  • While an important component of immunization programs, a review of influenza vaccines is beyond the scope of this article. (medscape.com)
  • Hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine is included in routine childhood immunization vaccines to prevent chronic HBV infection. (medscape.com)
  • The objectives of vaccine-preventable disease surveillance in NSW are, at an individual level, to identify events that may require immediate public health control measures and, at a population level, to identify risk factors such as age and geographic location that inform better targeted immunization efforts. (who.int)
  • On June 22, 2023, the CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended use of 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV20 [Prevnar 20, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals LLC, a subsidiary of Pfizer Inc.]) as an option to 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV15 [Vaxneuvance, Merck Sh. (bvsalud.org)
  • A Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) review of the evidence for benefits and harms for Pfizer Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) preF vaccine was presented to the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) on June 21, 2023. (bvsalud.org)
  • Pneumococcal vaccines are vaccines against the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pneumococcal infections are caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), a gram-positive, facultative anaerobic bacterium. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal disease is a serious infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. (total-health-care.com)
  • The global prevalence of pneumococcal disease, an infection caused by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae , is evolving. (merck.com)
  • Pneumococcal disease is caused by the Streptococcus pneumoniae bacterium. (gavi.org)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs) are safe and effective for reducing illness and deaths caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. (cdc.gov)
  • Introducing a vaccine against Streptococcus pneumoniae ( S. pneumoniae or Sp ) in the U.S. led to significant reductions in nonsusceptibility to multiple antimicrobial agents among pneumococcal isolates among adults, according to a paper published in Journal of Infection . (contagionlive.com)
  • Pneumococcal vaccines help protect against bacterial infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Pneumococcus, also known as Streptococcus pneumoniae, causes pneumococcal disease. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • Although Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines (PCVs) are available and have significantly reduced the rate of invasive pneumococcal diseases, there is still a need for new vaccines with unlimited serotype coverage, long-lasting protection, and lower cost to be developed. (mdpi.com)
  • In 2021, two new pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), a 15-valent and a 20-valent PCV (PCV15 and PCV20), were licensed for use in U.S. adults aged ≥18 years by the Food and Drug Administration. (cdc.gov)
  • However, serotype replacement, i.e. replacement of vaccine serotypes by non-vaccine serotypes, has decreased the serotype coverage of PCVs over time [ 6 , 7 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Introduction Reduced-dose schedules offer a more efficient and affordable way to use pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs). (bmj.com)
  • Currently available PCVs are safe and efficacious and the increased number of serotypes present in these vaccines, compared to the first licensed PCV7, represent significant progress in the fight against pneumococcal morbidity and mortality, in particular from a developing country perspective. (who.int)
  • In addition, adults younger than age 65 years of age may be recommended to receive pneumococcal vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • See Examples: Complete pneumococcal vaccine schedules for adults [4 pages] for a visual illustration of these vaccine options. (cdc.gov)
  • Treat adults who received PCV7 the same as people who have never received any pneumococcal vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Anyone can get pneumococcal disease, but children under 2 years of age, people with certain medical conditions, adults 65 years or older, and cigarette smokers are at the highest risk. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Although no recent data from the United States exist, in the United Kingdom pneumococcal infections may account for 34% of pneumonias in adults who require hospitalization (2). (cdc.gov)
  • The polysaccharide vaccines, while effective in healthy adults, are not effective in children less than two years old or those with poor immune function. (wikipedia.org)
  • Health Canada's general recommendations are 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV 13) vaccine for children aged 2 months to 18 years and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV 23) vaccine for adults. (wikipedia.org)
  • Children younger than 2 years old, adults over 65, and people with some medical conditions are at high risk for serious pneumococcal infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • The study supported by the National Institutes of Health will compare two dosages of a pneumococcal vaccine approved for children ages 6 weeks to 5 years, and adults 50 and older. (nih.gov)
  • During 2018-2019, approximately 60%-75% of all IPD in adults was caused by the 24 pneumococcal serotypes that were included in the formulations of commercially available polysaccharide conjugate vaccine (PCV) or pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV) vaccines (i.e. (cdc.gov)
