Plant Tumors
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Plasmids
Rhizobium
Plants, Genetically Modified
Plant Leaves
Plant Proteins
Plant Roots
Plant Extracts
Plants, Medicinal
Plant Development
Conjugation, Genetic
Tumor Markers, Biological
A novel plasmid curing method using incompatibility of plant pathogenic Ti plasmids in Agrobacterium tumefaciens. (1/28)
Ti (Tumor inducing) plasmids in Agrobacterium tumefaciens can transfer their T-DNA region into dicotyledonous plants, in which the expression of T-DNA genes causes plant tumors and the production of bacterial nutrients, e.g., opines such as nopaline. Naturally occurring Ti plasmids (pTi) are difficult to cure by conventional curing methods because of their high stability. Here, we developed a novel curing method based on plasmid incompatibility. For this, a curing plasmid, pMGTrep1, was newly constructed and subsequently introduced into A. tumefaciens strains harboring pTi by conjugation with Escherichia coli harboring pMGTrep1. The conjugation yielded 32-99% nopaline non-utilizing agrobacterial transconjugants in which pMGTrep1 replaced pTi due to incompatibility. Then, pMGTrep1-less derivatives of the transconjugants are easily selected in the presence of sucrose because pMGTrep1 contains a sucrose-sensitive sacB gene. This efficient method is directly applicable for curing plasmids with the same incompatibility group and shoud also applicable to other types of plasmids in Agrobacterium groups, including A. rhizogenes, by replacing the rep gene region of the curing plasmid with that of the corresponding incompatibility. (+info)A new method for construction of Ti plasmid-less strains in Agrobacterium tumefaciens. (2/28)
Agrobacterium tumefaciens harboring a Ti plasmid causes plant tumorigenesis and it's DNA transfer system have been extensively used in plant biotechnology. Because Ti plasmids are high stable in agrobacterial hosts, their curing is very difficult by conventional methods. Here, we introduced a novel curing method by using Ti plasmids incompatibility. (+info)Statistical analysis of functional regions in Ti and Ri sequenced plasmids in Agrobacterium. (3/28)
The purpose of this paper is to examine functional regions of the completely sequenced DNA data of Ti and Ri plasmids, based on codon usage similarity. It is shown that a successful classification of functional regions is obtained by using statistical measures of codon usage dissimilarity and correspondence analysis. (+info)The biphenyl- and 4-chlorobiphenyl-catabolic transposon Tn4371, a member of a new family of genomic islands related to IncP and Ti plasmids. (4/28)
The nucleotide sequence of the biphenyl catabolic transposon Tn4371 has been completed and analyzed. It confirmed that the element has a mosaic structure made of several building blocks. In addition to previously identified genes coding for a tyrosine recombinase related to phage integrases and for biphenyl degradation enzymes very similar to those of Achromobacter georgiopolitanum KKS102, Tn4371 carries many plasmid-related genes involved in replication, partition, and other, as-yet-unknown, plasmid functions. One gene cluster contains most of the genes required to express a type IV secretion-mating pair formation apparatus coupled with a TraG ATPase, all of which are related to those found on IncP and Ti plasmids. Orthologues of all Tn4371 plasmid-related genes and of the tyrosine recombinase gene were found, with a very similar organization, in the chromosome of Ralstonia solanacearum and on the yet-to-be-determined genomic sequences of Erwinia chrysanthemi and Azotobacter vinelandii. In each of these chromosomal segments, conserved segments were separated by different groups of genes, which also differed from the Tn4371 bph genes. The conserved blocks of genes were also identified, in at least two copies, in the chromosome of Ralstonia metallidurans CH34. Tn4371 thus appears to represent a new family of potentially mobile genomic islands with a broad host range since they reside in a wide range of soil proteobacteria, including plant pathogens. (+info)The Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens harbors an attM-paralogous gene, aiiB, also encoding N-Acyl homoserine lactonase activity. (5/28)
The Agrobacterium tumefaciens C58 genome contains three putative N-acyl homoserine lactone (acyl-HSL) hydrolases, which are closely related to the lactonase AiiA of Bacillus. When expressed in Escherichia coli, two of the putative acyl-HSL hydrolases, AttM and AiiB, conferred the ability to degrade acyl-HSLs on the host. In Erwinia strain 6276, the lactonases reduced the endogenous acyl-HSL level and the bacterial virulence in planta. (+info)Reexamining the role of the accessory plasmid pAtC58 in the virulence of Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain C58. (6/28)
Isogenic strains of Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying pTiC58, pAtC58, or both were constructed and assayed semiquantitatively and quantitatively for virulence and vir gene expression to study the effect of the large 542-kb accessory plasmid, pAtC58, on virulence. Earlier studies indicate that the att (attachment) genes of A. tumefaciens are crucial in the ability of this soil phytopathogen to infect susceptible host plants. Mutations in many att genes, notably attR and attD, rendered the strain avirulent. These genes are located on pAtC58. Previous work also has shown that derivatives of the wild-type strain C58 cured of pAtC58 are virulent as determined by qualitative virulence assays and, hence, pAtC58 was described as nonessential for virulence. We show here that the absence of pAtC58 in pTiC58-containing strains results in reduced virulence but that disruption of the attR gene does not result in avirulence or a reduction in virulence. Our studies indicate that pAtC58 has a positive effect on vir gene induction as revealed by immunoblot analysis of Vir proteins and expression of a PvirB::lacZ fusion. (+info)Isolation, purification, and identification of the virulence protein VirE2 from Agrobacterium tumefaciens. (7/28)
