A common saturated fatty acid found in fats and waxes including olive oil, palm oil, and body lipids.
A group of 16-carbon fatty acids that contain no double bonds.
Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated (FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A group of compounds that are derivatives of octadecanoic acid which is one of the most abundant fatty acids found in animal lipids. (Stedman, 25th ed)
12-Carbon saturated monocarboxylic acids.
The addition of an organic acid radical into a molecule.
An unsaturated fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent. (Stedman, 26th ed)
A group of fatty acids that contain 18 carbon atoms and a double bond at the omega 9 carbon.
14-carbon saturated monocarboxylic acids.
A saturated 14-carbon fatty acid occurring in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat and coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils. It is used to synthesize flavor and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Lipids containing one or more phosphate groups, particularly those derived from either glycerol (phosphoglycerides see GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS) or sphingosine (SPHINGOLIPIDS). They are polar lipids that are of great importance for the structure and function of cell membranes and are the most abundant of membrane lipids, although not stored in large amounts in the system.
Fractionation of a vaporized sample as a consequence of partition between a mobile gaseous phase and a stationary phase held in a column. Two types are gas-solid chromatography, where the fixed phase is a solid, and gas-liquid, in which the stationary phase is a nonvolatile liquid supported on an inert solid matrix.
Chromatography on thin layers of adsorbents rather than in columns. The adsorbent can be alumina, silica gel, silicates, charcoals, or cellulose. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
A doubly unsaturated fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. It is an essential fatty acid in mammalian nutrition and is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and cell membranes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
FATTY ACIDS in which the carbon chain contains one or more double or triple carbon-carbon bonds.
Eighteen-carbon essential fatty acids that contain two double bonds.
Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, stored in fat cells and used as energy; they are measured in blood tests to assess heart disease risk, with high levels often resulting from dietary habits, obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol consumption.
A fatty acid coenzyme derivative which plays a key role in fatty acid oxidation and biosynthesis.
A colorless inorganic compound (HONH2) used in organic synthesis and as a reducing agent, due to its ability to donate nitric oxide.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Fatty acids which are unsaturated in only one position.
GLYCEROL esterified with FATTY ACIDS.
Fats present in food, especially in animal products such as meat, meat products, butter, ghee. They are present in lower amounts in nuts, seeds, and avocados.
Salts and esters of the 16-carbon saturated monocarboxylic acid--palmitic acid.
Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.
FATTY ACIDS found in the plasma that are complexed with SERUM ALBUMIN for transport. These fatty acids are not in glycerol ester form.
Oils derived from plants or plant products.
Organic compounds that contain the (-NH2OH) radical.
Lipid-protein complexes involved in the transportation and metabolism of lipids in the body. They are spherical particles consisting of a hydrophobic core of TRIGLYCERIDES and CHOLESTEROL ESTERS surrounded by a layer of hydrophilic free CHOLESTEROL; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and APOLIPOPROTEINS. Lipoproteins are classified by their varying buoyant density and sizes.
"Esters are organic compounds that result from the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, playing significant roles in various biological processes and often used in pharmaceutical synthesis."
Stable carbon atoms that have the same atomic number as the element carbon, but differ in atomic weight. C-13 is a stable carbon isotope.
An epoxydodecadienamide isolated from several species, including ACREMONIUM, Acrocylindrum, and Helicoceras. It inhibits the biosynthesis of several lipids by interfering with enzyme function.
A microanalytical technique combining mass spectrometry and gas chromatography for the qualitative as well as quantitative determinations of compounds.
The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.
A long-chain fatty acid ester of carnitine which facilitates the transfer of long-chain fatty acids from cytoplasm into mitochondria during the oxidation of fatty acids.
Lipids, predominantly phospholipids, cholesterol and small amounts of glycolipids found in membranes including cellular and intracellular membranes. These lipids may be arranged in bilayers in the membranes with integral proteins between the layers and peripheral proteins attached to the outside. Membrane lipids are required for active transport, several enzymatic activities and membrane formation.
Derivatives of phosphatidic acids in which the phosphoric acid is bound in ester linkage to a choline moiety. Complete hydrolysis yields 1 mole of glycerol, phosphoric acid and choline and 2 moles of fatty acids.
Tritium is an isotope of hydrogen (specifically, hydrogen-3) that contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it radioactive with a half-life of about 12.3 years, and is used in various applications including nuclear research, illumination, and dating techniques due to its low energy beta decay.
Any compound containing one or more monosaccharide residues bound by a glycosidic linkage to a hydrophobic moiety such as an acylglycerol (see GLYCERIDES), a sphingoid, a ceramide (CERAMIDES) (N-acylsphingoid) or a prenyl phosphate. (From IUPAC's webpage)
S-Acyl coenzyme A. Fatty acid coenzyme A derivatives that are involved in the biosynthesis and oxidation of fatty acids as well as in ceramide formation.
Unstable isotopes of carbon that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. C atoms with atomic weights 10, 11, and 14-16 are radioactive carbon isotopes.
Enzymes that catalyze the formation of acyl-CoA derivatives. EC 6.2.1.
Members of the class of neutral glycosphingolipids. They are the basic units of SPHINGOLIPIDS. They are sphingoids attached via their amino groups to a long chain fatty acyl group. They abnormally accumulate in FABRY DISEASE.
A family of enzymes that catalyze the stereoselective, regioselective, or chemoselective syn-dehydrogenation reactions. They function by a mechanism that is linked directly to reduction of molecular OXYGEN.
A 20-carbon branched chain fatty acid. In phytanic acid storage disease (REFSUM DISEASE) this lipid may comprise as much as 30% of the total fatty acids of the plasma. This is due to a phytanic acid alpha-hydroxylase deficiency.
C22-unsaturated fatty acids found predominantly in FISH OILS.
The glyceryl esters of a fatty acid, or of a mixture of fatty acids. They are generally odorless, colorless, and tasteless if pure, but they may be flavored according to origin. Fats are insoluble in water, soluble in most organic solvents. They occur in animal and vegetable tissue and are generally obtained by boiling or by extraction under pressure. They are important in the diet (DIETARY FATS) as a source of energy. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Covalent attachment of LIPIDS and FATTY ACIDS to other compounds and PROTEINS.
The process of converting an acid into an alkyl or aryl derivative. Most frequently the process consists of the reaction of an acid with an alcohol in the presence of a trace of mineral acid as catalyst or the reaction of an acyl chloride with an alcohol. Esterification can also be accomplished by enzymatic processes.
Coenzyme A is an essential coenzyme that plays a crucial role in various metabolic processes, particularly in the transfer and activation of acetyl groups in important biochemical reactions such as fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.
Neutral glycosphingolipids that contain a monosaccharide, normally glucose or galactose, in 1-ortho-beta-glycosidic linkage with the primary alcohol of an N-acyl sphingoid (ceramide). In plants the monosaccharide is normally glucose and the sphingoid usually phytosphingosine. In animals, the monosaccharide is usually galactose, though this may vary with the tissue and the sphingoid is usually sphingosine or dihydrosphingosine. (From Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1st ed)
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Serum albumin from cows, commonly used in in vitro biological studies. (From Stedman, 25th ed)
Intracellular proteins that reversibly bind hydrophobic ligands including: saturated and unsaturated FATTY ACIDS; EICOSANOIDS; and RETINOIDS. They are considered a highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed family of proteins that may play a role in the metabolism of LIPIDS.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
Important polyunsaturated fatty acid found in fish oils. It serves as the precursor for the prostaglandin-3 and thromboxane-3 families. A diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid lowers serum lipid concentration, reduces incidence of cardiovascular disorders, prevents platelet aggregation, and inhibits arachidonic acid conversion into the thromboxane-2 and prostaglandin-2 families.
Substances and drugs that lower the SURFACE TENSION of the mucoid layer lining the PULMONARY ALVEOLI.
A fatty acid that is found in plants and involved in the formation of prostaglandins.
Enzymes from the transferase class that catalyze the transfer of acyl groups from donor to acceptor, forming either esters or amides. (From Enzyme Nomenclature 1992) EC 2.3.
Any of various enzymatically catalyzed post-translational modifications of PEPTIDES or PROTEINS in the cell of origin. These modifications include carboxylation; HYDROXYLATION; ACETYLATION; PHOSPHORYLATION; METHYLATION; GLYCOSYLATION; ubiquitination; oxidation; proteolysis; and crosslinking and result in changes in molecular weight and electrophoretic motility.
A thiol-containing non-essential amino acid that is oxidized to form CYSTINE.
An unsaturated, essential fatty acid. It is found in animal and human fat as well as in the liver, brain, and glandular organs, and is a constituent of animal phosphatides. It is formed by the synthesis from dietary linoleic acid and is a precursor in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes.
The lipid- and protein-containing, selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of FATTY ACIDS from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA derivatives.
Derivatives of phosphatidic acids in which the phosphoric acid is bound in ester linkage to an ethanolamine moiety. Complete hydrolysis yields 1 mole of glycerol, phosphoric acid and ethanolamine and 2 moles of fatty acids.
Diglycerides are a type of glyceride, specifically a form of lipid, that contains two fatty acid chains linked to a glycerol molecule by ester bonds.
A lipocalin that was orignally characterized from human TEARS. It is expressed primarily in the LACRIMAL GLAND and the VON EBNER GLANDS. Lipocalin 1 may play a role in olfactory transduction by concentrating and delivering odorants to the ODORANT RECEPTORS.
Protein-lipid combinations abundant in brain tissue, but also present in a wide variety of animal and plant tissues. In contrast to lipoproteins, they are insoluble in water, but soluble in a chloroform-methanol mixture. The protein moiety has a high content of hydrophobic amino acids. The associated lipids consist of a mixture of GLYCEROPHOSPHATES; CEREBROSIDES; and SULFOGLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS; while lipoproteins contain PHOSPHOLIPIDS; CHOLESTEROL; and TRIGLYCERIDES.
A class of lipoproteins that carry dietary CHOLESTEROL and TRIGLYCERIDES from the SMALL INTESTINE to the tissues. Their density (0.93-1.006 g/ml) is the same as that of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.
A class of sphingolipids found largely in the brain and other nervous tissue. They contain phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine as their polar head group so therefore are the only sphingolipids classified as PHOSPHOLIPIDS.
Derivatives of ACETIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the carboxymethane structure.
A viscous, hygroscopic amino alcohol with an ammoniacal odor. It is widely distributed in biological tissue and is a component of lecithin. It is used as a surfactant, fluorimetric reagent, and to remove CO2 and H2S from natural gas and other gases.
A constituent of STRIATED MUSCLE and LIVER. It is an amino acid derivative and an essential cofactor for fatty acid metabolism.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates. EC 3.1.-.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Usually high-molecular-weight, straight-chain primary alcohols, but can also range from as few as 4 carbons, derived from natural fats and oils, including lauryl, stearyl, oleyl, and linoleyl alcohols. They are used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, detergents, plastics, and lube oils and in textile manufacture. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Derivatives of PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINES obtained by their partial hydrolysis which removes one of the fatty acid moieties.
Method for assessing flow through a system by injection of a known quantity of radionuclide into the system and monitoring its concentration over time at a specific point in the system. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Unsaturated fats or oils used in foods or as a food.
Uptake of substances through the lining of the INTESTINES.
Fatty acid esters of cholesterol which constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis.
Studies comparing two or more treatments or interventions in which the subjects or patients, upon completion of the course of one treatment, are switched to another. In the case of two treatments, A and B, half the subjects are randomly allocated to receive these in the order A, B and half to receive them in the order B, A. A criticism of this design is that effects of the first treatment may carry over into the period when the second is given. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A class of membrane lipids that have a polar head and two nonpolar tails. They are composed of one molecule of the long-chain amino alcohol sphingosine (4-sphingenine) or one of its derivatives, one molecule of a long-chain acid, a polar head alcohol and sometimes phosphoric acid in diester linkage at the polar head group. (Lehninger et al, Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed)
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The time frame after a meal or FOOD INTAKE.
Artifactual vesicles formed from the endoplasmic reticulum when cells are disrupted. They are isolated by differential centrifugation and are composed of three structural features: rough vesicles, smooth vesicles, and ribosomes. Numerous enzyme activities are associated with the microsomal fraction. (Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990; from Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A trihydroxy sugar alcohol that is an intermediate in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is used as a solvent, emollient, pharmaceutical agent, and sweetening agent.
Derivatives of caprylic acid. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain a carboxy terminated eight carbon aliphatic structure.
Any liquid or solid preparation made specifically for the growth, storage, or transport of microorganisms or other types of cells. The variety of media that exist allow for the culturing of specific microorganisms and cell types, such as differential media, selective media, test media, and defined media. Solid media consist of liquid media that have been solidified with an agent such as AGAR or GELATIN.
A genus of zygomycetous fungi of the family Mortierellaceae, order MUCORALES. Its species are abundant in soil and can cause rare infections in humans and animals. Mortierella alpinais is used for production of arachidonic acid.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
Specialized connective tissue composed of fat cells (ADIPOCYTES). It is the site of stored FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. In mammals, there are two types of adipose tissue, the WHITE FAT and the BROWN FAT. Their relative distributions vary in different species with most adipose tissue being white.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms, forming the basis of classes such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons, which play a vital role in energy production and chemical synthesis.
Thiolester hydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of thioester bonds, commonly found in acetyl-CoA and other coenzyme A derivatives, to produce free carboxylic acids and CoASH.
Any salt or ester of glycerophosphoric acid.
The phenomenon whereby compounds whose molecules have the same number and kind of atoms and the same atomic arrangement, but differ in their spatial relationships. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 5th ed)
Arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids, specifically a type of omega-6 fatty acid, that are essential for human nutrition and play crucial roles in various biological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors to eicosanoids, which are hormone-like substances that mediate a wide range of physiological responses.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Liquid chromatographic techniques which feature high inlet pressures, high sensitivity, and high speed.
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of oleoyl-CoA, A, and water from stearoyl-CoA, AH2, and oxygen where AH2 is an unspecified hydrogen donor.
Electrophoresis in which a polyacrylamide gel is used as the diffusion medium.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a single fatty acid ester bond in lysoglycerophosphatidates with the formation of glyceryl phosphatidates and a fatty acid. EC 3.1.1.5.
A positively charged protein found in peripheral nervous system MYELIN. Sensitive immunological techniques have demonstrated that P2 is expressed in small amounts of central nervous system myelin sheaths of some species. It is an antigen for experimental allergic neuritis (NEURITIS, EXPERIMENTAL ALLERGIC), the peripheral nervous system counterpart of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. (From Siegel et al., Basic Neurochemistry, 5th ed, p133)
Phospholipases that hydrolyze the acyl group attached to the 2-position of PHOSPHOGLYCERIDES.
The fatty portion of milk, separated as a soft yellowish solid when milk or cream is churned. It is processed for cooking and table use. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
Phospholipases that hydrolyze one of the acyl groups of phosphoglycerides or glycerophosphatidates.
Unctuous combustible substances that are liquid or easily liquefiable on warming, and are soluble in ether but insoluble in water. Such substances, depending on their origin, are classified as animal, mineral, or vegetable oils. Depending on their behavior on heating, they are volatile or fixed. (Dorland, 28th ed)
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
Amidohydrolases that are specific for the cleavage of the N-acyl linkage of CERAMIDES. Ceramidases are classified as acidic, neutral or basic according to the optimal pH with which they function.
An analytical method used in determining the identity of a chemical based on its mass using mass analyzers/mass spectrometers.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.

