An infection caused by an organism which becomes pathogenic under certain conditions, e.g., during immunosuppression.
Opportunistic infections found in patients who test positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The most common include PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA, Kaposi's sarcoma, cryptosporidiosis, herpes simplex, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and infections with Mycobacterium avium complex, Microsporidium, and Cytomegalovirus.
A pulmonary disease in humans occurring in immunodeficient or malnourished patients or infants, characterized by DYSPNEA, tachypnea, and HYPOXEMIA. Pneumocystis pneumonia is a frequently seen opportunistic infection in AIDS. It is caused by the fungus PNEUMOCYSTIS JIROVECII. The disease is also found in other MAMMALS where it is caused by related species of Pneumocystis.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
An acquired defect of cellular immunity associated with infection by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a CD4-positive T-lymphocyte count under 200 cells/microliter or less than 14% of total lymphocytes, and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and malignant neoplasms. Clinical manifestations also include emaciation (wasting) and dementia. These elements reflect criteria for AIDS as defined by the CDC in 1993.
The number of CD4-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD. Determination requires the use of a fluorescence-activated flow cytometer.
Drug regimens, for patients with HIV INFECTIONS, that aggressively suppress HIV replication. The regimens usually involve administration of three or more different drugs including a protease inhibitor.
Exuberant inflammatory response towards previously undiagnosed or incubating opportunistic pathogens. It is frequently seen in AIDS patients following HAART.
A human or animal whose immunologic mechanism is deficient because of an immunodeficiency disorder or other disease or as the result of the administration of immunosuppressive drugs or radiation.
Reproducible depletion of CD4+ lymphocytes below 300 per cubic millimeter in the absence of HIV infection or other known causes of immunodeficiency. This is a rare, heterogeneous syndrome and does not appear to be caused by a transmissible agent.
A nontuberculous infection when occurring in humans. It is characterized by pulmonary disease, lymphadenitis in children, and systemic disease in AIDS patients. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection of birds and swine results in tuberculosis.
Agents used to treat AIDS and/or stop the spread of the HIV infection. These do not include drugs used to treat symptoms or opportunistic infections associated with AIDS.
Infections of the BRAIN caused by the protozoan TOXOPLASMA gondii that primarily arise in individuals with IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES (see also AIDS-RELATED OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS). The infection may involve the brain diffusely or form discrete abscesses. Clinical manifestations include SEIZURES, altered mentation, headache, focal neurologic deficits, and INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1998, Ch27, pp41-3)
Meningeal inflammation produced by CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS, an encapsulated yeast that tends to infect individuals with ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other immunocompromised states. The organism enters the body through the respiratory tract, but symptomatic infections are usually limited to the lungs and nervous system. The organism may also produce parenchymal brain lesions (torulomas). Clinically, the course is subacute and may feature HEADACHE; NAUSEA; PHOTOPHOBIA; focal neurologic deficits; SEIZURES; cranial neuropathies; and HYDROCEPHALUS. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp721-2)
Mycoses are a group of diseases caused by fungal pathogens that can infect various tissues and organs, potentially leading to localized or systemic symptoms, depending on the immune status of the host.
Infection with CYTOMEGALOVIRUS, characterized by enlarged cells bearing intranuclear inclusions. Infection may be in almost any organ, but the salivary glands are the most common site in children, as are the lungs in adults.
B-cell lymphoid tumors that occur in association with AIDS. Patients often present with an advanced stage of disease and highly malignant subtypes including BURKITT LYMPHOMA; IMMUNOBLASTIC LARGE-CELL LYMPHOMA; PRIMARY EFFUSION LYMPHOMA; and DIFFUSE, LARGE B-CELL, LYMPHOMA. The tumors are often disseminated in unusual extranodal sites and chromosomal abnormalities are frequently present. It is likely that polyclonal B-cell lymphoproliferation in AIDS is a complex result of EBV infection, HIV antigenic stimulation, and T-cell-dependent HIV activation.
A multicentric, malignant neoplastic vascular proliferation characterized by the development of bluish-red cutaneous nodules, usually on the lower extremities, most often on the toes or feet, and slowly increasing in size and number and spreading to more proximal areas. The tumors have endothelium-lined channels and vascular spaces admixed with variably sized aggregates of spindle-shaped cells, and often remain confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue, but widespread visceral involvement may occur. Kaposi's sarcoma occurs spontaneously in Jewish and Italian males in Europe and the United States. An aggressive variant in young children is endemic in some areas of Africa. A third form occurs in about 0.04% of kidney transplant patients. There is also a high incidence in AIDS patients. (From Dorland, 27th ed & Holland et al., Cancer Medicine, 3d ed, pp2105-7) HHV-8 is the suspected cause.
Infection with a fungus of the species CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS.
Infections with FUNGI of the phylum MICROSPORIDIA.
The type species of LENTIVIRUS and the etiologic agent of AIDS. It is characterized by its cytopathic effect and affinity for the T4-lymphocyte.
A species of PNEUMOCYSTIS infecting humans and causing PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA. It also occasionally causes extrapulmonary disease in immunocompromised patients. Its former name was Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis.
Agents used to treat RETROVIRIDAE INFECTIONS.
Infection resulting from inhalation or ingestion of spores of the fungus of the genus HISTOPLASMA, species H. capsulatum. It is worldwide in distribution and particularly common in the midwestern United States. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Human immunodeficiency virus. A non-taxonomic and historical term referring to any of two species, specifically HIV-1 and/or HIV-2. Prior to 1986, this was called human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV). From 1986-1990, it was an official species called HIV. Since 1991, HIV was no longer considered an official species name; the two species were designated HIV-1 and HIV-2.
Infections with bacteria of the genus NOCARDIA.
A neurologic condition associated with the ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and characterized by impaired concentration and memory, slowness of hand movements, ATAXIA, incontinence, apathy, and gait difficulties associated with HIV-1 viral infection of the central nervous system. Pathologic examination of the brain reveals white matter rarefaction, perivascular infiltrates of lymphocytes, foamy macrophages, and multinucleated giant cells. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp760-1; N Engl J Med, 1995 Apr 6;332(14):934-40)
Infections with species in the genus PNEUMOCYSTIS, a fungus causing interstitial plasma cell pneumonia (PNEUMONIA, PNEUMOCYSTIS) and other infections in humans and other MAMMALS. Immunocompromised patients, especially those with AIDS, are particularly susceptible to these infections. Extrapulmonary sites are rare but seen occasionally.
Reduction in the number of lymphocytes.
Infections of the lungs with parasites, most commonly by parasitic worms (HELMINTHS).
Infection of the mucous membranes of the mouth by a fungus of the genus CANDIDA. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The acquired form of infection by Toxoplasma gondii in animals and man.
Infection with a fungus of the genus CANDIDA. It is usually a superficial infection of the moist areas of the body and is generally caused by CANDIDA ALBICANS. (Dorland, 27th ed)
A genus of ascomycetous FUNGI, family Pneumocystidaceae, order Pneumocystidales. It includes various host-specific species causing PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA in humans and other MAMMALS.
Infection of the retina by cytomegalovirus characterized by retinal necrosis, hemorrhage, vessel sheathing, and retinal edema. Cytomegalovirus retinitis is a major opportunistic infection in AIDS patients and can cause blindness.
An opportunistic viral infection of the central nervous system associated with conditions that impair cell-mediated immunity (e.g., ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES; HEMATOLOGIC NEOPLASMS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSION; and COLLAGEN DISEASES). The causative organism is JC Polyomavirus (JC VIRUS) which primarily affects oligodendrocytes, resulting in multiple areas of demyelination. Clinical manifestations include DEMENTIA; ATAXIA; visual disturbances; and other focal neurologic deficits, generally progressing to a vegetative state within 6 months. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, pp36-7)
A republic in southern Africa, south of ANGOLA and west of BOTSWANA. Its capital is Windhoek.
Development of neutralizing antibodies in individuals who have been exposed to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/HTLV-III/LAV).
Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Substances that destroy fungi by suppressing their ability to grow or reproduce. They differ from FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL because they defend against fungi present in human or animal tissues.
An acute infectious, usually self-limited, disease believed to represent activation of latent varicella-zoster virus (HERPESVIRUS 3, HUMAN) in those who have been rendered partially immune after a previous attack of CHICKENPOX. It involves the SENSORY GANGLIA and their areas of innervation and is characterized by severe neuralgic pain along the distribution of the affected nerve and crops of clustered vesicles over the area. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A system of traditional medicine which is based on the beliefs and practices of the African peoples. It includes treatment by medicinal plants and other materia medica as well as by the ministrations of diviners, medicine men, witch doctors, and sorcerers.
The prototype species of PNEUMOCYSTIS infecting the laboratory rat, Rattus norvegicus (RATS). It was formerly called Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. carinii. Other species of Pneumocystis can also infect rats.
Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of MYCOBACTERIUM.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
Classes of retroviruses for which monkeys or apes are hosts. Those isolated from the West African green monkey and the Asian rhesus macaque monkey are of particular interest because of their similarities to viruses causing cancer and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans.
Invasion of the host organism by microorganisms that can cause pathological conditions or diseases.
Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure.
Infections with bacteria of the genus MYCOBACTERIUM.
The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
Transference of an organ between individuals of the same species or between individuals of different species.
The sexual attraction or relationship between members of the same SEX.
A thymus-dependent nonapeptide found in normal blood. Stimulates the formation of E rosettes and is believed to be involved in T-cell differentiation.
This drug combination has proved to be an effective therapeutic agent with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. It is effective in the treatment of many infections, including PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA in AIDS.
A complex that includes several strains of M. avium. M. intracellulare is not easily distinguished from M. avium and therefore is included in the complex. These organisms are most frequently found in pulmonary secretions from persons with a tuberculous-like mycobacteriosis. Strains of this complex have also been associated with childhood lymphadenitis and AIDS; M. avium alone causes tuberculosis in a variety of birds and other animals, including pigs.
Infection in humans and animals caused by any fungus in the order Mucorales (e.g., Absidia, Mucor, Rhizopus etc.) There are many clinical types associated with infection of the central nervous system, lung, gastrointestinal tract, skin, orbit and paranasal sinuses. In humans, it usually occurs as an opportunistic infection in patients with a chronic debilitating disease, particularly uncontrolled diabetes, or who are receiving immunosuppressive agents. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Infections with unicellular organisms formerly members of the subkingdom Protozoa.
Intestinal infection with organisms of the genus CRYPTOSPORIDIUM. It occurs in both animals and humans. Symptoms include severe DIARRHEA.
MYCOBACTERIUM infections of the lung.
Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; RNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; MYCOPLASMA INFECTIONS; SPIROCHAETALES INFECTIONS; fungal infections; PROTOZOAN INFECTIONS; HELMINTHIASIS; and PRION DISEASES may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Deliberate prevention or diminution of the host's immune response. It may be nonspecific as in the administration of immunosuppressive agents (drugs or radiation) or by lymphocyte depletion or may be specific as in desensitization or the simultaneous administration of antigen and immunosuppressive drugs.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Infection with a fungus of the genus COCCIDIOIDES, endemic to the SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. It is sometimes called valley fever but should not be confused with RIFT VALLEY FEVER. Infection is caused by inhalation of airborne, fungal particles known as arthroconidia, a form of FUNGAL SPORES. A primary form is an acute, benign, self-limited respiratory infection. A secondary form is a virulent, severe, chronic, progressive granulomatous disease with systemic involvement. It can be detected by use of COCCIDIOIDIN.
A mitosporic Tremellales fungal genus whose species usually have a capsule and do not form pseudomycellium. Teleomorphs include Filobasidiella and Fidobasidium.
Involuntary weight loss of greater than 10 percent associated with intermittent or constant fever and chronic diarrhea or fatigue for more than 30 days in the absence of a defined cause other than HIV infection. A constant feature is major muscle wasting with scattered myofiber degeneration. A variety of etiologies, which vary among patients, contributes to this syndrome. (From Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 13th ed, p1611).
A species of parasitic FUNGI. This intracellular parasite is found in the BRAIN; HEART; and KIDNEYS of several MAMMALS. Transmission is probably by ingestion of the spores (SPORES, FUNGAL).
An order of parasitic FUNGI found mostly in ARTHROPODS; FISHES; and in some VERTEBRATES including humans. It comprises two suborders: Pansporoblastina and APANSPOROBLASTINA.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Superficial infections of the skin or its appendages by any of various fungi.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
A subacute or chronic inflammatory disease of muscle and skin, marked by proximal muscle weakness and a characteristic skin rash. The illness occurs with approximately equal frequency in children and adults. The skin lesions usually take the form of a purplish rash (or less often an exfoliative dermatitis) involving the nose, cheeks, forehead, upper trunk, and arms. The disease is associated with a complement mediated intramuscular microangiopathy, leading to loss of capillaries, muscle ischemia, muscle-fiber necrosis, and perifascicular atrophy. The childhood form of this disease tends to evolve into a systemic vasculitis. Dermatomyositis may occur in association with malignant neoplasms. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1405-6)
Simultaneous infection of a host organism by two or more pathogens. In virology, coinfection commonly refers to simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more different viruses.
Infections with fungi of the genus ASPERGILLUS.
Infection with FUNGI of the genus ENCEPHALITOZOON. Lesions commonly occur in the BRAIN and KIDNEY tubules. Other sites of infection in MAMMALS are the LIVER; ADRENAL GLANDS; OPTIC NERVES; RETINA; and MYOCARDIUM.
Diseases characterized by inflammation involving multiple muscles. This may occur as an acute or chronic condition associated with medication toxicity (DRUG TOXICITY); CONNECTIVE TISSUE DISEASES; infections; malignant NEOPLASMS; and other disorders. The term polymyositis is frequently used to refer to a specific clinical entity characterized by subacute or slowly progressing symmetrical weakness primarily affecting the proximal limb and trunk muscles. The illness may occur at any age, but is most frequent in the fourth to sixth decade of life. Weakness of pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles, interstitial lung disease, and inflammation of the myocardium may also occur. Muscle biopsy reveals widespread destruction of segments of muscle fibers and an inflammatory cellular response. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1404-9)
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
The use of chemical compounds to prevent the development of a specific disease.
An antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia.
The study of plant lore and agricultural customs of a people. In the fields of ETHNOMEDICINE and ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY, the emphasis is on traditional medicine and the existence and medicinal uses of PLANTS and PLANT EXTRACTS and their constituents, both historically and in modern times.
Virus diseases caused by the RETROVIRIDAE.
Infections with nontuberculous mycobacteria (atypical mycobacteria): M. kansasii, M. marinum, M. scrofulaceum, M. flavescens, M. gordonae, M. obuense, M. gilvum, M. duvali, M. szulgai, M. intracellulare (see MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM COMPLEX;), M. xenopi (littorale), M. ulcerans, M. buruli, M. terrae, M. fortuitum (minetti, giae), M. chelonae.
Macrolide antifungal antibiotic produced by Streptomyces nodosus obtained from soil of the Orinoco river region of Venezuela.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It is a geographical location, referring to the Republic of India, a country in South Asia. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help with those!
Immunoglobulins induced by antigens specific for tumors other than the normally occurring HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS.
Substances that are destructive to protozoans.
The number of WHITE BLOOD CELLS per unit volume in venous BLOOD. A differential leukocyte count measures the relative numbers of the different types of white cells.
Diseases of LYMPH; LYMPH NODES; or LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
Acquired defect of cellular immunity that occurs naturally in macaques infected with SRV serotypes, experimentally in monkeys inoculated with SRV or MASON-PFIZER MONKEY VIRUS; (MPMV), or in monkeys infected with SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
A mitosporic Trichocomaceae fungal genus that develops fruiting organs resembling a broom. When identified, teleomorphs include EUPENICILLIUM and TALAROMYCES. Several species (but especially PENICILLIUM CHRYSOGENUM) are sources of the antibiotic penicillin.
A republic in southern Africa, the southernmost part of Africa. It has three capitals: Pretoria (administrative), Cape Town (legislative), and Bloemfontein (judicial). Officially the Republic of South Africa since 1960, it was called the Union of South Africa 1910-1960.
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIV-induced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia.
Immune status consisting of non-production of HIV antibodies, as determined by various serological tests.
A country in western Europe bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Mediterranean Sea, and the countries of Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, the principalities of Andorra and Monaco, and by the duchy of Luxembourg. Its capital is Paris.
Postmortem examination of the body.
The transference of a kidney from one human or animal to another.
Species of the genus LENTIVIRUS, subgenus primate immunodeficiency viruses (IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUSES, PRIMATE), that induces acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in monkeys and apes (SAIDS). The genetic organization of SIV is virtually identical to HIV.
Drugs that are used to treat RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
The body's defense mechanism against foreign organisms or substances and deviant native cells. It includes the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated response and consists of a complex of interrelated cellular, molecular, and genetic components.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
Neoplasms located in the blood and blood-forming tissue (the bone marrow and lymphatic tissue). The commonest forms are the various types of LEUKEMIA, of LYMPHOMA, and of the progressive, life-threatening forms of the MYELODYSPLASTIC SYNDROMES.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
A genus of protozoa parasitic to birds and mammals. T. gondii is one of the most common infectious pathogenic animal parasites of man.
An immune response with both cellular and humoral components, directed against an allogeneic transplant, whose tissue antigens are not compatible with those of the recipient.
A genus of the family HERPESVIRIDAE, subfamily BETAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting the salivary glands, liver, spleen, lungs, eyes, and other organs, in which they produce characteristically enlarged cells with intranuclear inclusions. Infection with Cytomegalovirus is also seen as an opportunistic infection in AIDS.
Drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis. They are divided into two main classes: "first-line" agents, those with the greatest efficacy and acceptable degrees of toxicity used successfully in the great majority of cases; and "second-line" drugs used in drug-resistant cases or those in which some other patient-related condition has compromised the effectiveness of primary therapy.
The classic hemophilia resulting from a deficiency of factor VIII. It is an inherited disorder of blood coagulation characterized by a permanent tendency to hemorrhage.
Adrenal cortex hormones are steroid hormones produced by the outer portion of the adrenal gland, consisting of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, which play crucial roles in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation, stress response, electrolyte balance, and sexual development and function.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by bacterial infections.
A group of acute infections caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 or type 2 that is characterized by the development of one or more small fluid-filled vesicles with a raised erythematous base on the skin or mucous membrane. It occurs as a primary infection or recurs due to a reactivation of a latent infection. (Dorland, 27th ed.)
Diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system. This includes disorders of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, nerve roots, autonomic nervous system, neuromuscular junction, and muscle.
The number of LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD.
A prodromal phase of infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Laboratory criteria separating AIDS-related complex (ARC) from AIDS include elevated or hyperactive B-cell humoral immune responses, compared to depressed or normal antibody reactivity in AIDS; follicular or mixed hyperplasia in ARC lymph nodes, leading to lymphocyte degeneration and depletion more typical of AIDS; evolving succession of histopathological lesions such as localization of Kaposi's sarcoma, signaling the transition to the full-blown AIDS.
All of Africa except Northern Africa (AFRICA, NORTHERN).
A species of the genus MACACA inhabiting India, China, and other parts of Asia. The species is used extensively in biomedical research and adapts very well to living with humans.
A species of the fungus CRYPTOCOCCUS. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella neoformans.
Recommendations for directing health planning functions and policies. These may be mandated by PL93-641 and issued by the Department of Health and Human Services for use by state and local planning agencies.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Formerly known as Siam, this is a Southeast Asian nation at the center of the Indochina peninsula. Bangkok is the capital city.
Triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal CANDIDIASIS and cryptococcal MENINGITIS in AIDS.
Use of antibiotics before, during, or after a diagnostic, therapeutic, or surgical procedure to prevent infectious complications.
Any of a group of malignant tumors of lymphoid tissue that differ from HODGKIN DISEASE, being more heterogeneous with respect to malignant cell lineage, clinical course, prognosis, and therapy. The only common feature among these tumors is the absence of giant REED-STERNBERG CELLS, a characteristic of Hodgkin's disease.
Communicable diseases, also known as infectious diseases, are medical conditions that result from the infection, transmission, or colonization of pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, which can be spread from one host to another through various modes of transmission.
Transfer of HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS from BONE MARROW or BLOOD between individuals within the same species (TRANSPLANTATION, HOMOLOGOUS) or transfer within the same individual (TRANSPLANTATION, AUTOLOGOUS). Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has been used as an alternative to BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION in the treatment of a variety of neoplasms.
Pulmonary diseases caused by fungal infections, usually through hematogenous spread.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Ratio of T-LYMPHOCYTES that express the CD4 ANTIGEN to those that express the CD8 ANTIGEN. This value is commonly assessed in the diagnosis and staging of diseases affecting the IMMUNE SYSTEM including HIV INFECTIONS.
The transmission of infectious disease or pathogens from one generation to another. It includes transmission in utero or intrapartum by exposure to blood and secretions, and postpartum exposure via breastfeeding.
Biologically active substances whose activities affect or play a role in the functioning of the immune system.
The relating of causes to the effects they produce. Causes are termed necessary when they must always precede an effect and sufficient when they initiate or produce an effect. Any of several factors may be associated with the potential disease causation or outcome, including predisposing factors, enabling factors, precipitating factors, reinforcing factors, and risk factors.
Transplantation between individuals of the same species. Usually refers to genetically disparate individuals in contradistinction to isogeneic transplantation for genetically identical individuals.
Time schedule for administration of a drug in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and convenience.
Antibodies from non-human species whose protein sequences have been modified to make them nearly identical with human antibodies. If the constant region and part of the variable region are replaced, they are called humanized. If only the constant region is modified they are called chimeric. INN names for humanized antibodies end in -zumab.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
Immunosuppression by reduction of circulating lymphocytes or by T-cell depletion of bone marrow. The former may be accomplished in vivo by thoracic duct drainage or administration of antilymphocyte serum. The latter is performed ex vivo on bone marrow before its transplantation.
A classification of lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
A decrease in the number of NEUTROPHILS found in the blood.
A measure of the quality of health care by assessment of unsuccessful results of management and procedures used in combating disease, in individual cases or series.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
An ACYCLOVIR analog that is a potent inhibitor of the Herpesvirus family including cytomegalovirus. Ganciclovir is used to treat complications from AIDS-associated cytomegalovirus infections.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
A class of statistical procedures for estimating the survival function (function of time, starting with a population 100% well at a given time and providing the percentage of the population still well at later times). The survival analysis is then used for making inferences about the effects of treatments, prognostic factors, exposures, and other covariates on the function.
A genus in the family RETROVIRIDAE consisting of exogenous horizontally-transmitted viruses found in a few groups of mammals. Infections caused by these viruses include human B- or adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (LEUKEMIA-LYMPHOMA, T-CELL, ACUTE, HTLV-I-ASSOCIATED), and bovine leukemia (ENZOOTIC BOVINE LEUKOSIS). The type species is LEUKEMIA VIRUS, BOVINE.
The ability of lymphoid cells to mount a humoral or cellular immune response when challenged by antigen.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
A nucleoside antibiotic isolated from Streptomyces antibioticus. It has some antineoplastic properties and has broad spectrum activity against DNA viruses in cell cultures and significant antiviral activity against infections caused by a variety of viruses such as the herpes viruses, the VACCINIA VIRUS and varicella zoster virus.
Virus diseases caused by the HERPESVIRIDAE.
Bone marrow-derived lymphocytes that possess cytotoxic properties, classically directed against transformed and virus-infected cells. Unlike T CELLS; and B CELLS; NK CELLS are not antigen specific. The cytotoxicity of natural killer cells is determined by the collective signaling of an array of inhibitory and stimulatory CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. A subset of T-LYMPHOCYTES referred to as NATURAL KILLER T CELLS shares some of the properties of this cell type.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
A constitution or condition of the body which makes the tissues react in special ways to certain extrinsic stimuli and thus tends to make the individual more than usually susceptible to certain diseases.
A genus of yeast-like mitosporic Saccharomycetales fungi characterized by producing yeast cells, mycelia, pseudomycelia, and blastophores. It is commonly part of the normal flora of the skin, mouth, intestinal tract, and vagina, but can cause a variety of infections, including CANDIDIASIS; ONYCHOMYCOSIS; vulvovaginal candidiasis (CANDIDIASIS, VULVOVAGINAL), and thrush (see CANDIDIASIS, ORAL). (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Drugs used for their effects on the gastrointestinal system, as to control gastric acidity, regulate gastrointestinal motility and water flow, and improve digestion.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
The action of a drug that may affect the activity, metabolism, or toxicity of another drug.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated HIV or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent or treat AIDS. Some vaccines containing antigens are recombinantly produced.
A bacterium causing tuberculosis in domestic fowl and other birds. In pigs, it may cause localized and sometimes disseminated disease. The organism occurs occasionally in sheep and cattle. It should be distinguished from the M. avium complex, which infects primarily humans.
An increased liquidity or decreased consistency of FECES, such as running stool. Fecal consistency is related to the ratio of water-holding capacity of insoluble solids to total water, rather than the amount of water present. Diarrhea is not hyperdefecation or increased fecal weight.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of SUDAN and west of KENYA. Its capital is Kampala.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or concept, it is a country located in South America, known officially as the Federative Republic of Brazil. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or science, I'd be happy to help answer those!
A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue.
X-ray visualization of the chest and organs of the thoracic cavity. It is not restricted to visualization of the lungs.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and an INFECTION. The infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.
Serum containing GAMMA-GLOBULINS which are antibodies for lymphocyte ANTIGENS. It is used both as a test for HISTOCOMPATIBILITY and therapeutically in TRANSPLANTATION.
A synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from CORTISONE. It is biologically inert and converted to PREDNISOLONE in the liver.
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
A unicellular budding fungus which is the principal pathogenic species causing CANDIDIASIS (moniliasis).
A class of drugs that differs from other alkylating agents used clinically in that they are monofunctional and thus unable to cross-link cellular macromolecules. Among their common properties are a requirement for metabolic activation to intermediates with antitumor efficacy and the presence in their chemical structures of N-methyl groups, that after metabolism, can covalently modify cellular DNA. The precise mechanisms by which each of these drugs acts to kill tumor cells are not completely understood. (From AMA, Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p2026)
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the LIVER to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of LYMPHOMA and LEUKEMIA. Its side effect, ALOPECIA, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
Infections with bacteria of the genus SALMONELLA.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
A genus of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. Most species are free-living in soil and water, but the major habitat for some is the diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts.
A characteristic symptom complex.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
The transference of BONE MARROW from one human or animal to another for a variety of purposes including HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION or MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Countries in the process of change with economic growth, that is, an increase in production, per capita consumption, and income. The process of economic growth involves better utilization of natural and human resources, which results in a change in the social, political, and economic structures.
Pathological processes involving any part of the LUNG.
The proportion of survivors in a group, e.g., of patients, studied and followed over a period, or the proportion of persons in a specified group alive at the beginning of a time interval who survive to the end of the interval. It is often studied using life table methods.
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
The mechanism by which latent viruses, such as genetically transmitted tumor viruses (PROVIRUSES) or PROPHAGES of lysogenic bacteria, are induced to replicate and then released as infectious viruses. It may be effected by various endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including B-cell LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES, glucocorticoid hormones, halogenated pyrimidines, IONIZING RADIATION, ultraviolet light, and superinfecting viruses.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Interferon secreted by leukocytes, fibroblasts, or lymphoblasts in response to viruses or interferon inducers other than mitogens, antigens, or allo-antigens. They include alpha- and beta-interferons (INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA).
Subpopulation of CD4+ lymphocytes that cooperate with other lymphocytes (either T or B) to initiate a variety of immune functions. For example, helper-inducer T-cells cooperate with B-cells to produce antibodies to thymus-dependent antigens and with other subpopulations of T-cells to initiate a variety of cell-mediated immune functions.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.