Bacteria of the genus Agrobacterium can transfer a portion of their Ti plasmid (T-DNA) in complex with the VirE2 and VirD2 proteins into the plant-cell nucleus and cause it to be integrated in the host-cell chromosomes. The mechanism of T-DNA transfer across the plant-cell membrane and cytoplasm is unknown. The aim of this study was to isolate the virulence protein VirE2 in order to explore its role in T-DNA transfer across the eukaryotic-cell membrane and cytoplasm. To obtain VirE2, we cloned the virE2 gene into plasmid pQE31 in Escherichia coli cells. VirE2 protein was isolated from E. coli XL-1 blue cells containing a recombinant plasmid, pQE31-virE2. The cells were ultrasonically disrupted, and the protein containing six histidine residues at the N-terminal end was isolated by affinity chromatography on Ni-NTA agarose. The purified preparation was tested by immunodot, by using polyclonal rabbit antibodies and miniantibodies produced toward VirE2. The capacity of the recombinant protein VirE2 for interacting with single-stranded DNA was tested by the formation of complexes, recorded by agarose-gel electrophoresis. In summary, A. tumefaciens virulence protein VirE2, capable of forming a complex with single-stranded T-DNA during transfer into the plant cell, was isolated, purified, and partially characterized. Anti-VirE2 miniantibodies were obtained, and direct labeling of VirE2 with colloidal gold was done for the first time. (+info)Tumour genes in plants: T-DNA encoded cytokinin biosynthesis. (8/28)
Gene 4 from the T-region of Ti plasmids is responsible for cytokinin effects in crown gall cells; we investigated whether it codes for an enzyme of hormone biosynthesis. In a first set of experiments, gene 4 from octopine plasmid pTiAch5 and nopaline plasmid pTiC58 was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the gene products were identified by reaction with antiserum raised against a decapeptide derived from the DNA sequence of the gene. Extracts from cells expressing the gene contained high isopentenyl-transferase activity catalyzing the formation of N6-(delta2-isopentenyl)adenosine from 5'-AMP and delta2-isopentenylpyrophosphate. The cytokinin was identified by sequential h.p.l.c. chromatography and mass spectrometry. In a second set of experiments it was shown that crown gall cells contained isopentenyltransferase activity and a protein of mol. wt. 27 000 which was identified as the product of gene 4 by reaction with the antiserum. Isopentenyltransferase activity was specifically inhibited by the antiserum. No comparable enzyme activity or immunoreactive protein was detected in cytokinin-autotrophic, T-DNA free tobacco cells. The results establish that gene 4 from the T-region of octopine and nopaline Ti plasmids codes for an enzyme of cytokinin biosynthesis. (+info)A plant tumor, also known as a gall or neoplasm, is an abnormal growth that occurs in plants. These growths can be caused by various factors such as genetic mutations, bacterial or viral infections, and physical injuries. However, the most well-known cause of plant tumors are crown galls, which are induced by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
When this bacterium infects a plant through a wound, it transfers a portion of its DNA (T-DNA) into the plant's cells. The T-DNA contains genes that encode enzymes responsible for the production of auxins and cytokinins, two types of plant hormones that promote cell division and growth. As a result, the infected plant cells start to divide uncontrollably, leading to the formation of a tumor-like growth.
Plant tumors can vary in size and appearance, ranging from small bumps to large, disfigured growths. While they are not typically harmful to the plant, they can reduce its aesthetic value and economic productivity. In some cases, plant tumors may also provide a habitat for pests and diseases, which can further harm the plant.
'Agrobacterium tumefaciens' is a gram-negative, soil-dwelling bacterium that is known for its ability to cause plant tumors or crown galls. It does this through the transfer and integration of a segment of DNA called the Ti (Tumor-inducing) plasmid into the plant's genome. This transferred DNA includes genes that encode enzymes for the production of opines, which serve as a nutrient source for the bacterium, and genes that cause unregulated plant cell growth leading to tumor formation.
This unique ability of 'Agrobacterium tumefaciens' to transfer and integrate foreign DNA into plants has been exploited in genetic engineering to create transgenic plants with desired traits. The Ti plasmid is often used as a vector to introduce new genes into the plant genome, making it an essential tool in plant biotechnology.
A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.
Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.
Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.
Rhizobium is not a medical term, but rather a term used in microbiology and agriculture. It refers to a genus of gram-negative bacteria that can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia, which can then be used by plants as a nutrient. These bacteria live in the root nodules of leguminous plants (such as beans, peas, and clover) and form a symbiotic relationship with them.
The host plant provides Rhizobium with carbon sources and a protected environment within the root nodule, while the bacteria provide the plant with fixed nitrogen. This mutualistic interaction plays a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility and promoting plant growth.
While Rhizobium itself is not directly related to human health or medicine, understanding its symbiotic relationship with plants can have implications for agricultural practices, sustainable farming, and global food security.
Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are plants that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering techniques to exhibit desired traits. These modifications can be made to enhance certain characteristics such as increased resistance to pests, improved tolerance to environmental stresses like drought or salinity, or enhanced nutritional content. The process often involves introducing genes from other organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, into the plant's genome. Examples of GMPs include Bt cotton, which has a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes it resistant to certain pests, and golden rice, which is engineered to contain higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. It's important to note that genetically modified plants are subject to rigorous testing and regulation to ensure their safety for human consumption and environmental impact before they are approved for commercial use.
I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.
Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.
"Plant proteins" refer to the proteins that are derived from plant sources. These can include proteins from legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas, as well as proteins from grains like wheat, rice, and corn. Other sources of plant proteins include nuts, seeds, and vegetables.