Dietary control of triglyceride and phospholipid synthesis in rat liver slices. (1/1352)

1. The effect of dietary manipulation on the synthesis of triglycerides and phospholipids was investigated by determining the incorporation of labeled long-chain fatty acid or glycerol into these lipids in liver slices derived from normally fed, fasted, and fat-free refed rats. 2. Triglyceride synthesis was affected markedly by the dietary regime of the animal; the lowest rates were measured with fasted rats, and the highest ones with fat-free refed rats. 3. In contrast to triglyceride synthesis, phospholipid synthesis occured at virtually constant rates regardless of the dietary conditions. 4. Addition of large amounts of fatty acid to the incubation mixture resulted in a marked stimulation of triglyceride synthesis, whereas phospholipid synthesis was affected to a much smaller extent. 5. These results indicate that the synthesis of triglycerides and that of phospholipids are controlled independently, and that the availability of fatty acid in the cell contributes to the control of triglyceride synthesis.  (+info)

The synthesis and hydrolysis of long-chain fatty acyl-coenzyme A thioesters by soluble and microsomal fractions from the brain of the developing rat. (2/1352)

1. The specific activities of long-chain fatty acid-CoA ligase (EC6.2.1.3) and of long-chain fatty acyl-CoA hydrolase (EC3.1.2.2) were measured in soluble and microsomal fractions from rat brain. 2. In the presence of either palmitic acid or stearic acid, the specific activity of the ligase increased during development; the specific activity of this enzyme with arachidic acid or behenic acid was considerably lower. 3. The specific activities of palmitoyl-CoA hydrolase and of stearoyl-CoA hydrolase in the microsomal fraction decreased markedly (75%) between 6 and 20 days after birth; by contrast, the corresponding specific activities in the soluble fraction showed no decline. 4. Stearoyl-CoA hydrolase in the microsomal fraction is inhibited (99%) by bovine serum albumin; this is in contrast with the microsomal fatty acid-chain-elongation system, which is stimulated 3.9-fold by albumin. Inhibition of stearoyl-CoA hydrolase does not stimulate stearoyl-CoA chain elongation. Therefore it does not appear likely that the decline in the specific activity of hydrolase during myelogenesis is responsible for the increased rate of fatty acid chain elongation. 5. It is suggested that the decline in specific activity of the microsomal hydrolase and to a lesser extent the increase in the specific activity of the ligase is directly related to the increased demand for long-chain acyl-CoA esters during myelogenesis as substrates in the biosynthesis of myelin lipids.  (+info)

Studies on the influence of fatty acids on pyruvate dehydrogenase interconversion in rat-liver mitochondria. (3/1352)

1. The effect of fatty acids on the interconversion of pyruvate dehydrogenase between its active (nonphosphorylated) and inactive (phosphorylated) forms was measured in rat liver mitochondria respiring in state 3 with pyruvate plus malate and 2-oxoglutarate plus malate and during state 4 to state 3 transition in the presence of different substrates. The content of intramitochondrial adenine nucleotides was determined in the parallel experiments. 2. Decrease of the intramitochondrial ATP/ADP ratio with propionate and its increase with palmitoyl-L-carnitine in state 3 is accompanied by a shift of the steady-state of the pyruvate dehydrogenase system towards the active or the inactive form, respectively. 3. Transition from the high energy state (state4) to the active respiration (state3) in mitochondria oxidizing 2-oxoglutarate or plamitoyl-L-carnitine causes an increase of the amount of the active form of pyruvate dehydrogenase due to the decrease of ATP/ADP ratio in the matrix. 4. No change in ATP/ADP ratio can be observed in the presence of octanoate in mitochondria oxidizing pyruvate or 2-oxoglutarate in state 3 or during state 4 to state 3 transition. Simultanelusly, no significant change in phosphorylation state of pyruvate dehydrogenase occurs and a low amount of the enzyme in the active form is present with octanoate or octanoate plus 2-oxoglutarate. Pyruvate abolishes this effect of octanoate and shifts the steady-state of pyruvate dehydrogenase system towards the active form. 5. These results indicate that fatty acids influence the interconversion of pyruvate dehydrogenase mainly by changing intramitochondrial ATP/ADP ratio. However, the comparison of the steady-state level of the pyruvate dehydrogenase system in the presence of different substrates in various metabolic conditions provides some evidence that accumulation of acetyl-CoA and high level of NADH may promote the phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase. 6. Pyruvate exerts its protective effect against phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase in the presence of fatty acids of short, medium or long chain in a manner which depends on its concentration. It is suggested that in isolated mitochondria pyruvate counteracts the effect of acetyl-CoA and NADH on pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase.  (+info)

Histone-hydrocarbon interaction. Partition of histones in aqueous two-phase systems containing poly(ethylene glycol)-bound hydrocarbons. (4/1352)

The hydrophobic properties of histones have been examined with help of the two-phase partition technique using dextran-poly(ethylene glycol)-water systems. We have found that different fatty acid esters of poly(ethylene glycol) interact with total histones in a manner similar to proteins of the type beta-lactoglobulin and serum albumins. Thus the maximum interaction occurs when the fatty acid contains 16-18 carbon atoms. With less than eight carbon atoms in the polymer-bound fatty acid, no histone-hydrocarbon interaction is observed. The interaction of the five individual histone fractions with palmitate depends on the type of salt used and on its concentration. We suggest that the histones can be divided into three groups with decreasing hydrophobic properties: H3, H2a greater than H4, H2b greater than H1.  (+info)

Stereochemistry of the alpha-oxidation of 3-methyl-branched fatty acids in rat liver. (5/1352)

The stereochemistry of the alpha-oxidation of 3-methyl-branched fatty acids was studied in rat liver. R- and S-3-methylhexadecanoic acid were equally well alpha-oxidized in intact hepatocytes and homogenates. Subcellular fractionation studies showed that alpha-oxidation of both isomers is confined to peroxisomes. Dehydrogenation of 2-methylpentadecanal, the end-product of the peroxisomal alpha-oxidation of 3-methylhexadecanoic acid, to 2-methylpentadecanoic acid, followed by derivatization with R-1-phenylethylamine and subsequent separation of the stereoisomers by gas chromatography, revealed that the configuration of the methyl-branch is preserved throughout the whole alpha-oxidation process. Metabolism and formation of the 2-hydroxy-3-methylhexadecanoyl-CoA intermediate were also investigated. Separation of the methyl esters of the four isomers of 2-hydroxy-3-methylhexadecanoic acid was achieved by gas chromatography after derivatization of the hydroxy group with R-2-methoxy-2-trifluoromethylphenylacetic acid chloride and the absolute configuration of the four isomers was determined. Although purified peroxisomes are capable of metabolizing all four isomers of 2-hydroxy-3-methylhexadecanoyl-CoA, they can only form the (2S,3R) and the (2R,3S) isomers. Our experiments exclude the racemization of the 3-methyl branch during the alpha-oxidation process. The configuration of the 3-methyl branch does not influence the rate of alpha-oxidation, but determines the side of the 2-hydroxylation, hence the configuration of the 2-hydroxy-3-methylacyl-CoA intermediates formed during the process.  (+info)

Anandamide activates human platelets through a pathway independent of the arachidonate cascade. (6/1352)

Anandamide (arachidonoylethanolamide, AnNH) is shown to activate human platelets, a process which was not inhibited by acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). Unlike AnNH, hydroperoxides generated thereof by lipoxygenase activity, and the congener (13-hydroxy)linoleoylethanolamide, were unable to activate platelets, though they counteracted AnNH-mediated stimulation. On the other hand, palmitoylethanolamide neither activated human platelets nor blocked the AnNH effects. AnNH inactivation by human platelets was afforded by a high-affinity transporter, which was activated by nitric oxide-donors up to 225% of the control. The internalized AnNH could thus be hydrolyzed by a fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), characterized here for the first time.  (+info)

Crystal structure of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis enoyl-ACP reductase, InhA, in complex with NAD+ and a C16 fatty acyl substrate. (7/1352)

Enoyl-ACP reductases participate in fatty acid biosynthesis by utilizing NADH to reduce the trans double bond between positions C2 and C3 of a fatty acyl chain linked to the acyl carrier protein. The enoyl-ACP reductase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, known as InhA, is a member of an unusual FAS-II system that prefers longer chain fatty acyl substrates for the purpose of synthesizing mycolic acids, a major component of mycobacterial cell walls. The crystal structure of InhA in complex with NAD+ and a C16 fatty acyl substrate, trans-2-hexadecenoyl-(N-acetylcysteamine)-thioester, reveals that the substrate binds in a general "U-shaped" conformation, with the trans double bond positioned directly adjacent to the nicotinamide ring of NAD+. The side chain of Tyr158 directly interacts with the thioester carbonyl oxygen of the C16 fatty acyl substrate and therefore could help stabilize the enolate intermediate, proposed to form during substrate catalysis. Hydrophobic residues, primarily from the substrate binding loop (residues 196-219), engulf the fatty acyl chain portion of the substrate. The substrate binding loop of InhA is longer than that of other enoyl-ACP reductases and creates a deeper substrate binding crevice, consistent with the ability of InhA to recognize longer chain fatty acyl substrates.  (+info)

Cysteine 29 is the major palmitoylation site on stomatin. (8/1352)

The 31 kDa membrane protein stomatin was metabolically labeled with tritiated palmitic acid in the human amniotic cell line UAC and immunoprecipitated. We show that the incorporated palmitate is sensitive to hydroxylamine, indicating the binding to cysteine residues. Stomatin contains three cysteines. By expressing a myc-tagged stomatin and substituting the three cysteines by serine, individually or in combination, we demonstrate that Cys-29 is the predominant site of palmitoylation and that Cys-86 accounts for the remaining palmitate labeling. Disruption of Cys-52 alone does not show any detectable reduction of palmitic acid incorporation. Given the organization of stomatin into homo-oligomers, the presence of multiple palmitate chains is likely to increase greatly the affinity of these oligomers for the membrane and perhaps particular lipid domains within it.  (+info)

Palmitic acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, which is a common component in many foods and also produced naturally by the human body. Its chemical formula is C16H32O2. It's named after palm trees because it was first isolated from palm oil, although it can also be found in other vegetable oils, animal fats, and dairy products.

In the human body, palmitic acid plays a role in energy production and storage. However, consuming large amounts of this fatty acid has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease due to its association with elevated levels of bad cholesterol (LDL). The World Health Organization recommends limiting the consumption of saturated fats, including palmitic acid, to less than 10% of total energy intake.

Palmitic acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, which is a common component in many foods and also produced by the body. Its chemical formula is C16:0, indicating that it contains 16 carbon atoms and no double bonds. Palmitic acid is found in high concentrations in animal fats, such as butter, lard, and beef tallow, as well as in some vegetable oils, like palm kernel oil and coconut oil.

In the human body, palmitic acid can be synthesized from other substances or absorbed through the diet. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy storage, membrane structure formation, and signaling pathways regulation. However, high intake of palmitic acid has been linked to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases due to its potential to raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in the blood.

It is essential to maintain a balanced diet and consume palmitic acid-rich foods in moderation, along with regular exercise and a healthy lifestyle, to reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic chain, which are important components of lipids and are widely distributed in living organisms. They can be classified based on the length of their carbon chain, saturation level (presence or absence of double bonds), and other structural features.

The two main types of fatty acids are:

1. Saturated fatty acids: These have no double bonds in their carbon chain and are typically solid at room temperature. Examples include palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0).
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: These contain one or more double bonds in their carbon chain and can be further classified into monounsaturated (one double bond) and polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds) fatty acids. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids include oleic acid (C18:1, monounsaturated), linoleic acid (C18:2, polyunsaturated), and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3, polyunsaturated).

Fatty acids play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as energy storage, membrane structure, and cell signaling. Some essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources.

Stearic acid is not typically considered a medical term, but rather a chemical compound. It is a saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula C18H36O2. Stearic acid is commonly found in various foods such as animal fats and vegetable oils, including cocoa butter and palm oil.

In a medical context, stearic acid might be mentioned in relation to nutrition or cosmetics. For example, it may be listed as an ingredient in some skincare products or medications where it is used as an emollient or thickening agent. It's also worth noting that while stearic acid is a saturated fat, some studies suggest that it may have a more neutral effect on blood cholesterol levels compared to other saturated fats. However, this is still a topic of ongoing research and debate in the medical community.

Lauric acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, meaning it contains only single bonds between its carbon atoms. It is named after the laurel tree, from which it was originally isolated, and has the chemical formula CH3(CH2)10COOH.

In a medical context, lauric acid is often discussed in relation to its presence in certain foods and its potential effects on health. For example, lauric acid is the primary fatty acid found in coconut oil, making up about 50% of its total fat content. It is also found in smaller amounts in other foods such as palm kernel oil, dairy products, and human breast milk.

Some studies have suggested that lauric acid may have beneficial effects on health, such as raising levels of "good" HDL cholesterol and having antimicrobial properties. However, it is also high in calories and can contribute to weight gain if consumed in excess. Additionally, like other saturated fats, it can raise levels of "bad" LDL cholesterol when consumed in large amounts, which may increase the risk of heart disease over time.

Overall, while lauric acid may have some potential health benefits, it is important to consume it in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Acylation is a medical and biological term that refers to the process of introducing an acyl group (-CO-) into a molecule. This process can occur naturally or it can be induced through chemical reactions. In the context of medicine and biology, acylation often occurs during post-translational modifications of proteins, where an acyl group is added to specific amino acid residues, altering the protein's function, stability, or localization.

An example of acylation in medicine is the administration of neuraminidase inhibitors, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu), for the treatment and prevention of influenza. These drugs work by inhibiting the activity of the viral neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for the release of newly formed virus particles from infected cells. Oseltamivir is administered orally as an ethyl ester prodrug, which is then hydrolyzed in the body to form the active acylated metabolite that inhibits the viral neuraminidase.

In summary, acylation is a vital process in medicine and biology, with implications for drug design, protein function, and post-translational modifications.

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid that is commonly found in various natural oils such as olive oil, sunflower oil, and peanut oil. Its chemical formula is cis-9-octadecenoic acid, and it is a colorless liquid at room temperature with a slight odor. Oleic acid is an important component of human diet and has been shown to have various health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease and improving immune function. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, and other industrial products.

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid that is commonly found in various natural oils such as olive oil, sunflower oil, and grapeseed oil. Its chemical formula is cis-9-octadecenoic acid, and it is a colorless liquid at room temperature. Oleic acid is an important component of human diet and has been shown to have potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of heart disease and improving immune function. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps, cosmetics, and other personal care products.

Myristic acid is not typically considered in the context of medical definitions, but it is instead more commonly referred to in the fields of chemistry and biochemistry. However, I can provide you with some relevant information about myristic acid that may be helpful.

Myristic acid is a type of saturated fatty acid, which means it contains no double bonds between its carbon atoms. The chemical formula for myristic acid is CH3(CH2)12COOH. It has a 14-carbon chain and is named after the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans), from which it was first isolated. Myristic acid occurs naturally in various plant and animal sources, including coconut oil, palm kernel oil, butterfat, and breast milk.

In a medical context, myristic acid is sometimes discussed due to its potential role in health and disease. For instance, some studies have suggested that high intake of myristic acid may contribute to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, as it can raise levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as "bad" cholesterol. However, more research is needed to fully understand the health implications of myristic acid consumption.

It's worth noting that medical definitions typically focus on specific substances or processes related to human health, disease, and treatment. Myristic acid, while an essential component in biochemistry, may not have a direct medical definition due to its broader relevance in chemistry and food science.

Myristic acid is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a scientific term related to the field of medicine. It is a type of fatty acid that is found in some foods and in the human body. Medically, it may be relevant in discussions of nutrition, metabolism, or lipid disorders.

Here's a definition of myristic acid from a biological or chemical perspective:

Myristic acid is a saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)12CO2H. It is a 14-carbon atom chain with a carboxyl group at one end and a methyl group at the other. Myristic acid occurs naturally in some foods, such as coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and dairy products. It is also found in the structural lipids of living cells, where it plays a role in cell signaling and membrane dynamics.

Phospholipids are a major class of lipids that consist of a hydrophilic (water-attracting) head and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails. The head is composed of a phosphate group, which is often bound to an organic molecule such as choline, ethanolamine, serine or inositol. The tails are made up of two fatty acid chains.

Phospholipids are a key component of cell membranes and play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and function of the cell. They form a lipid bilayer, with the hydrophilic heads facing outwards and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards, creating a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the outside environment.

Phospholipids are also involved in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, intracellular trafficking, and protein function regulation. Additionally, they serve as emulsifiers in the digestive system, helping to break down fats in the diet.

Chromatography, gas (GC) is a type of chromatographic technique used to separate, identify, and analyze volatile compounds or vapors. In this method, the sample mixture is vaporized and carried through a column packed with a stationary phase by an inert gas (carrier gas). The components of the mixture get separated based on their partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases due to differences in their adsorption/desorption rates or solubility.

The separated components elute at different times, depending on their interaction with the stationary phase, which can be detected and quantified by various detection systems like flame ionization detector (FID), thermal conductivity detector (TCD), electron capture detector (ECD), or mass spectrometer (MS). Gas chromatography is widely used in fields such as chemistry, biochemistry, environmental science, forensics, and food analysis.

Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) is a type of chromatography used to separate, identify, and quantify the components of a mixture. In TLC, the sample is applied as a small spot onto a thin layer of adsorbent material, such as silica gel or alumina, which is coated on a flat, rigid support like a glass plate. The plate is then placed in a developing chamber containing a mobile phase, typically a mixture of solvents.

As the mobile phase moves up the plate by capillary action, it interacts with the stationary phase and the components of the sample. Different components of the mixture travel at different rates due to their varying interactions with the stationary and mobile phases, resulting in distinct spots on the plate. The distance each component travels can be measured and compared to known standards to identify and quantify the components of the mixture.

TLC is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective technique that is widely used in various fields, including forensics, pharmaceuticals, and research laboratories. It allows for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures with high resolution and sensitivity, making it an essential tool in many analytical applications.

Linoleic acid is an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, specifically an omega-6 fatty acid. It is called "essential" because our bodies cannot produce it; therefore, it must be obtained through our diet. Linoleic acid is a crucial component of cell membranes and is involved in the production of prostaglandins, which are hormone-like substances that regulate various bodily functions such as inflammation, blood pressure, and muscle contraction.

Foods rich in linoleic acid include vegetable oils (such as soybean, corn, and sunflower oil), nuts, seeds, and some fruits and vegetables. It is important to maintain a balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the diet, as excessive consumption of omega-6 fatty acids can contribute to inflammation and other health issues.

Unsaturated fatty acids are a type of fatty acid that contain one or more double bonds in their carbon chain. These double bonds can be either cis or trans configurations, although the cis configuration is more common in nature. The presence of these double bonds makes unsaturated fatty acids more liquid at room temperature and less prone to spoilage than saturated fatty acids, which do not have any double bonds.

Unsaturated fatty acids can be further classified into two main categories: monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). MUFAs contain one double bond in their carbon chain, while PUFAs contain two or more.

Examples of unsaturated fatty acids include oleic acid (a MUFA found in olive oil), linoleic acid (a PUFA found in vegetable oils), and alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 PUFA found in flaxseed and fish). Unsaturated fatty acids are essential nutrients for the human body, as they play important roles in various physiological processes such as membrane structure, inflammation, and blood clotting. It is recommended to consume a balanced diet that includes both MUFAs and PUFAs to maintain good health.

Linoleic acid is a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) that is essential for human health. It is one of the two essential fatty acids, meaning that it cannot be produced by the body and must be obtained through diet.

Linoleic acid is a member of the omega-6 fatty acid family and has a chemical structure with two double bonds at the sixth and ninth carbon atoms from the methyl end of the molecule. It is found in various plant sources, such as vegetable oils (e.g., soybean, corn, safflower, and sunflower oils), nuts, seeds, and whole grains.

Linoleic acid plays a crucial role in maintaining the fluidity and function of cell membranes, producing eicosanoids (hormone-like substances that regulate various bodily functions), and supporting skin health. However, excessive intake of linoleic acid can lead to an imbalance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, which may contribute to inflammation and chronic diseases. Therefore, it is recommended to maintain a balanced diet with appropriate amounts of both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, and they're found in the food we eat. They're carried in the bloodstream to provide energy to the cells in our body. High levels of triglycerides in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease, especially in combination with other risk factors such as high LDL (bad) cholesterol, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

It's important to note that while triglycerides are a type of fat, they should not be confused with cholesterol, which is a waxy substance found in the cells of our body. Both triglycerides and cholesterol are important for maintaining good health, but high levels of either can increase the risk of heart disease.

Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test called a lipid panel or lipid profile. A normal triglyceride level is less than 150 mg/dL. Borderline-high levels range from 150 to 199 mg/dL, high levels range from 200 to 499 mg/dL, and very high levels are 500 mg/dL or higher.

Elevated triglycerides can be caused by various factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypothyroidism, and kidney disease. Medications such as beta-blockers, steroids, and diuretics can also raise triglyceride levels.

Lifestyle changes such as losing weight, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and quitting smoking can help lower triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to reduce triglycerides to recommended levels.

Palmitoyl Coenzyme A, often abbreviated as Palmitoyl-CoA, is a type of fatty acyl coenzyme A that plays a crucial role in the body's metabolism. It is formed from the esterification of palmitic acid (a saturated fatty acid) with coenzyme A.

Medical Definition: Palmitoyl Coenzyme A is a fatty acyl coenzyme A ester, where palmitic acid is linked to coenzyme A via an ester bond. It serves as an important intermediate in lipid metabolism and energy production, particularly through the process of beta-oxidation in the mitochondria. Palmitoyl CoA also plays a role in protein modification, known as S-palmitoylation, which can affect protein localization, stability, and function.

Hydroxylamine is not a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with the formula NH2OH. It's used in some industrial processes and can also be found as a byproduct of certain metabolic reactions in the body. In a medical context, exposure to high levels of hydroxylamine may cause irritation to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract, and it may have harmful effects on the nervous system and blood if ingested or absorbed in large amounts. However, it is not a substance that is commonly encountered or monitored in medical settings.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are a type of fatty acid that contains one double bond in its chemical structure. The presence of the double bond means that there is one less hydrogen atom, hence the term "unsaturated." In monounsaturated fats, the double bond occurs between the second and third carbon atoms in the chain, which makes them "mono"unsaturated.

MUFAs are considered to be a healthy type of fat because they can help reduce levels of harmful cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein or LDL) while maintaining levels of beneficial cholesterol (high-density lipoprotein or HDL). They have also been associated with a reduced risk of heart disease and improved insulin sensitivity.

Common sources of monounsaturated fats include olive oil, canola oil, avocados, nuts, and seeds. It is recommended to consume MUFAs as part of a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrient-dense foods.

Glycerides are esters formed from glycerol and one, two, or three fatty acids. They include monoglycerides (one fatty acid), diglycerides (two fatty acids), and triglycerides (three fatty acids). Triglycerides are the main constituents of natural fats and oils, and they are a major form of energy storage in animals and plants. High levels of triglycerides in the blood, also known as hypertriglyceridemia, can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Dietary fats, also known as fatty acids, are a major nutrient that the body needs for energy and various functions. They are an essential component of cell membranes and hormones, and they help the body absorb certain vitamins. There are several types of dietary fats:

1. Saturated fats: These are typically solid at room temperature and are found in animal products such as meat, butter, and cheese, as well as tropical oils like coconut and palm oil. Consuming a high amount of saturated fats can raise levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol and increase the risk of heart disease.
2. Unsaturated fats: These are typically liquid at room temperature and can be further divided into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats, found in foods such as olive oil, avocados, and nuts, can help lower levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol while maintaining levels of healthy HDL cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fats, found in foods such as fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts, have similar effects on cholesterol levels and also provide essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids that the body cannot produce on its own.
3. Trans fats: These are unsaturated fats that have been chemically modified to be solid at room temperature. They are often found in processed foods such as baked goods, fried foods, and snack foods. Consuming trans fats can raise levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol and lower levels of healthy HDL cholesterol, increasing the risk of heart disease.

It is recommended to limit intake of saturated and trans fats and to consume more unsaturated fats as part of a healthy diet.

"Palmitates" are salts or esters of palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid that is commonly found in animals and plants. Palmitates can be found in various substances, including cosmetics, food additives, and medications. For example, sodium palmitate is a common ingredient in soaps and detergents, while retinyl palmitate is a form of vitamin A used in skin care products and dietary supplements.

In a medical context, "palmitates" may be mentioned in the results of laboratory tests that measure lipid metabolism or in discussions of nutrition and dietary fats. However, it is important to note that "palmitates" themselves are not typically a focus of medical diagnosis or treatment, but rather serve as components of various substances that may have medical relevance.

Lipid metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down and utilizes lipids (fats) for various functions, such as energy production, cell membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. This complex process involves several enzymes and pathways that regulate the digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and consumption of fats in the body.

The main types of lipids involved in metabolism include triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The breakdown of these lipids begins in the digestive system, where enzymes called lipases break down dietary fats into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, which is the main site of lipid metabolism.

In the liver, fatty acids may be further broken down for energy production or used to synthesize new lipids. Excess fatty acids may be stored as triglycerides in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) for later use. Cholesterol is also metabolized in the liver, where it may be used to synthesize bile acids, steroid hormones, and other important molecules.

Disorders of lipid metabolism can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits, or a combination of both. Proper diagnosis and management of lipid metabolism disorders typically involves a combination of dietary changes, exercise, and medication.

Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), also known as free fatty acids (FFA), refer to fatty acid molecules that are not bound to glycerol in the form of triglycerides or other esters. In the bloodstream, NEFAs are transported while bound to albumin and can serve as a source of energy for peripheral tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, NEFA levels are tightly regulated by the body; however, elevated NEFA levels have been associated with various metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes.

Medical definitions generally do not include plant oils as a specific term. However, in a biological or biochemical context, plant oils, also known as vegetable oils, are defined as lipid extracts derived from various parts of plants such as seeds, fruits, and leaves. They mainly consist of triglycerides, which are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids. The composition of fatty acids can vary between different plant sources, leading to a range of physical and chemical properties that make plant oils useful for various applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Some common examples of plant oils include olive oil, coconut oil, sunflower oil, and jojoba oil.

Hydroxylamines are organic compounds that contain a hydroxy group (-OH) and an amino group (-NH2) in their structure. More specifically, they have the functional group R-N-OH, where R represents a carbon-containing radical. Hydroxylamines can be considered as derivatives of ammonia (NH3), where one hydrogen atom is replaced by a hydroxy group.

These compounds are important in organic chemistry and biochemistry due to their ability to act as reducing agents, nitrogen donors, and intermediates in various chemical reactions. They can be found in some natural substances and are also synthesized for use in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and other industrial applications.

Examples of hydroxylamines include:

* Hydroxylamine (NH2OH) itself, which is a colorless liquid at room temperature with an odor similar to ammonia.
* N-Methylhydroxylamine (CH3NHOH), which is a solid that can be used as a reducing agent and a nucleophile in organic synthesis.
* Phenylhydroxylamine (C6H5NHOH), which is a solid used as an intermediate in the production of dyes, pharmaceuticals, and other chemicals.

It's important to note that hydroxylamines can be unstable and potentially hazardous, so they should be handled with care during laboratory work or industrial processes.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins and lipids (fats) that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules in the body. They consist of an outer shell of phospholipids, free cholesterols, and apolipoproteins, enclosing a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters.

There are several types of lipoproteins, including:

1. Chylomicrons: These are the largest lipoproteins and are responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the intestines to other parts of the body.
2. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): Produced by the liver, VLDL particles carry triglycerides to peripheral tissues for energy storage or use.
3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Often referred to as "bad cholesterol," LDL particles transport cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in artery walls and increase the risk of heart disease.
4. High-density lipoproteins (HDL): Known as "good cholesterol," HDL particles help remove excess cholesterol from cells and transport it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Higher levels of HDL are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Understanding lipoproteins and their roles in the body is essential for assessing cardiovascular health and managing risks related to heart disease and stroke.

Esters are organic compounds that are formed by the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. They are widely found in nature and are used in various industries, including the production of perfumes, flavors, and pharmaceuticals. In the context of medical definitions, esters may be mentioned in relation to their use as excipients in medications or in discussions of organic chemistry and biochemistry. Esters can also be found in various natural substances such as fats and oils, which are triesters of glycerol and fatty acids.

Carbon isotopes are variants of the chemical element carbon that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^{12}C), which contains six protons and six neutrons. However, carbon can also come in other forms, known as isotopes, which contain different numbers of neutrons.

Carbon-13 (^{13}C) is a stable isotope of carbon that contains seven neutrons in its nucleus. It makes up about 1.1% of all carbon found on Earth and is used in various scientific applications, such as in tracing the metabolic pathways of organisms or in studying the age of fossilized materials.

Carbon-14 (^{14}C), also known as radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon that contains eight neutrons in its nucleus. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen gas. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, which makes it useful for dating organic materials, such as archaeological artifacts or fossils, up to around 60,000 years old.

Carbon isotopes are important in many scientific fields, including geology, biology, and medicine, and are used in a variety of applications, from studying the Earth's climate history to diagnosing medical conditions.

Cerulenin is a fungal metabolite that inhibits the enzyme delta-9-desaturase, which is involved in fatty acid synthesis. This compound is often used in research to study the biology and function of fatty acid synthase and lipid metabolism. It has been investigated for its potential as an anti-cancer agent, but its clinical use is not approved due to its limited specificity and potential toxicity.

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a powerful analytical technique that combines the separating power of gas chromatography with the identification capabilities of mass spectrometry. This method is used to separate, identify, and quantify different components in complex mixtures.

In GC-MS, the mixture is first vaporized and carried through a long, narrow column by an inert gas (carrier gas). The various components in the mixture interact differently with the stationary phase inside the column, leading to their separation based on their partition coefficients between the mobile and stationary phases. As each component elutes from the column, it is then introduced into the mass spectrometer for analysis.

The mass spectrometer ionizes the sample, breaks it down into smaller fragments, and measures the mass-to-charge ratio of these fragments. This information is used to generate a mass spectrum, which serves as a unique "fingerprint" for each compound. By comparing the generated mass spectra with reference libraries or known standards, analysts can identify and quantify the components present in the original mixture.

GC-MS has wide applications in various fields such as forensics, environmental analysis, drug testing, and research laboratories due to its high sensitivity, specificity, and ability to analyze volatile and semi-volatile compounds.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

Palmitoylcarnitine is a type of acylcarnitine, which is an ester formed from carnitine and a fatty acid. Specifically, palmitoylcarnitine consists of the long-chain fatty acid palmitate (a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid) linked to carnitine through an ester bond.

In the human body, palmitoylcarnitine plays a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of long-chain fatty acids within mitochondria, the energy-producing organelles found in cells. The process involves converting palmitate into palmitoylcarnitine by an enzyme called carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT-I) in the outer mitochondrial membrane. Palmitoylcarnitine is then transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane via a specific transporter, where it is converted back to palmitate by another enzyme called carnitine palmitoyltransferase II (CPT-II). The palmitate can then undergo beta-oxidation, a process that generates energy in the form of ATP.

Abnormal levels of palmitoylcarnitine in blood or other bodily fluids may indicate an underlying metabolic disorder, such as defects in fatty acid oxidation or carnitine transport. These conditions can lead to various symptoms, including muscle weakness, cardiomyopathy, and developmental delays.

Membrane lipids are the main component of biological membranes, forming a lipid bilayer in which various cellular processes take place. These lipids include phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterol. Phospholipids are the most abundant type, consisting of a hydrophilic head (containing a phosphate group) and two hydrophobic tails (composed of fatty acid chains). Glycolipids contain a sugar group attached to the lipid molecule. Cholesterol helps regulate membrane fluidity and permeability. Together, these lipids create a selectively permeable barrier that separates cells from their environment and organelles within cells.

Phosphatidylcholines (PtdCho) are a type of phospholipids that are essential components of cell membranes in living organisms. They are composed of a hydrophilic head group, which contains a choline moiety, and two hydrophobic fatty acid chains. Phosphatidylcholines are crucial for maintaining the structural integrity and function of cell membranes, and they also serve as important precursors for the synthesis of signaling molecules such as acetylcholine. They can be found in various tissues and biological fluids, including blood, and are abundant in foods such as soybeans, eggs, and meat. Phosphatidylcholines have been studied for their potential health benefits, including their role in maintaining healthy lipid metabolism and reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Tritium is not a medical term, but it is a term used in the field of nuclear physics and chemistry. Tritium (symbol: T or 3H) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons and one proton in its nucleus. It is also known as heavy hydrogen or superheavy hydrogen.

Tritium has a half-life of about 12.3 years, which means that it decays by emitting a low-energy beta particle (an electron) to become helium-3. Due to its radioactive nature and relatively short half-life, tritium is used in various applications, including nuclear weapons, fusion reactors, luminous paints, and medical research.

In the context of medicine, tritium may be used as a radioactive tracer in some scientific studies or medical research, but it is not a term commonly used to describe a medical condition or treatment.

Glycolipids are a type of lipid (fat) molecule that contain one or more sugar molecules attached to them. They are important components of cell membranes, where they play a role in cell recognition and signaling. Glycolipids are also found on the surface of some viruses and bacteria, where they can be recognized by the immune system as foreign invaders.

There are several different types of glycolipids, including cerebrosides, gangliosides, and globosides. These molecules differ in the number and type of sugar molecules they contain, as well as the structure of their lipid tails. Glycolipids are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus of cells, and they are transported to the cell membrane through vesicles.