Opportunistic Pneumocystis carinii infection in red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus). (1/1200)

P. carinii infection in red-bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus), born and maintained in a laboratory breeding colony, was examined by histopathologic examination postmortem. P. carinii cysts were detected in 6 of 10 red-bellied tamarins examined, by using Grocott's, toluidine blue O and immunostaining with avidin-biotin complex using antisera for rat-, simian-, and human-P. carinii. The results obtained from the present studies imply that P. carinii may be an important pathogen in this species.  (+info)

Comparison of isolation media for recovery of Burkholderia cepacia complex from respiratory secretions of patients with cystic fibrosis. (2/1200)

Burkholderia cepacia selective agar (BCSA) has previously been devised for isolation of B. cepacia from respiratory secretions of patients with cystic fibrosis and tested under research laboratory conditions. Here we describe a study in which BCSA, oxidation-fermentation polymyxin bacitracin lactose agar (OFPBL), and Pseudomonas cepacia agar (PCA) were compared in routine culture procedures for the ability to grow B. cepacia and inhibit other organisms. Three hundred twenty-eight specimens from 209 patients at two pediatric centers and 328 specimens from 109 adults were tested. Plates were inoculated, incubated, and read for quality and quantity of growth at 24, 48, and 72 h. Five (1.5%) specimens from 4 (1.9%) children and 75 (22.9%) specimens from 16 (14.7%) adults grew B. cepacia complex. At 24, 48, and 72 h, BCSA achieved 43, 93, and 100% detection, respectively; OFPBL achieved 26, 84, and 96%, respectively; and PCA achieved 33, 74, and 84% detection, respectively. Quality was assessed as pinpoint or good growth. At 24 h, most cultures growing B. cepacia complex had pinpoint colonies. By 48 and 72 h, 48 and 69% of B. cepacia complex cultures, respectively, had good growth on BCSA, while on OFPBL 19 and 30%, respectively, had good growth and on PCA 11 and 18%, respectively, had good growth. BCSA was superior to OFPBL and PCA in suppressing organisms other than B. cepacia complex; 40 non-B. cepacia complex organisms were isolated from BCSA, 263 were isolated from OFPBL, and 116 were isolated from PCA. We conclude that BCSA is superior to OFPBL and PCA in its ability to support the growth of B. cepacia complex and to suppress other respiratory organisms.  (+info)

Fatal disseminated Trichoderma longibrachiatum infection in an adult bone marrow transplant patient: species identification and review of the literature. (3/1200)

Trichoderma longibrachiatum was recovered from stool surveillance cultures and a perirectal ulcer biopsy specimen from a 29-year-old male who had received an allogeneic bone marrow transplant for acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The amphotericin B (2.0 microgram/ml) and itraconazole (1.0 microgram/ml) MICs for the organism were elevated. Therapy with these agents was unsuccessful, and the patient died on day 58 posttransplantation. At autopsy, histologic sections from the lungs, liver, brain, and intestinal wall showed infiltration by branching septate hyphae. Cultures were positive for Trichoderma longibrachiatum. While Trichoderma species have been recognized to be pathogenic in profoundly immunosuppressed hosts with increasing frequency, this is the first report of probable acquisition through the gastrointestinal tract. Salient features regarding the identification of molds in the Trichoderma longibrachiatum species aggregate are presented.  (+info)

Central line sepsis in a child due to a previously unidentified mycobacterium. (4/1200)

A rapidly growing mycobacterium similar to strains in the present Mycobacterium fortuitum complex (M. fortuitum, M. peregrinum, and M. fortuitum third biovariant complex [sorbitol positive and sorbitol negative]) was isolated from a surgically placed central venous catheter tip and three cultures of blood from a 2-year-old child diagnosed with metastatic hepatoblastoma. The organism's unique phenotypic profile and ribotype patterns differed from those of the type and reference strains of the M. fortuitum complex and indicate that this organism may represent a new pathogenic taxon.  (+info)

Candidemia at selected Canadian sites: results from the Fungal Disease Registry, 1992-1994. Fungal Disease Registry of the Canadian Infectious Disease Society. (5/1200)

BACKGROUND: Candida species are important bloodstream pathogens that are being isolated with increasing frequency. Despite the availability of effective antifungal therapy, the mortality rate associated with Candida infection remains high. With the objective of describing the epidemiology of candidemia, the Canadian Infectious Disease Society conducted a study of candidemia in Canada. METHODS: Fourteen medical centres across Canada identified all patients with candidemia from March 1992 to February 1994 through blood culture surveillance for Candida spp. Patient-related data for invasive fungal infection were compiled retrospectively by chart review using a standardized data-recording form developed for the Fungal Disease Registry of the Canadian Infectious Disease Society. Cases of Candidemia were studied in relation to underlying medical conditions, predisposing factors, concurrent infection, antimicrobial agents, antifungal treatment and deaths. RESULTS: In total, 415 cases of candidemia were identified, 48 (11.6%) in children and 367 (88.4%) in adults. The causative pathogens were C. albicans in 286 cases (68.9%), C. parapsilosis in 43 (10.4%), C. glabrata in 34 (8.2%), C. tropicalis in 27 (6.5%) and other Candida species in 18 (4.3%); polymicrobial candidemia occurred in 7 cases (1.7%). The overall mortality rate was 46%, and the rate of deaths clinically related to candidemia was 19%. However, only 13 (27%) of the children died. A univariate analysis indicated that significant risk factors for death were age greater than 60 years, therapy for concomitant bacterial infection, stay in an intensive care unit, concurrent malignant disease, cytotoxic chemotherapy and granulocytopenia, although only age and stay in an intensive care unit emerged as significant risk factors in the multivariate analysis. After adjustment for other predictors of death, only infection with C. parapsilosis was associated with a lower mortality rate than infection with C. albicans. Treatment was given in 352 (84.8%) of cases. Amphotericin B was the preferred agent in 244 cases (69.3% of those treated); fluconazole was used in 101 cases (28.7%) and ketoconazole in 5 cases (1.4%). INTERPRETATION: Candidemia in Canada is caused predominantly by C. albicans. The mortality rate associated with candidemia is high, but it varies with the species of Candida and is lower in children than in adults. Age greater than 60 years and stay in an intensive care unit were the most significant risk factors for overall mortality.  (+info)

Candida dubliniensis candidemia in patients with chemotherapy-induced neutropenia and bone marrow transplantation. (6/1200)

The recently described species Candida dubliniensis has been recovered primarily from superficial oral candidiasis in HIV-infected patients. No clinically documented invasive infections were reported until now in this patient group or in other immunocompromised patients. We report three cases of candidemia due to this newly emerging Candida species in HIV-negative patients with chemotherapy-induced immunosuppression and bone marrow transplantation.  (+info)

Fungal prophylaxis by reduction of fungal colonization by oral administration of bovine anti-Candida antibodies in bone marrow transplant recipients. (7/1200)

Candida overgrowth and invasion constitute a serious threat with a high mortality in BMT recipients. Currently available topical antifungal prophylaxis is largely ineffective, and as resistance to existing, absorbable drugs for systemic use is rapidly developing, new forms of therapy are needed. We investigated the effect of oral treatment of BMT recipients with a bovine immunoglobulin product derived from animals immunized against several Candida species. The natural Candida colonization was first followed in 19 patients to establish the colonization pattern. Half of the patients were found to be colonized prior to transplantation and altogether 72% were colonized at some point during follow-up. Those with a high pre-transplant concentration of Candida in saliva (>100 CFU/ml) remained colonized throughout the BMT treatment period. The therapeutic effect was monitored in two other patient groups. The first group consisted of nine patients, where, due to a low number of primary colonized patients, response in colonized patients was suggestive of a therapeutic effect. In the second group, 10 patients with a high level of colonization (>100 CFU/ml) were given 10 g daily of the product in three divided doses. The results suggest a treatment-related reduction in Candida colonization in a majority (7/10) of patients and one patient became completely negative. As no adverse effects were noted, our findings encourage additional studies in immunocompromised, transplant patients.  (+info)

Improvement of nebulised antibiotic delivery in cystic fibrosis. (8/1200)

AIM: To investigate deposition patterns and to assess the delivery rate of two nebuliser systems in children with cystic fibrosis (CF). METHODS: Thirty three children with CF on regular treatment with nebulised antibiotics had radioisotope scans performed using technetium-99m labelled aerosol antibiotic generated by a Ventstream nebuliser (median mass diameter (MMD), 3.3 microm; delivery rate, 0. 075 ml/min) under conditions similar to their routine home practice. The inhomogeneity of the images was scored on a 1-10 rating scale (a low score indicating even distribution of the antibiotic), and stomach deposition was measured as a percentage of overall deposition. Twenty patients had a repeat scan using an Optimist nebuliser (MMD, 1.8 microm; delivery rate, 0.02 ml/min). RESULTS: The mean inhomogeneity scores were 5.4 in the Ventstream group and 3. 5 in the Optimist group. Mean stomach deposition was 17.3% in the 33 patients using the Ventstream nebuliser. There was an inverse relation between height and stomach deposition (r = 0.69). In the 20 patients who had both nebulisers, the mean percentages of stomach deposition for the Ventstream and Optimist nebulisers were 11.8% and 1.6%, respectively. The Ventstream nebuliser delivered antibiotic at an average 2.8 times faster rate than the Optimist nebuliser. IMPLICATIONS: A smaller particle size results in a more homogenous distribution of the antibiotic in the lungs with decreased stomach deposition. This should not be seen as a recommendation to use the Optimist nebuliser because more antibiotic was delivered to most parts of the lung with the Ventstream because of its increased delivery rate.  (+info)

Opportunistic infections (OIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in individuals with weakened immune systems, often due to a underlying condition such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation. These infections are caused by microorganisms that do not normally cause disease in people with healthy immune function, but can take advantage of an opportunity to infect and cause damage when the body's defense mechanisms are compromised. Examples of opportunistic infections include Pneumocystis pneumonia, tuberculosis, candidiasis (thrush), and cytomegalovirus infection. Preventive measures, such as antimicrobial medications and vaccinations, play a crucial role in reducing the risk of opportunistic infections in individuals with weakened immune systems.

AIDS-related opportunistic infections (AROIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. These infections take advantage of a weakened immune system and can affect various organs and systems in the body.

Common examples of AROIs include:

1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii
2. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection, caused by a type of bacteria called mycobacteria
3. Candidiasis, a fungal infection that can affect various parts of the body, including the mouth, esophagus, and genitals
4. Toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii
5. Cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that affects the lungs and central nervous system
6. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, caused by a type of herpes virus
7. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
8. Cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic infection that affects the intestines
9. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a viral infection that affects the brain

Preventing and treating AROIs is an important part of managing HIV/AIDS, as they can cause significant illness and even death in people with weakened immune systems. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is used to treat HIV infection and prevent the progression of HIV to AIDS, which can help reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. In addition, medications to prevent specific opportunistic infections may be prescribed for people with advanced HIV or AIDS.

"Pneumonia, Pneumocystis" is more commonly referred to as "Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)." It is a type of pneumonia caused by the microorganism Pneumocystis jirovecii. This organism was previously classified as a protozoan but is now considered a fungus.

PCP is an opportunistic infection, which means that it mainly affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, transplant recipients, or people taking immunosuppressive medications. The symptoms of PCP can include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and difficulty exercising. It is a serious infection that requires prompt medical treatment, typically with antibiotics.

It's important to note that PCP is not the same as pneumococcal pneumonia, which is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. While both conditions are types of pneumonia, they are caused by different organisms and require different treatments.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a chronic, life-threatening condition caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by the significant weakening of the immune system, making the person more susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers.

The medical definition of AIDS includes specific criteria based on CD4+ T-cell count or the presence of certain opportunistic infections and diseases. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a person with HIV is diagnosed with AIDS when:

1. The CD4+ T-cell count falls below 200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood (mm3) - a normal range is typically between 500 and 1,600 cells/mm3.
2. They develop one or more opportunistic infections or cancers that are indicative of advanced HIV disease, regardless of their CD4+ T-cell count.

Some examples of these opportunistic infections and cancers include:

* Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
* Candidiasis (thrush) affecting the esophagus, trachea, or lungs
* Cryptococcal meningitis
* Toxoplasmosis of the brain
* Cytomegalovirus disease
* Kaposi's sarcoma
* Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
* Invasive cervical cancer

It is important to note that with appropriate antiretroviral therapy (ART), people living with HIV can maintain their CD4+ T-cell counts, suppress viral replication, and prevent the progression to AIDS. Early diagnosis and consistent treatment are crucial for managing HIV and improving life expectancy and quality of life.

A CD4 lymphocyte count is a laboratory test that measures the number of CD4 T-cells (also known as CD4+ T-cells or helper T-cells) in a sample of blood. CD4 cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune response, particularly in fighting off infections caused by viruses and other pathogens.

CD4 cells express a protein on their surface called the CD4 receptor, which is used by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to infect and destroy these cells. As a result, people with HIV infection or AIDS often have low CD4 lymphocyte counts, which can make them more susceptible to opportunistic infections and other complications.

A normal CD4 lymphocyte count ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood (cells/mm3) in healthy adults. A lower than normal CD4 count is often used as a marker for the progression of HIV infection and the development of AIDS. CD4 counts are typically monitored over time to assess the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to guide clinical decision-making regarding the need for additional interventions, such as prophylaxis against opportunistic infections.

Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active (HAART) is a medical treatment regimen used to manage HIV infection. It involves the combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs from at least two different classes, aiming to maximally suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance. The goal of HAART is to reduce the amount of HIV in the body to undetectable levels, preserve immune function, and improve quality of life for people living with HIV. Commonly used antiretroviral classes include nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors (PIs), integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs), and fusion inhibitors.

Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome (IRIS) is not a disease itself, but rather a reaction that can occur in some individuals who have a weakened immune system and then receive treatment to restore their immune function.

IRIS is defined as a paradoxical clinical worsening or appearance of new symptoms following the initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in HIV-infected patients, or after the administration of other immunomodulatory agents in patients with other types of immune deficiency.

This reaction is thought to be due to an overactive immune response to opportunistic infections or malignancies that were present but not causing symptoms while the patient's immune system was severely compromised. As the immune system begins to recover, it may mount a strong inflammatory response to these underlying infections or cancers, leading to worsening of symptoms or the development of new ones.

IRIS can affect various organs and systems, causing a wide range of clinical manifestations. The most common opportunistic infections associated with IRIS include Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP), and Cryptococcus neoformans.

The management of IRIS involves a careful balance between continuing the immune-restoring therapy and providing appropriate treatment for the underlying infection or malignancy, while also managing the inflammatory response with anti-inflammatory medications if necessary.

An immunocompromised host refers to an individual who has a weakened or impaired immune system, making them more susceptible to infections and decreased ability to fight off pathogens. This condition can be congenital (present at birth) or acquired (developed during one's lifetime).

Acquired immunocompromised states may result from various factors such as medical treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunosuppressive drugs), infections (e.g., HIV/AIDS), chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, malnutrition, liver disease), or aging.

Immunocompromised hosts are at a higher risk for developing severe and life-threatening infections due to their reduced immune response. Therefore, they require special consideration when it comes to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases.

T-lymphocytopenia, idiopathic CD4-positive, also known as Idiopathic CD4 Lymphopenia (ICL), is a rare medical condition characterized by a significant decrease in the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes in the peripheral blood without an identifiable cause. CD4+ T cells are crucial for immune function and protection against certain types of infections, particularly those caused by viruses such as HIV.

ICL is typically defined as a CD4+ T-lymphocyte count below 300 cells/μL in the absence of HIV infection or any other known immunodeficiency disorder. The exact cause of ICL remains unknown, although it has been associated with genetic factors and autoimmune disorders.

People with ICL may be at increased risk for certain types of infections, such as opportunistic infections, which can occur when the immune system is weakened. However, the severity and frequency of infections in individuals with ICL are generally less than those seen in people with HIV-associated CD4 lymphopenia.

Regular monitoring of CD4+ T-lymphocyte counts and appropriate management of any infections that occur are important for people with ICL to maintain their overall health and well-being.

Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare (M. avium-intracellulare) infection is a type of nontuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) lung disease caused by the environmental pathogens Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare, which are commonly found in water, soil, and dust. These bacteria can cause pulmonary infection, especially in individuals with underlying lung conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiectasis, or prior tuberculosis infection.

M. avium-intracellulare infection typically presents with symptoms like cough, fatigue, weight loss, fever, night sweats, and sputum production. Diagnosis is established through a combination of clinical presentation, radiographic findings, and microbiological culture of respiratory samples. Treatment usually involves a multidrug regimen consisting of macrolides (such as clarithromycin or azithromycin), ethambutol, and rifamycins (such as rifampin or rifabutin) for an extended period, often 12-24 months. Eradication of the infection can be challenging due to the bacteria's inherent resistance to many antibiotics and its ability to survive within host cells.

Anti-HIV agents are a class of medications specifically designed to treat HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. These drugs work by interfering with various stages of the HIV replication cycle, preventing the virus from infecting and killing CD4+ T cells, which are crucial for maintaining a healthy immune system.

There are several classes of anti-HIV agents, including:

1. Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NRTIs): These drugs act as faulty building blocks that the virus incorporates into its genetic material, causing the replication process to halt. Examples include zidovudine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC), and tenofovir.
2. Non-nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (NNRTIs): These medications bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, altering its shape and preventing it from functioning properly. Examples include efavirenz, nevirapine, and rilpivirine.
3. Protease Inhibitors (PIs): These drugs target the protease enzyme, which is responsible for cleaving viral polyproteins into functional components. By inhibiting this enzyme, PIs prevent the formation of mature, infectious virus particles. Examples include atazanavir, darunavir, and lopinavir.
4. Integrase Strand Transfer Inhibitors (INSTIs): These medications block the integrase enzyme, which is responsible for inserting the viral genetic material into the host cell's DNA. By inhibiting this step, INSTIs prevent the virus from establishing a permanent infection within the host cell. Examples include raltegravir, dolutegravir, and bictegravir.
5. Fusion/Entry Inhibitors: These drugs target different steps of the viral entry process, preventing HIV from infecting CD4+ T cells. Examples include enfuvirtide (T-20), maraviroc, and ibalizumab.
6. Post-Attachment Inhibitors: This class of medications prevents the virus from attaching to the host cell's receptors, thereby inhibiting infection. Currently, there is only one approved post-attachment inhibitor, fostemsavir.

Combination therapy using multiple classes of antiretroviral drugs has been shown to effectively suppress viral replication and improve clinical outcomes in people living with HIV. Regular adherence to the prescribed treatment regimen is crucial for maintaining an undetectable viral load and reducing the risk of transmission.

Cerebral toxoplasmosis is a type of toxoplasmosis, which is an infection caused by the Toxoplasma gondii parasite. In cerebral toxoplasmosis, the infection primarily affects the brain, leading to inflammation and the formation of lesions or abscesses in the brain tissue.

This condition is most commonly observed in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those living with HIV/AIDS, receiving immunosuppressive therapy after organ transplantation, or having other conditions that compromise their immune function. The infection can cause a range of neurological symptoms, including headaches, seizures, confusion, memory loss, poor coordination, and in severe cases, coma or even death. Early diagnosis and treatment with appropriate antiparasitic medications are crucial to manage the infection and prevent complications.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a specific type of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. This condition is caused by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii.

In cryptococcal meningitis, the fungal cells enter the bloodstream and cross the blood-brain barrier, causing infection in the central nervous system. The immune system's response to the infection leads to inflammation of the meninges, resulting in symptoms such as headache, fever, neck stiffness, altered mental status, and sometimes seizures or focal neurological deficits.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a serious infection that can be life-threatening if left untreated. It primarily affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and individuals receiving immunosuppressive therapy for cancer or autoimmune diseases. Early diagnosis and appropriate antifungal treatment are crucial to improve outcomes in patients with cryptococcal meningitis.

Mycoses are a group of diseases caused by fungal infections. These infections can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, nails, hair, lungs, and internal organs. The severity of mycoses can range from superficial, mild infections to systemic, life-threatening conditions, depending on the type of fungus and the immune status of the infected individual. Some common types of mycoses include candidiasis, dermatophytosis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, which can be topical or systemic, depending on the location and severity of the infection.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections are caused by the human herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5), a type of herpesvirus. The infection can affect people of all ages, but it is more common in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who have undergone organ transplantation.

CMV can be spread through close contact with an infected person's saliva, urine, blood, tears, semen, or breast milk. It can also be spread through sexual contact or by sharing contaminated objects, such as toys, eating utensils, or drinking glasses. Once a person is infected with CMV, the virus remains in their body for life and can reactivate later, causing symptoms to recur.

Most people who are infected with CMV do not experience any symptoms, but some may develop a mononucleosis-like illness, characterized by fever, fatigue, swollen glands, and sore throat. In people with weakened immune systems, CMV infections can cause more severe symptoms, including pneumonia, gastrointestinal disease, retinitis, and encephalitis.

Congenital CMV infection occurs when a pregnant woman passes the virus to her fetus through the placenta. This can lead to serious complications, such as hearing loss, vision loss, developmental delays, and mental disability.

Diagnosis of CMV infections is typically made through blood tests or by detecting the virus in bodily fluids, such as urine or saliva. Treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's overall health. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

AIDS-related lymphoma (ARL) is a type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system and is associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is caused by the infection of the lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which weakens the immune system and makes individuals more susceptible to developing lymphoma.

There are two main types of AIDS-related lymphomas: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and Burkitt lymphoma (BL). DLBCL is the most common type and tends to grow rapidly, while BL is a more aggressive form that can also spread quickly.

Symptoms of AIDS-related lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, and decreased appetite. Diagnosis typically involves a biopsy of the affected lymph node or other tissue, followed by various imaging tests to determine the extent of the disease.

Treatment for AIDS-related lymphoma usually involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, along with antiretroviral therapy (ART) to manage HIV infection. The prognosis for ARL varies depending on several factors, including the type and stage of the disease, the patient's overall health, and their response to treatment.

Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is a type of cancer that causes abnormal growths in the skin, lymph nodes, or other organs. It is caused by the Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8). There are several forms of KS, including:

1. Classic KS: This form primarily affects older men of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, or Ashkenazi Jewish descent. It tends to progress slowly and mainly involves the skin.
2. Endemic KS: Found in parts of Africa, this form predominantly affects children and young adults, regardless of their HIV status.
3. Immunosuppression-associated KS: This form is more aggressive and occurs in people with weakened immune systems due to organ transplantation or other causes.
4. Epidemic KS (AIDS-related KS): This is the most common form of KS, seen primarily in people with HIV/AIDS. The widespread use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has significantly reduced its incidence.

KS lesions can appear as red, purple, or brown spots on the skin and may also affect internal organs such as the lungs, lymph nodes, or gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms vary depending on the location of the lesions but often include fever, fatigue, weight loss, and swelling in the legs or abdomen. Treatment options depend on the extent and severity of the disease and may involve local therapies (e.g., radiation, topical treatments), systemic therapies (e.g., chemotherapy, immunotherapy), or a combination of these approaches.

Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii. It can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, organ transplants, or long-term steroid use. The infection typically starts in the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body, including the brain (meningitis), causing various symptoms like cough, fever, chest pain, headache, confusion, and vision problems. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications, and the prognosis depends on the patient's immune status and the severity of the infection.

Microsporidiosis is an infection caused by microscopic, single-celled parasites belonging to the phylum Microspora. These parasites are primarily intracellular and can infect various organisms, including humans. Infection typically occurs through ingestion of spores present in contaminated food, water, or soil, or through inhalation of spores. Once inside a host, the spores germinate, releasing the infective sporoplasm that invades host cells and multiplies within them.

In humans, microsporidiosis can cause various symptoms depending on the species involved and the immune status of the host. In immunocompetent individuals, it may present as self-limiting diarrhea or mild gastrointestinal disturbances. However, in immunocompromised patients (e.g., those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or using immunosuppressive medications), microsporidiosis can lead to severe and chronic diarrhea, wasting, and potentially life-threatening complications affecting various organs such as the eyes, kidneys, and respiratory system.

Diagnosis of microsporidiosis typically involves detecting the parasites in stool or tissue samples using specialized staining techniques (e.g., chromotrope stains) or molecular methods (e.g., PCR). Treatment usually includes antiparasitic drugs such as albendazole, which has activity against many microsporidian species. In severe cases or when the infection involves multiple organs, additional supportive care and management of underlying immunodeficiencies may be necessary.

HIV-1 (Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1) is a species of the retrovirus genus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, exposure to infected blood or blood products, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. HIV-1 infects vital cells in the human immune system, such as CD4+ T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, leading to a decline in their numbers and weakening of the immune response over time. This results in the individual becoming susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers that ultimately cause death if left untreated. HIV-1 is the most prevalent form of HIV worldwide and has been identified as the causative agent of the global AIDS pandemic.

"Pneumocystis jirovecii" is a species of fungus that commonly infects the lungs of humans, leading to a serious respiratory infection known as Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This fungal infection primarily affects individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients. The organism was previously classified as a protozoan but has since been reclassified as a fungus based on genetic analysis. It is typically acquired through inhalation of airborne spores and can cause severe illness if left untreated.

Anti-retroviral agents are a class of drugs used to treat and prevent infections caused by retroviruses, most commonly the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). These medications work by interfering with the replication process of the retrovirus, thereby preventing it from infecting and destroying immune cells.

There are several different classes of anti-retroviral agents, including:

1. Nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) - These drugs block the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is necessary for the retrovirus to convert its RNA into DNA.
2. Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) - These drugs bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme and alter its shape, preventing it from functioning properly.
3. Protease inhibitors (PIs) - These drugs block the action of the protease enzyme, which is necessary for the retrovirus to assemble new viral particles.
4. Integrase inhibitors (INIs) - These drugs block the action of the integrase enzyme, which is necessary for the retrovirus to integrate its DNA into the host cell's genome.
5. Fusion inhibitors - These drugs prevent the retrovirus from entering host cells by blocking the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes.
6. Entry inhibitors - These drugs prevent the retrovirus from attaching to and entering host cells.

Anti-retroviral therapy (ART) typically involves a combination of at least three different anti-retroviral agents from two or more classes, in order to effectively suppress viral replication and prevent drug resistance. Regular monitoring of viral load and CD4+ T cell counts is necessary to ensure the effectiveness of ART and make any necessary adjustments to the treatment regimen.

Histoplasmosis is a pulmonary and systemic disease caused by the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It is typically acquired through the inhalation of microconidia from contaminated soil, particularly in areas associated with bird or bat droppings. The infection can range from asymptomatic to severe, depending on factors like the individual's immune status and the quantity of inhaled spores.

