Organophosphates: Carbon-containing phosphoric acid derivatives. Included under this heading are compounds that have CARBON atoms bound to one or more OXYGEN atoms of the P(=O)(O)3 structure. Note that several specific classes of endogenous phosphorus-containing compounds such as NUCLEOTIDES; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and PHOSPHOPROTEINS are listed elsewhere.Diazinon: A cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as an organothiophosphorus insecticide.Chlorpyrifos: An organothiophosphate cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as an insecticide and as an acaricide.Insecticides: Pesticides designed to control insects that are harmful to man. The insects may be directly harmful, as those acting as disease vectors, or indirectly harmful, as destroyers of crops, food products, or textile fabrics.Paraoxon: An organophosphate cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as a pesticide.Organophosphorus Compounds: Organic compounds that contain phosphorus as an integral part of the molecule. Included under this heading is broad array of synthetic compounds that are used as PESTICIDES and DRUGS.Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Drugs that inhibit cholinesterases. The neurotransmitter ACETYLCHOLINE is rapidly hydrolyzed, and thereby inactivated, by cholinesterases. When cholinesterases are inhibited, the action of endogenously released acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses is potentiated. Cholinesterase inhibitors are widely used clinically for their potentiation of cholinergic inputs to the gastrointestinal tract and urinary bladder, the eye, and skeletal muscles; they are also used for their effects on the heart and the central nervous system.Organophosphate Poisoning: Poisoning due to exposure to ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS, such as ORGANOPHOSPHATES; ORGANOTHIOPHOSPHATES; and ORGANOTHIOPHOSPHONATES.Parathion: A highly toxic cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as an acaricide and as an insecticide.Organothiophosphorus Compounds: Compounds containing carbon-phosphorus bonds in which the phosphorus component is also bonded to one or more sulfur atoms. Many of these compounds function as CHOLINERGIC AGENTS and as INSECTICIDES.Tritolyl Phosphates: A mixture of isomeric tritolyl phosphates. Used in the sterilization of certain surgical instruments and in many industrial processes.Pesticides: Chemicals used to destroy pests of any sort. The concept includes fungicides (FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL); INSECTICIDES; RODENTICIDES; etc.Insecticide Resistance: The development by insects of resistance to insecticides.Cholinesterase Reactivators: Drugs used to reverse the inactivation of cholinesterase caused by organophosphates or sulfonates. They are an important component of therapy in agricultural, industrial, and military poisonings by organophosphates and sulfonates.Acetylcholinesterase: An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ACETYLCHOLINE to CHOLINE and acetate. In the CNS, this enzyme plays a role in the function of peripheral neuromuscular junctions. EC 3.1.1.7.Dieldrin: An organochlorine insecticide whose use has been cancelled or suspended in the United States. It has been used to control locusts, tropical disease vectors, in termite control by direct soil injection, and non-food seed and plant treatment. (From HSDB)Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemicals that are used to cause the disturbance, disease, or death of humans during WARFARE.Phosphoric Triester Hydrolases: A class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of one of the three ester bonds in a phosphotriester-containing compound.Pyrethrins: The active insecticidal constituent of CHRYSANTHEMUM CINERARIIFOLIUM flowers. Pyrethrin I is the pyretholone ester of chrysanthemummonocarboxylic acid and pyrethrin II is the pyretholone ester of chrysanthemumdicarboxylic acid monomethyl ester.Sarin: An organophosphorus ester compound that produces potent and irreversible inhibition of cholinesterase. It is toxic to the nervous system and is a chemical warfare agent.CholinesterasesFenitrothion: An organothiophosphate cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as an insecticide.Carbamates: Derivatives of carbamic acid, H2NC(=O)OH. Included under this heading are N-substituted and O-substituted carbamic acids. In general carbamate esters are referred to as urethanes, and polymers that include repeating units of carbamate are referred to as POLYURETHANES. Note however that polyurethanes are derived from the polymerization of ISOCYANATES and the singular term URETHANE refers to the ethyl ester of carbamic acid.Aryldialkylphosphatase: An enzyme which catalyzes the hydrolysis of an aryl-dialkyl phosphate to form dialkyl phosphate and an aryl alcohol. It can hydrolyze a broad spectrum of organophosphate substrates and a number of aromatic carboxylic acid esters. It may also mediate an enzymatic protection of LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS against oxidative modification and the consequent series of events leading to ATHEROMA formation. The enzyme was previously regarded to be identical with Arylesterase (EC 3.1.1.2).Malathion: A wide spectrum aliphatic organophosphate insecticide widely used for both domestic and commercial agricultural purposes.Butyrylcholinesterase: An aspect of cholinesterase (EC 3.1.1.8).Phosphites: Inorganic salts or organic esters of phosphorous acid that contain the (3-)PO3 radical. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)Neurotoxicity Syndromes: Neurologic disorders caused by exposure to toxic substances through ingestion, injection, cutaneous application, or other method. This includes conditions caused by biologic, chemical, and pharmaceutical agents.Agricultural Workers' Diseases: Diseases in persons engaged in cultivating and tilling soil, growing plants, harvesting crops, raising livestock, or otherwise engaged in husbandry and farming. The diseases are not restricted to farmers in the sense of those who perform conventional farm chores: the heading applies also to those engaged in the individual activities named above, as in those only gathering harvest or in those only dusting crops.DEET: A compound used as a topical insect repellent that may cause irritation to eyes and mucous membranes, but not to the skin.Dichlorvos: An organophosphorus insecticide that inhibits ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE.Pralidoxime Compounds: Various salts of a quaternary ammonium oxime that reconstitute inactivated acetylcholinesterase, especially at the neuromuscular junction, and may cause neuromuscular blockade. They are used as antidotes to organophosphorus poisoning as chlorides, iodides, methanesulfonates (mesylates), or other salts.EsterasesIsoflurophate: A di-isopropyl-fluorophosphate which is an irreversible cholinesterase inhibitor used to investigate the NERVOUS SYSTEM.Oximes: Compounds that contain the radical R2C=N.OH derived from condensation of ALDEHYDES or KETONES with HYDROXYLAMINE. Members of this group are CHOLINESTERASE REACTIVATORS.Agrochemicals: Chemicals used in agriculture. These include pesticides, fumigants, fertilizers, plant hormones, steroids, antibiotics, mycotoxins, etc.Pesticide Residues: Pesticides or their breakdown products remaining in the environment following their normal use or accidental contamination.Anopheles gambiae: A species of mosquito in the genus Anopheles and the principle vector of MALARIA in Africa.Receptors, Serotonin, 5-HT2: A subclass of G-protein coupled SEROTONIN receptors that couple preferentially to the GQ-G11 G-PROTEINS resulting in increased intracellular levels of INOSITOL PHOSPHATES and free CALCIUM.Poisoning: A condition or physical state produced by the ingestion, injection, inhalation of or exposure to a deleterious agent.Antidotes: Agents counteracting or neutralizing the action of POISONS.Mevinphos: An organophosphate cholinesterase inhibitor that is used as an insecticide.Agriculture: The science, art or practice of cultivating soil, producing crops, and raising livestock.Temefos: An organothiophosphate insecticide.Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases: Enzymes which catalyze the hydrolysis of carboxylic acid esters with the formation of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid anion.Culex: A genus of mosquitoes (CULICIDAE) commonly found in tropical regions. Species of this genus are vectors for ST. LOUIS ENCEPHALITIS as well as many other diseases of man and domestic and wild animals.Occupational Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents that occurs as a result of one's occupation.Mosquito Control: The reduction or regulation of the population of mosquitoes through chemical, biological, or other means.DDT: A polychlorinated pesticide that is resistant to destruction by light and oxidation. Its unusual stability has resulted in difficulties in residue removal from water, soil, and foodstuffs. This substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen: Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP-85-002, 1985). (From Merck Index, 11th ed)Carboxylesterase: Carboxylesterase is a serine-dependent esterase with wide substrate specificity. The enzyme is involved in the detoxification of XENOBIOTICS and the activation of ester and of amide PRODRUGS.PC12 Cells: A CELL LINE derived from a PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA of the rat ADRENAL MEDULLA. PC12 cells stop dividing and undergo terminal differentiation when treated with NERVE GROWTH FACTOR, making the line a useful model system for NERVE CELL differentiation.Nervous System Diseases: Diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system. This includes disorders of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, nerve roots, autonomic nervous system, neuromuscular junction, and muscle.Biological Assay: A method of measuring the effects of a biologically active substance using an intermediate in vivo or in vitro tissue or cell model under controlled conditions. It includes virulence studies in animal fetuses in utero, mouse convulsion bioassay of insulin, quantitation of tumor-initiator systems in mouse skin, calculation of potentiating effects of a hormonal factor in an isolated strip of contracting stomach muscle, etc.Environmental Exposure: The exposure to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents in the environment or to environmental factors that may include ionizing radiation, pathogenic organisms, or toxic chemicals.Environmental Monitoring: The monitoring of the level of toxins, chemical pollutants, microbial contaminants, or other harmful substances in the environment (soil, air, and water), workplace, or in the bodies of people and animals present in that environment.Hydrolysis: The process of cleaving a chemical compound by the addition of a molecule of water.Animals, Newborn: Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.Brain: The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.Dose-Response Relationship, Drug: The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.Kinetics: The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.Time Factors: Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.Pregnancy: The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A toxicokinetic model to assess the risk of azinphosmethyl exposure in humans through measures of urinary elimination of alkylphosphates. (1/724)
Azinphosmethyl (APM) is one of the most common insecticides used in fruit farming. The object of this paper is to develop a quick and practical test for assessing the risk for humans coming into contact with APM. It has been shown that the principal component of occupational and/or accidental exposure is through the skin (C. A. Franklin et al., 1981, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 7, 715-731), but our approach is applicable to exposures via any route or a combination of routes. The method proposed in the present paper can accommodate a single-event exposure or repeated exposures over long periods. Urinary alkylphosphate (AP) metabolites are reliable bioindicators of the presence of APM in the body; they are easily accessible and can be used to estimate APM body burden. We developed a simple toxicokinetic model to link the time varying APM body burden to absorbed doses and to rates of elimination in the form of AP urinary metabolites. Using this model and data available in the literature, we are able to propose a "no observed adverse effect level" (NOAEL) for APM body levels and for corresponding absorbed doses. We have established that after a single exposure, the safe limit corresponding to the NOAEL is reached at a cumulative 0.215 mumoles AP/kg bw eliminated in urine in the first 24 hours following the beginning of exposure. For repeated daily exposures at steady state, the corresponding urinary AP metabolite level is equal to a cumulative 0.266 mumoles AP/kg bw eliminated per 24 hours. (+info)Mechanistic alternatives in phosphate monoester hydrolysis: what conclusions can be drawn from available experimental data? (2/724)
Phosphate monoester hydrolysis reactions in enzymes and solution are often discussed in terms of whether the reaction pathway is associative or dissociative. Although experimental results for solution reactions have usually been considered as evidence for the second alternative, a closer thermodynamic analysis of observed linear free energy relationships shows that experimental information is consistent with the associative, concerted and dissociative alternatives. (+info)EnvZ-independent phosphotransfer signaling pathway of the OmpR-mediated osmoregulatory expression of OmpC and OmpF in Escherichia coli. (3/724)