Abnormalities in glycolipid metabolism or structure have been implicated in a number of diseases, including certain types of cancer, neurological disorders, and autoimmune diseases. For example, mutations in genes involved in the synthesis of glycolipids can lead to conditions such as Tay-Sachs disease and Gaucher's disease, which are characterized by the accumulation of abnormal glycolipids in cells.

Acyl Coenzyme A (often abbreviated as Acetyl-CoA or Acyl-CoA) is a crucial molecule in metabolism, particularly in the breakdown and oxidation of fats and carbohydrates to produce energy. It is a thioester compound that consists of a fatty acid or an acetate group linked to coenzyme A through a sulfur atom.

Acyl CoA plays a central role in several metabolic pathways, including:

1. The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle): In the mitochondria, Acyl-CoA is formed from the oxidation of fatty acids or the breakdown of certain amino acids. This Acyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle to produce high-energy electrons, which are used in the electron transport chain to generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the main energy currency of the cell.
2. Beta-oxidation: The breakdown of fatty acids occurs in the mitochondria through a process called beta-oxidation, where Acyl-CoA is sequentially broken down into smaller units, releasing acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle.
3. Ketogenesis: In times of low carbohydrate availability or during prolonged fasting, the liver can produce ketone bodies from acetyl-CoA to supply energy to other organs, such as the brain and heart.
4. Protein synthesis: Acyl-CoA is also involved in the modification of proteins by attaching fatty acid chains to them (a process called acetylation), which can influence protein function and stability.

In summary, Acyl Coenzyme A is a vital molecule in metabolism that connects various pathways related to energy production, fatty acid breakdown, and protein modification.

Carbon radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of carbon, which is an naturally occurring chemical element with the atomic number 6. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^12C), but there are also several radioactive isotopes, including carbon-11 (^11C), carbon-14 (^14C), and carbon-13 (^13C). These radioisotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, which makes them unstable and causes them to emit radiation.

Carbon-11 has a half-life of about 20 minutes and is used in medical imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with protons in a cyclotron.

Carbon-14, also known as radiocarbon, has a half-life of about 5730 years and is used in archaeology and geology to date organic materials. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.

Carbon-13 is stable and has a natural abundance of about 1.1% in carbon. It is not radioactive, but it can be used as a tracer in medical research and in the study of metabolic processes.

Coenzyme A (CoA) ligases, also known as CoA synthetases, are a class of enzymes that activate acyl groups, such as fatty acids and amino acids, by forming a thioester bond with coenzyme A. This activation is an essential step in various metabolic pathways, including fatty acid oxidation, amino acid catabolism, and the synthesis of several important compounds like steroids and acetylcholine.

CoA ligases catalyze the following reaction:

acyl group + ATP + CoA ↔ acyl-CoA + AMP + PP~i~

In this reaction, an acyl group (R-) from a carboxylic acid is linked to the thiol (-SH) group of coenzyme A through a high-energy thioester bond. The energy required for this activation is provided by the hydrolysis of ATP to AMP and inorganic pyrophosphate (PP~i~).

CoA ligases are classified into three main types based on the nature of the acyl group they activate:

1. Acyl-CoA synthetases (or long-chain fatty acid CoA ligases) activate long-chain fatty acids, typically containing 12 or more carbon atoms.
2. Aminoacyl-CoA synthetases activate amino acids to form aminoacyl-CoAs, which are essential intermediates in the catabolism of certain amino acids.
3. Short-chain specific CoA ligases activate short-chain fatty acids (up to 6 carbon atoms) and other acyl groups like acetate or propionate.

These enzymes play a crucial role in maintaining cellular energy homeostasis, metabolism, and the synthesis of various essential biomolecules.

Ceramides are a type of lipid molecule that are found naturally in the outer layer of the skin (the stratum corneum). They play a crucial role in maintaining the barrier function and hydration of the skin. Ceramides help to seal in moisture, support the structure of the skin, and protect against environmental stressors such as pollution and bacteria.

In addition to their role in the skin, ceramides have also been studied for their potential therapeutic benefits in various medical conditions. For example, abnormal levels of ceramides have been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. As a result, ceramide-based therapies are being investigated as potential treatments for these conditions.

Medically, ceramides may be mentioned in the context of skin disorders or diseases where there is a disruption in the skin's barrier function, such as eczema, psoriasis, and ichthyosis. In these cases, ceramide-based therapies may be used to help restore the skin's natural barrier and improve its overall health and appearance.

Fatty acid desaturases are enzymes that introduce double bonds into fatty acid molecules, thereby reducing their saturation level. These enzymes play a crucial role in the synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids, which are essential components of cell membranes and precursors for various signaling molecules.

The position of the introduced double bond is specified by the type of desaturase enzyme. For example, Δ-9 desaturases introduce a double bond at the ninth carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid chain. This enzyme is responsible for converting saturated fatty acids like stearic acid (18:0) to monounsaturated fatty acids like oleic acid (18:1n-9).

In humans, there are several fatty acid desaturases, including Δ-5 and Δ-6 desaturases, which introduce double bonds at the fifth and sixth carbon atoms from the methyl end, respectively. These enzymes are essential for the synthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) such as arachidonic acid (20:4n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3).

Disorders in fatty acid desaturase activity or expression have been linked to various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and metabolic disorders. Therefore, understanding the regulation and function of these enzymes is crucial for developing strategies to modulate fatty acid composition in cells and tissues, which may have therapeutic potential.

Phytanic acid is a branched-chain fatty acid that is primarily found in animal products, such as dairy foods and meat, but can also be present in some plants. It is a secondary plant metabolite that originates from the breakdown of phytol, a component of chlorophyll.

Phytanic acid is unique because it contains a methyl group branching off from the middle of the carbon chain, making it difficult for the body to break down and metabolize. Instead, it must be degraded through a process called α-oxidation, which takes place in peroxisomes.

In some cases, impaired phytanic acid metabolism can lead to a rare genetic disorder known as Refsum disease, which is characterized by the accumulation of phytanic acid in various tissues and organs, leading to neurological symptoms, retinal degeneration, and cardiac dysfunction.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a type of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid that is essential for human health. It is an important structural component of the phospholipid membranes in the brain and retina, and plays a crucial role in the development and function of the nervous system. DHA is also involved in various physiological processes, including inflammation, blood pressure regulation, and immune response.

DHA is not produced in sufficient quantities by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources or supplements. The richest dietary sources of DHA are fatty fish such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines, as well as algae and other marine organisms. DHA can also be found in fortified foods such as eggs, milk, and juice.

Deficiency in DHA has been linked to various health issues, including cognitive decline, vision problems, and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, it is recommended that individuals consume adequate amounts of DHA through diet or supplementation to maintain optimal health.

Fats, also known as lipids, are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. In the body, fats serve as a major fuel source, providing twice the amount of energy per gram compared to carbohydrates and proteins. They also play crucial roles in maintaining cell membrane structure and function, serving as precursors for various signaling molecules, and assisting in the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.

There are several types of fats:

1. Saturated fats: These fats contain no double bonds between their carbon atoms and are typically solid at room temperature. They are mainly found in animal products, such as meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as in some plant-based sources like coconut oil and palm kernel oil. Consuming high amounts of saturated fats can raise levels of harmful low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood, increasing the risk of heart disease.
2. Unsaturated fats: These fats contain one or more double bonds between their carbon atoms and are usually liquid at room temperature. They can be further divided into monounsaturated fats (one double bond) and polyunsaturated fats (two or more double bonds). Unsaturated fats, especially those from plant sources, tend to have beneficial effects on heart health by lowering LDL cholesterol levels and increasing high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.
3. Trans fats: These are unsaturated fats that have undergone a process called hydrogenation, which adds hydrogen atoms to the double bonds, making them more saturated and solid at room temperature. Partially hydrogenated trans fats are commonly found in processed foods, such as baked goods, fried foods, and snack foods. Consumption of trans fats has been linked to increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
4. Omega-3 fatty acids: These are a specific type of polyunsaturated fat that is essential for human health. They cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained through diet. Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to have numerous health benefits, including reducing inflammation, improving heart health, and supporting brain function.
5. Omega-6 fatty acids: These are another type of polyunsaturated fat that is essential for human health. They can be synthesized by the body but must also be obtained through diet. While omega-6 fatty acids are necessary for various bodily functions, excessive consumption can contribute to inflammation and other health issues. It is recommended to maintain a balanced ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids in the diet.

Lipoylation is the post-translational modification of proteins by attaching lipoic acid (also known as α-lipoic acid or octanoic acid) to specific lysine residues in the protein. This process plays a crucial role in mitochondrial energy metabolism, particularly in the functioning of multi-enzyme complexes involved in the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

The lipoic acid cofactor is covalently attached to the target proteins by enzymes called lipoyltransferases. Once attached, lipoic acid can undergo reversible oxidation-reduction reactions, which facilitate the transfer of electrons and acetyl groups during metabolic processes. These redox reactions are essential for the proper functioning of critical mitochondrial enzymes such as pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH), α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC), and branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC).

Dysregulation of lipoylation has been implicated in various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic conditions, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying lipoylation is important for developing potential therapeutic strategies to target these diseases.

Esterification is a chemical reaction that involves the conversion of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid into an ester, typically through the removal of a molecule of water. This reaction is often catalyzed by an acid or a base, and it is a key process in organic chemistry. Esters are commonly found in nature and are responsible for the fragrances of many fruits and flowers. They are also important in the production of various industrial and consumer products, including plastics, resins, and perfumes.

Coenzyme A, often abbreviated as CoA or sometimes holo-CoA, is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in several important chemical reactions in the body, particularly in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and amino acids. It is composed of a pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) derivative called pantothenate, an adenosine diphosphate (ADP) molecule, and a terminal phosphate group.

Coenzyme A functions as a carrier molecule for acetyl groups, which are formed during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and some amino acids. The acetyl group is attached to the sulfur atom in CoA, forming acetyl-CoA, which can then be used as a building block for various biochemical pathways, such as the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) and fatty acid synthesis.

In summary, Coenzyme A is a vital coenzyme that helps facilitate essential metabolic processes by carrying and transferring acetyl groups in the body.

Cerebrosides are a type of sphingolipid, which are lipids that contain sphingosine. They are major components of the outer layer of cell membranes and are particularly abundant in the nervous system. Cerebrosides are composed of a ceramide molecule (a fatty acid attached to sphingosine) and a sugar molecule, usually either glucose or galactose.

Glycosphingolipids that contain a ceramide with a single sugar residue are called cerebrosides. Those that contain more complex oligosaccharide chains are called gangliosides. Cerebrosides play important roles in cell recognition, signal transduction, and cell adhesion.

Abnormalities in the metabolism of cerebrosides can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Gaucher's disease, Krabbe disease, and Fabry disease. These conditions are characterized by the accumulation of cerebrosides or their breakdown products in various tissues, leading to progressive damage and dysfunction.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) is not a medical term per se, but a biochemical term. It is widely used in medical and biological research. Here's the definition:

Bovine Serum Albumin is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a stabilizer, an emulsifier, or a protein source in various laboratory and industrial applications, including biochemical experiments, cell culture media, and diagnostic kits. BSA has a high solubility in water and can bind to many different types of molecules, making it useful for preventing unwanted interactions between components in a solution. It also has a consistent composition and is relatively inexpensive compared to human serum albumin, which are factors that contribute to its widespread use.

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are a group of small intracellular proteins that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids within cells. They are responsible for binding long-chain fatty acids, which are hydrophobic molecules, and facilitating their movement across the cell while protecting the cells from lipotoxicity.

FABPs are expressed in various tissues, including the heart, liver, muscle, and brain, with different isoforms found in specific organs. These proteins have a high affinity for long-chain fatty acids and can regulate their intracellular concentration by controlling the uptake, storage, and metabolism of these molecules.

FABPs also play a role in modulating cell signaling pathways that are involved in various physiological processes such as inflammation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of FABP expression and function has been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes, obesity, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In summary, fatty acid-binding proteins are essential intracellular proteins that facilitate the transport and metabolism of long-chain fatty acids while regulating cell signaling pathways.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is a type of omega-3 fatty acid that is found in fish and some algae. It is a 20-carbon long polyunsaturated fatty acid with five double bonds, and has the chemical formula C20:5 n-3. EPA is an essential fatty acid, meaning that it cannot be produced by the human body and must be obtained through the diet.

EPA is a precursor to a group of hormone-like substances called eicosanoids, which include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. These compounds play important roles in regulating various physiological processes, such as inflammation, blood clotting, and immune function.

EPA has been studied for its potential health benefits, including reducing inflammation, lowering the risk of heart disease, and improving symptoms of depression. It is often taken as a dietary supplement in the form of fish oil or algal oil. However, it is important to note that while some studies have suggested potential health benefits of EPA, more research is needed to confirm these effects and establish recommended dosages.

Pulmonary surfactants are a complex mixture of lipids and proteins that are produced by the alveolar type II cells in the lungs. They play a crucial role in reducing the surface tension at the air-liquid interface within the alveoli, which helps to prevent collapse of the lungs during expiration. Surfactants also have important immunological functions, such as inhibiting the growth of certain bacteria and modulating the immune response. Deficiency or dysfunction of pulmonary surfactants can lead to respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in premature infants and other lung diseases.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a type of essential fatty acid, which means that it cannot be produced by the human body and must be obtained through diet. It is an 18-carbon fatty acid with three cis double bonds, and its chemical formula is C18:3 n-3 or 9c,12c,15c-18:3.

ALA is one of the two essential omega-3 fatty acids, along with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA is found in a variety of plant sources, including flaxseeds, chia seeds, hemp seeds, walnuts, soybeans, and some vegetable oils such as canola and soybean oil.

ALA is an important precursor to EPA and DHA, which have been shown to have numerous health benefits, including reducing inflammation, improving heart health, and supporting brain function. However, the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is limited in humans, and it is recommended to consume foods rich in EPA and DHA directly, such as fatty fish and fish oil supplements.

Medically speaking, a deficiency in ALA can lead to various health issues, including dry skin, hair loss, poor wound healing, and increased risk of heart disease. Therefore, it is important to include adequate amounts of ALA-rich foods in the diet to maintain optimal health.

Acyltransferases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of an acyl group (a functional group consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and single-bonded to a hydrogen atom) from one molecule to another. This transfer involves the formation of an ester bond between the acyl group donor and the acyl group acceptor.

Acyltransferases play important roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of lipids, fatty acids, and other metabolites. They are also involved in the detoxification of xenobiotics (foreign substances) by catalyzing the addition of an acyl group to these compounds, making them more water-soluble and easier to excrete from the body.

Examples of acyltransferases include serine palmitoyltransferase, which is involved in the biosynthesis of sphingolipids, and cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), which facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters between lipoproteins.

Acyltransferases are classified based on the type of acyl group they transfer and the nature of the acyl group donor and acceptor molecules. They can be further categorized into subclasses based on their sequence similarities, three-dimensional structures, and evolutionary relationships.

Post-translational protein processing refers to the modifications and changes that proteins undergo after their synthesis on ribosomes, which are complex molecular machines responsible for protein synthesis. These modifications occur through various biochemical processes and play a crucial role in determining the final structure, function, and stability of the protein.

The process begins with the translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into a linear polypeptide chain, which is then subjected to several post-translational modifications. These modifications can include:

1. Proteolytic cleavage: The removal of specific segments or domains from the polypeptide chain by proteases, resulting in the formation of mature, functional protein subunits.
2. Chemical modifications: Addition or modification of chemical groups to the side chains of amino acids, such as phosphorylation (addition of a phosphate group), glycosylation (addition of sugar moieties), methylation (addition of a methyl group), acetylation (addition of an acetyl group), and ubiquitination (addition of a ubiquitin protein).
3. Disulfide bond formation: The oxidation of specific cysteine residues within the polypeptide chain, leading to the formation of disulfide bonds between them. This process helps stabilize the three-dimensional structure of proteins, particularly in extracellular environments.
4. Folding and assembly: The acquisition of a specific three-dimensional conformation by the polypeptide chain, which is essential for its function. Chaperone proteins assist in this process to ensure proper folding and prevent aggregation.
5. Protein targeting: The directed transport of proteins to their appropriate cellular locations, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, or plasma membrane. This is often facilitated by specific signal sequences within the protein that are recognized and bound by transport machinery.