In acute histoplasmosis, symptoms may include fever, cough, fatigue, chest pain, and headache. Chronic or disseminated forms of the disease can affect various organs, such as the liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and central nervous system, leading to more severe complications. Diagnosis often involves serological tests, cultures, or histopathological examination of tissue samples. Treatment depends on the severity and dissemination of the disease, with antifungal medications like itraconazole or amphotericin B being commonly used for moderate to severe cases.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a species of lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time, HIV infection can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). This virus attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, also known as T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that helps coordinate the body's immune response. As HIV destroys these cells, the body becomes more vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is primarily spread through bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.

It's important to note that while there is no cure for HIV, with proper medical care, HIV can be controlled. Treatment for HIV is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). If taken as prescribed, this medicine reduces the amount of HIV in the body to a very low level, which keeps the immune system working and prevents illness. This treatment also greatly reduces the risk of transmission.

Nocardia infections are caused by Nocardia species, a type of gram-positive, aerobic, filamentous bacteria that can be found in soil, dust, and decaying vegetation. These infections primarily affect the lungs (pulmonary nocardiosis) when the bacteria are inhaled but can also spread to other parts of the body, causing disseminated nocardiosis. People with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or long-term steroid use, are at a higher risk of developing Nocardia infections. Symptoms vary depending on the site of infection and may include cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, skin abscesses, brain abscesses, or joint inflammation. Diagnosis typically involves microbiological culture and identification of the bacteria from clinical samples, while treatment usually consists of long-term antibiotic therapy, often involving multiple drugs.

AIDS Dementia Complex (ADC) is a neurological disorder that occurs in people with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. It is also known as HIV-associated dementia (HAD) or HIV encephalopathy. ADC is characterized by cognitive impairment, motor dysfunction, and behavioral changes that can significantly affect the individual's daily functioning and quality of life.

The symptoms of AIDS Dementia Complex may include:
- Difficulty with concentration and memory
- Slowness in thinking, processing information, or making decisions
- Changes in mood or personality, such as depression, irritability, or apathy
- Difficulty with coordination, balance, or speech
- Progressive weakness and wasting of muscles
- Difficulty with swallowing or speaking

The exact cause of ADC is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to the direct effects of HIV on the brain. The virus can infect and damage nerve cells, leading to inflammation and degeneration of brain tissue. Treatment for ADC typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART) to control HIV replication, as well as medications to manage specific symptoms. In some cases, supportive care such as physical therapy or occupational therapy may also be recommended.

"Pneumocystis infection" is most commonly caused by the microorganism Pneumocystis jirovecii, which can lead to a serious lung infection known as pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This infection primarily affects individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients.

The microorganism that causes Pneumocystis infections was previously classified as a protozoan but is now considered a fungus. It exists in the environment and can be found in the lungs of healthy individuals without causing illness. However, in people with compromised immune systems, it can replicate and cause pneumonia, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

Symptoms of PCP include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and difficulty breathing. Diagnosis typically involves microscopic examination of respiratory samples, such as sputum or lung fluid, to detect the presence of the organism. Treatment usually consists of antimicrobial medications, such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), pentamidine, or atovaquone. Preventive measures, such as prophylaxis with TMP-SMX or other medications, may be recommended for individuals at high risk of developing PCP.

Lymphopenia is a term used in medicine to describe an abnormally low count of lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system. Lymphocytes help fight off infections and diseases by producing antibodies and attacking infected cells.

A normal lymphocyte count ranges from 1,000 to 4,800 cells per microliter (cells/μL) of blood in adults. A lymphocyte count lower than 1,000 cells/μL is generally considered lymphopenia.

Several factors can cause lymphopenia, including viral infections, certain medications, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. It's important to note that a low lymphocyte count alone may not indicate a specific medical condition, and further testing may be necessary to determine the underlying cause. If left untreated, lymphopenia can increase the risk of infections and other complications.

Parasitic lung diseases refer to conditions caused by infection of the lungs by parasites. These are small organisms that live on or in a host organism and derive their sustenance at the expense of the host. Parasitic lung diseases can be caused by various types of parasites, including helminths (worms) and protozoa.

Examples of parasitic lung diseases include:

1. Pulmonary echinococcosis (hydatid disease): This is a rare infection caused by the larval stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. The larvae form cysts in various organs, including the lungs.
2. Paragonimiasis: This is a food-borne lung fluke infection caused by Paragonimus westermani and other species. Humans become infected by eating raw or undercooked crustaceans (such as crabs or crayfish) that contain the larval stage of the parasite.
3. Toxocariasis: This is a soil-transmitted helminth infection caused by the roundworm Toxocara canis or T. cati, which are found in the intestines of dogs and cats. Humans become infected through accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, undercooked meat, or through contact with an infected animal's feces. Although the primary site of infection is the small intestine, larval migration can lead to lung involvement in some cases.
4. Amebic lung disease: This is a rare complication of amebiasis, which is caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. The parasite usually infects the large intestine, but it can spread to other organs, including the lungs, through the bloodstream.
5. Cryptosporidiosis: This is a waterborne protozoan infection caused by Cryptosporidium parvum or C. hominis. Although the primary site of infection is the small intestine, immunocompromised individuals can develop disseminated disease, including pulmonary involvement.

Symptoms of parasitic lung diseases vary depending on the specific organism and the severity of infection but may include cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, fever, and sputum production. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests, such as stool or blood examinations for parasites or their antigens. Treatment depends on the specific organism but may include antiparasitic medications, supportive care, and management of complications.

Oral candidiasis is a medical condition characterized by an infection of the oral mucous membranes caused by the Candida fungus species, most commonly Candida albicans. It is also known as thrush or oral thrush. The infection typically appears as white, creamy, or yellowish patches or plaques on the tongue, inner cheeks, roof of the mouth, gums, and sometimes on the tonsils or back of the throat. These lesions can be painful, causing soreness, burning sensations, and difficulty swallowing. Oral candidiasis can affect people of all ages; however, it is more commonly seen in infants, elderly individuals, and those with weakened immune systems due to illness or medication use. Various factors such as poor oral hygiene, dentures, smoking, dry mouth, and certain medical conditions like diabetes or HIV/AIDS can increase the risk of developing oral candidiasis. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications in the form of topical creams, lozenges, or oral solutions, depending on the severity and underlying cause of the infection.

Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the parasitic protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. It can infect humans, birds, and most warm-blooded animals, including marine mammals. In humans, it is usually contracted through eating undercooked, contaminated meat or ingesting oocysts (a form of the parasite) from cat feces, often through contact with litter boxes or gardening in soil that has been contaminated with cat feces.

The infection can also be passed to the fetus if a woman becomes infected during or just before pregnancy. Most healthy individuals who become infected with Toxoplasma gondii experience few symptoms and are not aware they have the disease. However, for those with weakened immune systems, such as people with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and pregnant women, toxoplasmosis can cause severe complications, including damage to the brain, eyes, and other organs.

Symptoms of toxoplasmosis in individuals with weakened immune systems may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, fatigue, muscle aches, and headache. In pregnant women, infection can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, or severe developmental problems in the baby. Treatment typically involves antiparasitic medications such as pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine.

Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by Candida species, most commonly Candida albicans. It can affect various parts of the body, including the skin, mucous membranes (such as the mouth and vagina), and internal organs (like the esophagus, lungs, or blood).

The symptoms of candidiasis depend on the location of the infection:

1. Oral thrush: White patches on the tongue, inner cheeks, gums, or roof of the mouth. These patches may be painful and can bleed slightly when scraped.
2. Vaginal yeast infection: Itching, burning, redness, and swelling of the vagina and vulva; thick, white, odorless discharge from the vagina.
3. Esophageal candidiasis: Difficulty swallowing, pain when swallowing, or feeling like food is "stuck" in the throat.
4. Invasive candidiasis: Fever, chills, and other signs of infection; multiple organ involvement may lead to various symptoms depending on the affected organs.

Risk factors for developing candidiasis include diabetes, HIV/AIDS, use of antibiotics or corticosteroids, pregnancy, poor oral hygiene, and wearing tight-fitting clothing that traps moisture. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as fluconazole, nystatin, or clotrimazole, depending on the severity and location of the infection.

"Pneumocystis" is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in the lungs of many mammals, including humans. The most well-known and studied species within this genus is "Pneumocystis jirovecii," which was previously known as "Pneumocystis carinii." This organism can cause a serious lung infection known as Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who are undergoing immunosuppressive therapy.

It's worth noting that while "Pneumocystis" was once classified as a protozoan, it is now considered to be a fungus based on its genetic and biochemical characteristics.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis is a sight-threatening eye infection that affects the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. It is caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV), a type of herpesvirus that can remain inactive in the body for years after initial infection.

In people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those who have undergone organ transplantation, CMV can reactivate and cause serious complications. When it infects the retina, it can cause inflammation, hemorrhage, and necrosis (cell death), leading to vision loss.

Symptoms of CMV retinitis may include floaters, blurred vision, blind spots, or loss of peripheral vision. If left untreated, the infection can spread to other parts of the eye and cause further damage. Treatment typically involves antiviral medications that are given intravenously or in the form of eye drops. In some cases, laser surgery may be necessary to prevent the spread of the infection.

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a rare and serious demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that affects the white matter of the brain. It's caused by the reactivation of the John Cunningham virus (JCV) in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplants, or hematologic malignancies.

In PML, the JCV infects and destroys the oligodendrocytes, which are the cells responsible for producing myelin, the fatty substance that insulates and protects nerve fibers. This results in multiple areas of focal demyelination throughout the brain, leading to progressive neurological symptoms such as cognitive decline, motor weakness, vision loss, and speech difficulties.

PML is a medical emergency, and prompt diagnosis and treatment of the underlying immunodeficiency are crucial for improving outcomes. Unfortunately, there is no specific treatment for PML itself, but restoring immune function can help slow or stop the progression of the disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Namibia" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in southern Africa, bordered by Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east, South Africa to the south and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help answer them for you.

HIV seropositivity is a term used to describe a positive result on an HIV antibody test. This means that the individual has developed antibodies against the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), indicating that they have been infected with the virus. However, it's important to note that this does not necessarily mean that the person has AIDS, as there can be a long period between HIV infection and the development of AIDS.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes refer to a group of disorders characterized by defective functioning of the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and malignancies. These deficiencies can be primary (genetic or congenital) or secondary (acquired due to environmental factors, medications, or diseases).

Primary immunodeficiency syndromes (PIDS) are caused by inherited genetic mutations that affect the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells, B cells, and phagocytes. Examples include severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and X-linked agammaglobulinemia.

Secondary immunodeficiency syndromes can result from various factors, including:

1. HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection leads to the depletion of CD4+ T cells, causing profound immune dysfunction and increased vulnerability to opportunistic infections and malignancies.
2. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy, immunosuppressive drugs, and long-term corticosteroid use, can impair immune function and increase infection risk.
3. Malnutrition: Deficiencies in essential nutrients like protein, vitamins, and minerals can weaken the immune system and make individuals more susceptible to infections.
4. Aging: The immune system naturally declines with age, leading to an increased incidence of infections and poorer vaccine responses in older adults.
5. Other medical conditions: Chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and chronic kidney or liver disease can also compromise the immune system and contribute to immunodeficiency syndromes.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes require appropriate diagnosis and management strategies, which may include antimicrobial therapy, immunoglobulin replacement, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, or targeted treatments for the underlying cause.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Antifungal agents are a type of medication used to treat and prevent fungal infections. These agents work by targeting and disrupting the growth of fungi, which include yeasts, molds, and other types of fungi that can cause illness in humans.

There are several different classes of antifungal agents, including:

1. Azoles: These agents work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes. Examples of azole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole.
2. Echinocandins: These agents target the fungal cell wall, disrupting its synthesis and leading to fungal cell death. Examples of echinocandins include caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin.
3. Polyenes: These agents bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to fungal cell death. Examples of polyene antifungals include amphotericin B and nystatin.
4. Allylamines: These agents inhibit squalene epoxidase, a key enzyme in ergosterol synthesis. Examples of allylamine antifungals include terbinafine and naftifine.
5. Griseofulvin: This agent disrupts fungal cell division by binding to tubulin, a protein involved in fungal cell mitosis.

Antifungal agents can be administered topically, orally, or intravenously, depending on the severity and location of the infection. It is important to use antifungal agents only as directed by a healthcare professional, as misuse or overuse can lead to resistance and make treatment more difficult.

Herpes zoster, also known as shingles, is a viral infection that causes a painful rash. It's caused by the varicella-zoster virus, which also causes chickenpox. After you recover from chickenpox, the virus lies dormant in your nerve cells and can reactivate later in life as herpes zoster.

The hallmark symptom of herpes zoster is a unilateral, vesicular rash that occurs in a dermatomal distribution, which means it follows the path of a specific nerve. The rash usually affects one side of the body and can wrap around either the left or right side of your torso.

Before the rash appears, you may experience symptoms such as pain, tingling, or itching in the area where the rash will develop. Other possible symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, and muscle weakness. The rash typically scabs over and heals within two to four weeks, but some people may continue to experience pain in the affected area for months or even years after the rash has healed. This is known as postherpetic neuralgia (PHN).

Herpes zoster is most common in older adults and people with weakened immune systems, although anyone who has had chickenpox can develop the condition. It's important to seek medical attention if you suspect you have herpes zoster, as early treatment with antiviral medications can help reduce the severity and duration of the rash and lower your risk of developing complications such as PHN.

African traditional medicine (ATM) refers to the practices and beliefs regarding both physical and spiritual health and well-being that are indigenous to Africa. It includes various forms of healing, such as herbalism, spiritualism, and ancestral veneration, which may be practiced by traditional healers, including herbalists, diviners, and traditional birth attendants. These practices are often closely intertwined with the cultural, religious, and social beliefs of the community. It's important to note that the specific practices and beliefs can vary widely among different African cultures and communities.

"Pneumocystis carinii" is an outdated term. The organism it refers to is now known as "Pneumocystis jirovecii" and it's a type of fungus that can cause a serious lung infection called pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This infection mainly affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or who have had organ transplants. It's important to note that "Pneumocystis jirovecii" is not the same as the bacterium "Legionella pneumophila" which causes Legionnaires' disease.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also involve other organs and tissues in the body. The infection is usually spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, chest X-ray, and microbiological tests such as sputum smear microscopy and culture. In some cases, molecular tests like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be used for rapid diagnosis.

Treatment usually consists of a standard six-month course of multiple antibiotics, including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. In some cases, longer treatment durations or different drug regimens might be necessary due to drug resistance or other factors. Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine and early detection and treatment of infected individuals to prevent transmission.

Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.

Simian retroviruses are a group of retroviruses that naturally infect primates, including monkeys and apes. These viruses are closely related to human retroviruses and can cause immunodeficiency and cancer in their simian hosts. One well-known example is the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV), which is similar to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and causes AIDS in some primate species.

Retroviruses are viruses that have an RNA genome and use a reverse transcriptase enzyme to create DNA copies of their genome, which can then be integrated into the host cell's DNA. This characteristic sets retroviruses apart from other RNA viruses. Simian retroviruses, like other retroviruses, have an envelope protein that allows them to attach to and enter host cells.

It is important to note that simian retroviruses can pose a risk to humans who come into contact with infected primates, either in captivity or in the wild. For example, SIV can be transmitted to humans through exposure to infected bodily fluids, such as blood or sexual secretions, and can cause a disease similar to AIDS known as Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Humans (SIV-infected humans). However, such transmissions are rare.

Infection is defined medically as the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites within the body, which can lead to tissue damage, illness, and disease. This process often triggers an immune response from the host's body in an attempt to eliminate the infectious agents and restore homeostasis. Infections can be transmitted through various routes, including airborne particles, direct contact with contaminated surfaces or bodily fluids, sexual contact, or vector-borne transmission. The severity of an infection may range from mild and self-limiting to severe and life-threatening, depending on factors such as the type and quantity of pathogen, the host's immune status, and any underlying health conditions.

Parasitic diseases are infections or illnesses caused by parasites, which are organisms that live and feed on host organisms, often causing harm. Parasites can be protozoans (single-celled organisms), helminths (worms), or ectoparasites (ticks, mites, fleas). These diseases can affect various body systems and cause a range of symptoms, depending on the type of parasite and the location of infection. They are typically spread through contaminated food or water, insect vectors, or direct contact with an infected host or contaminated environment. Examples of parasitic diseases include malaria, giardiasis, toxoplasmosis, ascariasis, and leishmaniasis.

Mycobacterium infections are a group of infectious diseases caused by various species of the Mycobacterium genus, including but not limited to M. tuberculosis (which causes tuberculosis), M. avium complex (which causes pulmonary and disseminated disease, particularly in immunocompromised individuals), M. leprae (which causes leprosy), and M. ulcerans (which causes Buruli ulcer). These bacteria are known for their ability to resist destruction by normal immune responses and many disinfectants due to the presence of a waxy mycolic acid layer in their cell walls.

Infection typically occurs through inhalation, ingestion, or direct contact with contaminated materials. The severity and manifestations of the disease can vary widely depending on the specific Mycobacterium species involved, the route of infection, and the host's immune status. Symptoms may include cough, fever, night sweats, weight loss, fatigue, skin lesions, or lymphadenitis. Diagnosis often requires specialized laboratory tests, such as culture or PCR-based methods, to identify the specific Mycobacterium species involved. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and may require long-term therapy.

Viral load refers to the amount or quantity of virus (like HIV, Hepatitis C, SARS-CoV-2) present in an individual's blood or bodily fluids. It is often expressed as the number of virus copies per milliliter of blood or fluid. Monitoring viral load is important in managing and treating certain viral infections, as a higher viral load may indicate increased infectivity, disease progression, or response to treatment.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

Organ transplantation is a surgical procedure where an organ or tissue from one person (donor) is removed and placed into another person (recipient) whose organ or tissue is not functioning properly or has been damaged beyond repair. The goal of this complex procedure is to replace the non-functioning organ with a healthy one, thereby improving the recipient's quality of life and overall survival.

Organs that can be transplanted include the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and intestines. Tissues such as corneas, skin, heart valves, and bones can also be transplanted. The donor may be deceased or living, depending on the type of organ and the medical circumstances.

Organ transplantation is a significant and life-changing event for both the recipient and their families. It requires careful evaluation, matching, and coordination between the donor and recipient, as well as rigorous post-transplant care to ensure the success of the procedure and minimize the risk of rejection.

Medical definitions are often avoided in favor of more objective language when discussing personal characteristics or identities, such as sexual orientation. This is because sexual orientation is not considered a medical condition or disorder, but rather a natural part of human diversity. The American Psychological Association defines sexual orientation as "an enduring emotional, romantic, sexual, or affectional attraction to another person." It can be distinguished into different categories, including heterosexuality (attraction to individuals of the other gender), bisexuality (attraction to individuals of either gender), and homosexuality (attraction to individuals of the same gender).

It's important to note that a person's sexual orientation is not considered a choice or something that can be changed through willpower or therapy. It is a deeply ingrained aspect of a person's identity, and it is protected under laws and regulations in many countries as a fundamental human right.

I am not a doctor, but I can provide you with some information about "thymic factor, circulating" that I found in scientific and medical sources. However, please consult medical literature or healthcare professionals for more detailed and accurate information.

The thymus is an essential primary lymphoid organ of the immune system where T cells (T lymphocytes) mature. Thymic factors are hormones secreted by the thymus that play a crucial role in the development, differentiation, and functioning of T cells. One such thymic factor is thymosin, which has several subtypes, including thymosin alpha-1 (Tα1) and thymosin beta-4 (Tβ4).

Circulating thymic factors refer to these hormones that can be found in the bloodstream. They help regulate immune responses by promoting T cell maturation and differentiation, enhancing their functions, and maintaining immune homeostasis. Thymosin alpha-1 is a well-studied thymic factor with potential therapeutic applications due to its immunomodulatory properties.

Keep in mind that this explanation might not be comprehensive or fully up-to-date, so I encourage you to consult medical literature and professionals for more detailed information.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination is an antibiotic medication used to treat various bacterial infections. It contains two active ingredients: trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole, which work together to inhibit the growth of bacteria by interfering with their ability to synthesize folic acid, a vital component for their survival.

Trimethoprim is a bacteriostatic agent that inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme needed for bacterial growth, while sulfamethoxazole is a bacteriostatic sulfonamide that inhibits the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate by blocking the action of the enzyme bacterial dihydropteroate synthase. The combination of these two agents produces a synergistic effect, increasing the overall antibacterial activity of the medication.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is commonly used to treat urinary tract infections, middle ear infections, bronchitis, traveler's diarrhea, and pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), a severe lung infection that can occur in people with weakened immune systems. It is also used as a prophylactic treatment to prevent PCP in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that compromise the immune system.

As with any medication, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination can have side effects and potential risks, including allergic reactions, skin rashes, gastrointestinal symptoms, and blood disorders. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully and report any adverse reactions promptly.

Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) is a group of slow-growing mycobacteria that includes Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. These bacteria are commonly found in water, soil, and dust, and can cause pulmonary disease, lymphadenitis, and disseminated infection, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. The infection caused by MAC is often chronic and difficult to eradicate, requiring long-term antibiotic therapy.

Mucormycosis is a serious and often life-threatening invasive fungal infection caused by the Mucorales family of fungi. It primarily affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with uncontrolled diabetes, cancer, organ transplant recipients, or those who have been treated with high doses of corticosteroids.

The infection typically begins in the respiratory tract after inhaling spores from the environment, but it can also occur through skin wounds or gastrointestinal exposure to the fungi. The infection can quickly spread to other parts of the body, including the sinuses, brain, and lungs, causing tissue damage and necrosis.

Symptoms of mucormycosis depend on the site of infection but may include fever, cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, headache, sinus congestion, facial swelling, and blackened areas of skin or tissue. Treatment typically involves a combination of antifungal medications, surgical debridement of infected tissue, and management of underlying medical conditions that increase the risk of infection.

Protozoan infections are diseases caused by microscopic, single-celled organisms known as protozoa. These parasites can enter the human body through contaminated food, water, or contact with an infected person or animal. Once inside the body, they can multiply and cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of protozoan and where it infects in the body. Some common protozoan infections include malaria, giardiasis, amoebiasis, and toxoplasmosis. Symptoms can vary widely but may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, and skin rashes. Treatment typically involves the use of antiprotozoal medications to kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms.

Cryptosporidiosis is a diarrheal disease caused by microscopic parasites called Cryptosporidium. The parasites are found in the feces of infected animals and humans. People can become infected with Cryptosporidium by ingesting contaminated water or food, or by coming into contact with infected persons or animals.

The infection can cause a wide range of symptoms, including watery diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever, and dehydration. In people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, the infection can be severe and even life-threatening.

Cryptosporidiosis is typically treated with increased fluid intake to prevent dehydration, and in some cases, medication may be prescribed to help manage symptoms. Good hygiene practices, such as washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom or changing diapers, can help prevent the spread of Cryptosporidium.

Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The infection typically enters the body when a person inhales droplets containing the bacteria, which are released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB can vary but often include:

* Persistent cough that lasts for more than three weeks and may produce phlegm or blood-tinged sputum
* Chest pain or discomfort, particularly when breathing deeply or coughing
* Fatigue and weakness
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fever and night sweats
* Loss of appetite

Pulmonary TB can cause serious complications if left untreated, including damage to the lungs, respiratory failure, and spread of the infection to other parts of the body. Treatment typically involves a course of antibiotics that can last several months, and it is essential for patients to complete the full treatment regimen to ensure that the infection is fully eradicated.

Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, which can provide some protection against severe forms of TB in children, and measures to prevent the spread of the disease, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, wearing a mask in public places, and avoiding close contact with people who have active TB.

Central nervous system (CNS) infections refer to infectious processes that affect the brain, spinal cord, and their surrounding membranes, known as meninges. These infections can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Examples of CNS infections are:

1. Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by bacterial or viral infections. Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
2. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain parenchyma, often caused by viral infections. Some viruses associated with encephalitis include herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, and arboviruses.
3. Meningoencephalitis: A combined inflammation of both the brain and meninges, commonly seen in certain viral infections or when bacterial pathogens directly invade the brain.
4. Brain abscess: A localized collection of pus within the brain caused by a bacterial or fungal infection.
5. Spinal epidural abscess: An infection in the space surrounding the spinal cord, usually caused by bacteria.
6. Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord, which can result from viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.
7. Rarely, parasitic infections like toxoplasmosis and cysticercosis can also affect the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS infections may include fever, headache, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, focal neurological deficits, or meningeal signs (e.g., Brudzinski's and Kernig's signs). The specific symptoms depend on the location and extent of the infection, as well as the causative organism. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term neurological complications or death.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Immunosuppression is a state in which the immune system's ability to mount an immune response is reduced, compromised or inhibited. This can be caused by certain medications (such as those used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs), diseases (like HIV/AIDS), or genetic disorders. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to infections and cancer development. It's important to note that immunosuppression should not be confused with immunity, which refers to the body's ability to resist and fight off infections and diseases.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal infection caused by the inhalation of spores of the Coccidioides species, mainly C. immitis and C. posadasii. These fungi are commonly found in the soil of dry regions such as the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central and South America.

The infection often begins when a person inhales the microscopic spores, which can lead to respiratory symptoms resembling a common cold or pneumonia. Some people may develop more severe symptoms, especially those with weakened immune systems. The infection can disseminate to other parts of the body, causing skin lesions, bone and joint inflammation, meningitis, or other complications in rare cases.

Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests such as fungal cultures, histopathological examination, or serological tests to detect antibodies against Coccidioides antigens. Treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's immune status. Antifungal medications like fluconazole, itraconazole, or amphotericin B are commonly used for treating coccidioidomycosis. Preventive measures include avoiding inhaling dust in endemic areas, especially during excavation or construction activities.

'Cryptococcus' is a genus of encapsulated, budding yeast that are found in the environment, particularly in soil and bird droppings. The most common species that causes infection in humans is Cryptococcus neoformans, followed by Cryptococcus gattii.

Infection with Cryptococcus can occur when a person inhales the microscopic yeast cells, which can then lead to lung infections (pneumonia) or disseminated disease, particularly in people with weakened immune systems. The most common form of disseminated cryptococcal infection is meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Cryptococcal infections can be serious and even life-threatening, especially in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that weaken the immune system. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole.

HIV Wasting Syndrome is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by involuntary weight loss, muscle wasting, and weakness, which are associated with progressive HIV infection or AIDS. It is defined as the unintentional loss of more than 10% of body weight along with diarrhea or fever that lasts for more than 30 days, despite appropriate interventions. This condition can be caused by various factors including opportunistic infections, cancer, gastrointestinal disorders, and hormonal imbalances. It is an indicator of poor prognosis and increased mortality in people living with HIV/AIDS.

'Encephalitozoon cuniculi' is a small, intracellular parasitic protozoan that belongs to the phylum Microspora. It is the causative agent of encephalitozoonosis, a disease that primarily affects rabbits but can also infect other animals including humans, particularly those with weakened immune systems.