  • KENILWORTH, N.J.--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- Merck (NYSE: MRK), known as MSD outside the United States and Canada, today announced the company has submitted applications to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA) for licensure of V114, Merck's investigational 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, for use in adults 18 years of age and older. (merck.com)
  • V114 is Merck's investigational 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine candidate for the prevention of pneumococcal disease in adults and children. (merck.com)
  • V114 consists of pneumococcal polysaccharides from 15 serotypes conjugated to a CRM197 carrier protein and includes serotypes 22F and 33F, which are commonly associated with invasive pneumococcal disease in older adults worldwide and are not contained in the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine currently licensed for use in adults. (merck.com)
  • V114 previously received Breakthrough Therapy Designation from the FDA for the prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease in pediatric patients 6 weeks to 18 years of age and adults 18 years of age and older. (merck.com)
  • While healthy adults can suffer from pneumococcal disease, patient populations particularly vulnerable to infection include older adults such as those 65 years of age and older, people with HIV, and those with certain chronic health conditions. (merck.com)
  • For the first time, older adults will also have access to the respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine . (yahoo.com)
  • In the meantime, one dose of Pneu-P-23 vaccine is recommended for adults who are 65 years of age and older to protect them against a severe pneumococcal infection. (yahoo.com)
  • The newest shot to be made available this season is an RSV vaccine, which has been authorized for use in Canada for the prevention of lower respiratory tract disease caused by RSV in adults 60 years of age and older. (yahoo.com)
  • The FDA's acceptance of our application for 20vPnC is yet another significant milestone in Pfizer's continuing efforts to help protect adults against pneumococcal disease," said Kathrin U. Jansen, Ph.D., Senior Vice President and Head of Vaccine Research and Development, Pfizer. (pfizer.com)
  • The number of severe pneumococcal infections in adults has not decreased significantly and most of the infections are now caused by pneumococcal bacteria that today's vaccines do not protect against. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Start by using CDC's PneumoRecs VaxAdvisor app or website when a high-risk inpatient needs a pneumococcal vaccine (postsplenectomy, etc)...or if your hospital screens adults before discharge. (therapeuticresearch.com)
  • Access CDC's Pneumococcal Vaccine Timing for Adults for a flowchart. (therapeuticresearch.com)
  • Data show the vaccine elicited better immune responses in adults ages 50 and up than the standard of care vaccine, noted a BTIG report. (streetwisereports.com)
  • Sometime this year, Vaxcyte should hear back on its IND filing for VAX-A1, its vaccine candidate for group A strep in adults and infants. (streetwisereports.com)
  • Addition of the synthetic sugar molecule to the current pneumococcal vaccine Prevnar 13, expanded the protection in vaccinated animals from 13 to 14 serotypes including the dangerous ST8 pathogen. (mpg.de)
  • The Dutch health institute RIVM has stopped the distribution of a batch of Pfizer's Prevnar childhood vaccine following the death of three babies shortly after being vaccinated. (infiniteunknown.net)
  • Continue to use any remaining Prevnar 13 vaccines still on-hand through the expiration date before transiting to PCV15 or PCV20. (phila.gov)
  • Most pneumococcal infections are mild. (medlineplus.gov)
  • These vaccines prevent infections in children who get them, and help stop the infections from spreading to others. (kidshealth.org)
  • yet, the number of people who plan on getting the vaccines for each of the infections remains low, according to the NFID announcement today. (infectioncontroltoday.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine can provide them with an added layer of protection against pneumococcal infections and potentially life-threatening complications. (total-health-care.com)
  • Reduction of Bloodstream Infections: Pneumococcal bacteremia, an infection of the bloodstream, can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition. (total-health-care.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine helps prevent bloodstream infections by strengthening the immune system's ability to recognize and fight off the pneumococcus bacterium. (total-health-care.com)
  • By receiving the pneumococcal vaccine, these individuals can protect themselves from the potential complications of bloodstream infections and improve their overall health outcomes. (total-health-care.com)
  • The vaccine has been developed to protect against severe infections in children, but only targets a fraction of the close to one hundred different types of pneumococcal bacteria that have been described so far. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • There is an urgent need for new vaccine strategies to protect the elderly from pneumococcal infections," says the study's last author Birgitta Henriques-Normark, professor at the Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The results suggest that membrane particles can be used as a platform for producing vaccines against pneumococcal infections and perhaps other bacterial infections, and this is something we are now working on. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Vaccine-preventable disease control is continually strengthening in NSW with notable successes in invasive bacterial infections. (who.int)