Collectively, these post-translational modifications contribute to the functional diversity of proteins in living organisms, allowing them to perform a wide range of cellular processes, including signaling, catalysis, regulation, and structural support.

Cysteine is a semi-essential amino acid, which means that it can be produced by the human body under normal circumstances, but may need to be obtained from external sources in certain conditions such as illness or stress. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH2SH, and it contains a sulfhydryl group (-SH), which allows it to act as a powerful antioxidant and participate in various cellular processes.

Cysteine plays important roles in protein structure and function, detoxification, and the synthesis of other molecules such as glutathione, taurine, and coenzyme A. It is also involved in wound healing, immune response, and the maintenance of healthy skin, hair, and nails.

Cysteine can be found in a variety of foods, including meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, eggs, legumes, nuts, seeds, and some grains. It is also available as a dietary supplement and can be used in the treatment of various medical conditions such as liver disease, bronchitis, and heavy metal toxicity. However, excessive intake of cysteine may have adverse effects on health, including gastrointestinal disturbances, nausea, vomiting, and headaches.

Arachidonic acid is a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that is found naturally in the body and in certain foods. It is an essential fatty acid, meaning that it cannot be produced by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. Arachidonic acid is a key component of cell membranes and plays a role in various physiological processes, including inflammation and blood clotting.

In the body, arachidonic acid is released from cell membranes in response to various stimuli, such as injury or infection. Once released, it can be converted into a variety of bioactive compounds, including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, which mediate various physiological responses, including inflammation, pain, fever, and blood clotting.

Arachidonic acid is found in high concentrations in animal products such as meat, poultry, fish, and eggs, as well as in some plant sources such as certain nuts and seeds. It is also available as a dietary supplement. However, it is important to note that excessive intake of arachidonic acid can contribute to the development of inflammation and other health problems, so it is recommended to consume this fatty acid in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Fatty acid synthases (FAS) are a group of enzymes that are responsible for the synthesis of fatty acids in the body. They catalyze a series of reactions that convert acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA into longer chain fatty acids, which are then used for various purposes such as energy storage or membrane formation.

The human genome encodes two types of FAS: type I and type II. Type I FAS is a large multifunctional enzyme complex found in the cytoplasm of cells, while type II FAS consists of individual enzymes located in the mitochondria. Both types of FAS play important roles in lipid metabolism, but their regulation and expression differ depending on the tissue and physiological conditions.

Inhibition of FAS has been explored as a potential therapeutic strategy for various diseases, including cancer, obesity, and metabolic disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand the complex mechanisms regulating FAS activity and its role in human health and disease.

Phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) are a type of phospholipid that are abundantly found in the cell membranes of living organisms. They play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and functionality of the cell membrane. PE contains a hydrophilic head, which consists of an ethanolamine group linked to a phosphate group, and two hydrophobic fatty acid chains. This unique structure allows PE to form a lipid bilayer, where the hydrophilic heads face outwards and interact with the aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails face inwards and interact with each other.

PE is also involved in various cellular processes, such as membrane trafficking, autophagy, and signal transduction. Additionally, PE can be modified by the addition of various functional groups or molecules, which can further regulate its functions and interactions within the cell. Overall, phosphatidylethanolamines are essential components of cellular membranes and play a critical role in maintaining cellular homeostasis.

Diacylglycerols (also known as diglycerides) are a type of glyceride, which is a compound that consists of glycerol and one or more fatty acids. Diacylglycerols contain two fatty acid chains bonded to a glycerol molecule through ester linkages. They are important intermediates in the metabolism of lipids and can be found in many types of food, including vegetable oils and dairy products. In the body, diacylglycerols can serve as a source of energy and can also play roles in cell signaling processes.

Lipocalin 1, also known as neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), is a protein that belongs to the lipocalin family. It is a small secreted protein with a molecular weight of approximately 25 kDa and is composed of a single polypeptide chain.

Lipocalin 1 is primarily produced by neutrophils, but can also be expressed in other tissues such as the kidney, liver, and lungs. It plays a role in the innate immune response by binding to bacterial siderophores, preventing bacterial growth by limiting their access to iron.

In addition, Lipocalin 1 has been identified as a biomarker for early detection of acute kidney injury (AKI). Its expression is rapidly upregulated in the kidney in response to injury, and its levels can be measured in urine and blood. Increased urinary Lipocalin 1 levels have been shown to predict AKI with high sensitivity and specificity, making it a promising diagnostic tool for this condition.

Proteolipids are a type of complex lipid-containing proteins that are insoluble in water and have a high content of hydrophobic amino acids. They are primarily found in the plasma membrane of cells, where they play important roles in maintaining the structural integrity and function of the membrane. Proteolipids are also found in various organelles, including mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.

Proteolipids are composed of a hydrophobic protein core that is tightly associated with a lipid bilayer through non-covalent interactions. The protein component of proteolipids typically contains several transmembrane domains that span the lipid bilayer, as well as hydrophilic regions that face the cytoplasm or the lumen of organelles.

Proteolipids have been implicated in various cellular processes, including signal transduction, membrane trafficking, and ion transport. They are also associated with several neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis. The study of proteolipids is an active area of research in biochemistry and cell biology, with potential implications for the development of new therapies for neurological disorders.

Chylomicrons are a type of lipoprotein that are responsible for carrying dietary lipids, such as triglycerides and cholesterol, from the intestines to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system and bloodstream. They are the largest lipoproteins and are composed of an outer layer of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, which surrounds a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. Chylomicrons are produced in the intestinal mucosa after a meal containing fat, and their production is stimulated by the hormone cholecystokinin. Once in the bloodstream, chylomicrons interact with other lipoproteins and enzymes to deliver their lipid cargo to various tissues, including muscle and adipose tissue, where they are used for energy or stored for later use.

Sphingomyelins are a type of sphingolipids, which are a class of lipids that contain sphingosine as a backbone. Sphingomyelins are composed of phosphocholine or phosphoethanolamine bound to the ceramide portion of the molecule through a phosphodiester linkage. They are important components of cell membranes, particularly in the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve fibers. Sphingomyelins can be hydrolyzed by the enzyme sphingomyelinase to form ceramide and phosphorylcholine or phosphorylethanolamine. Abnormalities in sphingomyelin metabolism have been implicated in several diseases, including Niemann-Pick disease, a group of inherited lipid storage disorders.

Acetates, in a medical context, most commonly refer to compounds that contain the acetate group, which is an functional group consisting of a carbon atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom (-COO-). An example of an acetate is sodium acetate (CH3COONa), which is a salt formed from acetic acid (CH3COOH) and is often used as a buffering agent in medical solutions.

Acetates can also refer to a group of medications that contain acetate as an active ingredient, such as magnesium acetate, which is used as a laxative, or calcium acetate, which is used to treat high levels of phosphate in the blood.

In addition, acetates can also refer to a process called acetylation, which is the addition of an acetyl group (-COCH3) to a molecule. This process can be important in the metabolism and regulation of various substances within the body.

Ethanolamine is an organic compound that is a primary amine and a secondary alcohol. It is a colorless, viscous liquid with an odor similar to ammonia. Ethanolamine is used in the manufacture of a wide variety of products including detergents, pharmaceuticals, polishes, inks, textiles, and plastics. In the body, ethanolamine is a component of many important molecules, such as phosphatidylethanolamine, which is a major constituent of cell membranes. It is also involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters and hormones.

Carnitine is a naturally occurring substance in the body that plays a crucial role in energy production. It transports long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be broken down to produce energy. Carnitine is also available as a dietary supplement and is often used to treat or prevent carnitine deficiency.

The medical definition of Carnitine is:

"A quaternary ammonium compound that occurs naturally in animal tissues, especially in muscle, heart, brain, and liver. It is essential for the transport of long-chain fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be oxidized to produce energy. Carnitine also functions as an antioxidant and has been studied as a potential treatment for various conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, and kidney disease."

Carnitine is also known as L-carnitine or levocarnitine. It can be found in foods such as red meat, dairy products, fish, poultry, and tempeh. In the body, carnitine is synthesized from the amino acids lysine and methionine with the help of vitamin C and iron. Some people may have a deficiency in carnitine due to genetic factors, malnutrition, or certain medical conditions, such as kidney disease or liver disease. In these cases, supplementation may be necessary to prevent or treat symptoms of carnitine deficiency.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Phospholipases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of phospholipids, which are major components of cell membranes. Phospholipases cleave specific ester bonds in phospholipids, releasing free fatty acids and other lipophilic molecules. Based on the site of action, phospholipases are classified into four types:

1. Phospholipase A1 (PLA1): This enzyme hydrolyzes the ester bond at the sn-1 position of a glycerophospholipid, releasing a free fatty acid and a lysophospholipid.
2. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): PLA2 cleaves the ester bond at the sn-2 position of a glycerophospholipid, releasing a free fatty acid (often arachidonic acid) and a lysophospholipid. Arachidonic acid is a precursor for eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules involved in inflammation and other physiological processes.
3. Phospholipase C (PLC): PLC hydrolyzes the phosphodiester bond in the headgroup of a glycerophospholipid, releasing diacylglycerol (DAG) and a soluble head group, such as inositol trisphosphate (IP3). DAG acts as a secondary messenger in intracellular signaling pathways, while IP3 mediates the release of calcium ions from intracellular stores.
4. Phospholipase D (PLD): PLD cleaves the phosphoester bond between the headgroup and the glycerol moiety of a glycerophospholipid, releasing phosphatidic acid (PA) and a free head group. PA is an important signaling molecule involved in various cellular processes, including membrane trafficking, cytoskeletal reorganization, and cell survival.

Phospholipases have diverse roles in normal physiology and pathophysiological conditions, such as inflammation, immunity, and neurotransmission. Dysregulation of phospholipase activity can contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Fatty alcohols, also known as long-chain alcohols or long-chain fatty alcohols, are a type of fatty compound that contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) and a long alkyl chain. They are typically derived from natural sources such as plant and animal fats and oils, and can also be synthetically produced.

Fatty alcohols can vary in chain length, typically containing between 8 and 30 carbon atoms. They are commonly used in a variety of industrial and consumer products, including detergents, emulsifiers, lubricants, and personal care products. In the medical field, fatty alcohols may be used as ingredients in certain medications or topical treatments.

Lysophosphatidylcholines (LPCs) are a type of glycerophospholipids, which are major components of cell membranes. They are formed by the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholines, another type of glycerophospholipids, catalyzed by the enzyme phospholipase A2. LPCs contain a single fatty acid chain attached to a glycerol backbone and a choline headgroup.

In medical terms, LPCs have been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, such as cell signaling, membrane remodeling, and inflammation. Elevated levels of LPCs have been found in several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer. They can also serve as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of these conditions.

The Radioisotope Dilution Technique is a method used in nuclear medicine to measure the volume and flow rate of a particular fluid in the body. It involves introducing a known amount of a radioactive isotope, or radioisotope, into the fluid, such as blood. The isotope mixes with the fluid, and samples are then taken from the fluid at various time points.

By measuring the concentration of the radioisotope in each sample, it is possible to calculate the total volume of the fluid based on the amount of the isotope introduced and the dilution factor. The flow rate can also be calculated by measuring the concentration of the isotope over time and using the formula:

Flow rate = Volume/Time

This technique is commonly used in medical research and clinical settings to measure cardiac output, cerebral blood flow, and renal function, among other applications. It is a safe and reliable method that has been widely used for many years. However, it does require the use of radioactive materials and specialized equipment, so it should only be performed by trained medical professionals in appropriate facilities.

Unsaturated dietary fats are a type of fat that are primarily found in foods from plants. They are called "unsaturated" because of their chemical structure, which contains one or more double bonds in the carbon chain of the fat molecule. These double bonds can be either monounsaturated (one double bond) or polyunsaturated (multiple double bonds).

Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as olive oil, avocados, and nuts, while polyunsaturated fats are found in foods such as fatty fish, flaxseeds, and vegetable oils. Unsaturated fats are generally considered to be heart-healthy, as they can help lower levels of harmful cholesterol in the blood and reduce the risk of heart disease.

It is important to note that while unsaturated fats are healthier than saturated and trans fats, they are still high in calories and should be consumed in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Intestinal absorption refers to the process by which the small intestine absorbs water, nutrients, and electrolytes from food into the bloodstream. This is a critical part of the digestive process, allowing the body to utilize the nutrients it needs and eliminate waste products. The inner wall of the small intestine contains tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase the surface area for absorption. Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the capillaries in these villi, and then transported to other parts of the body for use or storage.

Cholesteryl esters are formed when cholesterol, a type of lipid (fat) that is important for the normal functioning of the body, becomes combined with fatty acids through a process called esterification. This results in a compound that is more hydrophobic (water-repelling) than cholesterol itself, which allows it to be stored more efficiently in the body.

Cholesteryl esters are found naturally in foods such as animal fats and oils, and they are also produced by the liver and other cells in the body. They play an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes, and they are also precursors to the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

However, high levels of cholesteryl esters in the blood can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. Cholesteryl esters are typically measured as part of a lipid profile, along with other markers such as total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.

A cross-over study is a type of experimental design in which participants receive two or more interventions in a specific order. After a washout period, each participant receives the opposite intervention(s). The primary advantage of this design is that it controls for individual variability by allowing each participant to act as their own control.

In medical research, cross-over studies are often used to compare the efficacy or safety of two treatments. For example, a researcher might conduct a cross-over study to compare the effectiveness of two different medications for treating high blood pressure. Half of the participants would be randomly assigned to receive one medication first and then switch to the other medication after a washout period. The other half of the participants would receive the opposite order of treatments.

Cross-over studies can provide valuable insights into the relative merits of different interventions, but they also have some limitations. For example, they may not be suitable for studying conditions that are chronic or irreversible, as it may not be possible to completely reverse the effects of the first intervention before administering the second one. Additionally, carryover effects from the first intervention can confound the results if they persist into the second treatment period.

Overall, cross-over studies are a useful tool in medical research when used appropriately and with careful consideration of their limitations.

Sphingolipids are a class of lipids that contain a sphingosine base, which is a long-chain amino alcohol with an unsaturated bond and an amino group. They are important components of animal cell membranes, particularly in the nervous system. Sphingolipids include ceramides, sphingomyelins, and glycosphingolipids.

Ceramides consist of a sphingosine base linked to a fatty acid through an amide bond. They play important roles in cell signaling, membrane structure, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Sphingomyelins are formed when ceramides combine with phosphorylcholine, resulting in the formation of a polar head group. Sphingomyelins are major components of the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve cells and are involved in signal transduction and membrane structure.

Glycosphingolipids contain one or more sugar residues attached to the ceramide backbone, forming complex structures that play important roles in cell recognition, adhesion, and signaling. Abnormalities in sphingolipid metabolism have been linked to various diseases, including neurological disorders, cancer, and cardiovascular disease.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

The postprandial period is the time frame following a meal, during which the body is engaged in the process of digestion, absorption, and assimilation of nutrients. In a medical context, this term generally refers to the few hours after eating when the body is responding to the ingested food, particularly in terms of changes in metabolism and insulin levels.

The postprandial period can be of specific interest in the study and management of conditions such as diabetes, where understanding how the body handles glucose during this time can inform treatment decisions and strategies for maintaining healthy blood sugar levels.

Microsomes are subcellular membranous vesicles that are obtained as a byproduct during the preparation of cellular homogenates. They are not naturally occurring structures within the cell, but rather formed due to fragmentation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) during laboratory procedures. Microsomes are widely used in various research and scientific studies, particularly in the fields of biochemistry and pharmacology.

Microsomes are rich in enzymes, including the cytochrome P450 system, which is involved in the metabolism of drugs, toxins, and other xenobiotics. These enzymes play a crucial role in detoxifying foreign substances and eliminating them from the body. As such, microsomes serve as an essential tool for studying drug metabolism, toxicity, and interactions, allowing researchers to better understand and predict the effects of various compounds on living organisms.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Glycerol, also known as glycerine or glycerin, is a simple polyol (a sugar alcohol) with a sweet taste and a thick, syrupy consistency. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is slightly soluble in water and freely miscible with ethanol and ether.

In the medical field, glycerol is often used as a medication or supplement. It can be used as a laxative to treat constipation, as a source of calories and energy for people who cannot eat by mouth, and as a way to prevent dehydration in people with certain medical conditions.

Glycerol is also used in the production of various medical products, such as medications, skin care products, and vaccines. It acts as a humectant, which means it helps to keep things moist, and it can also be used as a solvent or preservative.