In rabbits, E. cuniculi can cause a range of clinical signs, including neurological symptoms such as tremors, torticollis (wry neck), and hind limb paresis or paralysis. It can also lead to kidney disease and eye lesions. The parasite is typically transmitted through the ingestion of spores shed in the urine of infected animals.

In humans, E. cuniculi infection is usually asymptomatic but can cause serious complications in immunocompromised individuals, including encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), pneumonitis (inflammation of the lungs), and disseminated disease. It is typically transmitted through contact with infected animals or their feces, contaminated soil, or water.

Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, avoiding contact with infected animals, and proper handling and disposal of animal waste. In rabbits, vaccination and treatment with antiparasitic drugs may help reduce the risk of infection and transmission.

Microsporidia are a group of small, spore-forming, obligate intracellular parasites that were once considered to be primitive protozoans but are now classified within the fungi. They are characterized by a unique infection mechanism called "polysporous invasion," where a single spore can infect multiple host cells and produce numerous progeny spores.

Microsporidia infect a wide range of hosts, including insects, fish, birds, and mammals, including humans. In humans, microsporidiosis is an opportunistic infection that primarily affects immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and those undergoing chemotherapy.

The most common Microsporidia species that infect humans are Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis, which can cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss. Other species can infect various organs, including the eyes, muscles, and respiratory system, causing a range of clinical manifestations.

Microsporidia have a complex life cycle that involves several developmental stages, including spores, meronts, and sporonts. The spores are highly resistant to environmental stresses and can survive for long periods outside the host, facilitating their transmission. Once inside the host cell, the spore releases its infectious contents, including a coiled tubular structure called the polar filament, which penetrates the host cell membrane and injects the parasite's genetic material into the host cytoplasm. The parasite then undergoes rapid multiplication, eventually producing numerous progeny spores that are released into the environment upon host cell lysis.

Microsporidia have been identified as potential bioterrorism agents due to their high infectivity, environmental resistance, and ability to cause severe disease in immunocompromised hosts. However, there are currently no effective vaccines or specific antimicrobial therapies available for microsporidiosis, and treatment is mainly supportive, focusing on managing symptoms and improving immune function.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Dermatomycoses are a group of fungal infections that affect the skin, hair, and nails. These infections are caused by various types of fungi, including dermatophytes, yeasts, and molds. Dermatophyte infections, also known as tinea, are the most common type of dermatomycoses and can affect different areas of the body, such as the scalp (tinea capitis), beard (tinea barbae), body (tinea corporis), feet (tinea pedis or athlete's foot), hands (tinea manuum), and nails (tinea unguium or onychomycosis). Yeast infections, such as those caused by Candida albicans, can lead to conditions like candidal intertrigo, vulvovaginitis, and balanitis. Mold infections are less common but can cause skin disorders like scalded skin syndrome and phaeohyphomycosis. Dermatomycoses are typically treated with topical or oral antifungal medications.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Dermatomyositis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation and weakness in the muscles and skin. It is a type of inflammatory myopathy, which means that it causes muscle inflammation and damage. Dermatomyositis is often associated with a distinctive rash that affects the skin around the eyes, nose, mouth, fingers, and toes.

The symptoms of dermatomyositis can include:

* Progressive muscle weakness, particularly in the hips, thighs, shoulders, and neck
* Fatigue
* Difficulty swallowing or speaking
* Skin rash, which may be pink or purple and is often accompanied by itching
* Muscle pain and tenderness
* Joint pain and swelling
* Raynaud's phenomenon, a condition that affects blood flow to the fingers and toes

The exact cause of dermatomyositis is not known, but it is believed to be related to an autoimmune response in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue. Treatment for dermatomyositis typically involves medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system, as well as physical therapy to help maintain muscle strength and function.

Coinfection is a term used in medicine to describe a situation where a person is infected with more than one pathogen (infectious agent) at the same time. This can occur when a person is infected with two or more viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi. Coinfections can complicate the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, as the symptoms of each infection can overlap and interact with each other.

Coinfections are common in certain populations, such as people who are immunocompromised, have chronic illnesses, or live in areas with high levels of infectious agents. For example, a person with HIV/AIDS may be more susceptible to coinfections with tuberculosis, hepatitis, or pneumocystis pneumonia. Similarly, a person who has recently undergone an organ transplant may be at risk for coinfections with cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, or other opportunistic pathogens.

Coinfections can also occur in people who are otherwise healthy but are exposed to multiple infectious agents at once, such as through travel to areas with high levels of infectious diseases or through close contact with animals that carry infectious agents. For example, a person who travels to a tropical area may be at risk for coinfections with malaria and dengue fever, while a person who works on a farm may be at risk for coinfections with influenza and Q fever.

Effective treatment of coinfections requires accurate diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial therapy for each pathogen involved. In some cases, treating one infection may help to resolve the other, but in other cases, both infections may need to be treated simultaneously to achieve a cure. Preventing coinfections is an important part of infectious disease control, and can be achieved through measures such as vaccination, use of personal protective equipment, and avoidance of high-risk behaviors.

Aspergillosis is a medical condition that is caused by the infection of the Aspergillus fungi. This fungus is commonly found in decaying organic matter, such as leaf litter and compost piles, and can also be found in some indoor environments like air conditioning systems and old buildings with water damage.

There are several types of aspergillosis, including:

1. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA): This type of aspergillosis occurs when a person's immune system overreacts to the Aspergillus fungi, causing inflammation in the airways and lungs. ABPA is often seen in people with asthma or cystic fibrosis.
2. Invasive aspergillosis: This is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when the Aspergillus fungi invade the bloodstream and spread to other organs, such as the brain, heart, or kidneys. Invasive aspergillosis typically affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or organ transplantation.
3. Aspergilloma: Also known as a "fungus ball," an aspergilloma is a growth of the Aspergillus fungi that forms in a preexisting lung cavity, such as one caused by previous lung disease or injury. While an aspergilloma itself is not typically harmful, it can cause symptoms like coughing up blood or chest pain if it grows too large or becomes infected.

Symptoms of aspergillosis can vary depending on the type and severity of the infection. Treatment may include antifungal medications, surgery to remove the fungal growth, or management of underlying conditions that increase the risk of infection.

Encephalitozoonosis is a medical condition caused by infection with microsporidian parasites of the genus Encephalitozoon. The two most common species that cause disease in humans are Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Encephalitozoon intestinalis.

The infection typically occurs through the ingestion of spores present in contaminated food, water, or soil. Once inside the body, the spores can infect various organs, including the brain, lungs, eyes, and kidneys. The resulting disease can manifest as a wide range of symptoms, depending on the organ systems involved.

In the central nervous system, encephalitozoonosis can cause inflammation and damage to the brain and surrounding tissues, leading to symptoms such as headache, confusion, memory loss, and difficulty with coordination or balance. In the eyes, the infection can cause inflammation and scarring of the cornea, leading to vision loss. In the kidneys, encephalitozoonosis can cause interstitial nephritis, which can lead to kidney failure in severe cases.

Encephalitozoonosis is most commonly seen in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS or organ transplant recipients. However, it has also been reported in otherwise healthy individuals. Treatment typically involves the use of antimicrobial agents, such as albendazole or fumagillin, to eliminate the parasites from the body.

Polymyositis is defined as a rare inflammatory disorder that causes muscle weakness and inflammation (swelling) of the muscles. It primarily affects the skeletal muscles, which are the muscles responsible for voluntary movements such as walking, talking, and swallowing. The onset of polymyositis can occur at any age but is most commonly seen in adults between 31 to 60 years old, with women being slightly more affected than men.

The exact cause of polymyositis remains unknown; however, it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own muscle tissue. Certain factors such as genetics, viral infections, and exposure to certain drugs may contribute to the development of this condition.

Polymyositis can cause various symptoms, including:
- Progressive muscle weakness and wasting, particularly affecting the proximal muscles (those closest to the trunk of the body) such as the hips, thighs, shoulders, and upper arms.
- Difficulty climbing stairs, lifting objects, or rising from a seated position.
- Fatigue and stiffness, especially after periods of inactivity.
- Joint pain and swelling.
- Difficulty swallowing or speaking.
- Shortness of breath due to weakened respiratory muscles.

Diagnosis of polymyositis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, electromyography (EMG), and muscle biopsy. Treatment usually includes medications such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressants to reduce inflammation and control the immune response. Physical therapy may also be recommended to help maintain muscle strength and flexibility.

If left untreated, polymyositis can lead to significant disability and complications, including respiratory failure, malnutrition, and cardiovascular disease. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving outcomes and preventing long-term complications.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Chemoprevention is a medical term that refers to the use of chemical agents, usually in the form of drugs or dietary supplements, to prevent or delay the development of cancer. These agents are typically designed to interfere with the molecular processes involved in cancer initiation, promotion, or progression.

There are several different approaches to chemoprevention, depending on the specific type of cancer and the individual patient's risk factors. Some chemopreventive agents work by blocking the action of hormones that can promote cancer growth, while others may inhibit the activity of enzymes involved in DNA damage or repair.

Chemoprevention is often used in individuals who are at high risk of developing cancer due to inherited genetic mutations, a history of precancerous lesions, or other factors. However, it is important to note that chemopreventive agents can have side effects and may not be appropriate for everyone. Therefore, they should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Cladribine is a medication used in the treatment of certain types of cancer and multiple sclerosis. It is a type of drug called a purine nucleoside analog, which means it interferes with the production of DNA and RNA, the genetic material of cells. This can help to stop the growth and multiplication of abnormal cells in the body.

In cancer treatment, cladribine is used to treat hairy cell leukemia and certain types of lymphoma. In multiple sclerosis, it is used to reduce the frequency of relapses and slow down the progression of disability. Cladribine works by selectively targeting and depleting certain white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are thought to play a role in the immune response that damages the nervous system in multiple sclerosis.

Cladribine is usually given as an injection into a vein or under the skin, and it may be given on its own or in combination with other medications. Common side effects of cladribine include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and weakness. It can also lower the body's ability to fight infections, so patients may need to take precautions to avoid infection while receiving treatment. Cladribine should be used with caution in people with a history of certain medical conditions, such as liver or kidney disease, and it should not be used during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the traditional knowledge, practices, and beliefs about plants held by a particular group of people or culture. It involves the documentation and analysis of the ways in which people use plants for medicinal, food, shelter, clothing, dye, ritual, and other purposes. The field of ethnobotany draws on anthropology, botany, ecology, chemistry, and geography to understand the complex relationships between human cultures and their plant resources.

Ethnobotanists may conduct fieldwork with communities to learn about their traditional plant use, documenting this knowledge through interviews, observations, and collections of plant specimens. They may also study the ecological and cultural factors that shape plant use and management, as well as the impacts of globalization, environmental change, and other forces on traditional plant knowledge and practices.

The information gathered through ethnobotanical research can have important implications for conservation, human health, and sustainable development. For example, traditional plant remedies may provide leads for the development of new drugs or therapies, while understanding the cultural significance of plants can help inform efforts to protect biodiversity and support the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.

Retroviridae infections refer to diseases caused by retroviruses, which are a type of virus that integrates its genetic material into the DNA of the host cell. This allows the virus to co-opt the cell's own machinery to produce new viral particles and infect other cells.

Some well-known retroviruses include human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, and human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV), which can cause certain types of cancer and neurological disorders.

Retroviral infections can have a range of clinical manifestations depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response. HIV infection, for example, is characterized by progressive immunodeficiency that makes the infected individual susceptible to a wide range of opportunistic infections and cancers. HTLV infection, on the other hand, can cause adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma or tropical spastic paraparesis, a neurological disorder.

Prevention and treatment strategies for retroviral infections depend on the specific virus but may include antiretroviral therapy (ART), vaccination, and behavioral modifications to reduce transmission risk.

Nontuberculous Mycobacterium (NTM) infections refer to illnesses caused by a group of bacteria called mycobacteria that do not cause tuberculosis or leprosy. These bacteria are commonly found in the environment, such as in water, soil, and dust. They can be spread through inhalation, ingestion, or contact with contaminated materials.

NTM infections can affect various parts of the body, including the lungs, skin, and soft tissues. Lung infections are the most common form of NTM infection and often occur in people with underlying lung conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or bronchiectasis. Symptoms of NTM lung infection may include cough, fatigue, weight loss, fever, and night sweats.

Skin and soft tissue infections caused by NTM can occur through direct contact with contaminated water or soil, or through medical procedures such as contaminated injections or catheters. Symptoms of NTM skin and soft tissue infections may include redness, swelling, pain, and drainage.

Diagnosis of NTM infections typically involves a combination of clinical symptoms, imaging studies, and laboratory tests to identify the specific type of mycobacteria causing the infection. Treatment may involve multiple antibiotics for an extended period of time, depending on the severity and location of the infection.

Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication used to treat serious and often life-threatening fungal infections. It works by binding to the ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to the loss of essential cell components and ultimately cell death.

The medical definition of Amphotericin B is:

A polyene antifungal agent derived from Streptomyces nodosus, with a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, and Histoplasma capsulatum. Amphotericin B is used to treat systemic fungal infections, such as histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, candidiasis, and aspergillosis, among others. It may be administered intravenously or topically, depending on the formulation and the site of infection.

Adverse effects associated with Amphotericin B include infusion-related reactions (such as fever, chills, and hypotension), nephrotoxicity, electrolyte imbalances, and anemia. These side effects are often dose-dependent and may be managed through careful monitoring and adjustment of the dosing regimen.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

'Antibodies, Neoplasm' is a medical term that refers to abnormal antibodies produced by neoplastic cells, which are cells that have undergone uncontrolled division and form a tumor or malignancy. These antibodies can be produced in large quantities and may have altered structures or functions compared to normal antibodies.

Neoplastic antibodies can arise from various types of malignancies, including leukemias, lymphomas, and multiple myeloma. In some cases, these abnormal antibodies can interfere with the normal functioning of the immune system and contribute to the progression of the disease.

In addition, neoplastic antibodies can also be used as tumor markers for diagnostic purposes. For example, certain types of monoclonal gammopathy, such as multiple myeloma, are characterized by the overproduction of a single type of immunoglobulin, which can be detected in the blood or urine and used to monitor the disease.

Overall, 'Antibodies, Neoplasm' is a term that encompasses a wide range of abnormal antibodies produced by neoplastic cells, which can have significant implications for both the diagnosis and treatment of malignancies.

Antiprotozoal agents are a type of medication used to treat protozoal infections, which are infections caused by microscopic single-celled organisms called protozoa. These agents work by either killing the protozoa or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. They can be administered through various routes, including oral, topical, and intravenous, depending on the type of infection and the severity of the illness.

Examples of antiprotozoal agents include:

* Metronidazole, tinidazole, and nitazoxanide for treating infections caused by Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica.
* Atovaquone, clindamycin, and pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine for treating malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum or other Plasmodium species.
* Pentamidine and suramin for treating African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or T. b. rhodesiense.
* Nitroimidazoles, such as benznidazole and nifurtimox, for treating Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.
* Sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin for treating leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania species.

Antiprotozoal agents can have side effects, ranging from mild to severe, depending on the drug and the individual patient's response. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking these medications and report any adverse reactions promptly.

A leukocyte count, also known as a white blood cell (WBC) count, is a laboratory test that measures the number of leukocytes in a sample of blood. Leukocytes are a vital part of the body's immune system and help fight infection and inflammation. A high or low leukocyte count may indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a bone marrow disorder. The normal range for a leukocyte count in adults is typically between 4,500 and 11,000 cells per microliter (mcL) of blood. However, the normal range can vary slightly depending on the laboratory and the individual's age and sex.

Lymphatic diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the lymphatic system, which is an important part of the immune and circulatory systems. The lymphatic system consists of a network of vessels, organs, and tissues that help to transport lymph fluid throughout the body, fight infection, and remove waste products.

Lymphatic diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Some common types of lymphatic diseases include:

1. Lymphedema: A condition that causes swelling in the arms or legs due to a blockage or damage in the lymphatic vessels.
2. Lymphoma: A type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system, including Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
3. Infections: Certain bacterial and viral infections can affect the lymphatic system, such as tuberculosis, cat-scratch disease, and HIV/AIDS.
4. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and scleroderma can cause inflammation and damage to the lymphatic system.
5. Congenital abnormalities: Some people are born with abnormalities in their lymphatic system, such as malformations or missing lymph nodes.

Symptoms of lymphatic diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include medication, physical therapy, surgery, or radiation therapy. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of a lymphatic disease, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.

Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (SAIDS) is not recognized as a medical condition in humans. However, it is a disease that affects non-human primates like African green monkeys and sooty mangabeys. SAIDS is caused by the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV), which is similar to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that leads to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in humans.

In non-human primates, SIV infection can lead to a severe immunodeficiency state, characterized by the destruction of CD4+ T cells and impaired immune function, making the host susceptible to various opportunistic infections and cancers. However, it is important to note that most non-human primates infected with SIV do not develop SAIDS spontaneously, unlike humans who acquire HIV infection.

In summary, Simian Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (SAIDS) is a disease affecting non-human primates due to Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) infection, characterized by immunodeficiency and susceptibility to opportunistic infections and cancers. It should not be confused with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in humans.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

"Penicillium" is not a medical term per se, but it is a genus of mold that is widely used in the field of medicine, specifically in the production of antibiotics. Here's a scientific definition:

Penicillium is a genus of ascomycete fungi that are commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil, decaying vegetation, and food. Many species of Penicillium produce penicillin, a group of antibiotics with activity against gram-positive bacteria. The discovery and isolation of penicillin from Penicillium notatum by Alexander Fleming in 1928 revolutionized the field of medicine and led to the development of modern antibiotic therapy. Since then, various species of Penicillium have been used in the industrial production of penicillin and other antibiotics, as well as in the production of enzymes, organic acids, and other industrial products.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "South Africa" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located at the southernmost tip of the African continent. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

Zidovudine is defined as an antiretroviral medication used to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) that works by blocking the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme, thereby preventing the virus from replicating in human cells.

Zidovudine is often used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) to manage HIV infection and reduce the risk of transmission. It is also used to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy, labor, delivery, and breastfeeding.

The most common side effects of zidovudine include headache, nausea, vomiting, and muscle pain. Prolonged use of zidovudine can lead to serious side effects such as anemia, neutropenia, and lactic acidosis. Therefore, regular monitoring of blood counts and liver function tests is necessary during treatment with this medication.

HIV seronegativity is a term used to describe a person who has tested negative for HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) antibodies in their blood. This means that the individual does not show evidence of current or past infection with HIV, which can cause AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). However, it's important to note that there is a window period after initial infection during which a person may test negative for HIV antibodies, even though they are indeed infected. This window period typically lasts between 2-6 weeks but can extend up to 3 months in some cases. Therefore, if someone believes they have been exposed to HIV, they should consider getting tested again after this window period has passed.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "France" is not a medical term or concept. France is the largest country in Western Europe and the third-largest in Europe after Russia and Ukraine. It has been a major player in world affairs for centuries, with a significant cultural and artistic influence. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help answer those for you.

An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination or obduction, is a medical procedure in which a qualified professional (usually a pathologist) examines a deceased person's body to determine the cause and manner of death. This process may involve various investigative techniques, such as incisions to study internal organs, tissue sampling, microscopic examination, toxicology testing, and other laboratory analyses. The primary purpose of an autopsy is to gather objective evidence about the medical conditions and factors contributing to the individual's demise, which can be essential for legal, insurance, or public health purposes. Additionally, autopsies can provide valuable insights into disease processes and aid in advancing medical knowledge.

Kidney transplantation is a surgical procedure where a healthy kidney from a deceased or living donor is implanted into a patient with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) or permanent kidney failure. The new kidney takes over the functions of filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood, producing urine, and maintaining the body's electrolyte balance.

The transplanted kidney is typically placed in the lower abdomen, with its blood vessels connected to the recipient's iliac artery and vein. The ureter of the new kidney is then attached to the recipient's bladder to ensure proper urine flow. Following the surgery, the patient will require lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the transplanted organ by their immune system.

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) is a retrovirus that primarily infects African non-human primates and is the direct ancestor of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 2 (HIV-2). It is similar to HIV in its structure, replication strategy, and ability to cause an immunodeficiency disease in its host. SIV infection in its natural hosts is typically asymptomatic and non-lethal, but it can cause AIDS-like symptoms in other primate species. Research on SIV in its natural hosts has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of HIV pathogenesis and potential strategies for prevention and treatment of AIDS.

Antirheumatic agents are a class of drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, other inflammatory types of arthritis, and related conditions. These medications work by reducing inflammation in the body, relieving symptoms such as pain, swelling, and stiffness in the joints. They can also help slow down or prevent joint damage and disability caused by the disease.

There are several types of antirheumatic agents, including:

1. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): These medications, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, reduce inflammation and relieve pain. They are often used to treat mild to moderate symptoms of arthritis.
2. Corticosteroids: These powerful anti-inflammatory drugs, such as prednisone and cortisone, can quickly reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system. They are usually used for short-term relief of severe symptoms or in combination with other antirheumatic agents.
3. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs): These medications, such as methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine, work by slowing down the progression of rheumatoid arthritis and preventing joint damage. They can take several weeks or months to become fully effective.
4. Biologic response modifiers (biologics): These are a newer class of DMARDs that target specific molecules involved in the immune response. They include drugs such as adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab. Biologics are usually used in combination with other antirheumatic agents for patients who have not responded to traditional DMARD therapy.
5. Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors: These medications, such as tofacitinib and baricitinib, work by blocking the action of enzymes called JAKs that are involved in the immune response. They are used to treat moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis and can be used in combination with other antirheumatic agents.

It is important to note that antirheumatic agents can have significant side effects and should only be prescribed by a healthcare provider who is experienced in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Regular monitoring and follow-up are essential to ensure safe and effective treatment.

The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against harmful invaders. It recognizes and responds to threats such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi, and damaged or abnormal cells, including cancer cells. The immune system has two main components: the innate immune system, which provides a general defense against all types of threats, and the adaptive immune system, which mounts specific responses to particular threats.

The innate immune system includes physical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes, chemical barriers such as stomach acid and enzymes in tears and saliva, and cellular defenses like phagocytes (white blood cells that engulf and destroy invaders) and natural killer cells (which recognize and destroy virus-infected or cancerous cells).

The adaptive immune system is more specific and takes longer to develop a response but has the advantage of "remembering" previous encounters with specific threats. This allows it to mount a faster and stronger response upon subsequent exposures, providing immunity to certain diseases. The adaptive immune system includes T cells (which help coordinate the immune response) and B cells (which produce antibodies that neutralize or destroy invaders).

Overall, the immune system is essential for maintaining health and preventing disease. Dysfunction of the immune system can lead to a variety of disorders, including autoimmune diseases, immunodeficiencies, and allergies.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Hematologic neoplasms, also known as hematological malignancies, are a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth and accumulation of abnormal blood cells or bone marrow cells. These disorders can originate from the myeloid or lymphoid cell lines, which give rise to various types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Hematologic neoplasms can be broadly classified into three categories:

1. Leukemias: These are cancers that primarily affect the bone marrow and blood-forming tissues. They result in an overproduction of abnormal white blood cells, which interfere with the normal functioning of the blood and immune system. There are several types of leukemia, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).
2. Lymphomas: These are cancers that develop from the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system responsible for fighting infections. Lymphomas can affect lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. The two main types of lymphoma are Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).
3. Myelomas: These are cancers that arise from the plasma cells, a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies. Multiple myeloma is the most common type of myeloma, characterized by an excessive proliferation of malignant plasma cells in the bone marrow, leading to the production of abnormal amounts of monoclonal immunoglobulins (M proteins) and bone destruction.

Hematologic neoplasms can have various symptoms, such as fatigue, weakness, frequent infections, easy bruising or bleeding, weight loss, swollen lymph nodes, and bone pain. The diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, imaging studies, and sometimes bone marrow biopsy. Treatment options depend on the type and stage of the disease and may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

"Toxoplasma" is a genus of protozoan parasites, and the most well-known species is "Toxoplasma gondii." This particular species is capable of infecting virtually all warm-blooded animals, including humans. It's known for its complex life cycle that involves felines (cats) as the definitive host.

Infection in humans, called toxoplasmosis, often occurs through ingestion of contaminated food or water, or through contact with cat feces that contain T. gondii oocysts. While many people infected with Toxoplasma show no symptoms, it can cause serious health problems in immunocompromised individuals and developing fetuses if a woman becomes infected during pregnancy.

It's important to note that while I strive to provide accurate information, this definition should not be used for self-diagnosis or treatment. Always consult with a healthcare professional for medical advice.

Graft rejection is an immune response that occurs when transplanted tissue or organ (the graft) is recognized as foreign by the recipient's immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells to attack and destroy the graft. This results in the failure of the transplant and the need for additional medical intervention or another transplant. There are three types of graft rejection: hyperacute, acute, and chronic. Hyperacute rejection occurs immediately or soon after transplantation due to pre-existing antibodies against the graft. Acute rejection typically occurs within weeks to months post-transplant and is characterized by the infiltration of T-cells into the graft. Chronic rejection, which can occur months to years after transplantation, is a slow and progressive process characterized by fibrosis and tissue damage due to ongoing immune responses against the graft.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a type of herpesvirus that can cause infection in humans. It is characterized by the enlargement of infected cells (cytomegaly) and is typically transmitted through close contact with an infected person, such as through saliva, urine, breast milk, or sexual contact.

CMV infection can also be acquired through organ transplantation, blood transfusions, or during pregnancy from mother to fetus. While many people infected with CMV experience no symptoms, it can cause serious complications in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing cancer treatment or those who have HIV/AIDS.

In newborns, congenital CMV infection can lead to hearing loss, vision problems, and developmental delays. Pregnant women who become infected with CMV for the first time during pregnancy are at higher risk of transmitting the virus to their unborn child. There is no cure for CMV, but antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and reduce the risk of complications in severe cases.

Antitubercular agents, also known as anti-tuberculosis drugs or simply TB drugs, are a category of medications specifically used for the treatment and prevention of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These drugs target various stages of the bacteria's growth and replication process to eradicate it from the body or prevent its spread.

There are several first-line antitubercular agents, including:

1. Isoniazid (INH): This is a bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids, essential components of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
2. Rifampin (RIF) or Rifampicin: A bactericidal drug that inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the transcription of genetic information into mRNA. This results in the interruption of protein synthesis and ultimately leads to the death of the bacteria.
3. Ethambutol (EMB): A bacteriostatic drug that inhibits the arabinosyl transferase enzyme, which is responsible for the synthesis of arabinan, a crucial component of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
4. Pyrazinamide (PZA): A bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of fatty acids and mycolic acids in the mycobacterial cell wall, particularly under acidic conditions. PZA is most effective during the initial phase of treatment when the bacteria are in a dormant or slow-growing state.

These first-line antitubercular agents are often used together in a combination therapy to ensure complete eradication of the bacteria and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains. Treatment duration typically lasts for at least six months, with the initial phase consisting of daily doses of INH, RIF, EMB, and PZA for two months, followed by a continuation phase of INH and RIF for four months.

Second-line antitubercular agents are used when patients have drug-resistant TB or cannot tolerate first-line drugs. These include drugs like aminoglycosides (e.g., streptomycin, amikacin), fluoroquinolones (e.g., ofloxacin, moxifloxacin), and injectable bacteriostatic agents (e.g., capreomycin, ethionamide).