The Escherichia coli EnvZ-OmpR regulatory system is a paradigm of intracellular signal transduction mediated by the well-documented phosphotransfer mechanism, by which the expression of the major outer membrane proteins, OmpC and OmpF, is regulated in response to the medium osmolarity. Although it is clear that the EnvZ histidine(His)-kinase is the major player in the phosphorylation of OmpR, it has been assumed for some time that there may be an alternative phospho-donor(s) that can phosphorylate OmpR under certain in vitro and in vivo conditions. In this study, to address this long-standing issue, extensive genetic studies were done with certain mutant alleles, including delta envZ, delta(ackA-pta), and delta sixA, as well as delta ompR. Here, for the first time, genetic evidence is provided that, in addition to EnvZ, acetyl phosphate and an as yet unidentified sensor His-kinase can serve as alternative in vivo phospho-donors for OmpR, even in the envZ+ background. A model for the alternative phosphotransfer signaling pathway involved in the phosphorylation of OmpR is proposed. (+info)Vitamin B6 biosynthesis: formation of pyridoxine 5'-phosphate from 4-(phosphohydroxy)-L-threonine and 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate by PdxA and PdxJ protein. (4/724)
In Escherichia coli the coenzyme pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) is synthesised de novo by a pathway that is thought to involve the condensation of 4-(phosphohydroxy)-L-threonine and 1-deoxy-D-xylulose, catalysed by the enzymes PdxA and PdxJ, to form either pyridoxine (vitamin B6) or pyridoxine 5'-phosphate (PNP). Here we show that incubation of PdxJ with PdxA, 4-(phosphohydroxy)-L-threonine, NAD and 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate, but not 1-deoxy-D-xylulose, results in the formation of PNP. The PNP formed was characterised by (i) cochromatography with an authentic standard, (ii) conversion to pyridoxine by alkaline phosphatase treatment, and (iii) UV and fluorescence spectroscopy. Furthermore, when [2-(14)C]1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate was used as a substrate, the radioactivity was incorporated into PNP. These results clarify the previously unknown role of PdxJ in the de novo PLP biosynthetic pathway. The sugar used as substrate by PdxJ is 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate rather than the previously assumed 1-deoxy-D-xylulose. The first vitamin B6 vitamer synthesised is PNP, and not pyridoxine. (+info)Conservation of nitrogen in cattle feedlot waste with urease inhibitors. (5/724)
Feedlot cattle normally retain less than 20% of their dietary nitrogen intake. Sixty to 80% of the nitrogen excreted is normally lost through volatilization of ammonia, which is primarily generated from urea. This loss of ammonia nitrogen pollutes the environment and creates an unfavorable ratio of nitrogen to phosphorous (N:P) in the waste for crop growth. Two urease inhibitors, cyclohexylphosphoric triamide (CHPT) and N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) were evaluated for their ability to reduce the rate of urea hydrolysis in beef cattle feedlot pens. Initially, a total of six pens were used, two pens per treatment, with approximately 70 cattle per pen, and a single topical application of CHPT or NBPT at 20 mg/kg of manure. Essentially no urea was found in untreated pens. However, with CHPT treatment, 2 g of urea/kg of dry manure accumulated by d 4, and all gradually disappeared by d 11; NBPT conserved 3 and 3.5 g of urea/kg by d 4 and 9, respectively, and it had disappeared by d 14 (treatment [trt] x day, P = .003). A second study involved application of NBPT weekly for 6 wk. This caused urea to accumulate to a peak concentration of 17 g/kg of manure by d 30 (trt x day2, P = .001). Once the treatment was stopped the urea concentration began to decrease. When the NBPT was applied weekly, the concentration of ammonia in the waste was less for the treated pens (trt x day, P = .01), the total nitrogen was greater (trt x day, P = .04), pH tended to be lower (trt x day, P = .10), and the total volatile acids were not different (trt x day, P = .51) from untreated pens. We concluded that urease inhibitors could be used to control ammonia emissions from animal wastes, prevent environmental damage, and produce a more balanced (N:P) fertilizer from manure. (+info)Calcium dependence of Pi phosphorylation of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase at low water content: water dependence of the E2-->E1 conversion. (6/724)
Enzymes entrapped in reverse micelles can be studied in low-water environments that have the potential of restricting conformational mobility in specific steps of the reaction cycle. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase was incorporated into a reverse-micelle system (TPT) composed of toluene, phospholipids, Triton X-100 and varying amounts of water (0.5-7%, v/v). Phosphorylation of the Ca2+-ATPase by ATP required the presence of both water and Ca2+ in the micelles. No phosphoenzyme (EP) was detected in the presence of EGTA. Phosphorylation by Pi (inorganic phosphate) in the absence of Ca2+ was observed at water content below that necessary for phosphorylation by ATP. In contrast to what is observed in a totally aqueous medium, EP formed by Pi was partially resistant to dephosphorylation by Ca2+. However, the addition of non-radioactive Pi to the EP already formed caused a rapid decrease in radiolabelled enzymes, as expected for the isotopic dilution, indicating the existence of an equilibrium (E+Pi<-->EP). Phosphorylation by Pi also occurred in TPT containing millimolar Ca2+ concentrations in a range of water concentrations (2-5% v/v). The substrates p-nitrophenyl phosphate, acetyl phosphate, ATP and GTP increased the EP level under these conditions. These results suggest that: (1) the rate of conversion of the ATPase conformer E2 into E1 is greatly reduced at low water content, so that E2-->E1 becomes the rate-limiting step of the catalytic cycle; and (2) in media of low water content, Pi can phosphorylate both E1Ca and E2. Thus, the effect of enzyme hydration is complex and involves changes in the phosphorylation reaction at the catalytic site, in the equilibrium between E2 and E1 conformers, and in their specificity for substrates. (+info)Formation of adenosine 5'-tetraphosphate from the acyl phosphate intermediate: a difference between the MurC and MurD synthetases of Escherichia coli. (7/724)