In addition to its medical uses, glycerol is also widely used in the food industry as a sweetener, thickening agent, and moisture-retaining agent. It is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Caprylates are the salts or esters of capric acid, a saturated fatty acid with a chain length of 8 carbon atoms. In medical and biological contexts, caprylate refers to the anion (negatively charged ion) form of capric acid, which has the chemical formula C8H17O2-. Caprylates are used in various applications, including as food additives, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products.

Some examples of caprylate compounds include:

* Sodium caprylate (sodium octanoate): a sodium salt commonly used as a preservative and flavor enhancer in foods.
* Calcium caprylate (calcium octanoate): a calcium salt used as an emulsifier in food products and as a stabilizer in cosmetics.
* Caprylic acid/caprylate triglycerides: esters of glycerin with caprylic acid, used as emollients and solvents in skin care products and pharmaceuticals.

Caprylates have antimicrobial properties against certain bacteria, fungi, and viruses, making them useful in various medical applications. For instance, sodium caprylate is sometimes used as an antifungal agent to treat conditions like candidiasis (yeast infections). However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of using caprylates for medicinal purposes.

Culture media is a substance that is used to support the growth of microorganisms or cells in an artificial environment, such as a petri dish or test tube. It typically contains nutrients and other factors that are necessary for the growth and survival of the organisms being cultured. There are many different types of culture media, each with its own specific formulation and intended use. Some common examples include blood agar, which is used to culture bacteria; Sabouraud dextrose agar, which is used to culture fungi; and Eagle's minimum essential medium, which is used to culture animal cells.

"Mortierella" is a genus of fungi that belongs to the family Mortierellaceae. These fungi are widely distributed in various environments, including soil, decaying plant material, and animal manure. Some species of Mortierella are known to produce enzymes that can break down complex organic compounds, making them useful in industrial applications such as bioremediation and the production of biofuels.

In a medical context, some species of Mortierella have been reported to cause rare but serious infections in humans, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. These infections typically involve the skin, soft tissues, or lungs and can be difficult to diagnose and treat due to their rarity and non-specific symptoms.

It's worth noting that Mortierella infections are not common, and most people come into contact with these fungi without experiencing any negative health effects. However, if you suspect that you may have a Mortierella infection or any other type of fungal infection, it's important to seek medical attention promptly.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Adipose tissue, also known as fatty tissue, is a type of connective tissue that is composed mainly of adipocytes (fat cells). It is found throughout the body, but is particularly abundant in the abdominal cavity, beneath the skin, and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.

Adipose tissue serves several important functions in the body. One of its primary roles is to store energy in the form of fat, which can be mobilized and used as an energy source during periods of fasting or exercise. Adipose tissue also provides insulation and cushioning for the body, and produces hormones that help regulate metabolism, appetite, and reproductive function.

There are two main types of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT is the more common form and is responsible for storing energy as fat. BAT, on the other hand, contains a higher number of mitochondria and is involved in heat production and energy expenditure.

Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue can lead to obesity, which is associated with an increased risk of various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hydrocarbons" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. They are primarily used in industry as fuel, lubricants, and as raw materials for the production of plastics, fibers, and other chemicals.

However, in a broader scientific context, hydrocarbons can be relevant to medical discussions. For instance, in toxicology, exposure to certain types of hydrocarbons (like those found in gasoline or solvents) can lead to poisoning and related health issues. In environmental medicine, the pollution of air, water, and soil with hydrocarbons is a concern due to potential health effects.

But in general clinical medicine, 'hydrocarbons' wouldn't have a specific definition.

Thiol esters are chemical compounds that contain a sulfur atom (from a mercapto group, -SH) linked to a carbonyl group (a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen atom, -CO-) through an ester bond. Thiolester hydrolases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of thiol esters, breaking down these compounds into a carboxylic acid and a thiol (a compound containing a mercapto group).

In biological systems, thiolester bonds play important roles in various metabolic pathways. For example, acetyl-CoA, a crucial molecule in energy metabolism, is a thiol ester that forms between coenzyme A and an acetyl group. Thiolester hydrolases help regulate the formation and breakdown of these thiol esters, allowing cells to control various biochemical reactions.

Examples of thiolester hydrolases include:

1. CoA thioesterases (CoATEs): These enzymes hydrolyze thiol esters between coenzyme A and fatty acids, releasing free coenzyme A and a fatty acid. This process is essential for fatty acid metabolism.
2. Acetyl-CoA hydrolase: This enzyme specifically breaks down the thiol ester bond in acetyl-CoA, releasing acetic acid and coenzyme A.
3. Thioesterases involved in non-ribosomal peptide synthesis (NRPS): These enzymes hydrolyze thiol esters during the biosynthesis of complex peptides, allowing for the formation of unique amino acid sequences and structures.

Understanding the function and regulation of thiolester hydrolases can provide valuable insights into various metabolic processes and potential therapeutic targets in disease treatment.

Glycerophosphates are esters of glycerol and phosphoric acid. In the context of biochemistry and medicine, glycerophosphates often refer to glycerol 3-phosphate (also known as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or glycerone phosphate) and its derivatives.

Glycerol 3-phosphate plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism, particularly in the process of energy production and storage. It is an important intermediate in both glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose to produce energy) and gluconeogenesis (the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors).

In addition, glycerophosphates are also involved in the formation of phospholipids, a major component of cell membranes. The esterification of glycerol 3-phosphate with fatty acids leads to the synthesis of phosphatidic acid, which is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of other phospholipids.

Abnormalities in glycerophosphate metabolism have been implicated in various diseases, including metabolic disorders and neurological conditions.

Stereoisomerism is a type of isomerism (structural arrangement of atoms) in which molecules have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms, but differ in the three-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space. This occurs when the molecule contains asymmetric carbon atoms or other rigid structures that prevent free rotation, leading to distinct spatial arrangements of groups of atoms around a central point. Stereoisomers can have different chemical and physical properties, such as optical activity, boiling points, and reactivities, due to differences in their shape and the way they interact with other molecules.

There are two main types of stereoisomerism: enantiomers (mirror-image isomers) and diastereomers (non-mirror-image isomers). Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other, but cannot be superimposed on one another. Diastereomers, on the other hand, are non-mirror-image stereoisomers that have different physical and chemical properties.

Stereoisomerism is an important concept in chemistry and biology, as it can affect the biological activity of molecules, such as drugs and natural products. For example, some enantiomers of a drug may be active, while others are inactive or even toxic. Therefore, understanding stereoisomerism is crucial for designing and synthesizing effective and safe drugs.

Arachidonic acids are a type of polyunsaturated fatty acid that is primarily found in the phospholipids of cell membranes. They contain 20 carbon atoms and four double bonds (20:4n-6), with the first double bond located at the sixth carbon atom from the methyl end.

Arachidonic acids are derived from linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources such as meat, fish, and eggs. Once ingested, linoleic acid is converted to arachidonic acid in a series of enzymatic reactions.

Arachidonic acids play an important role in various physiological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and cell signaling. They serve as precursors for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which are signaling molecules that include prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. These eicosanoids have diverse biological activities, such as modulating blood flow, platelet aggregation, and pain perception, among others.

However, excessive production of arachidonic acid-derived eicosanoids has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including inflammation, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Therefore, the regulation of arachidonic acid metabolism is an important area of research for the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) in the body. Specifically, SCD catalyzes the conversion of saturated fatty acids, such as stearic acid and palmitic acid, into MUFAs by introducing a double bond into their carbon chain.

The two main isoforms of SCD in humans are SCD1 and SCD5, with SCD1 being the most well-studied. SCD1 is primarily located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells in various tissues, including the liver, adipose tissue, and skin.

The regulation of SCD activity has important implications for human health, as MUFAs are essential components of cell membranes and play a role in maintaining their fluidity and functionality. Additionally, abnormal levels of SCD activity have been linked to several diseases, including obesity, insulin resistance, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of SCD is an active area of research in the field of lipid metabolism and related diseases.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Lysophospholipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of a single fatty acid from lysophospholipids, producing a glycerophosphocholine and free fatty acid. This enzyme plays a role in the metabolism of lipids and membrane homeostasis. There are several types of lysophospholipases that differ based on their specificity for the head group of the lysophospholipid substrate, such as lysophosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase or lysophospholipase 1 (LPLA1), and lysophosphatidic acid-specific phospholipase D or autotaxin (ATX).

Deficiency or mutations in lysophospholipases can lead to various diseases, such as LPI (lysophosphatidylinositol lipidosis) caused by a deficiency of the lysophospholipase superfamily member called Ptdlns-specific phospholipase C (PLC).

Note: This definition is for general information purposes only and may not include all the latest findings or medical terminologies. For accurate and comprehensive understanding, it's recommended to consult authoritative medical textbooks or resources.

Myelin P2 protein, also known as proteolipid protein 1 (PLP1), is a major structural component of the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. The myelin sheath is a protective and insulating layer that surrounds nerve cell fibers (axons), allowing for efficient and rapid transmission of electrical signals.

The P2 protein is a transmembrane protein, with four transmembrane domains, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining the stability and integrity of the myelin sheath. Mutations in the gene that encodes for this protein (PLP1) have been associated with several demyelinating diseases, including Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD), a rare X-linked recessive disorder characterized by abnormalities in the development and maintenance of the myelin sheath.

The P2 protein is also involved in various cellular processes, such as signal transduction, ion transport, and immune response regulation. However, the precise mechanisms through which these functions are carried out remain to be fully elucidated.

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is a type of enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the sn-2 ester bond in glycerophospholipids, releasing free fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid, and lysophospholipids. These products are important precursors for the biosynthesis of various signaling molecules, including eicosanoids, platelet-activating factor (PAF), and lipoxins, which play crucial roles in inflammation, immunity, and other cellular processes.

Phospholipases A2 are classified into several groups based on their structure, mechanism of action, and cellular localization. The secreted PLA2s (sPLA2s) are found in extracellular fluids and are characterized by a low molecular weight, while the calcium-dependent cytosolic PLA2s (cPLA2s) are larger proteins that reside within cells.

Abnormal regulation or activity of Phospholipase A2 has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as inflammation, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Therefore, understanding the biology and function of these enzymes is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these disorders.

I couldn't find a medical definition for the term "butter" in and of itself, as it is not a medical term. However, butter is a common food item that can be mentioned in a medical context. Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the fat globules from the buttermilk. It is used as a spread, cooking fat, and ingredient in various foods.

In some cases, butter may be relevant in a medical setting due to its nutritional content. Butter is high in saturated fats and cholesterol, which can contribute to an increased risk of heart disease when consumed in excess. Therefore, individuals with certain medical conditions, such as high blood cholesterol levels or a history of heart disease, may be advised to limit their intake of butter and other high-fat dairy products.

Additionally, some people may have allergies or sensitivities to dairy products, including butter, which can cause symptoms such as hives, itching, swelling, difficulty breathing, or digestive problems. In these cases, avoiding butter and other dairy products is important for managing the allergy or sensitivity.

Phospholipases A are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids into fatty acids and lysophospholipids by cleaving the ester bond at the sn-1 or sn-2 position of the glycerol backbone. There are three main types of Phospholipases A:

* Phospholipase A1 (PLA1): This enzyme specifically hydrolyzes the ester bond at the sn-1 position, releasing a free fatty acid and a lysophospholipid.
* Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): This enzyme specifically hydrolyzes the ester bond at the sn-2 position, releasing a free fatty acid (often arachidonic acid, which is a precursor for eicosanoids) and a lysophospholipid.
* Phospholipase A/B (PLA/B): This enzyme has both PLA1 and PLA2 activity and can hydrolyze the ester bond at either the sn-1 or sn-2 position.

Phospholipases A play important roles in various biological processes, including cell signaling, membrane remodeling, and host defense. They are also involved in several diseases, such as atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, oils are typically defined as lipid-based substances that are derived from plants or animals. They are made up of molecules called fatty acids, which can be either saturated or unsaturated. Oils are often used in medical treatments and therapies due to their ability to deliver active ingredients through the skin, as well as their moisturizing and soothing properties. Some oils, such as essential oils, are also used in aromatherapy for their potential therapeutic benefits. However, it's important to note that some oils can be toxic or irritating if ingested or applied to the skin in large amounts, so they should always be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

Ceramidases are a group of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ceramide into sphingosine and free fatty acids. Ceramides are important components of cell membranes, and their metabolism is tightly regulated in cells. The hydrolysis of ceramide by ceramidases produces sphingosine, which can be further phosphorylated to form sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a signaling molecule involved in various cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, and survival.

There are several types of ceramidases that have been identified, including acid ceramidase, neutral ceramidase, and alkaline ceramidase. These enzymes differ in their subcellular localization, substrate specificity, and physiological functions. Dysregulation of ceramidase activity has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and inflammatory conditions. Therefore, ceramidases are considered as potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of these diseases.

Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique used to identify and quantify the chemical components of a mixture or compound. It works by ionizing the sample, generating charged molecules or fragments, and then measuring their mass-to-charge ratio in a vacuum. The resulting mass spectrum provides information about the molecular weight and structure of the analytes, allowing for identification and characterization.

In simpler terms, mass spectrometry is a method used to determine what chemicals are present in a sample and in what quantities, by converting the chemicals into ions, measuring their masses, and generating a spectrum that shows the relative abundances of each ion type.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