It is essential to closely monitor patients undergoing antitubercular therapy for potential side effects and ensure adherence to the treatment regimen to achieve optimal outcomes and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Hemophilia A is a genetic bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in clotting factor VIII. This results in impaired blood clotting and prolonged bleeding, particularly after injuries or surgeries. Symptoms can range from mild to severe, with the most severe form resulting in spontaneous bleeding into joints and muscles, leading to pain, swelling, and potential joint damage over time. Hemophilia A primarily affects males, as it is an X-linked recessive disorder, and is usually inherited from a carrier mother. However, about one third of cases result from a spontaneous mutation in the gene for factor VIII. Treatment typically involves replacement therapy with infusions of factor VIII concentrates to prevent or control bleeding episodes.

The adrenal cortex hormones are a group of steroid hormones produced and released by the outer portion (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including:

1. Glucose metabolism: Cortisol helps control blood sugar levels by increasing glucose production in the liver and reducing its uptake in peripheral tissues.
2. Protein and fat metabolism: Cortisol promotes protein breakdown and fatty acid mobilization, providing essential building blocks for energy production during stressful situations.
3. Immune response regulation: Cortisol suppresses immune function to prevent overactivation and potential damage to the body during stress.
4. Cardiovascular function: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
5. Sex hormone production: The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, which contribute to sexual development and function.
6. Growth and development: Cortisol plays a role in normal growth and development by influencing the activity of growth-promoting hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

The main adrenal cortex hormones include:

1. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid, responsible for regulating metabolism and stress response.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid, involved in electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation.
3. Androgens: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate derivative (DHEAS) are the most abundant adrenal androgens, contributing to sexual development and function.
4. Estrogens: Small amounts of estrogens are produced by the adrenal cortex, mainly in women.

Disorders related to impaired adrenal cortex hormone production or regulation can lead to various clinical manifestations, such as Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency), Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

Bacterial pneumonia is a type of lung infection that's caused by bacteria. It can affect people of any age, but it's more common in older adults, young children, and people with certain health conditions or weakened immune systems. The symptoms of bacterial pneumonia can vary, but they often include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.

The most common type of bacteria that causes pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). Other types of bacteria that can cause pneumonia include Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Bacterial pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics, which are medications that kill bacteria. The specific type of antibiotic used will depend on the type of bacteria causing the infection. It's important to take all of the prescribed medication as directed, even if you start feeling better, to ensure that the infection is completely cleared and to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

In severe cases of bacterial pneumonia, hospitalization may be necessary for close monitoring and treatment with intravenous antibiotics and other supportive care.

Herpes Simplex is a viral infection caused by the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV). There are two types of HSV: HSV-1 and HSV-2. Both types can cause sores or blisters on the skin or mucous membranes, but HSV-1 is typically associated with oral herpes (cold sores) and HSV-2 is usually linked to genital herpes. However, either type can infect any area of the body. The virus remains in the body for life and can reactivate periodically, causing recurrent outbreaks of lesions or blisters. It is transmitted through direct contact with infected skin or mucous membranes, such as during kissing or sexual activity.

Nervous system diseases, also known as neurological disorders, refer to a group of conditions that affect the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. These diseases can affect various functions of the body, such as movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. They can be caused by genetics, infections, injuries, degeneration, or tumors. Examples of nervous system diseases include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, migraine, stroke, and neuroinfections like meningitis and encephalitis. The symptoms and severity of these disorders can vary widely, ranging from mild to severe and debilitating.

A lymphocyte count is a laboratory test that measures the number of white blood cells called lymphocytes in a sample of blood. Lymphocytes are a vital part of the immune system and help fight off infections and diseases. A normal lymphocyte count ranges from 1,000 to 4,800 cells per microliter (µL) of blood for adults.

An abnormal lymphocyte count can indicate an infection, immune disorder, or blood cancer. A low lymphocyte count is called lymphopenia, while a high lymphocyte count is called lymphocytosis. The cause of an abnormal lymphocyte count should be investigated through further testing and clinical evaluation.

AIDS-Related Complex (ARC) is a term that was used to describe a group of symptoms and conditions that occurred in people who were infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), but had not yet developed full-blown AIDS. It was characterized by the presence of certain opportunistic infections or malignancies, as well as constitutional symptoms such as fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

The term ARC is no longer commonly used in clinical practice, since it has been largely replaced by the concept of "stages of HIV infection" based on CD4+ T-cell count and viral load. However, historically, the diagnosis of ARC required the presence of certain clinical conditions, such as:

* A CD4+ T-cell count between 200 and 500 cells/mm3
* The presence of constitutional symptoms (such as fever, night sweats, or weight loss)
* The presence of one or more opportunistic infections or malignancies (such as Pneumocystis pneumonia, oral candidiasis, or Kaposi's sarcoma)

It is important to note that the diagnosis and management of HIV infection have evolved significantly over time, and people with HIV can now live long and healthy lives with appropriate medical care. If you have any concerns about HIV or AIDS, it is important to speak with a healthcare provider for accurate information and guidance.

"Africa South of the Sahara" is a term commonly used in medical and scientific literature to refer to the region of the African continent that lies south of the Sahara Desert. This region includes 48 countries, with a population of over 1 billion people, and is characterized by its tropical or subtropical climate, diverse cultures, and unique health challenges.

The term "South of the Sahara" is used to distinguish this region from North Africa, which is predominantly Arab and Berber in culture and has closer ties to the Middle East than to Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara Desert serves as a natural geographical boundary between these two regions.

In medical terms, "Africa South of the Sahara" encompasses a wide range of health issues, including infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola, which are prevalent in many parts of the region. The area also faces challenges related to maternal and child health, nutrition, water and sanitation, and non-communicable diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Medical research and interventions focused on "Africa South of the Sahara" aim to address these unique health challenges and improve the overall health outcomes of the population in this region.

"Macaca mulatta" is the scientific name for the Rhesus macaque, a species of monkey that is native to South, Central, and Southeast Asia. They are often used in biomedical research due to their genetic similarity to humans.

'Cryptococcus neoformans' is a species of encapsulated, budding yeast that is an important cause of fungal infections in humans and animals. The capsule surrounding the cell wall is composed of polysaccharides and is a key virulence factor, allowing the organism to evade host immune responses. C. neoformans is found worldwide in soil, particularly in association with bird droppings, and can be inhaled, leading to pulmonary infection. In people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, hematological malignancies, or organ transplants, C. neoformans can disseminate from the lungs to other sites, most commonly the central nervous system (CNS), causing meningitis. The infection can also affect other organs, including the skin, bones, and eyes.

The diagnosis of cryptococcosis typically involves microscopic examination and culture of clinical specimens, such as sputum, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), followed by biochemical and molecular identification of the organism. Treatment usually consists of a combination of antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole, along with management of any underlying immunodeficiency. The prognosis of cryptococcosis depends on various factors, including the patient's immune status, the extent and severity of infection, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

Health planning guidelines are a set of recommendations and principles that provide direction for the development, implementation, and evaluation of health services and public health programs. These guidelines serve as a framework to ensure that health planning is evidence-based, equitable, efficient, and effective in addressing the priority health needs of a population. They typically cover various aspects such as:

1. Needs assessment: Identifying and prioritizing the health needs of a population through data collection, analysis, and consultation with stakeholders.
2. Resource allocation: Determining how to distribute resources fairly and efficiently to address priority health issues and ensure equitable access to healthcare services.
3. Service delivery: Establishing standards for the provision of high-quality, patient-centered care that is accessible, affordable, and culturally sensitive.
4. Monitoring and evaluation: Developing systems to track progress towards health goals, measure outcomes, and make data-driven decisions for continuous quality improvement.
5. Stakeholder engagement: Encouraging collaboration and partnership among various stakeholders, including healthcare providers, policymakers, community organizations, and the public, to ensure that health planning efforts are inclusive, participatory, and responsive to local needs and preferences.
6. Ethical considerations: Ensuring that health planning processes and decisions respect human rights, promote social justice, and protect vulnerable populations from discrimination and marginalization.
7. Flexibility and adaptability: Recognizing the need for regular review and revision of health planning guidelines to accommodate changing circumstances, emerging evidence, and new priorities.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Thailand" is not a medical term. It is a country located in Southeast Asia. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help answer those for you!

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat and prevent various fungal infections, such as candidiasis (yeast infections), cryptococcal meningitis, and other fungal infections that affect the mouth, throat, blood, lungs, genital area, and other parts of the body. It works by inhibiting the growth of fungi that cause these infections. Fluconazole is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and intravenous (IV) solutions, and is typically prescribed to be taken once daily.

The medical definition of Fluconazole can be found in pharmacological or medical dictionaries, which describe it as a triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal cytochrome P450-dependent synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane. This results in increased permeability and leakage of cellular contents, ultimately leading to fungal death. Fluconazole has a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus, and others.

It is important to note that while Fluconazole is an effective antifungal medication, it may have side effects and interactions with other medications. Therefore, it should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Antibiotic prophylaxis refers to the use of antibiotics to prevent infection from occurring in the first place, rather than treating an existing infection. This practice is commonly used before certain medical procedures or surgeries that have a high risk of infection, such as joint replacements, heart valve surgery, or organ transplants. The goal of antibiotic prophylaxis is to reduce the risk of infection by introducing antibiotics into the body before bacteria have a chance to multiply and cause an infection.

The choice of antibiotic for prophylaxis depends on several factors, including the type of procedure being performed, the patient's medical history and allergies, and the most common types of bacteria that can cause infection in that particular situation. The antibiotic is typically given within one hour before the start of the procedure, and may be continued for up to 24 hours afterward, depending on the specific guidelines for that procedure.

It's important to note that antibiotic prophylaxis should only be used when it is truly necessary, as overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, the decision to use antibiotic prophylaxis should be made carefully and in consultation with a healthcare provider.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a type of cancer that originates in the lymphatic system, which is part of the immune system. It involves the abnormal growth and proliferation of malignant lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), leading to the formation of tumors in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, or other organs. NHL can be further classified into various subtypes based on the specific type of lymphocyte involved and its characteristics.

The symptoms of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include:

* Painless swelling of lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin
* Persistent fatigue
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fever
* Night sweats
* Itchy skin

The exact cause of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is not well understood, but it has been associated with certain risk factors such as age (most common in people over 60), exposure to certain chemicals, immune system deficiencies, and infection with viruses like Epstein-Barr virus or HIV.

Treatment for Non-Hodgkin lymphoma depends on the stage and subtype of the disease, as well as the patient's overall health. Treatment options may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor the progression of the disease and manage any potential long-term side effects of treatment.

Communicable diseases, also known as infectious diseases, are illnesses that can be transmitted from one person to another through various modes of transmission. These modes include:

1. Direct contact: This occurs when an individual comes into physical contact with an infected person, such as touching or shaking hands, or having sexual contact.
2. Indirect contact: This happens when an individual comes into contact with contaminated objects or surfaces, like doorknobs, towels, or utensils.
3. Airborne transmission: Infectious agents can be spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or sings, releasing droplets containing the pathogen into the environment. These droplets can then be inhaled by nearby individuals.
4. Droplet transmission: Similar to airborne transmission, but involving larger respiratory droplets that don't remain suspended in the air for long periods and typically travel shorter distances (usually less than 6 feet).
5. Vector-borne transmission: This occurs when an infected animal or insect, such as a mosquito or tick, transmits the disease to a human through a bite or other means.

Examples of communicable diseases include COVID-19, influenza, tuberculosis, measles, hepatitis B, and malaria. Preventive measures for communicable diseases often involve public health initiatives like vaccination programs, hygiene promotion, and vector control strategies.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) is a medical procedure where hematopoietic stem cells (immature cells that give rise to all blood cell types) are transplanted into a patient. This procedure is often used to treat various malignant and non-malignant disorders affecting the hematopoietic system, such as leukemias, lymphomas, multiple myeloma, aplastic anemia, inherited immune deficiency diseases, and certain genetic metabolic disorders.

The transplantation can be autologous (using the patient's own stem cells), allogeneic (using stem cells from a genetically matched donor, usually a sibling or unrelated volunteer), or syngeneic (using stem cells from an identical twin).

The process involves collecting hematopoietic stem cells, most commonly from the peripheral blood or bone marrow. The collected cells are then infused into the patient after the recipient's own hematopoietic system has been ablated (or destroyed) using high-dose chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. This allows the donor's stem cells to engraft, reconstitute, and restore the patient's hematopoietic system.

HSCT is a complex and potentially risky procedure with various complications, including graft-versus-host disease, infections, and organ damage. However, it offers the potential for cure or long-term remission in many patients with otherwise fatal diseases.

Fungal lung diseases, also known as fungal pneumonia or mycoses, refer to a group of respiratory disorders caused by the infection of fungi in the lungs. These fungi are commonly found in the environment, such as soil, decaying organic matter, and contaminated materials. People can develop lung diseases from fungi after inhaling spores or particles that contain fungi.

There are several types of fungal lung diseases, including:

1. Aspergillosis: This is caused by the Aspergillus fungus and can affect people with weakened immune systems. It can cause allergic reactions, lung infections, or invasive aspergillosis, which can spread to other organs.
2. Cryptococcosis: This is caused by the Cryptococcus fungus and is usually found in soil contaminated with bird droppings. It can cause pneumonia, meningitis, or skin lesions.
3. Histoplasmosis: This is caused by the Histoplasma capsulatum fungus and is commonly found in the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated histoplasmosis, which can spread to other organs.
4. Blastomycosis: This is caused by the Blastomyces dermatitidis fungus and is commonly found in the southeastern and south-central United States. It can cause pneumonia, skin lesions, or disseminated blastomycosis, which can spread to other organs.
5. Coccidioidomycosis: This is caused by the Coccidioides immitis fungus and is commonly found in the southwestern United States. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated coccidioidomycosis, which can spread to other organs.

Fungal lung diseases can range from mild to severe, depending on the type of fungus and the person's immune system. Treatment may include antifungal medications, surgery, or supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to contaminated soil or dust, wearing protective masks in high-risk areas, and promptly seeking medical attention if symptoms develop.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

The CD4-CD8 ratio is a measurement of the relative numbers of two types of immune cells, CD4+ T cells (also known as helper T cells) and CD8+ T cells (also known as cytotoxic T cells), in the blood. The CD4-CD8 ratio is commonly used as a marker of immune function and health.

CD4+ T cells play an important role in the immune response by helping to coordinate the activity of other immune cells, producing chemical signals that activate them, and producing antibodies. CD8+ T cells are responsible for directly killing infected cells and tumor cells.

A normal CD4-CD8 ratio is typically between 1.0 and 3.0. A lower ratio may indicate an impaired immune system, such as in cases of HIV infection or other immunodeficiency disorders. A higher ratio may be seen in some viral infections, autoimmune diseases, or cancer. It's important to note that the CD4-CD8 ratio should be interpreted in conjunction with other laboratory and clinical findings for a more accurate assessment of immune function.

Vertical transmission of infectious diseases refers to the spread of an infection from an infected mother to her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. This mode of transmission can occur through several pathways:

1. Transplacental transmission: The infection crosses the placenta and reaches the fetus while it is still in the womb. Examples include HIV, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis.
2. Intrauterine infection: The mother's infection causes direct damage to the developing fetus or its surrounding tissues, leading to complications such as congenital defects. Examples include rubella and cytomegalovirus (CMV).
3. Perinatal transmission: This occurs during childbirth when the infant comes into contact with the mother's infected genital tract or bodily fluids. Examples include group B streptococcus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and hepatitis B.
4. Postnatal transmission: This occurs after birth, often through breastfeeding, when the infant ingests infected milk or comes into contact with the mother's contaminated bodily fluids. Examples include HIV and HTLV-I (human T-lymphotropic virus type I).

Vertical transmission is a significant concern in public health, as it can lead to severe complications, congenital disabilities, or even death in newborns. Preventive measures, such as prenatal screening, vaccination, and antimicrobial treatment, are crucial for reducing the risk of vertical transmission and ensuring better outcomes for both mothers and their offspring.

Immunologic factors refer to the elements of the immune system that contribute to the body's defense against foreign substances, infectious agents, and cancerous cells. These factors include various types of white blood cells (such as lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils), antibodies, complement proteins, cytokines, and other molecules involved in the immune response.

Immunologic factors can be categorized into two main types: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the non-specific defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against pathogens through physical barriers (e.g., skin, mucous membranes), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid, enzymes), and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is a specific defense mechanism that develops over time as the immune system learns to recognize and respond to particular pathogens or antigens.

Abnormalities in immunologic factors can lead to various medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiency diseases, and allergies. Therefore, understanding immunologic factors is crucial for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Causality is the relationship between a cause and a result, where the cause directly or indirectly brings about the result. In the medical context, causality refers to determining whether an exposure (such as a drug, infection, or environmental factor) is the cause of a specific outcome (such as a disease or adverse event). Establishing causality often involves evaluating epidemiological data, laboratory studies, and clinical evidence using established criteria, such as those proposed by Bradford Hill. It's important to note that determining causality can be complex and challenging, particularly when there are multiple potential causes or confounding factors involved.

Homologous transplantation is a type of transplant surgery where organs or tissues are transferred between two genetically non-identical individuals of the same species. The term "homologous" refers to the similarity in structure and function of the donated organ or tissue to the recipient's own organ or tissue.

For example, a heart transplant from one human to another is an example of homologous transplantation because both organs are hearts and perform the same function. Similarly, a liver transplant, kidney transplant, lung transplant, and other types of organ transplants between individuals of the same species are also considered homologous transplantations.

Homologous transplantation is in contrast to heterologous or xenogeneic transplantation, where organs or tissues are transferred from one species to another, such as a pig heart transplanted into a human. Homologous transplantation is more commonly performed than heterologous transplantation due to the increased risk of rejection and other complications associated with xenogeneic transplants.

A "Drug Administration Schedule" refers to the plan for when and how a medication should be given to a patient. It includes details such as the dose, frequency (how often it should be taken), route (how it should be administered, such as orally, intravenously, etc.), and duration (how long it should be taken) of the medication. This schedule is often created and prescribed by healthcare professionals, such as doctors or pharmacists, to ensure that the medication is taken safely and effectively. It may also include instructions for missed doses or changes in the dosage.

Monoclonal antibodies are laboratory-produced proteins that mimic the immune system's ability to fight off harmful antigens such as viruses and cancer cells. They are created by fusing a single B cell (the type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies) with a tumor cell, resulting in a hybrid cell called a hybridoma. This hybridoma can then be cloned to produce a large number of identical cells, all producing the same antibody, hence "monoclonal."

Humanized monoclonal antibodies are a type of monoclonal antibody that have been genetically engineered to include human components. This is done to reduce the risk of an adverse immune response in patients receiving the treatment. In this process, the variable region of the mouse monoclonal antibody, which contains the antigen-binding site, is grafted onto a human constant region. The resulting humanized monoclonal antibody retains the ability to bind to the target antigen while minimizing the immunogenicity associated with murine (mouse) antibodies.

In summary, "antibodies, monoclonal, humanized" refers to a type of laboratory-produced protein that mimics the immune system's ability to fight off harmful antigens, but with reduced immunogenicity due to the inclusion of human components in their structure.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

Lymphocyte depletion is a medical term that refers to the reduction in the number of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in the body. Lymphocytes play a crucial role in the immune system, as they help to fight off infections and diseases.

Lymphocyte depletion can occur due to various reasons, including certain medical treatments such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, immune disorders, viral infections, or bone marrow transplantation. This reduction in lymphocytes can make a person more susceptible to infections and diseases, as their immune system is weakened.

There are different types of lymphocytes, including T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, and lymphocyte depletion can affect one or all of these types. In some cases, lymphocyte depletion may be temporary and resolve on its own or with treatment. However, in other cases, it may be more prolonged and require medical intervention to manage the associated risks and complications.

Lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are crucial components of the adaptive immune system. There are two main types of lymphocytes: T cells and B cells, and each type has several subsets based on their surface receptors, functions, and activation status.

1. T cell subsets: These include CD4+ T helper cells (Th cells), CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells), regulatory T cells (Tregs), and memory T cells. Th cells are further divided into Th1, Th2, Th17, and Tfh cells based on their cytokine production profiles and functions.
* CD4+ T helper cells (Th cells) play a central role in orchestrating the immune response by producing various cytokines that activate other immune cells.
* CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) directly kill virus-infected or malignant cells upon recognition of specific antigens presented on their surface.
* Regulatory T cells (Tregs) suppress the activation and proliferation of other immune cells to maintain self-tolerance and prevent autoimmunity.
* Memory T cells are long-lived cells that remain in the body after an initial infection or immunization, providing rapid protection upon subsequent encounters with the same pathogen.
2. B cell subsets: These include naïve B cells, memory B cells, and plasma cells. Upon activation by antigens, B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells that produce specific antibodies to neutralize or eliminate pathogens.
* Naïve B cells are resting cells that have not yet encountered their specific antigen.
* Memory B cells are long-lived cells generated after initial antigen exposure, which can quickly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
* Plasma cells are terminally differentiated B cells that secrete large amounts of specific antibodies.

Analyzing lymphocyte subsets is essential for understanding immune system function and dysfunction, as well as monitoring the effectiveness of immunotherapies and vaccinations.

Neutropenia is a condition characterized by an abnormally low concentration (less than 1500 cells/mm3) of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in fighting off bacterial and fungal infections. Neutrophils are essential components of the innate immune system, and their main function is to engulf and destroy microorganisms that can cause harm to the body.

Neutropenia can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on the severity of the neutrophil count reduction:

* Mild neutropenia: Neutrophil count between 1000-1500 cells/mm3
* Moderate neutropenia: Neutrophil count between 500-1000 cells/mm3
* Severe neutropenia: Neutrophil count below 500 cells/mm3

Severe neutropenia significantly increases the risk of developing infections, as the body's ability to fight off microorganisms is severely compromised. Common causes of neutropenia include viral infections, certain medications (such as chemotherapy or antibiotics), autoimmune disorders, and congenital conditions affecting bone marrow function. Treatment for neutropenia typically involves addressing the underlying cause, administering granulocyte-colony stimulating factors to boost neutrophil production, and providing appropriate antimicrobial therapy to prevent or treat infections.

Treatment failure is a term used in medicine to describe the situation when a prescribed treatment or intervention is not achieving the desired therapeutic goals or objectives. This may occur due to various reasons, such as:

1. Development of drug resistance by the pathogen or disease being treated.
2. Inadequate dosage or frequency of the medication.
3. Poor adherence or compliance to the treatment regimen by the patient.
4. The presence of underlying conditions or comorbidities that may affect the efficacy of the treatment.
5. The severity or progression of the disease despite appropriate treatment.

When treatment failure occurs, healthcare providers may need to reassess the patient's condition and modify the treatment plan accordingly, which may include adjusting the dosage, changing the medication, adding new medications, or considering alternative treatments.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Ganciclovir is an antiviral medication used to prevent and treat cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections, particularly in individuals who have undergone organ transplants or have weakened immune systems due to conditions like HIV/AIDS. It works by inhibiting the replication of the virus, thereby reducing its ability to cause damage to the body's cells and tissues.

The medical definition of Ganciclovir is:

A synthetic nucleoside analogue with antiviral activity against herpesviruses, including cytomegalovirus (CMV). Ganciclovir is converted intracellularly to its active form, ganciclovir triphosphate, which inhibits viral DNA polymerase and subsequently prevents viral replication. It is primarily used for the prevention and treatment of CMV infections in immunocompromised patients, such as those who have undergone organ transplants or have HIV/AIDS. Ganciclovir is available in various formulations, including oral capsules, intravenous solution, and ocular implants.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

Survival analysis is a branch of statistics that deals with the analysis of time to event data. It is used to estimate the time it takes for a certain event of interest to occur, such as death, disease recurrence, or treatment failure. The event of interest is called the "failure" event, and survival analysis estimates the probability of not experiencing the failure event until a certain point in time, also known as the "survival" probability.

Survival analysis can provide important information about the effectiveness of treatments, the prognosis of patients, and the identification of risk factors associated with the event of interest. It can handle censored data, which is common in medical research where some participants may drop out or be lost to follow-up before the event of interest occurs.

Survival analysis typically involves estimating the survival function, which describes the probability of surviving beyond a certain time point, as well as hazard functions, which describe the instantaneous rate of failure at a given time point. Other important concepts in survival analysis include median survival times, restricted mean survival times, and various statistical tests to compare survival curves between groups.

Deltaretroviruses are a genus of retroviruses that include human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) types 1 and 2, bovine leukemia virus (BLV), and simian T-lymphotropic viruses. These viruses are characterized by their ability to cause persistent infections and can lead to the development of various diseases such as adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) and tropical spastic paraparesis/HTLV-associated myelopathy (TSP/HAM).

The genome of deltaretroviruses contains two copies of single-stranded RNA, which are reverse transcribed into double-stranded DNA during the replication process. The viral DNA is then integrated into the host cell's genome, leading to a lifelong infection.

Deltaretroviruses primarily infect CD4+ T cells and other immune cells, and transmission typically occurs through bodily fluids such as breast milk, blood, and sexual contact. Prevention measures include avoiding high-risk behaviors, screening blood products, and implementing strict infection control practices in healthcare settings.

Immunocompetence is the condition of having a properly functioning immune system that can effectively respond to the presence of foreign substances, such as pathogens (like bacteria, viruses, and parasites) and other potentially harmful agents. It involves the ability of the immune system to recognize, attack, and eliminate these foreign substances while also maintaining tolerance to self-tissues and promoting tissue repair.

Immunocompetence is essential for overall health and wellbeing, as it helps protect the body from infections and diseases. Factors that can affect immunocompetence include age, genetics, stress, nutrition, sleep, and certain medical conditions or treatments (like chemotherapy or immunosuppressive drugs) that can weaken the immune system.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Vidarabine is an antiviral medication used to treat herpes simplex infections, particularly severe cases such as herpes encephalitis (inflammation of the brain caused by the herpes simplex virus). It works by interfering with the DNA replication of the virus.

In medical terms, vidarabine is a nucleoside analogue that is phosphorylated intracellularly to the active form, vidarabine triphosphate. This compound inhibits viral DNA polymerase and incorporates into viral DNA, causing termination of viral DNA synthesis.

Vidarabine was previously used as an injectable medication but has largely been replaced by more modern antiviral drugs such as acyclovir due to its greater efficacy and lower toxicity.

Herpesviridae infections refer to diseases caused by the Herpesviridae family of double-stranded DNA viruses, which include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), and human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). These viruses can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild skin lesions to severe systemic diseases.

After the initial infection, these viruses typically become latent in various tissues and may reactivate later in life, causing recurrent symptoms. The clinical presentation of Herpesviridae infections depends on the specific virus and the immune status of the host. Common manifestations include oral or genital ulcers (HSV-1 and HSV-2), chickenpox and shingles (VZV), mononucleosis (CMV), roseola (HHV-6), and Kaposi's sarcoma (HHV-8).

Preventive measures include avoiding close contact with infected individuals during the active phase of the infection, practicing safe sex, and avoiding sharing personal items that may come into contact with infectious lesions. Antiviral medications are available to treat Herpesviridae infections and reduce the severity and duration of symptoms.