Plant proteins are made up of individual amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. While animal-based proteins typically contain all of the essential amino acids that the body needs to function properly, many plant-based proteins may be lacking in one or more of these essential amino acids. However, by consuming a variety of plant-based foods throughout the day, it is possible to get all of the essential amino acids that the body needs from plant sources alone.
Plant proteins are often lower in calories and saturated fat than animal proteins, making them a popular choice for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as well as those looking to maintain a healthy weight or reduce their risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Additionally, plant proteins have been shown to have a number of health benefits, including improving gut health, reducing inflammation, and supporting muscle growth and repair.
A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.
Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:
1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.
Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.
A gene in plants, like in other organisms, is a hereditary unit that carries genetic information from one generation to the next. It is a segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism. Genes in plants determine various traits such as flower color, plant height, resistance to diseases, and many others. They are responsible for encoding proteins and RNA molecules that play crucial roles in the growth, development, and reproduction of plants. Plant genes can be manipulated through traditional breeding methods or genetic engineering techniques to improve crop yield, enhance disease resistance, and increase nutritional value.
A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.
A medical definition for "plant shoots" may not be readily available, as the term is primarily used in botany and horticulture. However, I can provide you with a general definition:
Plant shoots refer to the above-ground portion of a plant, which typically includes structures like stems, leaves, flowers, and buds. Shoots originate from the seed or the growing tip of the plant and are responsible for photosynthesis, nutrient absorption, and reproduction. In some contexts, "plant shoots" might also refer to new growth that emerges from an existing plant, such as when a leaf or stem sprouts a new branch or flower.
Medicinal plants are defined as those plants that contain naturally occurring chemical compounds which can be used for therapeutic purposes, either directly or indirectly. These plants have been used for centuries in various traditional systems of medicine, such as Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine, to prevent or treat various health conditions.
Medicinal plants contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenes, and saponins, among others. These compounds have been found to possess various pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.
Medicinal plants can be used in various forms, including whole plant material, extracts, essential oils, and isolated compounds. They can be administered through different routes, such as oral, topical, or respiratory, depending on the desired therapeutic effect.
It is important to note that while medicinal plants have been used safely and effectively for centuries, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some medicinal plants can interact with prescription medications or have adverse effects if used inappropriately.
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.
The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.
The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.
Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.
'Plant development' is not a term typically used in medical definitions, as it is more commonly used in the field of botany to describe the growth and differentiation of plant cells, tissues, and organs over time. However, in a broader context, plant development can be defined as the series of changes and processes that occur from the fertilization of a plant seed to the formation of a mature plant, including germination, emergence, organ formation, growth, and reproduction.
In medicine, terms related to plant development may include "phytotherapy" or "herbal medicine," which refer to the use of plants or plant extracts as medicinal treatments for various health conditions. The study of how these plants develop and produce their active compounds is an important area of research in pharmacology and natural products chemistry.
'Toxic plants' refer to those species of plants that contain toxic substances capable of causing harmful effects or adverse health reactions in humans and animals when ingested, touched, or inhaled. These toxins can cause a range of symptoms from mild irritation to serious conditions such as organ failure, paralysis, or even death depending on the plant, the amount consumed, and the individual's sensitivity to the toxin.
Toxic plants may contain various types of toxins, including alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, resinous substances, and essential oils. Some common examples of toxic plants include poison ivy, poison oak, nightshade, hemlock, oleander, castor bean, and foxglove. It is important to note that some parts of a plant may be toxic while others are not, and the toxicity can also vary depending on the stage of growth or environmental conditions.
If you suspect exposure to a toxic plant, it is essential to seek medical attention immediately and, if possible, bring a sample of the plant for identification.
Genetic conjugation is a type of genetic transfer that occurs between bacterial cells. It involves the process of one bacterium (the donor) transferring a piece of its DNA to another bacterium (the recipient) through direct contact or via a bridge-like connection called a pilus. This transferred DNA may contain genes that provide the recipient cell with new traits, such as antibiotic resistance or virulence factors, which can make the bacteria more harmful or difficult to treat. Genetic conjugation is an important mechanism for the spread of antibiotic resistance and other traits among bacterial populations.
Tumor markers are substances that can be found in the body and their presence can indicate the presence of certain types of cancer or other conditions. Biological tumor markers refer to those substances that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to cancer or certain benign (non-cancerous) conditions. These markers can be found in various bodily fluids such as blood, urine, or tissue samples.
Examples of biological tumor markers include:
1. Proteins: Some tumor markers are proteins that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to the presence of cancer. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a protein produced by normal prostate cells and in higher amounts by prostate cancer cells.
2. Genetic material: Tumor markers can also include genetic material such as DNA, RNA, or microRNA that are shed by cancer cells into bodily fluids. For example, circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) is genetic material from cancer cells that can be found in the bloodstream.
3. Metabolites: Tumor markers can also include metabolic products produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to cancer. For example, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme that is released into the bloodstream when cancer cells break down glucose for energy.
It's important to note that tumor markers are not specific to cancer and can be elevated in non-cancerous conditions as well. Therefore, they should not be used alone to diagnose cancer but rather as a tool in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluations.