The mechanism of the Mur synthetases of peptidoglycan biosynthesis is thought to involve in each case the successive formation of an acyl phosphate and a tetrahedral intermediate. The existence of the acyl phosphates for the MurC and MurD enzymes from Escherichia coli was firmly established by their in situ reduction by sodium borohydride followed by acid hydrolysis, yielding the corresponding amino alcohols. Furthermore, it was found that MurD, but not MurC, catalyses the synthesis of adenosine 5'-tetraphosphate from the acyl phosphate, thereby substantiating its existence and pointing out a difference between the two enzymes. (+info)Stimulated activity of human topoisomerases IIalpha and IIbeta on RNA-containing substrates. (8/724)
Eukaryotic topoisomerase II is a dimeric nuclear enzyme essential for DNA metabolism and chromosome dynamics. Central to the activities of the enzyme is its ability to introduce transient double-stranded breaks in the DNA helix, where the two subunits of the enzyme become covalently attached to the generated 5'-ends through phosphotyrosine linkages. Here, we demonstrate that human topoisomerases IIalpha and IIbeta are able to cleave ribonucleotide-containing substrates. With suicide substrates, which are partially double-stranded molecules containing a 5'-recessed strand, cleavage of both strands was stimulated approximately 8-fold when a ribonucleotide rather than a deoxyribonucleotide was present at the scissile phosphodiester of the recessed strand. The existence of a ribonucleotide at the same position in a normal duplex substrate also enhanced topoisomerase II-mediated cleavage, although to a lesser extent. The enzyme covalently linked to the 5'-ribonucleotide in the cleavage complex efficiently performed ligation, and ligation occurred equally well to acceptor molecules terminated by either a 3'-ribo- or deoxyribonucleotide. Besides the enhanced topoisomerase II-mediated cleavage of ribonucleotide-containing substrates, cleavage of such substrates could be further stimulated by ATP or antitumor drugs. In conclusion, the observed in vitro activities of the human topoisomerase II isoforms indicate that the enzymes can operate on RNA or RNA-containing substrates and thus might possess an intrinsic RNA topoisomerase activity, as has previously been demonstrated for Escherichia coli topoisomerase III. (+info)
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Pesticides1
- Potential public exposure to two classes of related organophosphate (OP) chemical agents are pesticides and nerve gases. (sbir.gov)
Chemical1
- This represents a novel approach in biomarker analysis because exposure to each different organophosphate (OP) chemical nerve agent results in a distinct protein "fingerprint" structure that can be identified, distinguished from other agents, and quantified. (sbir.gov)
Nerve gas1
- The broad objective of this proposal is to develop an extremely sensitive and selective biosensor device capable of detecting and discriminating proteins in human serum samples taken from personnel that have been exposed to potentially harmful levels of organophosphate-based nerve gas. (sbir.gov)
Insecticide17
- Apply the product to flowering plants during early morning or late evening, when bees are not present" - a reversion to the standard practice used with organophosphates of applying the insecticide in late evening or early morning hours, without any mention of the danger of residuals. (thefreedictionary.com)
- The patient, in an attempt to commit suicide, ingested large amounts of an organophosphate insecticide few hours before. (thefreedictionary.com)
- On the basis of type, the global Organophosphate Pesticides market is segmented into Herbicide, Fungicide, Insecticide, and others. (medgadget.com)
- We show that suspensions of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles modified with a common antidote, 2-pralidoxime (PAM), its polymeric analog, poly(4-vinylpyridine-N-phenacyloxime-co-acrylic acid), or poly(N-vinylimidazole-co-acrolein oxime-co-acrylic acid) (PImAA) catalyze the hydrolysis of organophosphate (OP) compounds such as diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) or insecticide diethyl-p-nitrophenyl phosphate (paraoxon) serving as models of the warfare nerve agents, at neutral pH. (ct-si.org)
- In extreme situations, organophosphate poisoning can lead to seizures or even death-so if you think your pet has been overexposed to an insecticide, contact your veterinarian immediately! (pethealthnetwork.com)
- Prenatal Exposure to a Common Organophosphate Insecticide Delays Motor Development in a Mouse Model of Idiopathic Autism. (autismweb.com)
- This study assessed the effects of prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos (CPF), a widely diffused organophosphate insecticide endowed with developmental neurotoxicity at sub-toxic doses, in the BTBR T+tf/J mouse strain, a validated model of idiopathic autism that displays several behavioral traits relevant to the autism spectrum. (autismweb.com)
- This allowed the fast, simple and highly-efficient enrichment of trace levels of the widely used organophosphate insecticide malathion, which is also an accepted simulant for the potent nerve-agent VX. (rsc.org)
- These methods were used to extract a mixture of malathion, 2,4-dinitrotoluene (explosive marker), 4-chloro-3-methylphenol, carbaryl (insecticide), dimethoate (organophosphate insecticide), atrazine (herbicide) and permethrin (insecticide) in synthetic air. (rsc.org)
- Emerged adults were fed with 10% sucrose solution, and 2- to 5-day-old females were used to determine insecticide susceptibility by using the standard World Health Organization (WHO) insecticide susceptibility tube test http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/9789241505154/en/ . (cdc.gov)
- exposure, usually dermal or oral, to organophosphate insecticide. (vetstream.com)
- Organophosphate insecticide poisoning in cattle may occur in various circumstances. (vetstream.com)
- Use of old products where the original organophosphate insecticide has decomposed to a more toxic compound. (vetstream.com)
- It is also an organophosphate (OP) insecticide-detoxifying enzyme. (ovid.com)
- A Natural Mosquito Killer: A Replacement for Organophosphate Insecticide? (ndnr.com)
- Home / Naturopathic News / A Natural Mosquito Killer: A Replacement for Organophosphate Insecticide? (ndnr.com)
- A Physiologically based pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) model for the organophosphate insecticide chlorpyrifos in rats and humans. (semanticscholar.org)
Acetylcholinesterase17
- organophosphates disrupt this process from occurring.This chemical, organophosphate works by disrupting the enzyme, acetylcholinesterase. (wikipedia.org)
- Organophosphate compounds cause acute toxicity and cholinergic crisis by acetylcholinesterase inhibiton. (factbites.com)
- Organophosphates cause acute symptoms by the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. (factbites.com)