Natural Killer (NK) cells are a type of lymphocyte, which are large granular innate immune cells that play a crucial role in the host's defense against viral infections and malignant transformations. They do not require prior sensitization to target and destroy abnormal cells, such as virus-infected cells or tumor cells. NK cells recognize their targets through an array of germline-encoded activating and inhibitory receptors that detect the alterations in the cell surface molecules of potential targets. Upon activation, NK cells release cytotoxic granules containing perforins and granzymes to induce target cell apoptosis, and they also produce a variety of cytokines and chemokines to modulate immune responses. Overall, natural killer cells serve as a critical component of the innate immune system, providing rapid and effective responses against infected or malignant cells.

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

Disease susceptibility, also known as genetic predisposition or genetic susceptibility, refers to the increased likelihood or risk of developing a particular disease due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations. These genetic factors can make an individual more vulnerable to certain diseases compared to those who do not have these genetic changes.

It is important to note that having a genetic predisposition does not guarantee that a person will definitely develop the disease. Other factors, such as environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, and additional genetic variations, can influence whether or not the disease will manifest. In some cases, early detection and intervention may help reduce the risk or delay the onset of the disease in individuals with a known genetic susceptibility.

'Candida' is a type of fungus (a form of yeast) that is commonly found on the skin and inside the body, including in the mouth, throat, gut, and vagina, in small amounts. It is a part of the normal microbiota and usually does not cause any problems. However, an overgrowth of Candida can lead to infections known as candidiasis or thrush. Common sites for these infections include the skin, mouth, throat, and genital areas. Some factors that can contribute to Candida overgrowth are a weakened immune system, certain medications (such as antibiotics and corticosteroids), diabetes, pregnancy, poor oral hygiene, and wearing damp or tight-fitting clothing. Common symptoms of candidiasis include itching, redness, pain, and discharge. Treatment typically involves antifungal medication, either topical or oral, depending on the site and severity of the infection.

Gastrointestinal agents are a class of pharmaceutical drugs that affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which includes the organs involved in digestion such as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. These agents can have various effects on the GI tract, including:

1. Increasing gastric motility (promoting bowel movements) - laxatives, prokinetics
2. Decreasing gastric motility (reducing bowel movements) - antidiarrheal agents
3. Neutralizing gastric acid - antacids
4. Reducing gastric acid secretion - H2-blockers, proton pump inhibitors
5. Protecting the mucosal lining of the GI tract - sucralfate, misoprostol
6. Relieving symptoms associated with GI disorders such as bloating, abdominal pain, and nausea - antispasmodics, antiemetics

Examples of gastrointestinal agents include:

* Laxatives (e.g., psyllium, docusate)
* Prokinetics (e.g., metoclopramide)
* Antacids (e.g., calcium carbonate, aluminum hydroxide)
* H2-blockers (e.g., ranitidine, famotidine)
* Proton pump inhibitors (e.g., omeprazole, lansoprazole)
* Sucralfate
* Misoprostol
* Antispasmodics (e.g., hyoscyamine, dicyclomine)
* Antiemetics (e.g., ondansetron, promethazine)

It is important to note that gastrointestinal agents can have both therapeutic and adverse effects, and their use should be based on a careful evaluation of the patient's condition and medical history.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

A drug interaction is the effect of combining two or more drugs, or a drug and another substance (such as food or alcohol), which can alter the effectiveness or side effects of one or both of the substances. These interactions can be categorized as follows:

1. Pharmacodynamic interactions: These occur when two or more drugs act on the same target organ or receptor, leading to an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effect. For example, taking a sedative and an antihistamine together can result in increased drowsiness due to their combined depressant effects on the central nervous system.
2. Pharmacokinetic interactions: These occur when one drug affects the absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of another drug. For example, taking certain antibiotics with grapefruit juice can increase the concentration of the antibiotic in the bloodstream, leading to potential toxicity.
3. Food-drug interactions: Some drugs may interact with specific foods, affecting their absorption, metabolism, or excretion. An example is the interaction between warfarin (a blood thinner) and green leafy vegetables, which can increase the risk of bleeding due to enhanced vitamin K absorption from the vegetables.
4. Drug-herb interactions: Some herbal supplements may interact with medications, leading to altered drug levels or increased side effects. For instance, St. John's Wort can decrease the effectiveness of certain antidepressants and oral contraceptives by inducing their metabolism.
5. Drug-alcohol interactions: Alcohol can interact with various medications, causing additive sedative effects, impaired judgment, or increased risk of liver damage. For example, combining alcohol with benzodiazepines or opioids can lead to dangerous levels of sedation and respiratory depression.

It is essential for healthcare providers and patients to be aware of potential drug interactions to minimize adverse effects and optimize treatment outcomes.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Cellular immunity, also known as cell-mediated immunity, is a type of immune response that involves the activation of immune cells, such as T lymphocytes (T cells), to protect the body against infected or damaged cells. This form of immunity is important for fighting off infections caused by viruses and intracellular bacteria, as well as for recognizing and destroying cancer cells.

Cellular immunity involves a complex series of interactions between various immune cells and molecules. When a pathogen infects a cell, the infected cell displays pieces of the pathogen on its surface in a process called antigen presentation. This attracts T cells, which recognize the antigens and become activated. Activated T cells then release cytokines, chemicals that help coordinate the immune response, and can directly attack and kill infected cells or help activate other immune cells to do so.

Cellular immunity is an important component of the adaptive immune system, which is able to learn and remember specific pathogens in order to mount a faster and more effective response upon subsequent exposure. This form of immunity is also critical for the rejection of transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it.

An AIDS vaccine is a type of preventive vaccine that aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The goal of an AIDS vaccine is to induce the production of immune cells and proteins that can recognize and eliminate HIV-infected cells, thereby preventing the establishment of a persistent infection.

Despite decades of research, there is still no licensed AIDS vaccine available. This is due in part to the unique challenges posed by HIV, which has a high mutation rate and can rapidly evolve to evade the immune system's defenses. However, several promising vaccine candidates are currently being tested in clinical trials around the world, and researchers continue to explore new approaches and strategies for developing an effective AIDS vaccine.

"Mycobacterium avium is a species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that belongs to the family Mycobacteriaceae. It is a slow-growing mycobacterium that is widely distributed in the environment, particularly in soil and water. M. avium is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause pulmonary disease, lymphadenitis, and disseminated infection in individuals with compromised immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS. It is also known to cause pulmonary disease in elderly people with structural lung damage. The bacteria are resistant to many common disinfectants and can survive in hostile environments for extended periods."

Diarrhea is a condition in which an individual experiences loose, watery stools frequently, often exceeding three times a day. It can be acute, lasting for several days, or chronic, persisting for weeks or even months. Diarrhea can result from various factors, including viral, bacterial, or parasitic infections, food intolerances, medications, and underlying medical conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease or irritable bowel syndrome. Dehydration is a potential complication of diarrhea, particularly in severe cases or in vulnerable populations like young children and the elderly.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Uganda" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in East Africa, known officially as the Republic of Uganda. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells or cytotoxic T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the adaptive immune system. They are named after the CD8 molecule found on their surface, which is a protein involved in cell signaling and recognition.

CD8+ T cells are primarily responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells or cancerous cells. When activated, they release cytotoxic granules that contain enzymes capable of inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the target cells. They also produce cytokines such as interferon-gamma, which can help coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

CD8+ T cells are generated in the thymus gland and are a type of T cell, which is a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and respond to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or cancerous cells in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules.

Overall, CD8+ T cells are an essential component of the immune system's defense against viral infections and cancer.

I apologize, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or condition. It is the largest country in both South America and Latin America by land area and population. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, please provide more information and I will do my best to help.

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates from the white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the immune system. These cells are found in various parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. Lymphoma can be classified into two main types: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

HL is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal lymphocyte called Reed-Sternberg cells, while NHL includes a diverse group of lymphomas that lack these cells. The symptoms of lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.

The exact cause of lymphoma is not known, but it is believed to result from genetic mutations in the lymphocytes that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Exposure to certain viruses, chemicals, and radiation may increase the risk of developing lymphoma. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on various factors such as the type and stage of the disease, age, and overall health of the patient. Common treatments include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation.

Thoracic radiography is a type of diagnostic imaging that involves using X-rays to produce images of the chest, including the lungs, heart, bronchi, great vessels, and the bones of the spine and chest wall. It is a commonly used tool in the diagnosis and management of various respiratory, cardiovascular, and thoracic disorders such as pneumonia, lung cancer, heart failure, and rib fractures.

During the procedure, the patient is positioned between an X-ray machine and a cassette containing a film or digital detector. The X-ray beam is directed at the chest, and the resulting image is captured on the film or detector. The images produced can help identify any abnormalities in the structure or function of the organs within the chest.

Thoracic radiography may be performed as a routine screening test for certain conditions, such as lung cancer, or it may be ordered when a patient presents with symptoms suggestive of a respiratory or cardiovascular disorder. It is a safe and non-invasive procedure that can provide valuable information to help guide clinical decision making and improve patient outcomes.

Infectious pregnancy complications refer to infections that occur during pregnancy and can affect the mother, fetus, or both. These infections can lead to serious consequences such as preterm labor, low birth weight, birth defects, stillbirth, or even death. Some common infectious agents that can cause pregnancy complications include:

1. Bacteria: Examples include group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.
2. Viruses: Examples include cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella-zoster, and HIV, which can cause congenital anomalies, developmental delays, or transmission of the virus to the fetus.
3. Parasites: Examples include Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause severe neurological damage in the fetus if transmitted during pregnancy.
4. Fungi: Examples include Candida albicans, which can cause fungal infections in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.

Preventive measures such as vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding high-risk behaviors can help reduce the risk of infectious pregnancy complications. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of infections during pregnancy are also crucial to prevent adverse outcomes.

Liver transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a diseased or failing liver is replaced with a healthy one from a deceased donor or, less commonly, a portion of a liver from a living donor. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal liver function and improve the patient's overall health and quality of life.

Liver transplantation may be recommended for individuals with end-stage liver disease, acute liver failure, certain genetic liver disorders, or liver cancers that cannot be treated effectively with other therapies. The procedure involves complex surgery to remove the diseased liver and implant the new one, followed by a period of recovery and close medical monitoring to ensure proper function and minimize the risk of complications.

The success of liver transplantation has improved significantly in recent years due to advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive medications, and post-transplant care. However, it remains a major operation with significant risks and challenges, including the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection of the new liver, as well as potential complications such as infection, bleeding, and organ failure.

Antilymphocyte serum (ALS) is a type of immune serum that contains antibodies against human lymphocytes. It is produced by immunizing animals, such as horses or rabbits, with human lymphocytes to stimulate an immune response and the production of anti-lymphocyte antibodies. The resulting serum is then collected and can be used as a therapeutic agent to suppress the activity of the immune system in certain medical conditions.

ALS is primarily used in the treatment of transplant rejection, particularly in organ transplantation, where it helps to prevent the recipient's immune system from attacking and rejecting the transplanted organ. It can also be used in the management of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, to suppress the overactive immune response that contributes to these conditions.

It is important to note that the use of ALS carries a risk of side effects, including allergic reactions, fever, and decreased white blood cell counts. Close monitoring and appropriate management of these potential adverse events are essential during treatment with ALS.

Prednisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a type of corticosteroid hormone. It is primarily used to reduce inflammation in various conditions such as asthma, allergies, arthritis, and autoimmune disorders. Prednisone works by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by the adrenal glands, suppressing the immune system's response and reducing the release of substances that cause inflammation.

It is available in oral tablet form and is typically prescribed to be taken at specific times during the day, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of prednisone include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and easy bruising. Long-term use or high doses can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Healthcare providers closely monitor patients taking prednisone for extended periods to minimize the risk of adverse effects. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage regimen and not discontinue the medication abruptly without medical supervision, as this can lead to withdrawal symptoms or a rebound of the underlying condition.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

'Candida albicans' is a species of yeast that is commonly found in the human body, particularly in warm and moist areas such as the mouth, gut, and genital region. It is a part of the normal microbiota and usually does not cause any harm. However, under certain conditions like a weakened immune system, prolonged use of antibiotics or steroids, poor oral hygiene, or diabetes, it can overgrow and cause infections known as candidiasis. These infections can affect various parts of the body including the skin, nails, mouth (thrush), and genital area (yeast infection).

The medical definition of 'Candida albicans' is:

A species of yeast belonging to the genus Candida, which is commonly found as a commensal organism in humans. It can cause opportunistic infections when there is a disruption in the normal microbiota or when the immune system is compromised. The overgrowth of C. albicans can lead to various forms of candidiasis, such as oral thrush, vaginal yeast infection, and invasive candidiasis.

Antineoplastic agents, alkylating, are a class of chemotherapeutic drugs that work by alkylating (adding alkyl groups) to DNA, which can lead to the death or dysfunction of cancer cells. These agents can form cross-links between strands of DNA, preventing DNA replication and transcription, ultimately leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Examples of alkylating agents include cyclophosphamide, melphalan, and cisplatin. While these drugs are designed to target rapidly dividing cancer cells, they can also affect normal cells that divide quickly, such as those in the bone marrow and digestive tract, leading to side effects like anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, and nausea/vomiting.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent, which is a type of chemotherapy medication. It works by interfering with the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing. This helps to stop the spread of cancer in the body. Cyclophosphamide is used to treat various types of cancer, including lymphoma, leukemia, multiple myeloma, and breast cancer. It can be given orally as a tablet or intravenously as an injection.

Cyclophosphamide can also have immunosuppressive effects, which means it can suppress the activity of the immune system. This makes it useful in treating certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. However, this immunosuppression can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects.

Like all chemotherapy medications, cyclophosphamide can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and increased susceptibility to infections. It is important for patients receiving cyclophosphamide to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects and ensure the medication is working effectively.

Salmonella infections, also known as salmonellosis, are a type of foodborne illness caused by the Salmonella bacterium. These bacteria can be found in the intestinal tracts of humans, animals, and birds, especially poultry. People typically get salmonella infections from consuming contaminated foods or water, or through contact with infected animals or their feces. Common sources of Salmonella include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, eggs, and milk products; contaminated fruits and vegetables; and improperly prepared or stored food.

Symptoms of salmonella infections usually begin within 12 to 72 hours after exposure and can include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, nausea, vomiting, and headache. Most people recover from salmonella infections without treatment within four to seven days, although some cases may be severe or even life-threatening, especially in young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems. In rare cases, Salmonella can spread from the intestines to the bloodstream and cause serious complications such as meningitis, endocarditis, and arthritis.

Prevention measures include proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices; washing hands thoroughly after using the bathroom, changing diapers, or touching animals; avoiding cross-contamination of foods during preparation; and using pasteurized dairy products and eggs. If you suspect that you have a Salmonella infection, it is important to seek medical attention promptly to prevent complications and reduce the risk of spreading the infection to others.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

"Mycobacterium" is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their complex cell walls containing large amounts of lipids. This genus includes several species that are significant in human and animal health, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy. Other species of Mycobacterium can cause various diseases in humans, including skin and soft tissue infections, lung infections, and disseminated disease in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria are often resistant to common disinfectants and antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.

For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a medical procedure in which damaged or destroyed bone marrow is replaced with healthy bone marrow from a donor. Bone marrow is the spongy tissue inside bones that produces blood cells. The main types of BMT are autologous, allogeneic, and umbilical cord blood transplantation.

In autologous BMT, the patient's own bone marrow is used for the transplant. This type of BMT is often used in patients with lymphoma or multiple myeloma who have undergone high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy their cancerous bone marrow.

In allogeneic BMT, bone marrow from a genetically matched donor is used for the transplant. This type of BMT is often used in patients with leukemia, lymphoma, or other blood disorders who have failed other treatments.

Umbilical cord blood transplantation involves using stem cells from umbilical cord blood as a source of healthy bone marrow. This type of BMT is often used in children and adults who do not have a matched donor for allogeneic BMT.

The process of BMT typically involves several steps, including harvesting the bone marrow or stem cells from the donor, conditioning the patient's body to receive the new bone marrow or stem cells, transplanting the new bone marrow or stem cells into the patient's body, and monitoring the patient for signs of engraftment and complications.

BMT is a complex and potentially risky procedure that requires careful planning, preparation, and follow-up care. However, it can be a life-saving treatment for many patients with blood disorders or cancer.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

The term "developing countries" is a socio-economic classification used to describe nations that are in the process of industrialization and modernization. This term is often used interchangeably with "low and middle-income countries" or "Global South." The World Bank defines developing countries as those with a gross national income (GNI) per capita of less than US $12,695.

In the context of healthcare, developing countries face unique challenges including limited access to quality medical care, lack of resources and infrastructure, high burden of infectious diseases, and a shortage of trained healthcare professionals. These factors contribute to significant disparities in health outcomes between developing and developed nations.

Lung diseases refer to a broad category of disorders that affect the lungs and other structures within the respiratory system. These diseases can impair lung function, leading to symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, and wheezing. They can be categorized into several types based on the underlying cause and nature of the disease process. Some common examples include:

1. Obstructive lung diseases: These are characterized by narrowing or blockage of the airways, making it difficult to breathe out. Examples include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiectasis, and cystic fibrosis.
2. Restrictive lung diseases: These involve stiffening or scarring of the lungs, which reduces their ability to expand and take in air. Examples include idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, and asbestosis.
3. Infectious lung diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that infect the lungs. Examples include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and influenza.
4. Vascular lung diseases: These affect the blood vessels in the lungs, impairing oxygen exchange. Examples include pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH).
5. Neoplastic lung diseases: These involve abnormal growth of cells within the lungs, leading to cancer. Examples include small cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
6. Other lung diseases: These include interstitial lung diseases, pleural effusions, and rare disorders such as pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM).

It is important to note that this list is not exhaustive, and there are many other conditions that can affect the lungs. Proper diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases require consultation with a healthcare professional, such as a pulmonologist or respiratory therapist.

Medical survival rate is a statistical measure used to determine the percentage of patients who are still alive for a specific period of time after their diagnosis or treatment for a certain condition or disease. It is often expressed as a five-year survival rate, which refers to the proportion of people who are alive five years after their diagnosis. Survival rates can be affected by many factors, including the stage of the disease at diagnosis, the patient's age and overall health, the effectiveness of treatment, and other health conditions that the patient may have. It is important to note that survival rates are statistical estimates and do not necessarily predict an individual patient's prognosis.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

Viral activation, also known as viral reactivation or virus reactivation, refers to the process in which a latent or dormant virus becomes active and starts to replicate within a host cell. This can occur when the immune system is weakened or compromised, allowing the virus to evade the body's natural defenses and cause disease.

In some cases, viral activation can be triggered by certain environmental factors, such as stress, exposure to UV light, or infection with another virus. Once activated, the virus can cause symptoms similar to those seen during the initial infection, or it may lead to new symptoms depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response.

Examples of viruses that can remain dormant in the body and be reactivated include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It is important to note that not all viruses can be reactivated, and some may remain dormant in the body indefinitely without causing any harm.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a soluble cytokine that is primarily produced by the activation of natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes, especially CD4+ Th1 cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response against viral and intracellular bacterial infections, as well as tumor cells. IFN-γ has several functions, including activating macrophages to enhance their microbicidal activity, increasing the presentation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules on antigen-presenting cells, stimulating the proliferation and differentiation of T cells and NK cells, and inducing the production of other cytokines and chemokines. Additionally, IFN-γ has direct antiproliferative effects on certain types of tumor cells and can enhance the cytotoxic activity of immune cells against infected or malignant cells.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Interferon type I is a class of signaling proteins, also known as cytokines, that are produced and released by cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. These interferons play a crucial role in the body's innate immune system and help to establish an antiviral state in surrounding cells to prevent the spread of infection.

Interferon type I includes several subtypes, such as interferon-alpha (IFN-α), interferon-beta (IFN-β), and interferon-omega (IFN-ω). When produced, these interferons bind to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a cascade of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response.

The activation of these genes results in the production of enzymes that inhibit viral replication and promote the destruction of infected cells. Interferon type I also enhances the adaptive immune response by promoting the activation and proliferation of immune cells such as T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which can directly target and eliminate infected cells.

Overall, interferon type I plays a critical role in the body's defense against viral infections and is an important component of the immune response to many different types of pathogens.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune response. They help to protect the body from infection and disease by identifying and attacking foreign substances such as viruses and bacteria.

Helper-inducer T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T-cells or Th0 cells, are a specific subset of T-lymphocytes that help to coordinate the immune response. They do this by activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes (which produce antibodies) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (which directly attack infected cells). Helper-inducer T-lymphocytes also release cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to regulate the immune response.

Helper-inducer T-lymphocytes can differentiate into different subsets of T-cells, depending on the type of cytokines they are exposed to. For example, they can differentiate into Th1 cells, which produce cytokines that help to activate cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and macrophages; or Th2 cells, which produce cytokines that help to activate B-lymphocytes and eosinophils.

It is important to note that helper-inducer T-lymphocytes play a crucial role in the immune response, and dysfunction of these cells can lead to immunodeficiency or autoimmune disorders.

Graft survival, in medical terms, refers to the success of a transplanted tissue or organ in continuing to function and integrate with the recipient's body over time. It is the opposite of graft rejection, which occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it, leading to its failure.

Graft survival depends on various factors, including the compatibility between the donor and recipient, the type and location of the graft, the use of immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection, and the overall health of the recipient. A successful graft survival implies that the transplanted tissue or organ has been accepted by the recipient's body and is functioning properly, providing the necessary physiological support for the recipient's survival and improved quality of life.

Remission induction is a treatment approach in medicine, particularly in the field of oncology and hematology. It refers to the initial phase of therapy aimed at reducing or eliminating the signs and symptoms of active disease, such as cancer or autoimmune disorders. The primary goal of remission induction is to achieve a complete response (disappearance of all detectable signs of the disease) or a partial response (a decrease in the measurable extent of the disease). This phase of treatment is often intensive and may involve the use of multiple drugs or therapies, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy. After remission induction, patients may receive additional treatments to maintain the remission and prevent relapse, known as consolidation or maintenance therapy.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by persistent inflammation, synovial hyperplasia, and subsequent damage to the articular cartilage and bone. The immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, specifically targeting the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule. This results in swelling, pain, warmth, and stiffness in affected joints, often most severely in the hands and feet.

RA can also have extra-articular manifestations, affecting other organs such as the lungs, heart, skin, eyes, and blood vessels. The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing rheumatoid arthritis to prevent joint damage, disability, and systemic complications.

Pseudomonas infections are infections caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa or other species of the Pseudomonas genus. These bacteria are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens that can cause various types of infections, including respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and bloodstream infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized for extended periods. The bacteria can also infect wounds, burns, and medical devices such as catheters and ventilators.

Pseudomonas infections can be difficult to treat due to the bacteria's resistance to many antibiotics. Treatment typically involves the use of multiple antibiotics that are effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In severe cases, intravenous antibiotics or even hospitalization may be necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, contact precautions for patients with known Pseudomonas infections, and proper cleaning and maintenance of medical equipment.

Microscopy is a technical field in medicine that involves the use of microscopes to observe structures and phenomena that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. It allows for the examination of samples such as tissues, cells, and microorganisms at high magnifications, enabling the detection and analysis of various medical conditions, including infections, diseases, and cellular abnormalities.

There are several types of microscopy used in medicine, including:

1. Light Microscopy: This is the most common type of microscopy, which uses visible light to illuminate and magnify samples. It can be used to examine a wide range of biological specimens, such as tissue sections, blood smears, and bacteria.
2. Electron Microscopy: This type of microscopy uses a beam of electrons instead of light to produce highly detailed images of samples. It is often used in research settings to study the ultrastructure of cells and tissues.
3. Fluorescence Microscopy: This technique involves labeling specific molecules within a sample with fluorescent dyes, allowing for their visualization under a microscope. It can be used to study protein interactions, gene expression, and cell signaling pathways.
4. Confocal Microscopy: This type of microscopy uses a laser beam to scan a sample point by point, producing high-resolution images with reduced background noise. It is often used in medical research to study the structure and function of cells and tissues.
5. Scanning Probe Microscopy: This technique involves scanning a sample with a physical probe, allowing for the measurement of topography, mechanical properties, and other characteristics at the nanoscale. It can be used in medical research to study the structure and function of individual molecules and cells.

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

The "cause of death" is a medical determination of the disease, injury, or event that directly results in a person's death. This information is typically documented on a death certificate and may be used for public health surveillance, research, and legal purposes. The cause of death is usually determined by a physician based on their clinical judgment and any available medical evidence, such as laboratory test results, autopsy findings, or eyewitness accounts. In some cases, the cause of death may be uncertain or unknown, and the death may be classified as "natural," "accidental," "homicide," or "suicide" based on the available information.

'Mycobacterium tuberculosis' is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria that demonstrates acid-fastness. It is the primary causative agent of tuberculosis (TB) in humans. This bacterium has a complex cell wall rich in lipids, including mycolic acids, which provides a hydrophobic barrier and makes it resistant to many conventional antibiotics. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive within host macrophages and resist the immune response contributes to its pathogenicity and the difficulty in treating TB infections.

M. tuberculosis is typically transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets containing the bacteria, which primarily targets the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB). The infection may result in a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from latent TB infection (LTBI) to active disease. LTBI represents a dormant state where individuals are infected with M. tuberculosis but do not show symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria. However, they remain at risk of developing active TB throughout their lifetime, especially if their immune system becomes compromised.

Effective prevention and control strategies for TB rely on early detection, treatment, and public health interventions to limit transmission. The current first-line treatments for drug-susceptible TB include a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of M. tuberculosis present significant challenges in TB control and require more complex treatment regimens.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Methotrexate is a medication used in the treatment of certain types of cancer and autoimmune diseases. It is an antimetabolite that inhibits the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which is necessary for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines, essential components of DNA and RNA. By blocking this enzyme, methotrexate interferes with cell division and growth, making it effective in treating rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells.

In addition to its use in cancer treatment, methotrexate is also used to manage autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. In these conditions, methotrexate modulates the immune system and reduces inflammation.

It's important to note that methotrexate can have significant side effects and should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider. Regular monitoring of blood counts, liver function, and kidney function is necessary during treatment with methotrexate.

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a condition that can occur after an allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), where the donated immune cells (graft) recognize the recipient's tissues (host) as foreign and attack them. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs, particularly the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and liver.

Acute GVHD typically occurs within 100 days of transplantation and is characterized by symptoms such as rash, diarrhea, and liver dysfunction. Chronic GVHD, on the other hand, can occur after 100 days or even years post-transplant and may present with a wider range of symptoms, including dry eyes and mouth, skin changes, lung involvement, and issues with mobility and flexibility in joints.

GVHD is a significant complication following allogeneic HSCT and can have a substantial impact on the patient's quality of life and overall prognosis. Preventative measures, such as immunosuppressive therapy, are often taken to reduce the risk of GVHD, but its management remains a challenge in transplant medicine.