  • A pilot Advance Market Commitment (AMC) to develop a vaccine against pneumococcus was launched by GAVI in June 2009 as a strategy to address two of the major policy challenges to vaccine introduction: a lack of affordable vaccines on the market, and insufficient commercial incentives to develop vaccines for diseases concentrated in developing countries. (wikipedia.org)
  • These vaccines have been extensively studied, are currently in human trial phase 1/2, and seem to be the best treatment choice for pneumococcal diseases, especially for developing countries. (mdpi.com)
  • Since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) for children under age 5 in 2000, rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) have significantly declined in all age groups while rates of IPD caused by non-vaccine strains have increased modestly, according to research presented this week at the 2008 International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases in Atlanta. (contemporarypediatrics.com)
  • WEDNESDAY, March 19 (HealthDay News) -- Since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) for children under age 5 in 2000, rates of invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) have significantly declined in all age groups while rates of IPD caused by non-vaccine strains have increased modestly, according to research presented this week at the 2008 International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases in Atlanta. (contemporarypediatrics.com)
  • For more than 100 years, Merck has contributed to the discovery and development of novel medicines and vaccines to combat infectious diseases. (merck.com)
  • For more than 125 years, Merck, known as MSD outside of the United States and Canada, has been inventing for life, bringing forward medicines and vaccines for many of the world's most challenging diseases in pursuit of our mission to save and improve lives. (merck.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine is a vital preventive measure that can protect individuals from these potentially life-threatening diseases. (total-health-care.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine plays a critical role in protecting individuals, particularly those who are more susceptible to pneumococcal diseases. (total-health-care.com)
  • Study co-author Professor Tony Walls, Paediatric Infectious Diseases Specialist at the University of Otago, Christchurch, says the results reinforce the timeliness of Pharmac's decision to switch to the PVC-13 vaccine. (otago.ac.nz)
  • We know some people are already getting these vaccines, but we're just going to see greater access in the days and weeks ahead,' said Dr. Isaac Bogoch, an infectious diseases specialist at Toronto General Hospital. (yahoo.com)
  • How do pneumococcal diseases spread? (hnhu.org)
  • Administration of routine childhood vaccinations (eg, hepatitis, polio, and meningococcal vaccines) is often prioritized over specific travel vaccines, as these diseases are still prevalent in many underdeveloped countries. (medscape.com)
  • Specific travel vaccines (eg, typhoid fever, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis) are the next consideration, as these diseases are endemic in many resource-limited countries. (medscape.com)
  • It's important to get vaccinated against vaccine-preventable diseases such as pneumococcal disease, as those with asthma are more likely to get health complications 4 . (doctoroncall.com.my)
  • We aim to describe the epidemiology of selected vaccine-preventable diseases in New South Wales (NSW) for 2012. (who.int)
  • Case notification rates for other selected vaccine-preventable diseases remained stable. (who.int)
  • Data describing cases in NCIMS were extracted for selected vaccine-preventable diseases according to the date of onset, with 2012 data compared with data for recent years. (who.int)
  • Pneumococcal disease refers to any illness caused by pneumococcal bacteria. (medlineplus.gov)
  • For many years scientists have used the characteristic sugar molecules on the surface of bacteria as a component of vaccines. (mpg.de)
  • Coupled with carrier proteins, these molecules are effective vaccines that are much simpler to prepare in the laboratory than the isolation of conventional vaccines from bacteria. (mpg.de)
  • Four out of 10 healthy people have pneumococcal bacteria in their mouth, nose and throat without becoming ill. (hnhu.org)
  • The vaccine molecules comprise nano-sized membrane vesicles produced by the bacteria and provide protection in mice, a new study published in PNAS reports. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • In this present study, KI researchers examined the possibility of developing a vaccine based on nano-sized membrane vesicles that pneumococcal bacteria naturally produce from their cell membrane in order to communicate with their surroundings and affect other cells. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The researchers isolated such vesicles, called membrane particles, from cultivated pneumococcal bacteria. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • Both vaccines are made from inactivated bacteria. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • The estimated incidence of pneumococcal meningitis is 1-2/100,000 persons. (cdc.gov)