Edible vaccine
Transfer DNA
Agrobacterium
Transient expression
Genetically modified crops
Bacterial conjugation
Autoinducer
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
History of genetic engineering
Transformation (genetics)
Bacterial secretion system
Marc Van Montagu
Genetic engineering techniques
Ti plasmid
Opine
Helixmith
Allorhizobium vitis
Gene silencing
Michael W. Bevan
List of experiments
Transcription activator-like effector nuclease
Extrachromosomal circular DNA
Lactococcus lactis
Patricia Zambryski
Glossary of virology
Transposon mutagenesis
Antisense RNA
Genetically modified bacteria
Electroporation
RNA interference
Agrobacterium12
- Agrobacterium mediated transformation is the most widely used means of integrating DNA fragments of interested into the genome of plant cells. (igem.org)
- Pathogenic Agrobacterium carry a large plasmid, referred to as the Tumor Inducing or Ti plasmid, which is required for disease transmission. (igem.org)
- This system, referred to as the binary transformation system, was composed of an Agrobacterium strain containing a Ti plasmid in which the T-DNA was deleted and a second plasmid, which carries the LB and RB sequences flanking two plant gene expression cassettes. (igem.org)
- Conjugative transfer of the Ti plasmids of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is controlled by a quorum-sensing system composed of TraR and its signal N-(3-oxo-octanoyl)-L-homoserine lactone. (illinois.edu)
- The Agrobacterium transfers DNA to plants through part of a large tumour inducing (Ti-)plasmid. (biobasedpress.eu)
- The most common cause is the Ti plasmid (tumor-inducing plasmid), which is carried by soil bacteria of the Agrobacterium group. (istudy.pk)
- Specifically, the Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is an important tool for plant genetic engineering. (istudy.pk)
- In nature, Agrobacterium is attracted to plants that have minor wounds by phenolic compounds such as acetosyringone, which are released at the wound. (istudy.pk)
- Agrobacterium carrying a Ti plasmid is attracted by acetosyringone to a wounded plant stem. (istudy.pk)
- Over the last 30 years the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been the workhorse tool for plant genome engineering. (refine.bio)
- With the emergence of genome editing technologies that rely on Agrobacterium for gene delivery, this study provides new insights into the structural impact of engineering plant genomes and demonstrates the utility of state-of-the-art long-range sequencing technologies to rapidly identify unanticipated genomic changes. (refine.bio)
- Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a plant pathogenic bacterium which incites tumours on higher plants by transferring a particular portion (the T-DNA) of its large, so-called tumour-inducing (Ti) plasmid into the plant genome. (u-szeged.hu)
Bacteria15
- I have been drawing our regulators' attention to it at least since 1996 [1], when there was already sufficient evidence to suggest that transgenic DNA in GM crops and products can spread by being taken up directly by viruses and bacteria as well as plant and animals cells. (i-sis.org.uk)
- Therefore, by integrating the T-DNA into the host, the bacteria forces the plant host to create both a habitat and a carbon/nitrogen source on which the bacteria could survive. (igem.org)
- This system is, in turn, controlled by the conjugative opines produced by crown gall tumors induced on plants by the bacteria. (illinois.edu)
- This recombinant DNA plasmid was then inserted into bacteria. (pressbooks.pub)
- This recombinant plasmid can then be used to transform bacteria, which gain the ability to produce the insulin protein. (pressbooks.pub)
- This explains why these 'plant tumors' continue to grow even when the bacteria are eliminated. (waynesword.net)
- The most important aspect of the infection is that a specific segment of the Ti plasmid DNA is transferred from the bacteria to the plant. (istudy.pk)
- These chemicals induce the bacteria to move and attach to the plant via a variety of cell surface receptors. (istudy.pk)
- Plasmids are small circular DNA fragments that are found in many microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotes. (stemcelldaily.com)
- The term plasmid was coined by Joshua Lederberg in 1952, who discovered that some bacteria can exchange genetic material through a process called conjugation. (stemcelldaily.com)
- For example, plasmids can be used to produce recombinant proteins, such as insulin or human growth hormone, in bacteria or yeast cells. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Exceptions are the linear plasmids in bacteria Streptomyces spp and Borrelia spp. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Opines are catabolised and utilised as a sole carbon, nitrogen and energy source by the tumour-inducing bacteria. (u-szeged.hu)
- Plant Pathogenic Bacteria includes symposia and research papers presented at the 10th International Conference on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria. (agriculture-xprt.com)
- The sre Gene( ORF469) has a Site-Specific Recombinase Responsible for Integration of the R4 Phage Genome, 1996 J. Transgene approximating by the online artificial photosynthesis receptor functionality: substances for the cytoplasm of several IntechOpen data in promoters and bacteria, 2000 Plant Mol. (scoutconnection.com)
Bacterial9
- In this example, the human insulin gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid. (pressbooks.pub)
- For example, bacterial genes for insecticidal proteins have been transferred into tomato plants, resulting in transgenic plants that are resistant to ravenous lepidopteran larvae. (waynesword.net)
- VirD2 then attaches to the 5¢ end of the T-DNA, and bacterial helicases unwind the T-DNA from the plasmid. (istudy.pk)
- T-DNA is transferred to the plant in a process similar to bacterial conjugation. (istudy.pk)
- Copy number - the copy number refers to the number of copies of plasmid present in the bacterial cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Compatibility of plasmids - this refers to the ability of two different plasmids to coexist in the same bacterial cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Moreover, the integrated bacterial genes direct the synthesis of specific molecules, collectively called opines, in the tumour cells. (u-szeged.hu)
- Xanthomonas is a bacterial plant pathogen which infects a wide range of crops worldwide. (agriculture-xprt.com)