Sputum is defined as a mixture of saliva and phlegm that is expelled from the respiratory tract during coughing, sneezing or deep breathing. It can be clear, mucoid, or purulent (containing pus) depending on the underlying cause of the respiratory issue. Examination of sputum can help diagnose various respiratory conditions such as infections, inflammation, or other lung diseases.

Innate immunity, also known as non-specific immunity or natural immunity, is the inherent defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against potentially harmful pathogens (like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) without the need for prior exposure. This type of immunity is present from birth and does not adapt to specific threats over time.

Innate immune responses involve various mechanisms such as:

1. Physical barriers: Skin and mucous membranes prevent pathogens from entering the body.
2. Chemical barriers: Enzymes, stomach acid, and lysozyme in tears, saliva, and sweat help to destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
3. Cellular responses: Phagocytic cells (neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages) recognize and engulf foreign particles and pathogens, while natural killer (NK) cells target and eliminate virus-infected or cancerous cells.
4. Inflammatory response: When an infection occurs, the innate immune system triggers inflammation to increase blood flow, recruit immune cells, and remove damaged tissue.
5. Complement system: A group of proteins that work together to recognize and destroy pathogens directly or enhance phagocytosis by coating them with complement components (opsonization).

Innate immunity plays a crucial role in initiating the adaptive immune response, which is specific to particular pathogens and provides long-term protection through memory cells. Both innate and adaptive immunity work together to maintain overall immune homeostasis and protect the body from infections and diseases.

T-lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of T-cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. The two main types of T-lymphocytes are CD4+ and CD8+ cells, which are defined by the presence or absence of specific proteins called cluster differentiation (CD) molecules on their surface.

CD4+ T-cells, also known as helper T-cells, play a crucial role in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages, to mount an immune response against pathogens. They also produce cytokines that help regulate the immune response.

CD8+ T-cells, also known as cytotoxic T-cells, directly kill infected cells or tumor cells by releasing toxic substances such as perforins and granzymes.

The balance between these two subsets of T-cells is critical for maintaining immune homeostasis and mounting effective immune responses against pathogens while avoiding excessive inflammation and autoimmunity. Therefore, the measurement of T-lymphocyte subsets is essential in diagnosing and monitoring various immunological disorders, including HIV infection, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (RTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that are primarily used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. They work by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is essential for the replication of HIV.

HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it has an RNA genome and uses a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. This process is necessary for the virus to integrate into the host cell's genome and replicate. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors interfere with this process by binding to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing it from converting the viral RNA into DNA.

RTIs can be further divided into two categories: nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). NRTIs are analogs of the building blocks of DNA, which get incorporated into the growing DNA chain during replication, causing termination of the chain. NNRTIs bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, causing a conformational change that prevents it from functioning.

By inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, RTIs can prevent the virus from replicating and reduce the viral load in an infected individual, thereby slowing down the progression of HIV infection and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).

Monoclonal murine-derived antibodies are a type of laboratory-produced antibody that is identical in structure, having been derived from a single clone of cells. These antibodies are created using mouse cells and are therefore composed entirely of mouse immune proteins. They are designed to bind specifically to a particular target protein or antigen, making them useful tools for research, diagnostic testing, and therapeutic applications.

Monoclonal antibodies offer several advantages over polyclonal antibodies (which are derived from multiple clones of cells and can recognize multiple epitopes on an antigen). Monoclonal antibodies have a consistent and uniform structure, making them more reliable for research and diagnostic purposes. They also have higher specificity and affinity for their target antigens, allowing for more sensitive detection and measurement.

However, there are some limitations to using monoclonal murine-derived antibodies in therapeutic applications. Because they are composed entirely of mouse proteins, they can elicit an immune response in humans, leading to the production of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA) that can neutralize their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies that incorporate human protein sequences, reducing the risk of an immune response.

Comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional health conditions or diseases alongside a primary illness or condition. These co-occurring health issues can have an impact on the treatment plan, prognosis, and overall healthcare management of an individual. Comorbidities often interact with each other and the primary condition, leading to more complex clinical situations and increased healthcare needs. It is essential for healthcare professionals to consider and address comorbidities to provide comprehensive care and improve patient outcomes.

Viremia is a medical term that refers to the presence of viruses in the bloodstream. It occurs when a virus successfully infects a host and replicates within the body's cells, releasing new viral particles into the blood. This condition can lead to various clinical manifestations depending on the specific virus involved and the immune response of the infected individual. Some viral infections result in asymptomatic viremia, while others can cause severe illness or even life-threatening conditions. The detection of viremia is crucial for diagnosing certain viral infections and monitoring disease progression or treatment effectiveness.

HIV antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) in the body. These antibodies are designed to recognize and bind to specific parts of the virus, known as antigens, in order to neutralize or eliminate it.

There are several types of HIV antibodies that can be produced, including:

1. Anti-HIV-1 and anti-HIV-2 antibodies: These are antibodies that specifically target the HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses, respectively.
2. Antibodies to HIV envelope proteins: These antibodies recognize and bind to the outer envelope of the virus, which is covered in glycoprotein spikes that allow the virus to attach to and enter host cells.
3. Antibodies to HIV core proteins: These antibodies recognize and bind to the interior of the viral particle, where the genetic material of the virus is housed.

The presence of HIV antibodies in the blood can be detected through a variety of tests, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot. A positive test result for HIV antibodies indicates that an individual has been infected with the virus, although it may take several weeks or months after infection for the antibodies to become detectable.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

Etoposide is a chemotherapy medication used to treat various types of cancer, including lung cancer, testicular cancer, and certain types of leukemia. It works by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme called topoisomerase II, which is involved in DNA replication and transcription. By doing so, etoposide can interfere with the growth and multiplication of cancer cells.

Etoposide is often administered intravenously in a hospital or clinic setting, although it may also be given orally in some cases. The medication can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and an increased risk of infection. It can also have more serious side effects, such as bone marrow suppression, which can lead to anemia, bleeding, and a weakened immune system.

Like all chemotherapy drugs, etoposide is not without risks and should only be used under the close supervision of a qualified healthcare provider. It is important for patients to discuss the potential benefits and risks of this medication with their doctor before starting treatment.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a type of cancer that starts from cells that become certain white blood cells (called lymphocytes) in the bone marrow. The cancer (leukemia) cells start in the bone marrow but then go into the blood.

In CLL, the leukemia cells often build up slowly. Many people don't have any symptoms for at least a few years. But over time, the cells can spread to other parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, liver, and spleen.

The "B-cell" part of the name refers to the fact that the cancer starts in a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell. The "chronic" part means that this leukemia usually progresses more slowly than other types of leukemia.

It's important to note that chronic lymphocytic leukemia is different from chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Although both are cancers of the white blood cells, they start in different types of white blood cells and progress differently.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Pneumonia is an infection or inflammation of the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in one or both lungs. It's often caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Accumulated pus and fluid in these air sacs make it difficult to breathe, which can lead to coughing, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity of symptoms can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the underlying cause, the patient's overall health, and age. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment usually involves antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia, antivirals for viral pneumonia, and supportive care like oxygen therapy, hydration, and rest.

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Doxorubicin is a type of chemotherapy medication known as an anthracycline. It works by interfering with the DNA in cancer cells, which prevents them from growing and multiplying. Doxorubicin is used to treat a wide variety of cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and many others. It may be given alone or in combination with other chemotherapy drugs.

Doxorubicin is usually administered through a vein (intravenously) and can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, mouth sores, and increased risk of infection. It can also cause damage to the heart muscle, which can lead to heart failure in some cases. For this reason, doctors may monitor patients' heart function closely while they are receiving doxorubicin treatment.

It is important for patients to discuss the potential risks and benefits of doxorubicin therapy with their healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.

Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.

Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.

The thymus gland is an essential organ of the immune system, located in the upper chest, behind the sternum and surrounding the heart. It's primarily active until puberty and begins to shrink in size and activity thereafter. The main function of the thymus gland is the production and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells), which are crucial for cell-mediated immunity, helping to protect the body from infection and cancer.

The thymus gland provides a protected environment where immune cells called pre-T cells develop into mature T cells. During this process, they learn to recognize and respond appropriately to foreign substances while remaining tolerant to self-tissues, which is crucial for preventing autoimmune diseases.

Additionally, the thymus gland produces hormones like thymosin that regulate immune cell activities and contribute to the overall immune response.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of immune cell that play a critical role in the body's defense against infection and cancer. They are named for their dendrite-like projections, which they use to interact with and sample their environment. DCs are responsible for processing antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response) and presenting them to T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system's response to infection and cancer.

DCs can be found throughout the body, including in the skin, mucous membranes, and lymphoid organs. They are able to recognize and respond to a wide variety of antigens, including those from bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Once they have processed an antigen, DCs migrate to the lymph nodes, where they present the antigen to T cells. This interaction activates the T cells, which then go on to mount a targeted immune response against the invading pathogen or cancerous cells.

DCs are a diverse group of cells that can be divided into several subsets based on their surface markers and function. Some DCs, such as Langerhans cells and dermal DCs, are found in the skin and mucous membranes, where they serve as sentinels for invading pathogens. Other DCs, such as plasmacytoid DCs and conventional DCs, are found in the lymphoid organs, where they play a role in activating T cells and initiating an immune response.

Overall, dendritic cells are essential for the proper functioning of the immune system, and dysregulation of these cells has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer.

Antineoplastic combined chemotherapy protocols refer to a treatment plan for cancer that involves the use of more than one antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drug given in a specific sequence and schedule. The combination of drugs is used because they may work better together to destroy cancer cells compared to using a single agent alone. This approach can also help to reduce the likelihood of cancer cells becoming resistant to the treatment.

The choice of drugs, dose, duration, and frequency are determined by various factors such as the type and stage of cancer, patient's overall health, and potential side effects. Combination chemotherapy protocols can be used in various settings, including as a primary treatment, adjuvant therapy (given after surgery or radiation to kill any remaining cancer cells), neoadjuvant therapy (given before surgery or radiation to shrink the tumor), or palliative care (to alleviate symptoms and prolong survival).

It is important to note that while combined chemotherapy protocols can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, they can also cause significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and an increased risk of infection. Therefore, patients undergoing such treatment should be closely monitored and managed by a healthcare team experienced in administering chemotherapy.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is a type of clinical specimen obtained through a procedure called bronchoalveolar lavage. This procedure involves inserting a bronchoscope into the lungs and instilling a small amount of saline solution into a specific area of the lung, then gently aspirating the fluid back out. The fluid that is recovered is called bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

BAL fluid contains cells and other substances that are present in the lower respiratory tract, including the alveoli (the tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs). By analyzing BAL fluid, doctors can diagnose various lung conditions, such as pneumonia, interstitial lung disease, and lung cancer. They can also monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions by comparing the composition of BAL fluid before and after treatment.

BAL fluid is typically analyzed for its cellular content, including the number and type of white blood cells present, as well as for the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms. The fluid may also be tested for various proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers that can provide additional information about lung health and disease.