- Organophosphate toxicity is due to the ability of these compounds to inhibit acetylcholinesterase at cholinergic junctions of the nervous system. (factbites.com)
- Organophosphates reversibly bind to and inactivate the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), inhibiting the breakdown of acetylcholine and leading to an excess of acetylcholine in cholinergic synapses . (factbites.com)
- The mechanism of toxicity of the organophosphate pesticides is inhibition of acetylcholinesterase , which catalyzes the deacetylation of acetylcholine . (factbites.com)
- Organophosphate pesticides irreversibly inactivate acetylcholinesterase, which is essential to nerve function in insects, humans, and many other animals. (selectscience.net)
- Organophosphates are agents that bind to acetylcholinesterase and inhibit its action of normally hydrolyzing acetylcholine 2, 5 . (radiopaedia.org)
- Organophosphates shut down acetylcholinesterase-the enzyme that deactivates the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. (acsh.org)
- Deactivation of acetylcholinesterase by an organophosphate. (acsh.org)
- Evidence for occurrence of an organophosphate-resistant type of acetylcholinesterase in strains of sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis Krøyer). (sigmaaldrich.com)
- Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is the target of a major pesticide family, the organophosphates, which were extensively used as control agents of sea lice on farmed salmonids in the early 1990s. (sigmaaldrich.com)
- Organophosphates have been documented as neurotoxic and are potent inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase. (springer.com)
- Monoclonal antibody AE-2 modulates carbamate and organophosphate inhibition of fetal bovine serum acetylcholinesterase. (aspetjournals.org)
- The principal toxicity of acute organophosphate (OP) pesticide poisoning is the disruption of neurotransmission through inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). (biomedcentral.com)
- Although organophosphate (OP)-induced acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition is the critical mechanism causing toxicities that follow exposure, other biochemical events, including oxidative stress, have been reported to contribute to OP toxicity. (uncg.edu)
- Kamil Musilek, Jan Hambalek, Ondrej Holas, Vlastimil Dohnal and Kamil Kuca, "Monooxime Bispyridinium Reactivators Bearing Xylene Linker Synthesis and In Vitro Evaluation on Model of Organophosphate-Inhibited Acetylcholinesterase", Medicinal Chemistry (2016) 12: 362. (eurekaselect.com)
Metabolites3
- Urine levels of metabolites of organophosphate pesticides were measured in a subsample of NHANES participants 6 through 59 years of age who were selected to be representative of the U.S. population. (factbites.com)
- Few data exist in Latin America concerning the association between organophosphate (OP) urinary metabolites and the consumption of fruits and vegetables and other exposure risk variables in schoolchildren. (nih.gov)
- Researchers sampled the urine of 268 mothers early in their pregnancies to test for DAP levels - levels of metabolites produced when the body breaks down organophosphate pesticides. (organic-center.org)
Poisoning54
- Organophosphate poisoning is poisoning due to organophosphates (OPs). (wikipedia.org)
- Organophosphate poisoning occurs most commonly as a suicide attempt in farming areas of the developing world and less commonly by accident. (wikipedia.org)
- In those who have organophosphate poisoning the primary treatments are atropine, oximes such as pralidoxime, and diazepam. (wikipedia.org)
- Organophosphate poisoning has been reported at least since 1962. (wikipedia.org)
- Neurotoxic effects have also been linked to poisoning with OP pesticides causing four neurotoxic effects in humans: cholinergic syndrome, intermediate syndrome, organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy (OPIDP), and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder (COPIND). (wikipedia.org)
- The effects of organophosphate poisoning are recalled using the mnemonic "SLUDGE", for salivation , lacrimation , urination , defecation , gastrointestinal upset, and emesis . (factbites.com)
- The majority of organophosphate poisoning occurs by accidental or occupational exposure, but poisoning may also be due to suicide attempts, homicide attempts, or chemical warfare. (factbites.com)
- Organophosphate and carbamate poisoning is relatively common in pets and livestock. (factbites.com)
- Pregnancy: Patients have been successfully treated after organophosphate poisoning in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy with atropine and palidoxime with delivery of healthy newborns. (factbites.com)
- Acute organophosphate poisoning in university hospital emergency room patients. (medscape.com)
- Jayawardane P, Dawson AH, Weerasinghe V, Karalliedde L, Buckley NA, Senanayake N. The spectrum of intermediate syndrome following acute organophosphate poisoning: a prospective cohort study from Sri Lanka. (medscape.com)
- Features of myocardial injury in severe organophosphate poisoning. (medscape.com)
- Acid-base interpretation can be the predictor of outcome among patients with acute organophosphate poisoning before hospitalization. (medscape.com)
- Organophosphate poisoning in the developed world-a single centre experience from here to the millennium. (thefreedictionary.com)
- A study was conducted on the patients of acute organophosphate poisoning, admitted in Department of Medicine, LLR Hospital, Kanpur. (thefreedictionary.com)
- Conclusion: Independent predictors of mortality in patients with organophosphate poisoning as bradycardia, age, glucose, lactate dehydrogenase level and acidosis. (thefreedictionary.com)
- Peter JV, Moran JL, Graham P. Oxime therapy and outcomes in human organophosphate poisoning: an evaluation using meta-analytic techniques. (medscape.com)
- Eisenkraft A, Gilat E, Chapman S, Baranes S, Egoz I, Levy A. Efficacy of the bone injection gun in the treatment of organophosphate poisoning. (medscape.com)
- Professor of Medicine Karl-Heinz Krause, Geneva/Switzerland says: "This statement is misleading as long-term consequences of organophosphates poisoning include organophosphate-induced delayed polyneuropathy and chronic organophosphate-induced neuropsychiatric disorder. (innovations-report.com)
- The organophosphate poisoning scandal still refuses to go away - largely thanks to the determination of campaigners such as Tom Rigby and Brenda Sutcliffe, and in Parliament, the efforts of the Countess of Mar, Lord Tyler, Lord Rooker and, more recently, Andy Burnham. (warmwell.com)
- In order to determine if your dog has organophosphate poisoning, your veterinarian will perform a complete history and physical examination. (pethealthnetwork.com)