- Drug moieties used in antibody drug conjugates include bacterial protein toxins such as diphtheria toxin, plant protein toxins such as ricin, small molecules such as auristatins, geldanamycin (Mandler et al (2000) J. of the Nat. (justia.com)
Tissues7
- Called galls or hypertrophies, these tumorous (neoplasmic) outgrowths develop from rapid mitosis and morphogenesis of plant tissues and come in an astounding array of colors, shapes and sizes. (waynesword.net)
- The technique to grow isolated plant cells and tissues in test tubes and on Petri dishes, just like microorganisms, has been developed in the twentieth century. (biobasedpress.eu)
- This recipe has been successfully used for growing in vitro plant cells and tissues of many species. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Early '70s recombinant-DNA technology of microorganisms gains speed, but by that time plant biologists have developed cell and tissue culture far enough in order to be able to genetically modify the in vitro cells and tissues. (biobasedpress.eu)
- There are four basic types of plant tissues: meristematic tissue, ground or fundamental tissue, dermal or epidermis tissue, and vascular tissue. (definitions.net)
- Proteomic analyses revealed an increased expression of αB-crystallin in IDCA tumors compared to adjacent nontumor tissues. (cnrs.fr)
- Finally, western blotting and immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate the expression level of Nek2 in paired HCC and non-tumor tissues. (biomedcentral.com)
Nopaline3
- We have determined which sequences at the right border of the T-DNA region of the nopaline C58 Ti plasmid are required for transfer and/or integration of the T-DNA into the plant cell genome. (ttu.edu)
- In this dissertation I describe molecular studies performed on the regulation of nopaline catabolism in A. tumefaciens and present a novel type of mechanism by which gene expression is regulated in the Ti plasmid pTiT37. (u-szeged.hu)
- Sequence and functional analysis of the left-hand part of the Ŧ-region from the nopaline-type Ti plasmid, pTiC58. (cnrs.fr)
Virulence genes2
- The Ti plasmid contains virulence genes (vir), which code for the protein machinery required for transfer and integration of disease causing genes into the host plants genome. (igem.org)
- The same inducers activate expression of the virulence genes on the Ti plasmid that are responsible for DNA transfer to the plant. (istudy.pk)
Transgenic Plants2
- In these aspects, the ORF VI transgenic plants resembled late flowering mutants. (psu.edu)
- All these phenotypes correlated with expression of ORF VI in three lines of transgenic plants which were produced independently, with different Ti-plasmid derived vectors and with different selective markers. (psu.edu)
Proteins7
- An edible vaccine is a food, typically plants, that produce vitamins, proteins or other nourishment that act as a vaccine against a certain disease. (wikipedia.org)
- Many plants are not eaten raw and the cooking could weaken or destroy the proteins in the vaccine. (wikipedia.org)
- A variety of techniques have been used to examine plant viral genomes, the functions of virus-encoded proteins, plant responses induced by virus infection and plant-virus interactions. (springer.com)
- This overview considers these technologies and how they have been used to identify novel viral and plant proteins or genes involved in disease and resistance responses, as well as defense signaling. (springer.com)
- These approaches include analysis of spatial and temporal responses by plants to infection, and techniques that allow the expression of viral genes transiently or transgenically in planta, the expression of plant and foreign genes from virus vectors, the silencing of plants genes, imaging of live, infected cells, and the detection of interactions between viral proteins and plant gene products, both in planta and in various in vitro or in vivo systems. (springer.com)
- The Ti plasmid is cut by endonucleases to release single-stranded T-DNA, which is covered with protective proteins, and transported into the plant cell through a conjugation-like mechanism. (istudy.pk)
- Further, a xenograft tumor model showed that Nek2 knockdown could improve the anti-tumor effect of sorafenib, whereas an analysis of tumor proteins showed that Nek2 regulates β-catenin protein levels and its nuclear translocation in vivo. (biomedcentral.com)
Bacterium4
- This soil bacterium is the causative agent responsible for crown gall disease in a wide range of plant species. (igem.org)
- Crown galls are especially interesting because the plasmids of this bacterium (small, circular DNA molecules) contain genetic information that may become incorporated into the nuclear DNA of the infected host cells. (waynesword.net)
- It is then established that the crown-gall disease, a plant tumour, is caused by this bacterium. (biobasedpress.eu)
- By mid-century, researchers discovered that those plant tumour cells retain their tumour properties in absence of the bacterium. (biobasedpress.eu)
Gall1
- These phytohormones cause uncontrolled cell proliferation which resulting in the formation of a gall or tumor. (igem.org)
Chromosomal5
- The T-DNA enters the plant nucleus where it integrates into plant chromosomal DNA. (istudy.pk)
- Plasmids are also known as extra-chromosomal elements or genetic tools. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Plasmids are also known as sex factors , conjugants , extra chromosomal replicons , or transfer factors . (stemcelldaily.com)
- Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules that are distinct from the chromosomal DNA of the host cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
- H13-3 possesses a linear chromosome (2.15Mb) that is related to its reference replicon and features chromosomal and plasmid-like properties. (uni-bielefeld.de)
Cells26
- The transgenic constructs used in genetic modification are basically the same whether it is of human cells or of other animals and plants. (i-sis.org.uk)
- An aggressive promoter from a virus is often used to boost the expression of the transgene, in animal and human cells, from the cytomegalovirus that infects mammalian cells, and in plants, the 35S promoter from the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) that infects Cruciferae plants. (i-sis.org.uk)
- Unfortunately, although the CaMV virus is specific for plants, its 35S promoter is active in species across the living world, human cells included, as we discovered in the scientific literature dating back to 1989. (i-sis.org.uk)