  • Mortality from pneumococcal disease is highest in patients with bacteremia or meningitis, patients with underlying medical conditions, and older persons. (cdc.gov)
  • Recurrent pneumococcal meningitis may occur in patients with cerebrospinal fluid leakage complicating skull fractures or neurologic procedures. (cdc.gov)
  • Protection Against Meningitis: Pneumococcal meningitis is a severe infection that affects the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. (total-health-care.com)
  • Pneumococcal meningitis is a specific type of meningitis caused by the pneumococcus bacterium. (total-health-care.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine helps protect individuals from pneumococcal meningitis by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against the bacterium. (total-health-care.com)
  • Another 65 young children develop pneumococcal meningitis. (hnhu.org)
  • The inner ear has connections with the brain, through which the infection may spread, causing (Pneumococcal) meningitis. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • Ask your health care provider.Call your local or state health department.Contact the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): Call 1-800-232-4636 ( 1-800-CDC-INFO ) or visit CDC's website at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines . (medlineplus.gov)
  • 33:273-6, 281) and include new information regarding 1) vaccine efficacy, 2) use in persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and in other groups at increased risk of pneumococcal disease, and 3) guidelines for revaccination. (cdc.gov)
  • The best estimates of the incidence of serious pneumococcal disease in the United States are based on surveys and community-based studies of pneumococcal bacteremia. (cdc.gov)
  • The 23 capsular types in the vaccine cause 88% of the bacteremic pneumococcal disease in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • The recommended three or four doses are between 71 and 93% effective at preventing severe pneumococcal disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • Under the terms of an AMC, donors make a legally binding guarantee that, if a future vaccine is developed against a particular disease, they will purchase a predetermined amount at an agreed-upon price. (wikipedia.org)
  • The COVID-19 pandemic has raised the profile of vaccines as one of the best tools we have to fight the threat of disease. (unicef.org)
  • [2] Evidence was not available for the critical outcome of hospitalizations due to pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • These vaccines are very effective at preventing severe disease, hospitalization, and even death. (kidshealth.org)
  • The pneumococcal vaccines contain only a small piece of the germ and so cannot cause pneumococcal disease. (kidshealth.org)
  • Certain persons with pneumococcal colonization might develop invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) ( 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Ahead of the first fall and winter virus seasons in which vaccines are available for COVID-19, influenza, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is recommending Pfizer's maternal vaccine to protect newborns from severe RSV illness. (contemporarypediatrics.com)
  • Vaccines are directed against many of the serotypes that cause disease. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Certain medical conditions (eg, chronic disorders, immunocompromising conditions, cerebrospinal fluid leaks, cochlear implants) increase the risk of pneumococcal disease. (merckmanuals.com)
  • These submissions for V114 help bring us closer to offering more options to help protect against pneumococcal disease. (merck.com)
  • Individuals at higher risk of developing pneumococcal bacteremia include those with underlying health conditions, such as diabetes or chronic liver disease. (total-health-care.com)
  • Late last year, in response to concerns raised by child health experts, Pharmac amended the national childhood immunisation schedule to include a 13-valent pneumococcal vaccine (PVC-13) in response to rising case numbers of Invasive Pneumococcal Disease ( IPD ). (otago.ac.nz)
  • Pneumococcal disease is currently the world's number one vaccine-preventable cause of death among infants and children younger than five years of age. (otago.ac.nz)
  • If approved, 20vPnC will cover more serotypes responsible for the majority of pneumococcal disease than any other pneumococcal conjugate vaccine currently licensed or currently in late-stage clinical development. (pfizer.com)
  • There is already a dramatic decline in the rate of invasive pneumococcal disease in those under the age of 5. (bcmj.org)
  • On the basis of this evidence, BC's Communicable Disease Policy Committee has advised that BC follow Quebec, Australia, and the United Kingdom and provide a three-dose schedule of conjugated pneumococcal vaccine beginning January 2007. (bcmj.org)
  • Efficacy of the vaccine was 97.4% for invasive disease caused by a vaccine serotype, for fully vaccinated (four doses) children. (bcmj.org)
  • Vaccine shortages offered an opportunity for the Centers for Disease Control to conduct a case control study comparing the effectiveness of a three-dose series with a four-dose series. (bcmj.org)
  • Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) is reportable by physicians and laboratories in BC. (bcmj.org)
  • There will be ongoing efforts to ensure that we are as efficient as possible in providing protection from vaccine-preventable disease. (bcmj.org)
  • Each year in Canada, about 15 children under age five die from serious pneumococcal disease. (hnhu.org)