- The most important thing to know about organophosphate poisoning is that it can be prevented. (pethealthnetwork.com)
- This case report reiterates the likelihood of symptoms and signs of parkinsonism developing following organophosphate poisoning. (bmj.com)
- In addition, a limited number of case studies are available describing extrapyramidal manifestations after acute organophosphate poisoning such as dystonia, 1 2 rest tremor, 2 cog wheel rigidity, 2 and choreoathetosis. (bmj.com)
- However, there was no clear relation between poisoning and extrapyramidal symptoms due to chronic organophosphate exposure and, in addition, numerous episodes of acute intoxication. (bmj.com)
- Global Markets Direct's, 'Organophosphate And Carbamate Poisoning - Pipeline Review, H2 2015', provides an overview of the Organophosphate And Carbamate Poisoning's therapeutic pipeline. (marketresearch.com)
- This report provides comprehensive information on the therapeutic development for Organophosphate And Carbamate Poisoning, complete with comparative analysis at various stages, therapeutics assessment by drug target, mechanism of action (MoA), route of administration (RoA) and molecule type, along with latest updates, and featured news and press releases. (marketresearch.com)
- Long-term, persistent sequelae of organophosphate poisoning may include cognitive deficits or parkinsonism . (merckmanuals.com)
- Hashemian AM, Vafadar E, Salarirad M, Fadavi H (2015) Bilateral Acute Angle-Closure Glaucoma Following Acute Poisoning with Organophosphate. (omicsonline.org)
- Acute bilateral angle closure glaucoma is reported as side effect of many drugs but this shows it was occurred after injection of atropine for poisoning with organophosphate pesticide. (omicsonline.org)
- In developing countries, organophosphate poisoning is one of the most common substance to commit suicide. (omicsonline.org)
- Glaucoma is one of the complications of organophosphate poisoning which could result during treatment with atropine . (omicsonline.org)
- Here we present a case report of bilateral acute glaucoma following poisoning with organophosphate and injection of Atropine. (omicsonline.org)
- There are no accurate figures about the incidence of Organophosphate poisoning. (omicsonline.org)
- Addition of Ketamine to Standard-of-Care Countermeasures for Acute Organophosphate Poisoning Improves Neurobiological Outcomes. (bioportfolio.com)
- The purpose of this study is to evaluate self-reported symptoms as a proxy for acute organophosphate poisoning by examining self-reported acute organophosphate poisoning symptoms and PchE activity in response to occupational acute organophosphate exposure among farmers in Nepal. (clinicaltrials.gov)
- The definition of symptoms was based on WHO's standardized list of clinical presentations of acute organophosphate poisoning. (clinicaltrials.gov)
- Organophosphate poisoning is an important cause of acute neurological dysfunction and respiratory distress. (radiopaedia.org)
- Organophosphate poisoning is common, often as a result of suicidal ingestion (acute high-level exposure) or occupational exposure to pesticides (chronic low-level exposure) 1 . (radiopaedia.org)
- Acute organophosphate poisoning leads to three distinct sequential neurological syndromes. (radiopaedia.org)
- In acute organophosphate poisoning, there is overactivation of both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors, resulting in the acute muscarinic and nicotinic syndromes, as described above 2 . (radiopaedia.org)
- This form of organophosphate poisoning is characterized by distal degeneration of axons of both the peripheral and central nervous systems and involves phosphorylation and then aging of neuropathy target esterase (NTE) in peripheral nerves. (vetstream.com)
- How can organophosphate poisoning be treated? (healthtap.com)
- What are the symptoms of organophosphate poisoning? (healthtap.com)
- What happens when you get organophosphate poisoning? (healthtap.com)
- What signs would you expect to observe if organophosphate poisoning? (healthtap.com)
- Hi doctors, can you tell me what is organophosphate poisoning? (healthtap.com)
- Can you get organophosphate poisoning from morning glory seeds? (healthtap.com)
- How does organophosphate poisoning cause muscular paralysis? (healthtap.com)
- When administering Succinylcholine for intubation on a semi-conscious trauma pt with organophosphate poisoning, is there a dosage adjustment? (healthtap.com)
- What is the Physiological basis of muscle "twitching" in Organophosphate poisoning? (healthtap.com)
- How to describe poisoning by organophosphates and pesticides? (healthtap.com)
- Can Galantamine Act as an Antidote for Organophosphate Poisoning? (ijpsonline.com)
- The mortality rate caused by organophosphate (OP) poisoning is still high, even the standard treatment such as atropine and oxime improves a lot. (ovid.com)
Compounds8
- citation needed] Although organophosphates degrade faster than the organochlorides,[citation needed] the greater acute toxicity of OPPs result in the elevated risk associated with this class of compounds (see the Toxicity section below). (wikipedia.org)
- An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid and is one of the organophosphorus compounds. (factbites.com)
- The term organophosphate should strictly be reserved for an ester of phosphoric acid or one of its higher compounds (such as pyrophosphoric acid. (factbites.com)
- Organophosphate-based compounds (OPs) represent a significant threat to warfighters (nerve agents) and civilian populations (pesticides). (rti.org)
- Our results have also indicated that the use of efficient methods for extracting these enzymes, their kinetic characterization and determination of sensitivity differences between AChE and BChE to organophosphate compounds, are essential for precision ChE activity levels reported in environmental monitoring program interpretation. (environmental-expert.com)
- Currently organophosphate compounds constitute one of the largest families of chemical compounds that are used for pest control, mainly for better crop yield worldwide. (springer.com)
- In order to implement bioremediation approach, proper understanding of microbial metabolism of these organophosphates compounds is of extreme importance. (springer.com)
- Microbial metabolism of OP compounds can be carried out catabolically (with organophosphates serving either as a sole source for C, N, or P) or co-metabolically (in the presence of other compounds, mainly carbohydrates). (springer.com)
Chlorpyrifos3
- Commonly used organophosphates have included: parathion malathion methyl parathion chlorpyrifos diazinon dichlorvos phosmet fenitrothion tetrachlorvinphos, azamethiphos azinphos-methyl Studies have shown that prolonged exposure to OPPs-e.g., in the case of farm workers-can lead to health problems, including increased risks for cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and cancer. (wikipedia.org)