- Decreases in TraR activity and conjugative competence could be accounted for by dilution associated with cell division, suggesting that while induction of Ti plasmid conjugation is an active process, the cells lack a mechanism for disassembling the conjugative apparatus when signals become limiting. (illinois.edu)
- The Ti plasmid DNA contains genes which cause the host cells to divide uncontrollably. (waynesword.net)
- Unfortunately, we never succeeded in seducing the plant cells to produce the same compounds as the whole plant. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Although we published dozens of papers, the plant cells have never done what we wanted them to do. (biobasedpress.eu)
- In addition to that, techniques have been developed to select the intended genetically modified cells and regenerate an entire genetically modified plant from them. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Plant biologists tackle this problem by producing many genetically modified cells and then selecting those that produce the desired expression and phenotype in a whole plant after regeneration. (biobasedpress.eu)
- That part, the T(ransfer)-DNA, contains the genes responsible for growth of the tumour if they come to expression in the plant cells. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Plant tissue is a collection of similar cells performing an essential function in the plant. (definitions.net)
- Each type of tissue consists of different types of cells, has different functions, and is located in different areas of the plant. (definitions.net)
- Scientists have exploited this genetic transfer in order to get genes with desired properties into plant cells. (istudy.pk)
- b) The biolistic gun has been developed to introduce rDNA into mainly plant cells by using a gene / particle gun. (mcqexams.com)
- These names reflect their ability to transfer from one cell to another through a process called conjugation, which involves the formation of a pilus (a thin tube-like structure) between two cells and the transfer of a copy of the plasmid. (stemcelldaily.com)
- This is a gene that confers resistance to a certain antibiotic or toxin, which helps in identifying and selecting the cells that contain the plasmid. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Both biopharmaceuticals are regarded as vaccines because they elicit an immune response, either against a pathogenic microorganism or against the host's own tumour cells. (intechopen.com)
- Transformation Efficiency (TE) is defined as the number of colony forming units (cfu) produced by transforming 1 µg of plasmid into a given volume of competent cells. (goldbio.com)
- Transform 1 µl of (10 pg/µl) control plasmid into 25 µl of cells, add 975 µl of Recovery Medium. (goldbio.com)
- T-cell exhaustion, immune checkpoint upregulation, and enhance of regulatory T cells contribute to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. (ncbcs.org)
- Transmembrane or otherwise tumor-associated polypeptides specifically expressed on the surface of cancer cells as compared to normal, non-cancerous cell(s) have been identified as cellular targets for cancer diagnosis and therapy with antibodies. (justia.com)
- Identification of such tumor-associated cell surface antigen polypeptides, i.e. tumor associated antigens (TAA), allows specific targeting of cancer cells for destruction via antibody-based therapies. (justia.com)
- The use of antibody-drug conjugates (ADC), i.e. immunoconjugates, for the local delivery of cytotoxic or cytostatic agents, i.e. drugs to kill or inhibit tumor cells in the treatment of cancer (Lambert, J. (2005) Curr. (justia.com)
- No. 4,975,278) allows targeted delivery of the drug moiety to tumors, and intracellular accumulation therein, where systemic administration of these unconjugated drug agents may result in unacceptable levels of toxicity to normal cells as well as the tumor cells sought to be eliminated (Baldwin et al (1986) Lancet pp. (justia.com)
- Scanning electron micrograph of two HeLa cells, an immortal human cell line derived from a cancerous tumour of the cervix. (issuu.com)
- For example, in multiple myeloma, the inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling suppresses tumor growth and sensitizes cells to anti-tumor drugs [ 14 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
Vectors2
- The benefit of using plants is that plants are efficient vectors for vaccine production. (wikipedia.org)
- In the 1980's scientist took advantage of ''A. tumefacien's'' ability to insert foreign DNA into plant chromosomes to develop highly efficient vectors for plant transformation and genetic engineering. (igem.org)
Antibiotic resistance2
- Plasmids often carry genes that confer some advantage to the host cell, such as antibiotic resistance, virulence factors, or metabolic capabilities. (stemcelldaily.com)
- They isolated an antibiotic resistance gene (piece of DNA) from a plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium. (dkgoelsolutions.com)
Opines1
- The catabolism of opines is directed by genes located on the Ti plasmids, but these genes are not part of the T-DNA which is transferred into the plant genome. (u-szeged.hu)
Resistance4
- Our EHA105 strain contains a rifampicin resistance gene (rif) and an amber basic Ti plasmid pEHA105 (pTiBo542DT-DNA) without self-transport function, containing the vir gene. (goldbio.com)
- Further, western blotting, flow cytometry, and an in vivo xenograft model were used to evaluate the function of Nek2 in HCC sorafenib resistance, whereas rescue experiments were performed to confirm that Nek2 induces sorafenib resistance via β-catenin. (biomedcentral.com)
- We further confirmed that Nek2 could induce sorafenib resistance in HCC cell lines, and that β-catenin was the key element involved in this process. (biomedcentral.com)
- Our study proves that Nek2 induces HCC sorafenib resistance via β-catenin and suggests a novel therapeutic strategy to improve the anti-tumor effects of sorafenib in HCC. (biomedcentral.com)
Malignant2
- Phyllodes tumour usually affects unilateral breast and is much more common in adults (quite unusual in prepubertal age or adolescence).2 However, excision biopsy was performed to rule out malignant phyllodes tumour. (columbiagypsy.net)
- Normal oral keratinocytes are transformed into precancerous lesions through various signaling pathways, which further deteriorate into malignant tumors. (biomedcentral.com)
Viruses5
- However, edible vaccines eliminate this issue because plant viruses cannot impact humans. (wikipedia.org)