  • For more information, visit the latest articles about pneumococcal disease . (gavi.org)
  • By the end of 2019, Gavi support had helped countries immunise more than 215 million children across 60 lower-income countries against pneumococcal disease. (gavi.org)
  • Vaccines are directed against many of the types most likely to cause serious disease. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPV23): this contains containing 23 serotypes of the pneumococcus, which account for 88% of pneumococcal bacteremia disease and cross-react with other types that causes additional 8% of disease. (who.int)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine lowers the risk of being infected with pneumococcal disease, a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • The vaccines induce production of antibodies by the immune system, thereby protecting against disease should there be subsequent infection with Pneumococcus. (medicalchannelasia.com)
  • Design, patients and setting: Ecological analysis of trends in invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) notification rates and vaccine effectiveness estimation using the screening method, using data on Australians aged ≥65 years (23vPPV funded) and 50-64 years (23vPPV not funded). (edu.au)
  • VAX-24 is the biotech's lead, broad-spectrum, 24-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) candidate, being evaluated to prevent invasive pneumococcal disease. (streetwisereports.com)
  • This report describes case notification data for measles, pertussis, rubella, Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive infection, invasive meningococcal disease (IMD), mumps, tetanus and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) in NSW, Australia, in 2012 and provides comparison with recent trends. (who.int)
  • 1 On receipt of a case notification, a public health unit surveillance officer determines whether or not the case notification meets the definition of a case of vaccine-preventable disease according to national criteria 2 and if so enters data gathered on each case into the NSW Notifiable Conditions Information Management System (NCIMS). (who.int)
  • The annual rate of new vaccine introductions declined precipitously when the COVID-19 pandemic started, from 48 in 2019 to 15 in 2020 before rising to 26 in 2021. (medscape.com)
  • By ensuring that infants receive the recommended doses of the pneumococcal vaccine, parents can significantly reduce the risk of their child developing this life-threatening infection. (total-health-care.com)
  • Fisher said the three infants also received two unrelated other vaccines as part of routine immunizations. (infiniteunknown.net)
  • The immune response to conjugate vaccine is proving sufficiently robust-post-marketing studies now provide evidence that three doses will prove as immunogenic as four in healthy infants. (bcmj.org)
  • Objective: To evaluate the impact and effectiveness of the 23-valent polysaccharide pneumococcal vaccine (23vPPV) in ≥65-year-old Australians in the context of concurrent 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (7vPCV) use in infants. (edu.au)
  • Greater reductions in IPD in ≥65-year-olds would be expected from the indirect effects of using 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in infants (introduced for Australian infants in 2011) and an increase in 23vPPV coverage. (edu.au)
  • The overall rate for pneumococcal bacteremia in some Native American populations can be six times the rate of the general population (5). (cdc.gov)
  • In a recent population-based study, all persons 55-64 years old with pneumococcal bacteremia had at least one of these chronic conditions (4). (cdc.gov)
  • By getting vaccinated, individuals can lower their chances of developing pneumococcal bacteremia and the associated complications. (total-health-care.com)
  • Pneumococcal bacteremia occurs when the pneumococcus bacterium enters the bloodstream and spreads throughout the body. (total-health-care.com)
  • For the full text of the recommendations, see Pneumococcal ACIP Vaccine Recommendations . (cdc.gov)
  • The conjugate vaccine PCV15 protects against 15 types of pneumococci. (msdmanuals.com)
  • In addition to the very young and persons greater than or equal to 65 years old, patients with certain chronic conditions are at increased risk of developing pneumococcal infection and severe pneumococcal illness. (cdc.gov)
  • These include not only monovalent, mRNA-based shots for COVID-19, but also a flu shot and a pneumococcal vaccine shot to protect against a bacterial infection in seniors 65 years and older. (yahoo.com)
  • Bogoch explained vaccines can reduce the risk or severity of infection, especially for older Canadians who are at greater risk for severe influenza, COVID and RSV infection. (yahoo.com)
  • How can you tell if you have pneumococcal infection? (hnhu.org)
  • Another pneumococcal infection is sepsis, which can lead to amputation or death. (gavi.org)
  • Pneumococcal otitis media, a middle ear infection, can result in permanent deafness. (gavi.org)
  • However, two types of vaccines are available to help prevent infection with the most common strains. (who.int)
  • Like influenza vaccine, both doses of pneumococcal vaccine for people 65 years and older are covered at 100 percent under Medicare Part B. There is no out-of-pocket expense for people on Medicare. (immunize.org)
  • Effect of belimumab on vaccine antigen antibodies to influenza, pneumococcal, and tetanus vaccines in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in the BLISS-76 trial. (bvsalud.org)