- In this paper, we present the case of a 27-year-old male patient who was admitted to our clinic with bilateral drop foot and spastic paraplegia after the ingestion of organophosphate (chlorpyrifos) and diagnosed with organophosphate induced delayed neuropathy (OPIDN). (thefreedictionary.com)
- A few organophosphates (eg, chlorpyrifos, triorthocresyl phosphate) may cause an axonal neuropathy that begins 1 to 3 weeks after exposure. (merckmanuals.com)
Malathion2
- Malathion is the only organophosphate allowed for this use in the US, is one o fthe least toxic OP preparation, and is more ovicidal than Nix or Kwell. (bio.net)
- B) Mortality rates associated with DDT (organochlorine), bendiocarb (carbamate), and malathion (organophosphate). (cdc.gov)
Flame Retardants1
- Background: A reduction in the use of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) because of human health concerns may result in an increased use of and human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs). (harvard.edu)
Inhibition3
- Moreover, muscle tissues ChE sensitivity to methyl‐paraoxon (MP) organophosphate (OP) pesticide was evaluated by determining the inhibition kinetic constants (IKC) for progressive irreversible inhibition from muscle ChE by MP, as well as, the IC50 for 30 min for each species. (environmental-expert.com)
- Pseudocholinesterases of mammalian plasma: physicochemical properties and organophosphate inhibition in eleven species. (semanticscholar.org)
- Effect of hypochlorite oxidation on cholinesterase-inhibition assay of acetonitrile extracts from fruits and vegetables for monitoring traces of organophosphate pesticides. (semanticscholar.org)
Esters4
- An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP) or phosphate ester is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid. (wikipedia.org)
- Many organophosphate esters (OPEs) have been reported to primarily partition to particles in the atmosphere. (muni.cz)
- We measured the concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphate esters (OPEs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in stickleback, and found that BDE-47 and -99, tri(n-butyl) phosphate (TNBP), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), were the most abundant contaminants. (illinois.edu)
- Degradation of organophosphate esters in sewage sludge: Effects of aerobic/anaerobic treatments. (deepdyve.com)
AChE2
- Long-term change in feeding behavior was produced by organophosphate insufficient to induce outward illness or to depress brain AChE activity. (highbeam.com)
- AChE insensitive to organophosphate chemotherapeutants has been identified as a major resistance mechanism in numerous arthropod species, and in this study, target-site resistance was confirmed in the crustacean Lepeophtheirus salmonis Krøyer isolated from several fish-farming areas in Norway and Canada. (sigmaaldrich.com)
Intoxication8
- Chronic central nervous system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication. (medscape.com)
- Acute and reversible parkinsonism due to organophosphate pesticide intoxication: five cases. (medscape.com)
- Studies have shown that years after acute intoxication with organophosphates , memory and cognitive functions might be defective and vibrotactile sensitivity might be decreased, indicating the presence of peripheral neuropathy, although neurologic examination and electroencephalography (EEG) findings were normal[17- (factbites.com)
- Levy-Khademi F, Tenenbaum AN, Wexler ID, Amitai Y. Unintentional organophosphate intoxication in children. (medscape.com)
- Such long term toxicity of organophosphates may even occur in the absence of documented acute intoxication and such cases might be much more frequent than fatal acute intoxications. (innovations-report.com)
- 1 however, tremors, dysarthria, cogwheel rigidity, and mask-like facies are unusual accompaniments following organophosphate intoxication. (bmj.com)
- 2 However, Davis et al (1978) suggested that agricultural workers may be at risk for the late development of parkinsonism in a crop duster with numerous episodes of acute organophosphate intoxication and chronic organophosphate exposure. (bmj.com)
- To our knowledge, no patient has previously been documented presenting with the complete picture of transient severe parkinsonism including bradyphrenia, rigidity, rest tremor, akinesia, impairment of speech and swallowing, and salivation after acute organophosphate intoxication and, in addition, having a marked improvement after treatment with amantadine. (bmj.com)
Cholinesterase4
- Susceptibility to organophosphate toxicity varies greatly among individuals of any species and can be increased by frequent repeated mild exposure which results in greater susceptibility due to exhaustion of the body's store of cholinesterase . (factbites.com)
- Organophosphates phosphorylate cholinesterase and thus irreversibly inhibit it. (thefreedictionary.com)
- The organophosphate substances operate by hindering the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase, which in turn causes nervous and respiratory damages leading to the pest's death. (medgadget.com)
- Organophosphates, however, can irreversibly bind to cholinesterase. (merckmanuals.com)
Exposed to organophosphate pesticides2
- The Organophosphates Profile is a urine test that identifies a patients prolonged exposed to organophosphate pesticides. (integrativepsychiatry.net)
- Paraoxonase-1 genetic polymorphisms and susceptibility to DNA damage in workers occupationally exposed to organophosphate pesticides. (nih.gov)
Parathion2
- Due to their toxicity, persistence, and adverse effects, some organophosphates (like parathion and methyl parathion) were classified and registered as extremely hazardous by the World Health Organization (WHO) and US EPA (US Environmental Protection agency) and have been banned in many countries. (springer.com)
- The three major types of PTE are reported so far, such as organophosphate hydrolase (OPH), methyl parathion hydrolase (MPH), and organophosphorus acid anhydrolase (OPAA) encoded by opd , mpd , and opaA genes, which are either located on plasmid or on chromosomal DNA. (springer.com)
Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides1
- These results provide a link between early prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides via the mother and observable changes at birth that may alter how the body breaks down sugars, potentially contributing to obesity later in life. (organic-center.org)
Hydrolysis6
- Organophosphate pesticides degrade rapidly by hydrolysis on exposure to sunlight, air, and soil, although small amounts can be detected in food and drinking water. (wikipedia.org)