- It is designed to cross species barriers and to jump into genomes, and it has homologies to the DNA of many species and their genetic parasites (plasmids, transposons and viruses), thereby enhancing recombination with all of them [2]. (i-sis.org.uk)
- 2. Zaitlin, M. and Palukaitis, P. (2000) Advances in understanding plant viruses and virus disease. (springer.com)
- 3. Davies, J.W. and Hull, R. (1982) Genome expression of plant positive-strand RNA viruses. (springer.com)
- Species of the genus LENTIVIRUS, subgenus primate immunodeficiency viruses (IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUSES, PRIMATE), that induces acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in monkeys and apes (SAIDS). (lookformedical.com)
Genome5
- Any DNA sequences situated between the LB and RB will be inserted into the plant host genome. (igem.org)
- Once integrated into the host genome, these genes, referred to as the oncogenes, hijack the host plant to produce the protein machinery needed for the production of phytohormones. (igem.org)
- By swapping the oncogenes from the T-DNA region of the Ti plasmid with any plant gene expression cassette (containing a plant promoter, a gene of interest and a transcriptional terminator sequence), they were able to integrate their particular gene of interest into the host genome without causing the disease. (igem.org)
- In the '70s and '80s researchers develop an increasing number of ever more effective techniques to introduce new properties into the plant genome. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Replacement of native tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid elements with customizable cassettes enabled insertion of a sequence of interest as "Transfer DNA" (T-DNA) into the plant genome of interest. (refine.bio)
Disease4
- Investigations on various aspects of plant - pathogen interactions have the ultimate aim of providing information that may be useful for the development of effective crop disease management systems. (agriculture-xprt.com)
- Studies on the phenomenon of plant pathogenesis (disease development) have been useful to have a deep insight into the interactions between host plant and the pathogen . (agriculture-xprt.com)
- Disease is commonly induced by injecting filtrates of propagable tumors into newborn mice. (lookformedical.com)
- Statistical analyses revealed, however, no significant correlations between αB-crystallin expression and clinicopathological parameters of the disease (tumor stage, patient age, hormone receptors, SBR grade, and lymph node metastases). (cnrs.fr)
Expression6
- Expression of open reading frame (ORF) VI of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana caused a typical syndrome characterised by leaf chlorosis, vein clearing, plant stunting and reduced fertility. (psu.edu)
- Plasmids can also be used to study gene expression and regulation, gene function and interaction, and gene therapy. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Some plasmids are compatible with each other and can be maintained together in a stable state, while others are incompatible and compete for resources or interfere with each other`s replication or expression. (stemcelldaily.com)
- After integration of the T-DNA into the plant chromosomes, expression of genes of the integrated DNA results in unbalanced production of plant hormones, which leads to uncontrolled cell division and consequently to tumour formation. (u-szeged.hu)
- Using a two-dimensional electrophoresis matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry investigation coupled to an immunohistochemical approach, we have assessed the expression of αB-crystallin in IDCAs, as well as, in other types of breast tumors (invasive lobular carcinomas, medullary carcinomas, and in situ ductal carcinomas). (cnrs.fr)
- view conditions 3 and 4 to effect the quick efficiency in the ethylene analyzed in direction This will have in the time uptake incorporated in contamination plant of protein( trait4 The comprising of the nuclear network inspection, strategy, is chosen in ultra- In intercept, it gives highly the New low produced by the hazard to generate addition model transfer 3, expression. (scoutconnection.com)
Homologous1
- The pBR322 sequences in pGV3852 provide a site for homologous recombination with pBR-derived plasmids containing sequences to assay for transfer activity. (ttu.edu)
Tumefaciens2
- In pathogenic strains of ''A. tumefaciens'', the border sequences flank genes involved in tumor formation in infected plants. (igem.org)
- The accessory plasmid pAspH13-3a (0.6Mb) is only distantly related to the plasmid pAtC58 of A. tumefaciens C58 and shows a mosaic structure. (uni-bielefeld.de)
Mosaic1
- 16. Knorr, D.A. and Dawson, W.O. (1988) A point mutation in the tobacco mosaic capsid protein gene induces hypersensitivity in Nicotiana sylvestris . (springer.com)
Genomes1
- Our capabilities to purposely engineer plant genomes have increased a lot over the past few decades. (biobasedpress.eu)
Sequences2
- A transfer-negative nononcogenic Ti plasmid derivative, pGV3852, was constructed, in which 3 kb covering the right T-DNA border region was substituted for by pBR322 sequences. (ttu.edu)
- The transfer-promoting sequences are most active when reinserted in one orientation, that normally found in the Ti plasmid. (ttu.edu)
Further confirmed1
- Overexpression of this molecular chaperone was further confirmed in 51 tumor specimens. (cnrs.fr)
Antigen1
- The antigen concentration can also vary significantly between individual fruits on a plant, individual plants, and between plant generations. (wikipedia.org)
Cell10
- An essential ingredient of plant gene technology is cell and tissue culture. (biobasedpress.eu)
- Now, a quarter of a century later, most production in plant cell bioreactors is still in the encouraging phase, some successes notwithstanding. (biobasedpress.eu)
- In the '70s, plant cell biologists elucidate the underlying mechanism. (biobasedpress.eu)
- This is under control of a t wo-component regulatory system At the cell surface , the sensor, VirA, is autophosphorylated when it detects the plant phenolic compounds. (istudy.pk)
- This rodlike structure forms a connection with the plant cell and opens a channel through which the T-DNA is actively transported into the plant cytoplasm. (istudy.pk)
- Plasmids have been widely used in biotechnology and genetic engineering, as they can be manipulated to introduce, modify, or delete specific genes in the host cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