  • This substudy from the phase III, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled BLISS-76 trial evaluated the effects of belimumab on preexisting antibody levels against pneumococcal, tetanus , and influenza antigens in patients with SLE. (bvsalud.org)
  • This analysis included a subset of patients who had received pneumococcal or tetanus vaccine within 5 years or influenza vaccine within 1 year of study participation. (bvsalud.org)
  • Consistent with preservation of the memory B cell compartment with belimumab treatment , the proportions of patients maintaining antibody responses to pneumococcal, tetanus , and influenza antigens were not reduced. (bvsalud.org)
  • Treatment with belimumab did not affect the ability of patients with SLE to maintain antibody titers to previous pneumococcal, tetanus , and influenza immunizations . (bvsalud.org)
  • This reflects a decade of progress and hard work by countries and Vaccine Alliance partners to support the introduction of pneumococcal vaccine into routine immunisation programmes and to scale up coverage. (gavi.org)
  • Pneumococcus can colonize the upper respiratory tract, most commonly in young children, and is transmitted to others through contact with respiratory droplets from a person with pneumococcal colonization in the upper respiratory tract ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • As with any medicine, there is a very remote chance of a vaccine causing a severe allergic reaction, other serious injury, or death. (medlineplus.gov)
  • There are 2 types of pneumococcal vaccines: conjugate and polysaccharide. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Two types of pneumococcal vaccines are available: conjugate and polysaccharide. (msdmanuals.com)
  • It is estimated that the pneumococcal AMC could prevent more than 1.5 million childhood deaths by 2020. (wikipedia.org)
  • At least 100 pneumococcal serotypes were documented as of 2020 ( 5 - 7 ). (cdc.gov)
  • The new generation of whole-cell vaccines is based on an unencapsulated serotype that allows the expression of many bacterial antigens at a lower cost than a recombinant vaccine. (mdpi.com)
  • Current pneumococcal vaccines use the pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides as antigens to generate serotype-specific antibodies, which facilitate serotype-specific clearance of pneumococci through opsonophagocytosis ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
  • This report describes the status of introductions globally for eight World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended new and underutilized vaccines, comprising 10 individual vaccine antigens. (medscape.com)
  • Antibodies to vaccine antigens were tested at baseline and Week 52, and percentage changes in antibody levels from baseline and proportions of patients maintaining levels at Week 52 were assessed. (bvsalud.org)
  • The introduction of the PCV vaccine comes as COVID-19 threatens to roll back hard-earned gains across many childhood routine immunisation programmes. (unicef.org)
  • The results of the demonstration program showed that the PCV immunisation coverage during that period was above 80% on average, indicating that these vaccines were well received by the community. (unicef.org)
  • By the end of 2019, 60 Gavi-supported countries - more than 80% of those eligible to do so - had introduced pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) into their routine immunisation programmes. (gavi.org)
  • But they also found that the incidence of IPD caused by strains not included in the vaccine increased by 40 percent. (contemporarypediatrics.com)
  • Surveillance will continue along with extra efforts to ensure that all available isolates from IPD cases are serotyped so that it can be determined if there is any increase in the rate of cases caused by vaccine-preventable strains among immunized children. (bcmj.org)
  • Moreover, the mice developed protection not only against the pneumococcal strain/type from which the particles were isolated but also against other pneumococcal strains/types. (nordiclifescience.org)
  • The World Health Organization recommends that a switch in the vaccine used in any national PCV programme should be considered if the epidemiology of IPD changes significantly. (otago.ac.nz)
  • Conducted in a country without routine pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) use, allowing inclusion of an unvaccinated control group and measurement of the reduction in carriage afforded by the reduced-dose schedules. (bmj.com)
  • Vaccine introduction data for DTPCV4 was unavailable for 2016. (medscape.com)
  • Persons who have had an allergic reaction to a previous pneumococcal vaccine. (hnhu.org)
  • The guarantee is linked to safety and efficacy standards that the vaccine must meet and is structured in a way to allow several firms to compete to develop and produce the best possible new product. (wikipedia.org)
  • Studies assessing the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines in both healthy and high-risk 6 - 17-year-old children and adolescents are covered and the potential impact of PCV-13 in these populations is discussed. (uzh.ch)
  • The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of the conjugate vaccine in the routine immunizations given to children. (wikipedia.org)
  • An observational study was undertaken in a cohort of 16 older individuals with chronic lung disorders to measure immunogenicity before and after the first, second, and third immunizations with the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. (physiciansweekly.com)
  • When compared to the first and second immunizations, serotype-specific OIs did not differ following the third vaccine. (physiciansweekly.com)