... palmitic acid. The cetyl ester of palmitic acid, cetyl palmitate, occurs in spermaceti. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid ... is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid. It is well accepted in the medical community that palmitic acid ... Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature) is a fatty acid with a 16-carbon chain. It is the most common saturated ... Sigma-Aldrich Co., Palmitic acid. Retrieved on 2014-06-02. CID 985 from PubChem "Palmitic acid". Seidell, Atherton; Linke, ...
... oleic acid; 5-11% linoleic acid; 7.5-10% palmitic acid; 1.5-3% stearic acid - the ratios are similar to that found in wild ... Another analysis of several cultivars found : 82-84% unsaturated acids of which 68-77% oleic acid; and 7-14% polyunsaturated ... Yang, Chunying; Liu, Xueming; Chen, Zhiyi; Lin, Yaosheng; Wang, Siyuan (2016), "Comparison of Oil Content and Fatty Acid ... "Fatty acid composition of Camellia oleifera oil", Journal für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit, 6 (11): 9-12, doi: ...
"palmitic acid - C16H32O2 - PubChem". Kalmanzon, E.; Aknin-Herrman, R.; Rahamim, Y.; Carmeli, S.; Barenholz, Y.; Zlotkin, E. ( ... Pahutoxin is a choline chloride ester of 3-acetoxypalmitic acid that behaves similarly to steroidal saponins found in ...
Palmitate Palmitic acid Merck Index, 11th Edition, 2020. "Hexadecan-1-ol_msds". M. Raneft, D.; Eaker, H.; W. Davis, R. (2001 ...
The most present saturated fat is palmitic acid. It has been reported that Digitaria exilis is an optimal food for people ... These two amino acids, however, are lacking in wheat, rice, maize, and other cereal crops. Moving from the amino acid level to ... The remaining fatty acids in the hulled grain are mainly unsaturated fats like linoleic and oleic acid. ... Digitaria exilis is an important source of nutrition because it is rich in methionine, which is an amino acid that is vital to ...
... is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (table). Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid. The saturated fat ... palmitic acid). Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in ... Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and ... DV in pantothenic acid) and vitamin K (20% DV), with moderate contents (10-19% DV) of vitamin C, vitamin E, and potassium. ...
N-Palmitoylethanolamine (PEA: C18H37NO2; 16:0) is the amide of palmitic acid (C16H32O2; 16:0) and ethanolamine. It is a ligand ... to eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA: C20H32O2; 20:4-n3; omega-3 Arachidonic acid) and arachidonic acid (AA: C20H32O2; 20:4-n6) to ... and heptadecanoic acid (C17H34O2; 17:0), elevated palmitoleic acid (POA; C16H30O2; 16:1, n-7), a conjugate acid of a ... where n-7 fatty acids are precursors for the production of omega-4 fatty acids like palmitolinoleic acid (16:2), and a ...
... is monounsaturated fat as oleic acid. Other predominant fats include palmitic acid and linoleic acid. The saturated fat content ... palmitic acid). "The Hass Mother Tree: 1926-2002". Avocado.org. Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission. 2008. pp. "About ...
Palmitoleic can subsequently be used to create a number of other fatty acids. Palmitic acid is also used to synthesize ... ISBN 978-1-4292-8360-1. "Palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, in Cell Culture". Sigma-Aldrich. Retrieved 2016-02-29. Zhang, ... Further, palmitic acid, which is created by the beta-ketoacyl-synthases on type I FAS, is used in a number of biological ... Type I FAS catalyzes all the reactions necessary to create palmitic acid, which is a necessary function in animals for ...
Some of these different fats include oleic acids, found in canola oil, animal tallow, and yellow grease; palmitic acid found in ... It contains levels of both essential amino acids as well as branched that are above those of soy, meat, and wheat. "Diafiltered ... This protein is commonly used in protein bars, beverages and concentrated powder, due to its high quality amino acid profile. ... Diets are formulated to meet the dairy cow's energy and amino acid requirements for lactation, growth, and/or reproduction. ...
It is high in oleic and palmitic fatty acids (table). Açai oil is widely used for cooking and as a salad dressing. In cosmetics ... syringic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid and ferulic acid as well as (+)-catechin and numerous procyanidin ... The oil is rich in phenolic compounds similar in profile to the pulp itself, such as vanillic acid, ...
... a peripheral membrane protein with covalently bound palmitic acid". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 262 (3): 1300-4. doi: ...
Synthesis Palmitic acid Coenzyme A Coenzyme A CoA Brady, R.N.; DiMari, S.J.; Snell, E.E. (1969). "Biosynthesis of sphingolipid ... The full oxidation of palmitic acid (or palmitoyl-CoA) results in 8 acetyl-CoA's, 7 NADH, 7 H+, and 7 FADH2. The full reaction ... It is an "activated" form of palmitic acid and can be transported into the mitochondrial matrix by the carnitine shuttle system ... Palmitoyl CoA formed from palmitic acid, in the reaction below. Palmitate + CoA − SH + ATP ⟶ Palmitoyl − CoA + AMP + ...
The palmitic acid (C16) chains form the nonpolar hydrophobic tails; these are oriented towards the outer side. The synthesis of ... Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) is a phospholipid (and a lecithin) consisting of two C16 palmitic acid groups attached to ... formed by two nonpolar palmitic acid (C16) chains. This trait allows DPPC to easily and spontaneously form micelles, monolayers ...
Chemically, ethyl palmitate is the ethyl ester of palmitic acid. Ethyl hexadecanoate is produced in aged whiskey, and is ...
... has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid ... Excessive intake of palmitic acid, which makes up 44% of palm oil, increases blood levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and ... Consequently, research has focused on the deleterious effects of palm oil and palmitic acid consumption as sources of saturated ... This super stearin contains ~90% of saturated fatty acids, predominantly palmitic ... "FAO data - dimension-member - Oil, palm ...
For example, palmitic acid can produce a net of 106 ATP. Normally, amino acids do not provide the bulk of fuel substrates. ... It takes about 10 minutes for fatty acids to sufficiently produce ATP. Fatty acids are the primary fuel source at rest and in ... However, in times of glycolytic or ATP crisis, amino acids can convert into pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, and citric acid cycle ... whereas a fatty acid can produce through beta oxidation a net of approximately 100 ATP depending on the type of fatty acid. ...
May 1998). "Identification of a palmitic acid-modified form of human Sonic hedgehog". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 273 ...
Palmitoylation Palmitic acid Putilina T, Wong P, Gentleman S (May 1999). "The DHHC domain: a new highly conserved cysteine-rich ... However this short sequence is embedded in a larger region of about fifty amino acids in length that shares many more conserved ... A third motif towards the C-terminus of many proteins has been identified that contains a conserved aromatic amino acid, a ... Conserved motifs within protein sequences point towards the most important amino acid residues for function. In the DHHC domain ...
... is the ester of isopropyl alcohol and palmitic acid. It is an emollient, moisturizer, thickening agent, and ...
... is a triglyceride derived from the fatty acid palmitic acid. Lide, David R., ed. (2009). CRC Handbook of Chemistry ... Van Langevelde, A.; Van Malssen, K.; Hollander, F.; Peschar, R.; Schenk, H. (1999). "Structure of mono-acid even-numbered β- ... ISBN 978-1-4200-9084-0. Hong, Jindui (2010). "Solid−Liquid−Gas Equilibrium of the Ternaries Ibuprofen + Myristic Acid + CO2and ...
B. reticulatus contains predominantly unsaturated fatty acids; mainly cis-linoleic acid, followed by cis-oleic, palmitic, and ... Günç Ergönül, Pelin; Akata, Ilgaz; Kalyoncu, Fatih; Ergönül, Bülent (2013). "Fatty Acid Compositions of Six Wild Edible ... stearic acids. The carbohydrate component contains the monosaccharides glucose, mannitol and α,α-trehalose, the polysaccharide ...
Its main fatty acids are palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, and octadecanoic acid. The main phospholipids are ...
1998). "Identification of a palmitic acid-modified form of human Sonic hedgehog". J. Biol. Chem. 273 (22): 14037-45. doi: ... Deletion of 1 amino acid in Indian hedgehog leads to brachydactylyA1. Am J Med Genet Part A 146A:2152-2154. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a. ...
... contains 52.39% oleic acid, 44.90% palmitic acid, and 0.19% stearic acid. The oil is a good source of Vitamin E (α- ... Pangkatana, John (September 21, 2018). "Karukas to be put to acid test in Central playoffs The Goilala Karukas are set to move ...
The fat in huhu grubs is mostly oleic acid and palmitic acid. The second most abundant nutrient is protein, which is present at ... The total essential amino acid content of huhu grubs meets the WHO essential amino acid requirements for human nutrition. The ... Protein extracts from huhu larvae and pupae are high in essential amino acids such as isoleucine, lysine, leucine, and valine. ... and Amino Acid Profile of Prionoplus reticularis (Huhu) Larvae and Pupae Protein Extracts". Foods. 12 (2): 417. doi:10.3390/ ...
The most prevalent fatty acids include: palmitic acid, 17.3% of total fatty acids; stearic acid, 7.16%; oleic acid, 40.27%; and ... There are 4.46 g of organic acids per 100 g of dry mushrooms, including oxalic acid (0.78 g), malic acid (2.71 g), citric acid ... The proportion of fatty acids (expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids) are 28.78% saturated, 41.51% monounsaturated, ... 0.55 g), and fumaric acid (0.23 g). Mushrooms have 22.6 mg/100 g dw of the phenolic compound 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, and 15.8 mg ...
Saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (10% of total) and stearic acid (2%). Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated ... fatty acid (51% of total fat) and linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 31% of total fat. Relative to other tree nuts ... Retrieved 20 May 2016.[dead link] Okay Y (2002). "The comparison of some pistachio cultivars regarding their fat, fatty acids ...
Delta-6-desaturation of palmitic acid leads to the biosynthesis of sapienic acid. In other tissues linoleic acid is the target ... allowing the enzyme to desaturate palmitic to sapienic acid. A two-carbon extension product of sapienic acid, sebaleic acid, is ... February 2016). "Palmitic acid (16:0) competes with omega-6 linoleic and omega-3 ɑ-linolenic acids for FADS2 mediated Δ6- ... The equivalent fatty acid in mouse sebum is palmitoleic acid. Sapienic acid salts, esters, anion, and conjugate base are known ...
It is made up primarily of esters of lauric, myristic, and palmitic acid. Bayberry wax is used primarily in the manufacture of ... Melting point = 39-49 °C (102-120 °F) Acid value = 3.5 Saponification value = 205-217 Iodine number = 1.9-3.9 "How to Make ...
... palmitic acid. The cetyl ester of palmitic acid, cetyl palmitate, occurs in spermaceti. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid ... is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid. It is well accepted in the medical community that palmitic acid ... Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature) is a fatty acid with a 16-carbon chain. It is the most common saturated ... Sigma-Aldrich Co., Palmitic acid. Retrieved on 2014-06-02. CID 985 from PubChem "Palmitic acid". Seidell, Atherton; Linke, ...
Palmitic Acid, 100 g. Flinn Lab Chemicals, Your Safer Source for Science ...
The effect of different dietary fatty acids on lipoprotein metabolism: concentration-dependent effects of diets enriched in ... oleic, myristic, palmitic and stearic acids - Volume 79 Issue 2 ... Myristic acid, unlike palmitic acid, is rapidly metabolized in ... Bruce, JS & Salter, AM (1996) Metabolic fate of oleic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid in cultured hamster hepatocytes. ... Zock, PL, de Vries, JHM & Katan, MJ (1994) Impact of myristic acid versus palmitic acid on serum lipid and lipoprotein levels ...
... suggesting that IE palmitic acid-rich fats (with an increased proportion of sn-2 palmitic acid) may be absorbed more rapidly ... palmitic and oleic acid) did not differ between meals (data not shown). Plasma palmitic acid followed a similar pattern of ... Blends of palmitic acid- and lauric acid-rich IE fats are the most commonly used IE fats in the European food industry. These ... Test oils were analysed for their fatty acid composition and the sn-2 fatty acid composition. The fatty acid composition of the ...
Palmitic acid. Description. Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in ... Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a ... The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia ). Palmitic acid is also used in the ... Palmitic acid. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(O)=O. 1929.4. Standard non polar. 33892256 Palmitic acid. CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC(O)=O. 1976.9. Semi ...
The effect of glucose and insulin on the uptake of non-esterified palmitic acid in adipose tissue. Studies on an isolated ... 1968: Utilization of glucose and palmitic acid in adipose tissue of rats deficient in essential fatty acids Nutrition Reviews ... Kuo, J; Dill, I; Holmlund, C 1967: Effects of arsenite of lipolysis and metabolism of glucose, palmitic acid and amino acids by ... palmitic acid in vitro into lipids of adipose tissue from essential fatty acid-deficient rats Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 137 ...
Portugal exported Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters to Germany ... Portugal exports of Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters was $ ... HS Code 291570: Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters. Please note ... Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters. 2021. Japan. 0.21. 30. Kg. ...
Palmitic acid, [9,10-3H] ≥97% (by HPLC), MORpure™. Supplier: MORAVEK BIOCHEMICALS MS ... Palmitic acid, [9,10-3H] ≥97% (by HPLC), MORpure™ Palmitic acid, [9,10-3H] ... Palmitic acid, [9,10-3H]. * Palmitic acid, [9,10-3H] ≥97% (by HPLC), MORpure™ ...
Beranda / Produk dengan tag "Palmitic Acid ...
Palmitic acid is a fatty acid found in skin thats used in cosmetics as a cleansing agent and emollient. Learn more at Paulas ... Palmitic Acid description Palmitic acid is a fatty acid found naturally in skin, as well as in palm oil, palm kernel oil, ... Palmitic Acid at a glance * Fatty acid found naturally in skin * The most common fatty acid found in animals, plants, and ... Products with Palmitic Acid Routine step Step 4 Treatment: Our boosters, serums and treatments contain high concentrations of ...
Palmitic acid (micromol/L). Variable Name: SSPM1_N. SAS Label: Palmitic acid (micromol/L). English Text: Palmitic acid ( ... SSST1_N - Stearic acid (micromol/L). Variable Name: SSST1_N. SAS Label: Stearic acid (micromol/L). English Text: Stearic acid ( ... SSOL1_N - Oleic acid (micromol/L). Variable Name: SSOL1_N. SAS Label: Oleic acid (micromol/L). English Text: Oleic acid ( ... SIM masses and limits of detection (LOD in µmol/L) for 24 fatty acids Internal Standard. Fatty Acid. Fatty Acid Code. SIM Mass ...
Buy Palmitic Acid 95% online at the best price offered by Olivia Impex PVT LTD. Our office is based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, ... Palmitic Acid is a fatty used as a food additive and emollient or surfactant in cosmetics. also used in animal feed and ... 2. What is the benefit of palmitic acid?. Ans: It is used in skin care mostly as an emollient and moisturizer - and sometimes ... 1. What is the significance of palmitic acid?. Ans: It is used in determination of water hardness and is an active ingredient ...
Unfortunately, palmitic acid is found in many products that we consume daily and for cancer patients it is worse since it ... Studies have reported that a diet based on palmitic acid, which is found in vegetable palm oil used especially in fried foods, ... Salvador Aznar-Benitah, on 11/12/2021 have described the mechanism that a diet rich in palmitic acid makes tumor cells more ...
Find out what foods contain the most palmitic acid (16:0)! Sources include foods among fats & oils, pork, dairy & eggs, beef, ... Ghee contains palmitic acid (16:0). Palmitic acid (16:0) is a saturated long-chain fatty acid. ... Want to learn more about palmitic acid (16:0)?. Check out our article named: What Is Palmitic Acid (16:0) & What Foods Can I ... Ranked List Of 100 Foods With Palmitic Acid (16:0). Below youll find a list of the top 100 foods that contain palmitic acid ( ...
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... such as palmitic acid (PA), play a major role in inflammation- associated disease. The mechanisms by which PA produces pro-... ... Dietary saturated fatty acids (FAs), such as palmitic acid (PA), play a major role in inflammation- associated disease. The ... Dietary saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (PA) stimulate inflammation. The proposed research is relevant to public ... 2017) Palmitic acid is a toll-like receptor 4 ligand that induces human dendritic cell secretion of IL-1?. PLoS One 12:e0176793 ...
Palmitic Acid, Copernicia Cerifera (Carnauba) Wax, Glyceryl Stearate, Cetearyl Stearate, Polybutene, Stearic Acid, Synthetic ... emulsifying agentsurfactant-cleansing agent is included as a function for the soap form of palmitic acid., emollient, ... emulsifying agentsurfactant-cleansing agent is included as a function for the soap form of stearic acid., cleansing, ... Citric Acid, Potassium Sorbate, Sodium Benzoate, Disodium Phosphate, Polysorbate 60, Sodium Phosphate ...
Remote tumours cause liver dysfunction by releasing extracellular vesicles and particles containing palmitic acid, which ... suppressing fatty acid metabolism and oxidative phosphorylation, and promoting fatty liver formation. Notably, Kupffer cell ... The fatty acid cargo of tumour EVPs-particularly palmitic acid-induced secretion of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) by Kupffer ... The fatty acid cargo of tumour EVPs-particularly palmitic acid-induced secretion of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) by Kupffer ...
Catalytic hydrodeoxygenation of palmitic acid over a bifunctional Co-doped MoO 2 /CNTs catalyst: an insight into the promoting ... Manipulating Catalytic Pathways: Deoxygenation of Palmitic Acid on Multifunctional Catalysts journal, March 2013 * Peng, ... Stearic acid binds stronger than 1-octadecanal on Ni, causing decarbonylation to start only once stearic acid is almost fully ... Hydrodeoxygenation of stearic acid on Ni/ZrO2 to n-heptadecane occurs via the reduction of stearic acid to octadecanal, ...
... decoction and hydroethanolic extract exhibited a high antioxidant capacity in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) ( ... with vanillic acid being the major compound. Regarding antioxidant activity, also reported for the first time, ... Palmitic acid. 53.62. 1967. -. -. 4.2 ± 0.5. 65.. Linoleic acid. 55.28. 2149. -. -. 18 ± 1. ... 2-vanilic acid (y = 29,751x − 28,661, R2 = 0.999), 3-ferulic acid (y = 633,126x − 185,462, R2 = 0.999), 4-ellagic acid (y = ...
Palmitic acid: This emulsifier is reported to create allergic reactions when in contact with skin. ... Notable additives like hyaluronic acid and chamomile provide wetness and soothe skin for lesser inflammation. Those with greasy ...
Palmitic Acids / metabolism * Pertussis Toxin * Phosphorylation * Protein Processing, Post-Translational * Protein Structure, ...
Reprogramming of palmitic acid induced by dephosphorylation of ACOX1 promotes β-catenin palmitoylation to drive colorectal ... Reprogramming of palmitic acid induced by dephosphorylation of ACOX1 promotes β-catenin palmitoylation to drive colorectal ...