- The absence of a plasmid in the cell does not affect cell functioning, but the presence of a plasmid in the cell is usually beneficial . (stemcelldaily.com)
- Plasmids can vary in size from 1 kb to 200 kb, and they can exist in different species and get transferred from one cell to another. (stemcelldaily.com)
- Plasmids have certain essential elements that enable them to replicate and maintain themselves in the host cell. (stemcelldaily.com)
- We showed that β-catenin could suppress sorafenib-induced apoptosis and cell growth inhibition in HCC cell lines. (biomedcentral.com)
Large3
- There is lack of consideration for a large segment of the population that has ethical or religious beliefs that classify genetically engineered plants carrying animal or human genes as being totally unacceptable as foods. (jesus-is-savior.com)
- Usually, small plasmids are present in high numbers and large plasmids are present in few numbers. (stemcelldaily.com)
- It has been shown that a large number of specific genes in plants and microorganisms are only activated during these interactions. (agriculture-xprt.com)
Fragments1
- This is a region that contains several restriction enzyme recognition sites, which allow the insertion of foreign DNA fragments into the plasmid. (stemcelldaily.com)
Species1
- This is not only incorrect, but it detracts from the marvelous evolution of some remarkable plant species which have literally developed little 'condos' to house their special symbiotic insects. (waynesword.net)
Beneficial2
- Ti plasmids are a powerful tool for genetic engineering in plants because the tumor-inducing genes can be replaced with beneficial genes. (waynesword.net)
- Genetically-engineered plasmids can then be used to transfer the beneficial genes into the host DNA. (waynesword.net)
Rescue1
- We have used both plasmid rescue and TAIL PCR to identify T-DNA/plant DNA junctions from the rat mutants. (purdue.edu)
Biotechnology2
- Scientists are creating unthinkable genetic modifications in our food, mixing animal, insects and even human DNA into animals and plants, and the reason of course is the giant biotechnology corporations are desperate for profits at any cost. (jesus-is-savior.com)
- Technically speaking, the domestication of plants and animals through farming and breeding practices is a type of biotechnology. (pressbooks.pub)
Vector2
- A vector DNA such as plasmid is used to deliver an alien piece of DNA into the host organism. (dkgoelsolutions.com)
- It was linked with a plasmid vector and transferred into E. coli. (dkgoelsolutions.com)
Diseases2
- This book presents an overview of the host plants and the diseases caused by the pathogen on different crops. (agriculture-xprt.com)
- Biological control of plant diseases and plant pathogens is of great significance in forestry and agriculture. (agriculture-xprt.com)
Living organisms1
- But Genetically Modified plants are living organisms. (jesus-is-savior.com)
Rapidly1
- Research on the interactions of plants and phytopathogenic fungi has become one of the most interesting and rapidly moving fields in the plant sciences, the findings of which have contributed tremendously to the development of new strategies of plant protection. (agriculture-xprt.com)
Incompatibility1
- Plasmids that belong to the same compatibility group (or incompatibility group) are usually incompatible with each other. (stemcelldaily.com)
Tobacco2
- In 1962, Murashige and Skoog developed a recipe for a specific fertilizer liquid (the culture medium) fit for successfully growing tissue of the tobacco plant. (biobasedpress.eu)
- EHA105 is ideal for genetic transformation of rice, tobacco and several other plants. (goldbio.com)
Mutants1
- Of the 600 plants screened in the Hohn laboratory, 53 putative mutants were identified in the first round. (purdue.edu)
Soil1
- Perhaps engineered plants will be used to clean up oil spills or other pollutants by growing them on contaminated soil. (istudy.pk)
Genetically Modified1
- Such changes reduce the efficiency of obtaining useful genetically modified plants. (biobasedpress.eu)
Pathogen1
- Plant - Pathogen Interactions: Methods and Protocols provides key methods, approaches, and strategies to dissect the plant defense response. (agriculture-xprt.com)
Genetic Engineering1
- So far, most successful genetic engineering of plants has relied on inserting one or a few genes that supply simple, yet useful, properties. (istudy.pk)
Confer1
- The first step in genetically engineering a plant is to identify a gene that will confer a specific desirable trait on the plant. (istudy.pk)
Pathways1
- Further research will identify new genes and useful pathways that can be engineered into plants. (istudy.pk)
Seeds2
- The seeds from an edible vaccine plant can also be easily dehydrated and preserved for cheap and quick distribution which makes them easily accessible in times of need. (wikipedia.org)
- In the not-so-distant future, we may see farmers planting seeds that will develop into productive (but sterile) crops only if sprayed with a carefully prescribed regimen that includes the company's proprietary pesticide, fertilizer or herbicide. (jesus-is-savior.com)
Insulin1
- The insulin gene from humans was inserted into a plasmid. (pressbooks.pub)
Transfers1
- Next, VirA transfers the phosphate to the DNA-binding protein, VirG, which activates transcription of the vir genes of the Ti plasmid. (istudy.pk)
Analysis2
- 1970. Tumors of the urinary bladder: An analysis of the occupations of 1030 patients in Leeds, England. (cdc.gov)
- Differential analysis The medical differential diagnoses clinically are juvenile (virginal) breast hypertrophy and phyllodes tumour. (columbiagypsy.net)
Host5
- They later found that the vir gene products could function in trans such that the T-DNA present on a separate plasmid from the plasmid carrying the vir genes could still be transferred to the host plant. (igem.org)
- These help-mate insects provide a vital service to their host plant in the form of pollination or protection in a highly competitive environment where these plants could otherwise not survive. (waynesword.net)
- L ike tumorous growths, some galls can be very destructive to the host plant. (waynesword.net)
- In a sense, the plasmids are like floppy disks containing files or 'genes' which are loaded into the host DNA. (waynesword.net)
- Name an eukaryotic organism that has plasmids, and can be used as a host in gene cloning experiments. (mcqexams.com)