- Organophosphate hydrolysis rates had no effect on ALS survival. (neurology.org)
- Our findings suggest that the influence of PON1 polymorphisms on ALS susceptibility is not due to reduced organophosphate hydrolysis. (neurology.org)
- Some of the hydrolysis intermediates (such as 4-nitrophenol and trichloropyridinol) of these organophosphates are more toxic and environmentally mobile (due to greater water solubility) and therefore more dangerous. (springer.com)
- The metabolic conversion of organophosphates to CO 2 and H 2 O (i.e., complete mineralization) is carried out through three main processes such as degradation, conjugation, and rearrangements that involves reactions like oxidation, hydrolysis, and reduction, all mediated through the enzyme-mediated pathways. (springer.com)
- This hydrolysis step is most critical as it reduces the toxicity of organophosphates. (springer.com)
Phosphoric acid2
- Organophosphates (OPs) are chemical substances originally produced by the reaction of alcohols and phosphoric acid. (medscape.com)
- The organophosphates octamethyl pyrophosphoramide, Bidrin, and phosphoric acid 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl ester inhibit the membrane voltage response of frog sartorius muscles to carbamylcholine in a manner expected of either a slowly reversing competitive inhibitor or a noncompetitive inhibitor. (aspetjournals.org)
Enzyme4
- Organophosphate pesticides (OPPs), like some nerve agents, inhibit this neuromuscular enzyme, which is broadly essential for normal function in insects, but also in humans and many other animals. (wikipedia.org)
- Dr Cherry in comments, said: "The study was set up to test a clear hypothesis, that those whose genes produced a less efficient enzyme would, if exposed to organophosphates, be more likely to become ill. (prohealth.com)
- Human paraoxonase 1 (PON1) is a lipoprotein-associated enzyme involved in the detoxification of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) by hydrolyzing the bioactive oxons. (nih.gov)
- A potentiometric enzyme electrode for the direct measurement of organophosphate (OP) nerve agents was developed. (epa.gov)
Methyl2
- Combining p-methyl DL and NWH with LLINs could provide significant epidemiological benefits against a vector population which is resistant to pyrethroids but susceptible to organophosphates. (openaire.eu)
- The 56 year old male patient ingested an unknown dose of the organophosphate demeton-S-methyl-sulphone (Metasystox R) in a suicide attempt. (bmj.com)
Dichlorvos2
- The effects of three organophosphate pesticides, i.e. monocrotophos, dichlorvos, and phosphamidon on respiration in rat brain and liver tissue slices have been studied. (portlandpress.com)
- From the mid-1990s the organophosphates dichlorvos and azamethiphos were seriously compromised by the development of resistance. (sigmaaldrich.com)
Nerve agents1
- As long ago as 1951, the 1951 Zuckerman Report's scientific findings had drawn links between organophosphates and the nerve agents used in chemical weapons. (warmwell.com)
Uses of organophosphates1
- the EPA banned most residential uses of organophosphates in 2001, but their agricultural use, as pesticides on fruits and vegetables, is still permitted, and they are as is their use in mosquito abatement in public spaces such as parks. (wikipedia.org)
Pyrethroids1
- In Brazil, decades of dengue vector control using organophosphates and pyrethroids have led to dissemination of resistance. (scielo.br)
Susceptibility2
- Pyrethroid and DDT Resistance and Organophosphate Susceptibility among Anopheles spp. (cdc.gov)
- Study sites (circles) for discerning the presence of pyrethroid and DDT resistance and organophosphate susceptibility among Anopheles spp. (cdc.gov)
Effects of organophosphates1
- Dieter, M. P., and J. L. Ludke: Studies on combined effects of organophosphates and heavy metals in birds. (springer.com)
Therapeutic1
- Thus, galantamine can be considered as an effective therapeutic agent in management of organophosphate toxicity. (ijpsonline.com)
Widely3
- Organophosphates are widely used as solvents, plasticizers, and EP additives. (wikipedia.org)
- Organophosphates are widely employed both in natural and synthetic applications because of the ease with which organic groups can be linked together. (wikipedia.org)
- Because organophosphate (OP) pesticides are widely used for the control of agricultural pests and of arthropod disease vectors commercially, residentially, and institutionally, large numbers of people throughout the world are routinely exposed to OPs, many at toxic levels. (biomedcentral.com)
Concentrations1
- The results caution against using median lethal dietary concentrations for other than ranking chemicals based on their relative toxicity, particularly in establishing safe environmental levels, and suggest that anorexia and physiological condition may be important factors in mortality of wild birds exposed to organophosphates. (springer.com)
Toxic4
- The United States Environmental Protection Agency lists organophosphates as very highly acutely toxic to bees, wildlife, and humans. (wikipedia.org)
- Prevention includes banning very toxic types of organophosphates. (wikipedia.org)
- Researchers calculated the odds ratios for polymorphisms in the gene regulating paraoxonase, and therefore the ability to break down toxic organophosphates. (prohealth.com)
- It is thought that worldwide, approximately 3 million people are exposed to toxic levels of organophosphates, including approximately 2 million hospitalisations for suicidal ingestion 1 . (radiopaedia.org)
Paraoxon1
- However, a surprising phenomenon was observed when a model organophosphate paraoxon was assayed. (mdpi.com)
Severe organophosphate1
- The clinical and laboratory features of moderate to severe organophosphate and carbamate toxicity in 37 infants and children are presented. (aappublications.org)
Biosensor2
- The broad objective of this proposal is to develop an extremely sensitive and selective biosensor device capable of detecting and discriminating proteins in human serum samples taken from personnel that have been exposed to potentially harmful levels of organophosphate-based nerve gas. (sbir.gov)
- Acetylecholinesterase-based biosensor electrodes for organophosphate pesticide detection. (biomedsearch.com)
Cholinergic1
- This may indicate that the organophosphate binding sites are near the cholinergic binding site since both d-tubocurarine and hexamethonium are competitive inhibitors of cholinergic agonists and d-tubocurarine is the larger compound. (aspetjournals.org)
Degrade rapidly1
- Though organophosphates degrade rapidly when exposed to sunlight, air, and soil, chronic toxicity can still occur as these chemicals are used on food crops, orchards, and food storage centers. (integrativepsychiatry.net)