We investigated the effects of two-week DHA supplementation (500 mg/kg) on hepatic fatty acids, PH, oxidative stress, ... In contrast to vehicle-treated animals, cirrhotic rats receiving DHA reestablished a healthy hepatic fatty acid profile, which ... we evaluated an anti-inflammatory and antioxidant nutraceutical rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as a possible therapy for ... linoleic acid; MA, myristic acid; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acid; NA, nervonic acid; OA, oleic acid; PA, palmitic acid; POA, ...
... conjugated linoleic acid, α-tocopherol and iron, but lower iodine and selenium concentrations in organic milk: a systematic ... oleic acid (cis-9-18 : 1); ORG, organic production system; OS, other silage; PA, palmitic acid (16 : 0); SA, stearic acid (18 ... OA, oleic acid; VA, vaccenic acid; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid; FA, fatty acids; ALA, α-linolenic acid; VLC n-3 PUFA, very ... butyric acid), 6 : 0 (caproic acid), 10 : 0 (capric acid), 13 : 0 (tridecylic acid), 18 : 0 (stearic acid), 12 : 0+14 : 0+16 : ...
... palmitic acid was added to a cell culture, along with the well-established lipid droplet dye Nile red was applied to image ... Etics of lipid droplet (LD) formation, palmitic acid was added to a cell culture, along with the well-established lipid droplet ... Uncategorized , Etics of lipid droplet (LD) formation, palmitic acid was added to a cell culture, along ... Etics of lipid droplet (LD) formation, palmitic acid was added to a cell culture, along ...
Germany exported Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters to Italy ($ ... Germany exports of Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters was $ ... HS Code 291570: Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters. Please note ... Acids; saturated acyclic monocarboxylic acids; palmitic acid, stearic acid, their salts and esters. 2021. Peru. 5.70. 2,223. Kg ...
CPT1alpha over-expression increases long-chain fatty acid oxidation and reduces cell viability with incremental palmitic acid ... CPT1alpha over-expression increases long-chain fatty acid oxidation and reduces cell viability with incremental palmitic acid ... over-expression increased mitochondrial long-chain fatty acid oxidation about 6-fold. Addition of palmitic acid (PA) decreased ... Fatty acid oxidation was measured by determining the conversion of supplemented, synthetic cis-10-heptadecenoic acid (C17:1n-7 ...
Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO2/rGO coating has higher ... Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO2/rGO coating has higher ... Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO2/rGO coating has higher ... Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO2/rGO coating has higher ...
... detection method to identify novel key TFs in vascular endothelial cell apoptosis induced by palmitic acid (PA). Human ... From: Proteome-scale profiling reveals MAFF and MAFG as two novel key transcription factors involved in palmitic acid-induced ...
  • Previous studies have reported reduced postprandial lipaemia, an independent risk factor for CVD, following interesterified (IE) palmitic and stearic acid-rich fats that are not currently widely used by the food industry. (springer.com)
  • Randomly interesterified (IE) fat blends rich in palmitic acid (used in the European market) and stearic acid (used in the North American market) are most commonly used by food manufacturers, and current intakes are estimated to be 2-10 % of daily energy intake. (springer.com)
  • Palmitic oil is also a main saturated fat within chocolate, along with oleic acid and stearic acid . (nutrawiki.org)
  • Fatty acids were analyzed as methyl esters on a capillary column DB-WAX 122-7062 with a good separation of palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, elaidic acid, linoleic acid, arachidic acid, and linolenic acid. (researchgate.net)
  • The fats consist mostly of oleic acid (a heart-healthy fat also found in olive oil), stearic acid, and palmitic acid. (healthline.com)
  • The stearic acid has a neutral effect on body cholesterol. (healthline.com)
  • A 2021 review indicated that replacing dietary palmitic acid and other saturated fatty acids with unsaturated fatty acids, such as oleic acid, could reduce several biomarkers of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. (wikipedia.org)
  • ISBN 978-0849396885 The most common fatty acid is the monounsaturated oleic acid. (wikipedia.org)
  • According to a Korean study published in a 2010 edition of the "Journal of Medicinal Food," palmitic acid does display antioxidant properties and can help prevent atherosclerosis in rats, but it is not as effective as oleic acid . (nutrawiki.org)
  • Corn oil has a high content of linoleic acid (omega 6) with a value of 52.68% of the total content of fatty acids in corn oil and 29.70% of oleic acid (omega 9) of the total content of fatty acids in corn oil. (researchgate.net)
  • Palmitates are the salts and esters of palmitic acid. (wikipedia.org)
  • The palmitate anion is the observed form of palmitic acid at physiologic pH (7.4). (wikipedia.org)
  • The salt form of palmitic acid is called palmitate , which is commonly added to low-fat and fat-free milk. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Palmitic acid has been thought for many years to raise cholesterol levels if consumed, although a 2002 Canadian study published in the "Asian Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition" examined the effects of high consumption of palmitic acid in healthy volunteers and concluded it does not raise cholesterol if it is combined with linoleic acid . (nutrawiki.org)
  • This is significant because linoleic acid , an unsaturated fatty acid, is always found with palmitic acid in olive oil , palm oil and coconut oil . (nutrawiki.org)
  • Linoleic Acid Induced Changes in SZ95 Sebocytes-Comparison with Palmitic Acid and Arachidonic Acid. (bvsalud.org)
  • Linoleic acid (LA) is an essential omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) derived from the diet . (bvsalud.org)
  • linoleic acid, arachidic acid, and linolenic acid. (researchgate.net)
  • It is rich in Linoleic Acid, an omega-6 essential fatty acid. (from-nature-with-love.com)
  • Meats, cheeses, butter, and other dairy products also contain palmitic acid, amounting to 50-60% of total fats. (wikipedia.org)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min occurs in the form of esters (glycerides) in oils and fats of vegetable and animal origin and is usually obtained from palm oil, which is widely distributed in plants. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min is also a texturing agent for foods, a waxy cover for fruits and vegetables, and a source of anionic and nonionic surfactants and esters. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • Methyl esters fatty acids analysis were carried out using the gas chromatography (GC) method with a mass selective detector and using the database library NIST 14.L to identify the compounds present in the corn seed oil.Results: Methyl esters fatty acids were identified from corn (Z. mays) seeds using the GC mass spectrometer (GC-MS) analytical method. (researchgate.net)
  • The structure of methyl esters fatty acids was determined using the GS-MS method. (researchgate.net)
  • Methyl esters fatty acids wer e identified from corn ( Z. mays ) seeds using the GC mass spectrometer (GC-MS) analytical method. (researchgate.net)
  • Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature) is a fatty acid with a 16-carbon chain. (wikipedia.org)
  • n-Hexadecanoic acid in Linstrom, Peter J. (wikipedia.org)
  • Palmitic acid, also known as cetyl or hexadecanoic acid, is a saturated fatty acid found in abundance in plants and animals. (henryfranc.com)
  • It is well accepted in the medical community that palmitic acid from dietary sources raises low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total cholesterol. (wikipedia.org)
  • The association between dietary fatty acids and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk has been extensively studied, and predictive equations on their blood lipid effects have been validated [ 2 ]. (springer.com)
  • Many medical authorities, such as the World Health Organization, say dietary intake of saturated fats such as palmitic acid increases your risk of cardiovascular diseases. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Interluekin-6 concentration was significantly correlated with dietary carbohydrate (r = 0.15), saturated fatty acid (r = 0.15) and glycaemic load (r = 0.15). (who.int)
  • The cetyl ester of palmitic acid, cetyl palmitate, occurs in spermaceti. (wikipedia.org)
  • Retinyl palmitate Ascorbyl palmitate SN2 Palmitate Juniperic acid (16-hydroxypalmitic acid) Merck Index, 12th Edition, 7128. (wikipedia.org)
  • But it makes sense to look at saturated acids, because 30% of the brain's myelin structural component is made up of palmitate. (medscape.com)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min can be further refined or combined with other chemical agents to produce isopropyl palmitate, cetyl alcohol and other additives. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. (wikipedia.org)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis as well as a precursor for longer fatty acids. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • To help you understand just how unfounded this claim is, there is more palmitic acid present in dark chocolate and olive oil than there is in sea buckthorn. (omega7.com)
  • Palmitic acid was first isolated in the mid-1800s from palm oil, although it was later discovered to be in many other foods, such as butter, cheese, milk, meat and other vegetable oils such as olive oil, according to the "Dictionary of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in plants, a saturated fatty acid found in fats and waxes including olive oil, palm oil, and body lipids. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • However, the main benefits of coconut oil are due to lauric acid and capric acid , not palmitic acid. (nutrawiki.org)
  • get 10% off on lauric acid 99% 5kg boxes (11lbs. (therawfeed.com)
  • Interesterification of palm stearin and palm kernal (PSt/PK) is widely used by the food industry to create fats with desirable functional characteristics for applications in spreads and bakery products, negating the need for trans fatty acids. (springer.com)
  • This process avoids the use of trans fatty acids and results in a fat with a lower saturated fatty acid (SFA) content than traditional hard fats. (springer.com)
  • However, when palmitic acid was combined with lots of trans-fatty acids, "bad" LDL cholesterol levels rose and "good" HDL cholesterol decreased. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Blood samples collected within 7 days of the first MRI were analyzed for red blood cell fatty acid composition using a gas chromatography-flame ionization detector. (medscape.com)
  • Interesterification of fats, which may be carried out by random and directed, chemical or enzymatic processes, rearranges fatty acids on their glycerol moiety within the triacylglycerols (TAG) species, thereby changing their TAG structure [stereospecific ( sn )-positional composition] and their melting properties [ 1 ]. (springer.com)
  • However, whilst the total fatty acid composition of IE fats is identical to their non-IE fat, the sn -positional composition and physical characteristics are different, making direct comparisons to non-IE fats invalid. (springer.com)
  • Indeed, it is believed that differences in sn -positional composition between some animal and plant fats may explain their divergent effects on atherogenicity despite similar fatty acid compositions. (springer.com)
  • Accuracy of the improved light scattering detector for TAG analysis was checked by comparing the absolute error and average absolute error between experimental fatty acid composition obtained by calibrated gas chromatography of the transmethylated soybean oil and the calculated fatty acid composition obtained from the TAG composition of the soybean oil. (usda.gov)
  • It is the most prized oil in the international vegetable oil market, the only red vegetable oil on earth as a result of exceptionally high carotene content, very stable to auto-oxidation due to the presence of tocopherols and tocotrienols, and contains probably the most balanced fatty acid composition of any vegetable oil. (vanguardngr.com)
  • Free fatty acids regulate insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells through GPR40. (guidetopharmacology.org)
  • A human cell surface receptor activated by free fatty acids and thiazolidinedione drugs. (guidetopharmacology.org)
  • Sebocytes, whose primary role is to moisturise the skin , process free fatty acids (FFAs) to produce the lipid -rich sebum . (bvsalud.org)
  • The FH fractions had a high percentage of fatty acids, and the FA fractions had some interesting polyphenols derivative compounds. (hindawi.com)
  • Therefore, the antioxidant activity of Nigella sativa L is more attributed to flavonoids and polyphenols than fatty acids. (hindawi.com)
  • It is the most common saturated fatty acid found in animals, plants and microorganisms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Palmitic acid is the most common saturated fatty acid found in plants and microorganisms. (loreal.com)
  • Analyses of the albumin treated with acrolein for amino acids revealed a disappearance of lysine and histidine residues with concomitant appearance of four new peaks. (cdc.gov)
  • To break it down for you, literally, palmitic acid is acquired through sources like oily fish, certain nuts, or sea buckthorn berry and then desaturated to become palmitoleic acid. (omega7.com)
  • Following the 3rd Congress of the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) in Lyon, France, June 1-5, 1998, the ISSFAL Board of Directors agreed to convene a workshop on the essentiality of and DRIs for omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. (nih.gov)
  • To evaluate the mechanism underlying the protective role of RSG on PA-induced lipotoxicity, the present study analyzed the effects of RSG on PA uptake, and the expression of genes associated with both fatty acid oxidation and triglyceride synthesis. (biomedcentral.com)
  • However, despite their widespread use, there has been little research on the health effects of the most commonly consumed palmitic acid-rich IE fats. (springer.com)
  • In other words, palmitic acid is virtually never consumed apart from other healthier fats, so its negative impact on health might have been over-estimated previously. (nutrawiki.org)
  • The main pathway by which cancer cell lipid metabolism influences cancer progression is increased fatty acid synthesis. (spandidos-publications.com)
  • Animal studies have demonstrated that consumption of TAG-containing palmitic acid in the sn -2 position promotes atherogenesis to a greater extent than TAG-containing palmitic acid in the sn -1 or sn -3 positions [ 3 - 5 ]. (springer.com)
  • The World Health Organization have stated there is convincing evidence that palmitic acid increases cardiovascular disease risk. (wikipedia.org)
  • The results indicated that RSG reduced PA-induced lipid accumulation by promoting fatty acid oxidation mediated by CPT1A. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our findings suggest that omega-3 fatty acid supplements offer protection against the adverse cardiac and lipid effects associated with air pollution exposure. (nih.gov)
  • It's a complex system, and we have to be careful about conclusions because fatty acids work in balance. (medscape.com)
  • The sample presented a value of 12.57% of palmitic acid.Conclusions: Corn oil shows a good content of fatty acids omega 6 and 9. (researchgate.net)
  • Emerging evidence indicates that palmitic acid (PA) can regulate the progression and development of many diseases. (nih.gov)
  • However, whether RSG serves a protective role in Sertoli cells against palmitic acid (PA)-induced toxicity remains to be elucidated. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The long term toxicity on soil macroorganisms in accordance to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, Annex IX 9.4 Effects on terrestrial organisms was tested on the read across substance, Fatty acids, C18-unsaturated, dimers (CAS No. 61788-89-4). (europa.eu)
  • The authors analyzed changes in the extraction of lactates, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and their fractions: C 14:0, C 16:0, C 16:1, C 18:1, C 18:2 in a group of 15 patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (DC) and in 10 controls at rest and after the cold pressor test (CPT). (nih.gov)
  • Oils from palm trees, especially virgin coconut oil , are gaining attention for their health benefits, mainly due to their medium-chain fatty acids , which are utilized for energy and do not raise cholesterol levels. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid commonly found in both animals and plants. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min is the most commonly occurring natural fatty acid in the world. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • Oils are made up of molecules called fatty acids, which can have both beneficial properties as well as downsides. (acne.org)
  • However, on the downside, the fatty acid mixture found in some oils make the oil comedogenic (clogs pores) . (acne.org)
  • In addition, each tablet contains the following inactive ingredients: microcrystalline cellulose, corn starch, anhydrous lactose, colloidal silicon dioxide, talc and palmitic acid. (nih.gov)
  • Combined with glycerin and hyaluronic acid, it ensures hydration and maintains it with each application. (chanel.com)
  • Importantly, like other sebum components such as palmitic acid (PA), LA and its derivative arachidonic acid (AA) are known to modulate sebocyte functions. (bvsalud.org)
  • Here we extend this previous work by studying the kinetics of palmitic acid, selected as the model compound for N.S. oil due to its high content in N.S., in a microreactor using 1% Pt/ -Al 2 O 3 . (confex.com)
  • Polyhistidine, serving as a model compound, was treated with acrolein and subjected to amino acid analyses. (cdc.gov)
  • However, in moderation, palmitic acid might not be entirely bad for you, as it does display mild antioxidant and anti-atherosclerotic properties, at least in animal studies. (nutrawiki.org)
  • Expression cloning and characterization of a novel adipocyte long chain fatty acid transport protein. (guidetopharmacology.org)
  • Edenor C16-98 MY Palmitic Acid 98% min is a saturated long-chain fatty acid with a 16-carbon backbone. (atamanchemicals.com)
  • Dr. Tam said that because infant exposures to fatty acids change dramatically with preterm birth, changes in nutritional practices in the intensive care nursery may decrease brain injury. (medscape.com)
  • New publication in Liver International - Palmitic acid breath test reveals a marked decrease in beta-oxidation in NAFLD. (nih.gov)
  • PEO coatings made on biomedical titanium alloys may have limited protection efficiency in organic acid-containing biological solutions due to their inherent porosity. (edu.pe)
  • Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO 2 /rGO coating has higher compactness and better corrosion performance than simple TiO 2 coating. (edu.pe)
  • Electrochemical measurements in palmitic acid-containing biological media showed that the duplex TiO2/rGO coating has higher compactness and better corrosion performance than simple TiO2 coating. (edu.pe)
  • The results indicated that although lysine and histidine residues were modified, such modification did not alter the functions or biological properties of albumin, such as binding to palmitic-acid or bromcresol-green. (cdc.gov)
  • Palmitic acid was discovered by Edmond Frémy in 1840, in saponified palm oil. (wikipedia.org)
  • Thus, this substance is regarded as not suitable as a representative worst case for the sub-category dimerised fatty acids and its derivatives "predominantly oligomers" which comprises of substances that reveal a potential persistence due to their lack of readily and inherent biodegradability. (europa.eu)