In the context of medicine, risk is the probability or likelihood of an adverse health effect or the occurrence of a negative event related to treatment or exposure to certain hazards. It is usually expressed as a ratio or percentage and can be influenced by various factors such as age, gender, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental conditions. Risk assessment involves identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing risks to make informed decisions about prevention, mitigation, or treatment strategies.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Because of this, opportunistic infections are a leading cause of HIV/AIDS-related deaths. Since opportunistic infections can ... An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasites or viruses) that take advantage of ... Opportunistic infections caused by feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus retroviral infections can be treated ... Opportunistic infections can also be attributed to pathogens which cause mild illness in healthy individuals but lead to more ...
The Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI) is an annual scientific meeting devoted to the understanding ... prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and the opportunistic infections associated with AIDS. Thousands of leading researchers ...
"Opportunistic Infections , Living with HIV , HIV Basics , HIV/AIDS , CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2018-07-23. Retrieved 2018-11-10. "ACT ... This may have indirect consequences including greater HIV drug resistance and an increased number of opportunistic infections. ... which may lead to indirect consequences such as greater HIV drug resistance and an increased number of opportunistic infections ... thereby increasing the likelihood of developing an opportunistic infection. Taking the recommended drug regimen for HIV is ...
Georgiev, Vassil (2003). "Blastomyces dermatitidis". Opportunistic Infections. Humana Press. pp. 413-427. doi:10.1007/978-1- ... In most such cases, the infection in the dog becomes apparent before the human infection. This may be due to a shortened ... "A rare fungal infection broke out at a paper mill. Here's what to know about blastomycosis in Wisconsin". The Post-Crescent. ... In 25% to 40% of cases, the infection also spreads to other parts of the body, such as the skin, bones or central nervous ...
Wolf, Alice (2005). "Opportunistic fungal infections". In August, John R. (ed.). Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine Vol ... Primary infection can also occur in the bones and lungs. Dogs with the gastrointestinal form of pythiosis have severe ... Miscellaneous fungal infections. In: Greene CE, ed. Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat, 4th ed. Elsevier Saunders, St. ... The lesions often contain yellow, firm masses of dead tissue known as 'kunkers'. It is possible with chronic infection for the ...
Wolf, Alice (2005). "Opportunistic fungal infections". In August, John R. (ed.). Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine Vol ... Primary infection can also occur in the bones and lungs. In horses, subcutaneous pythiosis is the most common form and ... Conidiobolus infections of the upper respiratory system have been reported in humans, sheep, horses, and dogs, and Basidiobolus ... Humans with Basidiobolus infections have been treated with amphotericin B and potassium iodide. For pythiosis and lagenidiosis ...
"Prevention of opportunistic infections". Infectious Diseases. pp. 958-963. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-04579-7.00090-3. ISBN ... the body becomes susceptible to opportunistic infections that otherwise would not affect healthy people. The extent of HIV ... An increase in lymphocyte concentration is usually a sign of a viral infection (in some rare case, leukemias are found through ... Lymphocytes are recruited into the upper and lower airways during the early stages of a viral respiratory infection, and it is ...
It can cause opportunistic infections, notably blood infection in the setting of significant underlying disease. It has been ... Miceli MH, Díaz JA, Lee SA (February 2011). "Emerging opportunistic yeast infections". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 11 (2 ... Infections have been observed worldwide, though nearly half of all reported infections have originated in the Asia-Pacific ... Although reports of systemic infections predominate, localized infection has been reported as well, including meningitis and ...
"AIDS and Opportunistic Infections". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March 30, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2022. ...
Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. 98. Stoddart, Cheryl A.; Galkina, Sofiya A.; Joshi, Pheroze; Kosikova ... "Someday, an Arm Implant May Prevent H.I.V. Infection for a Year". New York Times. July 23, 2019. "Merck Presents Early Evidence ... is an investigational drug for the treatment of HIV infection. It is classified as a nucleoside reverse transcriptase ...
"AIDS Related Opportunistic Infections Report, 1998". Treatment Action Group. Retrieved 2020-03-14. v t e (Articles with short ...
HIV-associated dementia (HAD) is not a true opportunistic infection; it is one of the few conditions caused directly by HIV ... opportunistic infections AIDS-related lymphoma or metastasis of other AIDS-related cancers direct effects of HIV in the brain ... Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Boston, MA. Cardenas VA, Meyerhoff DJ, Studholme C, Kornak J, Rothlind ... HAART may prevent or delay the onset of HAD in people with HIV infection, and may also improve mental function in people who ...
Such cases are called opportunistic infections. Some pathogens (such as the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which may have caused ... Helminthiasis (worm infection), Ascariasis, and enterobiasis (pinworm infection) are few that are caused by various parasitic ... 2014). Immune Response to Parasitic Infections. Immune Response to Parasitic Infections. Vol. 2. Bentham Science Publishers. ... or yeast infections. Most antibiotics that function on bacterial pathogens cannot be used to treat fungal infections because ...
19th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. "Researchers Launch First-Ever Phase II Safety Study of a Rectal ... Results were presented at the 18th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, or CROI. MTN-007 studied a ... 18th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. McGowan; Hoesley; Janocko; et al. MTN-007: A Phase 1 Randomized, ... 19th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Exner, T. M.; Correale, J.; Carballo-Diéguez, A.; Salomon, L.; ...
20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. March 3-6, 2013. Abstract 41LB. CROI 2013: Sofosbuvir + ... Data presented at the 20th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections in March 2013 showed that a triple regimen ... May 2014). "Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for untreated HCV genotype 1 infection". The New England Journal of Medicine. 370 (20): ...
... and bacterial opportunistic infections; and virus infection-induced cancers. The disorder often progresses to the development ... enhanced susceptibility to opportunistic infections, virus infection-induced cancers, the myelodysplastic syndrome, and/or ... viral infections, especially with human papillomaviruses, and fungal infections, primarily histoplasmosis, and molds. There is ... This syndrome is characterized by an increased susceptibility to disseminated nontuberculous mycobacterial infections, ...
C. cellulans infections are rare and the organism is considered an opportunistic pathogen. C. cellulans usually only affects ... Cellulosimicrobium cellulans can cause rare opportunistic infections. The strain EB-8-4 of this species can be used for ... In one case study, a 52-year-old woman developed endocarditis and intracranial infarction due of C. cellulans infection. The ... Infection. 38 (4): 321-323. doi:10.1007/s15010-010-0011-6. PMID 20376528. S2CID 44297564. Rowlinson, M.-C.; Bruckner, D. A.; ...
11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Feb. 8-11, 2004. Josefowicz S, Louzao R, Lam L, Ding T, Bergeron ... 12th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Feb. 2005 Antibody Solutions: About: History Accessed 18 February ...
11th conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections. San Francisco, CA. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 3 ... Infection. 34 (2): 110-113. doi:10.1007/s15010-006-6206-1. PMID 16703305. S2CID 38463200. v t e (Articles with short ... 5-diketopiperazines developed for the treatment of HIV infection. It was developed by GlaxoSmithKline. In October 2005, all ...
"Foundation for Integrative AIDS Research Report on the 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, February ... 11th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 21, 2006 ... in HIV-1 infection". Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 37 (2): 1253-62. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000137371.80695.ef. ... medical strategies to prevent new HIV infections and better treatments for people living with HIV/AIDS. From 1989 to 2015, ARAA ...
Abstract 104bLB". 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Archived from the original on 2009-03-18. ... This type of virus is predominant during the early stages of infection and remains the dominant form in over 50% of late stage ... As mentioned, the CCR5 receptor is a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR). Before the discovery of CCR5's role in HIV infection, ... CCR5 is hence needed for the entry of the virus and this infection of healthy cells. Leronlimab, the anti-CCR5 monoclonal ...
... death is usually from opportunistic infections (1). It is usually associated with HIV /AIDS but also less commonly with ... Oral fungal infections are most commonly caused by different Candida species such as Candida Albicans, Candida Glabrata and ... Chicken Pox: A type of viral infection which is caused by Varicella Zoster Virus and presents in children. Numerous itchy ... Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease: A highly contagious viral infection which infects young children and is caused by Coxsackie ...
4th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 2006-06-26. ...
... opportunistic infections, virus infection-induced cancers, the myelodysplastic syndrome, and/or leukemia. GATA2 deficiency is a ... Individuals affected by the syndrome may also exhibit increased susceptibility to opportunistic viral infections, particularly ... tumors caused by opportunistic viral infections; 3) autoimmunity disturbances; and 4) the myelodysplastic syndrome, acute ... Individuals affected by MonoMAC commonly present in early adulthood affected by one or more of the opportunistic infections ...
Oral abstract 144LB". 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Archived from the original on October 19, ... "Cabenuva and Vocabria approved for HIV infection". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 27 January 2021. Retrieved 27 ... infection in combination with cabotegravir injection. It was approved for medical use in the European Union in December 2020. ... for the treatment of HIV-1 infections in adults to replace a current antiretroviral regimen in those who are virologically ...
Newman, Nancy M. (1 March 1983). "Clinical and Histologic Findings in Opportunistic Ocular Infections". Archives of ... The cytomegalovirus infection was found of relevance towards compromised immune patients, as previous cases show that immune ... The conclusion made by the journal was that the owl's eye had relevance to cytomegalovirus infection. In 2019, a four-year-old ... In 2015, a review journal wrote on herpes infection. It made a finding that owl's eye appearance was found in most organs ...
"Opportunistic Yeast Infections: Candidiasis, Cryptococcosis, Trichosporonosis and Geotrichosis". JDDG: Journal der Deutschen ... Skin and gut infections are also known. Reported cases of geotrichosis have been characterized with symptoms of chronic or ... Oral and vaginal geotrichosis is similar to thrush in its appearances and was often confused with this infection. The ... Other early medical case reports in 1916 and 1928 also described lung infections. Most cases affect the bronchopulmonary tree, ...
Increased susceptibility to extracellular bacteria and opportunistic infections. Leukocyte adhesion deficiency (LAD) NF-κB ... Classical recurrent infection from catalase positive bacteria and fungi. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS) Autoimmune ... Primary immune diseases are at risk to an increased susceptibility to, and often recurrent ear infections, pneumonia, ... Produces repeating sino-pulmonary and gastrointestinal infections. X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA; also known as Bruton type ...
Opportunistic Infections of HIV: JC Virus (JCV)". Microbiology. Illustrated Reviews. Vol. 3. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. ... JC Brain infection MRI Diagnosis of PML (CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list, Articles with short description, Short ... This syndrome, called JCV granule cell layer neuronopathy (JCV GCN), is characterized by a productive and lytic infection by a ... Although Human polyomavirus 2 infection is classically associated with white matter demyelination and PML pathogenesis, recent ...
It can occasionally cause opportunistic infections of humans. It is grouped in Runyon group IV. The complete genome sequence of ... It has been documented as a cause of breast infections after nipple piercing. Skerman, V. B. D.; McGowan, V.; Sneath, P. H. A ... On average, two cases of nonpulmonary M. chelonae infection are reported in South Australia each year. This bacterium is ... capable of causing skin, soft tissue, and bone infections, particularly after trauma and surgery. ...
... permitting the entry of opportunistic infection. The high-speed rotation of podiatry drill burrs potentially expose the ... Nail work requiring clipping and drilling is also a potential cause for ocular injury and infection to the podiatrists, ... In 1975, a dermatophyte fungal infection was described in a patient with severe tinea. The resulting treatment for mycosis ... Thickened nails caused by injury, infection, diabetes, psoriasis, or vascular disease may require the use of a mechanical ...
"Cytomegalovirus Adult and Adolescent Opportunistic Infection". AIDSinfo. Archived from the original on 2020-08-31. Retrieved ... Sometimes, combinations of different antibiotics may be needed to treat polymicrobial infections (infections that are caused by ... Some of the above complications could also lead to blindness, or even loss of the eye (in the case of a severe infection). ... This type of drug targets on bacterial infection. The first use of intravitreal antibiotics was dated back to experiments in ...
Because of this, opportunistic infections are a leading cause of HIV/AIDS-related deaths. Since opportunistic infections can ... An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasites or viruses) that take advantage of ... Opportunistic infections caused by feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus retroviral infections can be treated ... Opportunistic infections can also be attributed to pathogens which cause mild illness in healthy individuals but lead to more ...
CDC scientists will present nearly 30 abstracts at the 2021 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI). The ... March 6-10, 2021 - 2021 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI) ... Background Material: HIV Incidence: Estimated Annual Infections in the U.S., 2014-2018pdf icon ...
... and older age are associated with increased risk of opportunistic infections. The absolute risk of opportunistic infection in ... for opportunistic infection. The relative risk of opportunistic infection was greatest in IBD patients seen at older than 50 ... and older age are associated with increased risk of opportunistic infections. The absolute risk of opportunistic infection in ... Risk factors for opportunistic infections in patients with inflammatory bowel disease Gastroenterology. 2008 Apr;134(4):929-36. ...
USPHS/IDSA Guidelines for the Prevention of Opportunistic Infections in Persons Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: A ... These recommendations address 17 opportunistic infections or groups of opportunistic infections by providing guidelines on a) ... These recommendations address 17 opportunistic infections or groups of opportunistic infections and cover prevention of ... The approach to preventing opportunistic infections and other infections commonly encountered in HIV-infected persons, as ...
Learn more about Aids-related Opportunistic Infections from related diseases, pathways, genes and PTMs with the Novus ... Opportunistic Infection, Aids-related, Opportunistic Infections In Aids, Opportunistic Infections, Aids-related, Opportunistic ... Aids-related Opportunistic Infections: Disease Bioinformatics. Research of Aids-related Opportunistic Infections has been ... Aids-related Opportunistic Infections is also known as Hiv-related Opportunistic Infections, ...
HIV disease is caused by infection with HIV-1 or HIV-2, which are retroviruses in the Retrovir... ... Treatment of Opportunistic Infections. Treatment of opportunistic infections is paramount and should be directed at the ... therapy reduces the risk of acquiring an opportunistic infection and reverses the effects of many opportunistic infections (eg ... Prophylaxis for Opportunistic Infections. Prophylaxis for Pneumocystisjiroveci (a normally harmless commensal organism) is most ...
All HIV-related infections and malignancies escalate in frequency and morbidity as the absolute CD4 T-lymphocyte count falls ... Prevention of opportunistic infections in patients with HIV disease is important to optimize outcome. ... Prevention of Opportunistic Infections (OI) in Patients With HIV Infection * Sections Prevention of Opportunistic Infections ( ... Prevention of Opportunistic Infections (OI) in Patients With HIV Infection) and Prevention of Opportunistic Infections (OI) in ...
talk contribs‎ 345 bytes +345‎ Created page with __NOTOC__ {{Opportunistic infection}} Please help WikiDoc by adding content ... Opportunistic infection other diagnostic studies: Revision history. View logs for this page ... Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Opportunistic_infection_other_diagnostic_studies" ...
Opportunistic Pulmonary Bordetella hinzii Infection after Avian Exposure On This Page Clinical Cases Microbiological ... Opportunistic Pulmonary Bordetella hinzii Infection after Avian Exposure. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2015;21(12):2122-2126. ... B. hinzii appears as an opportunistic pathogen causing respiratory infections in cystic fibrosis patients (5,12). Other ... Opportunistic Pulmonary Bordetella hinzii Infection after Avian Exposure. Volume 21, Number 12-December 2015 ...
British HIV Association and British Infection Association Guidelines for the Treatment of Opportunistic Infection in HIV- ... Advances in the treatment of HIV infection with antiretroviral therapy have led to dramatic reductions in opportunistic ... BHIVA and BIA guidelines for the treatment of Opportunistic Infection in HIV-seropositive Individuals 2011. ... or having an opportunistic infection (OI). They are primarily intended to guide practice in the UK and related health systems. ...
2016 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI 2016) February 22-25, 2016, Boston. ... 2015 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI 2015) February 23-26, 2015, Seattle. ... 2017 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI 2017) February 13-16, 2017, Seattle. ... HIVandHepatitis.com coverage of the 2016 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic infections (CROI 2016), February 22-25, ...
... with respect to costs and included the costs of screening and the costs of complications arising from untreated infection. Two ... Conclusions An opportunistic chlamydia screening programme, as modelled in this study, would be expensive to implement ... Objective The objective of this study was to estimate the cost and cost-effectiveness of opportunistic screening for Chlamydia ... Methods Prospective cost analysis of an opportunistic screening programme delivered jointly in three types of healthcare ...
The Gut-Brain Link to Autism - Are short chain fatty acid fermentation products from opportunistic clostridial infections ... It discusses the hypothesis that ASDs are produced by pre- or post-natal antibiotic resistant clostridial infections in ... associated with antibiotic induced clostridial infections, and their ability to produce brain neuroinflammatory, metabolic, ...
MAETC: 2021 HIV Intensive Nursing Review Session #3: Clinical Manifestations of HIV/AIDS and Opportunistic Infections. ...
Non-viral opportunistic infections in new users of tumour necrosis factor inhibitor therapy: results of the SAfety Assessment ... Opportunistic infections in rheumatoid arthritis patients exposed to biologic therapy: results from the British Society for ... Biologic therapy and risk of infection. Skin therapy letter 2012 Apr;17;1-4 2012 Apr Pulmonary infectious diseases in patients ... Choice of Biologic Therapy for Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Infection Perspective. Current rheumatology reviews 2011 ...
The Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents (the Panel) updated the Guidelines for the Prevention and ... Please send your comments with the subject line "Adult and Adolescent Opportunistic Infection Guidelines" to [email protected] by ... Updates to the Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV ... To view or download the guidelines, go to the Adult and Adolescent Opportunistic Infection Guidelines section of Clinicalinfos ...
Multiple opportunistic infection prophylaxis. / Powderly, W. G. In: AIDS (London, England), Vol. 10 Suppl A, 1996, p. S165-171. ... Powderly, W. G. / Multiple opportunistic infection prophylaxis. In: AIDS (London, England). 1996 ; Vol. 10 Suppl A. pp. S165- ... Powderly, WG 1996, Multiple opportunistic infection prophylaxis., AIDS (London, England), vol. 10 Suppl A, pp. S165-171. ... Multiple opportunistic infection prophylaxis. AIDS (London, England). 1996;10 Suppl A:S165-171. doi: 10.1097/00002030-199601001 ...
Opportunistic Infection 7/1/02. 12/31/04. SMART Anal Dysplasia Sub-Study Joel Palefsky, MD HIV/AIDS, Opportunistic Infection, ... HIV/AIDS, Opportunistic Infection 1/1/13. 12/31/14. Targeted Treatment of Early Cryptococcal Infection in HIV-infected Patients ... HIV/AIDS, Opportunistic Infection 6/4/09. 1/1/12. Diagnosis, Prevention, and Management of Cryptococcus Infection (Meningeal ... Opportunistic Infection 1/1/14. 11/30/20. ACTG, AIDS Clinical Trial Research Group Diane Havlir, MD HIV/AIDS, Opportunistic ...
A new opportunistic infection - cerebral nocardiosis - associated with the multiple sclerosis (MS) drug alemtuzumab (Lemtrada, ... "should raise vigilance against alemtuzumab-associated opportunistic infections, which will undoubtedly continue." ... recurrent infections, and an anorectic disorder (body mass index of 14 kg/m2 on admission). ...
Opportunistic Infections answers are found in the 5-Minute Emergency Consult powered by Unbound Medicine. Available for iPhone ... Opportunistic Infections. In: Schaider JJJ, Barkin RMR, Hayden SRS, et al, eds. 5-Minute Emergency Consult. Lippincott Williams ... "Opportunistic Infections." 5-Minute Emergency Consult, 5th ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2016. Emergency Central, ... Opportunistic Infections. (2016). In Schaider, J. J., Barkin, R. M., Hayden, S. R., Wolfe, R. E., Barkin, A. Z., Shayne, P., & ...
Osmosis Opportunistic Fungal Infections high-yield notes offers clear overviews with striking illustrations, tables, and ... NOTES NOTES OPPORTUNISTIC FUNGAL INFECTIONS GENERALLY, WHAT ARE THEY? PATHOLOGY & CAUSES â–ª Range of infections caused by fungi ... Chapter 84 Opportunistic Fungal Infections MUCORMYCOSIS osms.it/mucormycosis PATHOLOGY & CAUSES â–ª Several genera of family ... This Osmosis High-Yield Note provides an overview of Opportunistic Fungal Infections essentials. All Osmosis Notes are clearly ...
Role of opportunistic viral infections in AIDS. AIDS 4 (1) , pp. 1-10. 10.1097/00002030-199001000-00001 ...
5.1 Serious and Opportunistic Infections. Fatal and serious infections, including opportunistic infections, have occurred in ... Serious and Opportunistic Infections: Monitor for signs and symptoms of infection and treat promptly. (5.1) •. Hemorrhage: ... Serious and Opportunistic Infections Inform patients of the possibility of serious infection and to report signs or symptoms ... with neutropenic infection reported in 1.9% of all patients. Opportunistic infections in recipients of CALQUENCE have included ...
... opportunistic infection prophylaxis, and vaccinations. The initial management of people with HIV presents a unique opportunity ... The CD4 count reflects the degree of immune system impairment and helps determine if opportunistic infection prophylaxis is ... Guidelines for the prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in adults and adolescents with HIV. Updated August 18, ... Immediate ART initiation may not be advisable if a serious untreated opportunistic infection is present, specifically one ...
Opportunistic Infections - Living With HIV - HIV/AIDS. Opportunistic Infections. Opportunistic infections (OIs) are infections ... Most Common Opportunistic Infections collapsed. Preventing Opportunistic Infections collapsed. Treating Opportunistic ... However, many people with HIV still develop OIs because they may not know of their HIV infection, they may not be on treatment ... How to deal with Recurrent infection serge of corona virus. Hace 5 meses ...
... by Opportunistic Infections Typical Of Aids But Rare ... Web opportunistic infections and diseases. This is the most common opportunistic infection seen in 30% to 40% of aids patients. ... Opportunistic Infections Typical Of Aids But Rare Otherwise Include. This is the most common opportunistic infection seen in 30 ... Web opportunistic infections and diseases. Web questions and answers for [solved] opportunistic infections typical of aids but ...
Title : Preventing opportunistic infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation : the Centers for Disease Control and ... 2001). Preventing opportunistic infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation : the Centers for Disease Control and ... Preventing opportunistic infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation : the Centers for Disease Control and ... "Preventing opportunistic infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation : the Centers for Disease Control and ...
... has demonstrated the efficacy of a new therapeutic protocol to treat cryptococcal meningitis associated with HIV infection and ... New recommendations against a major opportunistic infection: cryptococcosis. Cryptococcosis ranks second among fatal ... opportunistic infections in patients infected by HIV and who are profoundly immunosuppressed. A multicentric... ... Cryptococcal meningitis is a severe invasive fungal infection caused by a yeast. It occurs most often in severely ...
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  • Although current HAART regimens have substantially and dramatically decreased AIDS-related opportunistic infections (OIs) and deaths, prevention and management of OIs remain critical components of care for HIV-infected children. (medscape.com)
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  • The records of 566 patients with hematologic malignancies who received ibrutinib between June 2010 and March 2016 were retrospectively reviewed for events of opportunistic infection, which included pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia, invasive and disseminated fungal infections, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, toxoplasmosis, viral disseminated infections, and atypical bacterial infections. (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • In conclusion, we found that invasive fungal infections occur at a low frequency during ibrutinib therapy, with aspergillus being the most common infectious organism," the study authors wrote. (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • Consequently, fungal infections usually begin in the lungs or on the skin. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Except for some superficial skin infections, fungal infections are rarely passed from one person to another. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Fungal infections can affect only one area of the body (localized) or many areas of the body (systemic). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Localized fungal infections sometimes occur when the mix of other microorganisms (eg, bacteria) that normally live in certain parts of the body (also called the microbiome) is out of balance. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Systemic fungal infections affect organs such as the lungs, eyes, liver, and brain and also can affect the skin. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Opportunistic fungal infections take advantage of a weakened immune system. (msdmanuals.com)
  • As the interferon (IFN) λ family plays a role in response to viral, bacterial, and fungal infections , IFNL4 genotype might affect risk for a wide range of OIs/ cancers . (bvsalud.org)
  • Simultaneously, miconazole nitrate (MCZ) was entrapped in the outer liposomal bilayer of double liposomes for the treatment of opportunistic fungal infections. (ijpsr.com)
  • Galactosylated lipid substances allowed liver specific uptake of AZT at enhanced parenchymal: non-parenchymal selectivity ratios and at the same time could deliver MCZ for treatment of fungal infections. (ijpsr.com)
  • The rates of opportunistic fungal infections in acquired immuno deficiency syndrome (AIDS) can range from 60 percent to 90 percent for mucosal candidiasis, from 6 percent to 30 percent for invasive mycoses (such as cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis and coccidioi- mycosis) (www.niaid.nih.gov). (ijpsr.com)
  • Miconazole nitrate (MCZ) is a widely used antifungal agent, but its use in topical formulations is not efficacious because deep-seated fungal infections are difficult to treat with conventional topical formulations. (ijpsr.com)
  • In addition, prophylaxis for specific opportunistic infections is indicated in particular cases. (medscape.com)
  • Multiple opportunistic infection prophylaxis. (wustl.edu)
  • Provided information on doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis for bacterial sexually transmitted infections. (hiv.gov)
  • A comprehensive laboratory evaluation, including HIV viral load and CD4 lymphocyte monitoring, is necessary to guide decision-making for treatment, opportunistic infection prophylaxis, and vaccinations. (aafp.org)
  • Alexa Filley, PharmD, delivers a lecture on Common HIV Regimens and Opportunistic Infection Prophylaxis. (player.fm)
  • Filley concludes her presentation by reviewing and applying Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Guidelines on opportunistic infection prophylaxis in patients with HIV. (player.fm)
  • Additionally, antiretrovirals may be taken by high-risk uninfected individuals to prevent infection, a strategy known as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) 3 . (nature.com)
  • Although guidelines have been established for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) for adults with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, they have not been available for children (1). (cdc.gov)
  • Experts in pediatric HIV infection (convened by the Pediatric HIV Resource Center) independently reviewed recent data and provided recommendations to the U.S. Public Health Service for PCP prophylaxis for HIV-infected or -exposed children. (cdc.gov)
  • Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) and antiviral treatments , including tecovirimat , are available for persons exposed to monkeypox or with Monkeypox virus infection. (cdc.gov)
  • The absolute risk of opportunistic infection in IBD patients remains to be determined, as does any potential benefit of any preventive strategy. (nih.gov)
  • Furthermore, a recent UK Health Protection Agency (HPA) analysis showed that of 46 700 patients with diagnosed HIV, 19% had CD4 counts o200 cells/mL [2] and therefore remain at significant risk of opportunistic infection. (bhiva.org)
  • Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a species of bacteria that causes tuberculosis, a respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Tuberculosis-a bacterial infection that affects the lungs and can also affect other parts of the body such as the kidneys, brain, skin, lymph nodes, and eyes. (hiv.gov)
  • Web questions and answers for [solved] opportunistic infections typical of aids but rare otherwise include a) tuberculosis. (scihub.world)
  • Objectives of this study was to primarily evaluate the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis and opportunistic respiratory infections among the cases of HIV and to estimate the CD4 counts of all the patients and correlate with the respiratory infections among the cases. (ijmedicine.com)
  • Infections with mycobacterium tuberculosis and mycobacterium avium among HIV-patients after the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy. (ijmedicine.com)
  • Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection of the lungs but may spread to other parts of the body, including the kidneys, spine, and brain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • However, other non-CMV-related ocular opportunistic infections occur, including herpetic retinitis (attributable to either herpes simplex virus or varicella-zoster virus), toxoplasmic retinitis, and choroiditis (attributable to Pneumocystis carinii , Cryptococcus neoformans , Mycobacterium tuberculosis , and Mycobacterium avium complex infections). (entokey.com)
  • others include tuberculosis and yeast infection. (yahoo.com)
  • 2016. https://emergency.unboundmedicine.com/emergency/view/5-Minute_Emergency_Consult/307680/2.1/Opportunistic_Infections. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasites or viruses) that take advantage of an opportunity not normally available. (wikipedia.org)
  • Opportunistic infections can also be attributed to pathogens which cause mild illness in healthy individuals but lead to more serious illness when given the opportunity to take advantage of an immunocompromised host. (wikipedia.org)
  • A wide variety of pathogens are involved in opportunistic infection and can cause a similarly wide range in pathologies. (wikipedia.org)
  • A partial list of opportunistic pathogens and their associated presentations includes: Clostridioides difficile (formerly known as Clostridium difficile) is a species of bacteria that is known to cause gastrointestinal infection and is typically associated with the hospital setting. (wikipedia.org)
  • An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens , their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infections can be caused by a wide range of pathogens , most prominently bacteria and viruses . (wikipedia.org)
  • The absence of associations between IFNL4 genotype and these OIs/ cancers provides evidence that this gene does not affect the risk of disease from opportunistic pathogens. (bvsalud.org)
  • Microbial infections may result from the presence of infectious materials, opportunistic pathogens, or zoonoses. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumonia is a lung condition that results from an infection by one of many bacteria, viruses, or fungi. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Overview of Fungal Skin Infections Fungi usually live in moist areas of the body where skin surfaces meet: between the toes, in the genital area, and under the breasts. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Opportunistic infections caused by certain fungi, in particular problematic Candida albicans , have increased recently and become a public concern. (ijpsr.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus that causes cryptococcosis, which can lead to pulmonary infection as well as nervous system infections, like meningitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • We report 2 cases of pulmonary Bordetella hinzii infection in immunodeficient patients. (cdc.gov)
  • Pulmonary infection, digestive infection, and bacteriemia in humans have been reported ( 3 - 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • He was hospitalized for 2 episodes of pulmonary infections in October 2012 and February-March 2013, during which Escherichia coli was isolated and for which he received ciprofloxacin. (cdc.gov)
  • Knowledge of the pattern of pulmonary complications in patients with HIV infection in relation to CD4 count will help clinicians develop faster diagnostic and therapeutic approach to patient management. (ijmedicine.com)
  • HIV infection and risk for incident pulmonary diseases in the combination antiretroviral therapy era. (ijmedicine.com)
  • A healthcare provider perspective was adopted with respect to costs and included the costs of screening and the costs of complications arising from untreated infection. (bmj.com)
  • Having untreated HIV can put a person at risk of several complications, including the development of certain rare infections and cancers . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The person is more likely to develop infections, certain types of cancer, and other medical complications. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Ocular opportunistic infections represent the most common ocular complications of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and occur primarily among patients with severe immune compromise. (entokey.com)
  • The purpose of this study was to estimate the incidence of and to describe the clinical outcomes associated with these non-cytomegalovirus (non-CMV) ocular opportunistic infections in the HAART era, using data from the Longitudinal Study of Ocular Complications of AIDS (LSOCA) cohort. (entokey.com)
  • The analysis considered the cost of screening to the health service, and the costs of infection and complications, not any additional costs reported by young people in accepting a chlamydia screening test. (rcsi.com)
  • Anti-HIV medications (called antiretroviral therapy or ART) can control the effects of HIV infection and allow children to live without complications. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Many of the symptoms and complications of HIV infection, including death, are the result of these other infections and not of the HIV infection itself. (msdmanuals.com)
  • We sought to identify and quantify the clinical factors that were associated with opportunistic infections in inflammatory bowel disease patients. (nih.gov)
  • We identified 100 consecutive IBD patients with opportunistic infections. (nih.gov)
  • For each case, 2 matched IBD patients who did not have a history of opportunistic infection were selected as controls. (nih.gov)
  • For many years before the development of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), these infections inflicted significant morbidity and mortality on patients living with AIDS. (medscape.com)
  • Prevention of opportunistic infections (OI) in patients with HIV has since significantly reduced morbidity and mortality in these patients. (medscape.com)
  • [ 2 ] Patients should be aware of their CD4 count and their risk for specific infections and should begin ART. (medscape.com)
  • [ 3 ] As observed in patients with hemophilia who experienced presumed transfusion-related transmission during the 1980s to 1990s, OI generally developed an average of 7 to 10 years after initial HIV infection. (medscape.com)
  • These guidelines have been drawn up to help physicians investigate and manage HIV-seropositive patients suspected of, or having an opportunistic infection (OI). (bhiva.org)
  • Opportunistic infections in rheumatoid arthritis patients exposed to biologic therapy: results from the British Society for Rheumatology Biologics Register for Rheumatoid Arthritis. (pneumotox.com)
  • Choice of Biologic Therapy for Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The Infection Perspective. (pneumotox.com)
  • Do not routinely test for cytomegalovirus immunoglobulin G in patients with HIV infection who have a high likelihood of being infected with cytomegalovirus. (aafp.org)
  • This is the most common opportunistic infection seen in 30% to 40% of aids patients. (scihub.world)
  • A single-institution, retrospective cohort study reported the incidence of opportunistic infections among patients with hematological malignancies who received ibrutinib and identified potential patient risk factors. (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • To report the incidence and clinical outcomes of non-cytomegalovirus (non-CMV) ocular opportunistic infections in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. (entokey.com)
  • Once an ocular opportunistic infection was diagnosed, patients were seen every 3 months for outcomes. (entokey.com)
  • however, the extent to which these infections occur among patients with AIDS and their effect on visual outcomes and association with mortality in the HAART era have not been described. (entokey.com)
  • Patients with and without ocular opportunistic infections were recruited, and the cohort was enriched with patients with CMV retinitis in order to determine the outcomes of this ocular opportunistic infection. (entokey.com)
  • There is the potential for significant drug interactions and overlapping toxicities in patients receiving medications for treatment or prevention of opportunistic infections (OIs). (hiv.gov)
  • Patients treated with adalimumab products including HADLIMA, are at increased risk for developing serious infections that may lead to hospitalization or death [see WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS ]. (rxlist.com)
  • Most patients who developed these infections were taking concomitant immunosuppressants such as methotrexate or corticosteroids. (rxlist.com)
  • Appropriate antiretroviral therapy (ART) and treatment of specific infections and malignancies are critical in treating patients who are HIV positive. (medscape.com)
  • Ig replacement therapy has significantly decreased the frequency of life-threatening infections in patients with X-linked immunodeficiency with hyper-immunoglobulin M (XHIGM). (medscape.com)
  • In this randomized, double-blind, multicenter study, patients treated with Gamunex (purified using caprylate treatment and chromatography) had a significantly lower number of infections compared with the group treated with Gamimune N (solvent-detergent treated) from the same company. (medscape.com)
  • For most patients, a dose of 400-600 mg/kg every 3-4 weeks suffices to reduce the frequency of infection. (medscape.com)
  • These reactions tend to occur more frequently in patients with severe hypogammaglobulinemia, particularly at the initiation of treatment, and in patients with intercurrent infections or bronchiectasis. (medscape.com)
  • AIDS patients may also be on treatment for opportunistic infections. (ijpsr.com)
  • Patients with compromised immune systems, e.g. patients receiving organ transplants and cancer chemotherapy, or those infected by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), are particularly prone to such infections. (ijpsr.com)
  • Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia is a serious and frequent infection in immunocompromised patients, whose evolution is potentially fatal if untreated. (centerwatch.com)
  • It is the most common opportunistic infections classifying patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (human immunodeficiency virus +) at the stage acquired immune deficiency syndrome. (centerwatch.com)
  • We used to counsel patients in the early days around preventing others from getting the infection. (yahoo.com)
  • It is indicated for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in patients weighing at least 35 kg. (who.int)
  • In contrast, recent reports of patients with HIV infection and monkeypox who are on effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) have noted no deaths or evident excess hospitalizations to date. (cdc.gov)
  • guidelines for adults and adolescents are compiled by the Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. (medscape.com)
  • The Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents (the Panel) updated the Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV . (hiv.gov)
  • On September 25, 2023, the Panel on Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents (the Panel) updated the Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV . (hiv.gov)
  • The Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in Adults and Adolescents with HIV provide guidance to HIV care practitioners and others on the optimal prevention and management of HIV-related opportunistic infections for adults and adolescents in the United States. (hiv.gov)
  • On May 7 the National Institutes of Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of Americaannounced the release of revised Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents, updating the previous version from 2009. (hivandhepatitis.com)
  • Infants and young children may be more seriously affected than older children and adults because for the former, Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia may represent primary infection rather than reactivation disease, and because an infant's or young child's immune defenses may be immature. (cdc.gov)
  • Although the number of infants and children with HIV infection living in the United States continues to decrease, the number of adolescents and young adults with HIV infection is increasing. (msdmanuals.com)
  • HIV is a virus that targets T cells of the immune system and, as a result, HIV infection can lead to progressively worsening immunodeficiency, a condition ideal for the development of opportunistic infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • [ 13 ] In general, the goal of treatment is to prevent the immune system from deteriorating to the point that opportunistic infections become more likely. (medscape.com)
  • Immunosuppression resulting from HIV places a patient at risk for infection from organisms that are otherwise relatively mildly hazardous and that would normally be cleared by a competent immune system. (medscape.com)
  • Opportunistic infections (OIs) are infections that occur more frequently and are more severe in people with weakened immune systems, including people with HIV. (hiv.gov)
  • Today's HIV medicines (called antiretroviral therapy or ART) reduce the amount of HIV in a person's body and keep the immune system stronger and better able to fight off infections. (hiv.gov)
  • However, many people with HIV still develop OIs because they may not know of their HIV infection, they may not be on treatment, or their treatment may not be keeping their HIV levels low enough for their immune system to fight off infections. (blogspot.com)
  • With hiv, a weakened immune system increases vulnerability to a number of opportunistic infections, cancers, and. (scihub.world)
  • HIV is a virus that targets the body's immune system, reducing its ability to fight off infections and disease. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Over time, the virus damages more and more of these cells until the immune system is not strong enough to fight off infections. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Opportunistic infections are illnesses that are typically mild in people without HIV, but arise more often and are more severe in people with HIV if they have a damaged immune system. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • [2] Hosts can fight infections using their immune systems . (wikipedia.org)
  • Your health care provider may order this test if you have symptoms or signs of a lung infection, such as if you have a weakened immune system due to certain medicines or diseases such as cancer or HIV/AIDS. (medlineplus.gov)
  • People who have a weakened immune system are at risk of developing infections caused by common germs that are usually harmless. (kidshealth.org.nz)
  • Intervening early may prevent damage to the immune system and potentially retard dissemination of infection. (medscape.com)
  • The second major area of emphasis is the study of lung injury resulting from immune-mediated inflammation in response to infection with P. carinii. (rochester.edu)
  • As the immune system weakens, additional symptoms of an HIV infection or AIDS develop. (healthline.com)
  • As it gradually destroys your immune system, HIV can make it so that you are more susceptible to other infections and diseases. (yahoo.com)
  • Opportunistic infections are infections that are more common or severe among people with weakened immune systems, like those with HIV. (yahoo.com)
  • These are called opportunistic infections because they take advantage of a weakened immune system. (msdmanuals.com)
  • People with AIDS are more susceptible to several types of infection, known as opportunistic infections, as well as some cancers. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • No Association of IFNL4 Genotype With Opportunistic Infections and Cancers Among Men With Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 Infection. (bvsalud.org)
  • IFNL4 genetic variants that are strongly associated with clearance of hepatitis C virus have been linked to risk of certain opportunistic infections (OIs) and cancers , including Kaposi sarcoma , cytomegalovirus infection , and herpes simplex virus infection . (bvsalud.org)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a viral infection that progressively destroys certain white blood cells and makes people more vulnerable to other infections and some cancers and causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). (msdmanuals.com)
  • Aspergillus is a fungus, commonly associated with respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • If the CD4 count of a person living with HIV falls below 200 cells per cubic milliliter (cells/mm3) , or if they develop an opportunistic infection, the person is said to have AIDS. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Because people living with HIV in the U.S. widely use HIV drugs, fewer people now get opportunistic infections. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Send your comments with the subject line "Adult and Adolescent Opportunistic Infection Guidelines" to [email protected] by October 11, 2023. (hiv.gov)
  • Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) is a group of two bacteria, M. avium and M. intracellulare, that typically co-infect, leading to a lung infection called mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • A high prevalence of infections, such as candidiasis and varicella-zoster virus infection, must also be anticipated, and appropriate prevention and treatment strategies must be initiated. (medscape.com)
  • Thrush Candidiasis is infection with the yeast Candida . (msdmanuals.com)
  • Oral candidiasis is the most common opportunistic fungal infection in persons suffering from AIDS. (ijpsr.com)
  • If not treated and controlled, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the most serious stage of HIV infection. (yahoo.com)
  • Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the most severe form of HIV infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • People with HIV, individuals who are immunocompromised, children, adolescents, and people who are pregnant or breastfeeding may be at risk for increased disease severity and adverse health outcomes associated with monkeypox infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Although about 9,000 cases of HIV infection were reported in children and young adolescents between 1983 and 2015, in 2019, fewer than 60 new cases were diagnosed in children under 13 years of age. (msdmanuals.com)
  • This issue of MMWR Recommendations and Reports (Vol. 44, No. RR-8) is excerpted from the USPHS/IDSA Guidelines for the Prevention of Opportunistic Infections in Persons Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus, to be published in a supplement to Clinical Infectious Diseases in August 1995. (cdc.gov)
  • Microbiologic diagnosis of lung infection. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If replacement therapy is started early and appropriate amounts are administered with sufficient frequency, the cycle of recurrent infections and progressive lung damage can be arrested. (medscape.com)
  • Signs of infection in children include slowed growth, enlargement of lymph nodes in several areas of the body, developmental delay, recurring bacterial infections, and lung inflammation. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a bacterium that can cause respiratory infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae is a bacterium that causes respiratory infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • Bordetella hinzii bacteria cause respiratory infections in birds and have been isolated from rodents on rare occasions ( 1 , 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • however, IVIG therapy has not changed the frequency of nonrespiratory or upper respiratory infections. (medscape.com)
  • Cytomegalovirus is a family of opportunistic viruses, most frequently associated with respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Compared with other persons with monkeypox, case reports among persons with inadequately treated HIV who have CD4 counts ≤350 per mm3 reported higher rates of secondary bacterial infection, more prolonged illness (and thereby also longer period of infectiousness), as well as a higher likelihood of a confluent or partially confluent rash, rather than discrete lesions. (cdc.gov)
  • Bioaerosols in industrial workplaces may present a risk of microbial infection, allergic reaction or respirator sensitization to microorganisms, allergic reaction or sensitization to nonmicrobial proteinaceous materials, or a risk of a toxicological reaction (toxicosis) to microbial products or cellular components. (cdc.gov)
  • What Are Some of the Most Common Opportunistic Infections? (hiv.gov)
  • As the name suggests, this common fungal infection can cause the skin near the genitals and groin to itch. (healthline.com)
  • We talk about the fact that it's a chronic infection and they're still at risk for some conditions that are more common in HIV-treated people. (yahoo.com)
  • Most findings confirm previous research, but the study also found a lower prevalence of many cardiovascular conditions and rheumatoid arthritis in people with HIV, while infertility, bipolar disorder and numerous infections were more common. (aidsmap.com)
  • Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia is the most common serious HIV-associated opportunistic infection among children. (cdc.gov)
  • Infection with HIV-1 is by far more common than infection with HIV-2 in almost all geographic areas. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease depends on the stage of the disease and any concomitant opportunistic infections. (medscape.com)
  • In addition to virologic response and reduced risk for opportunistic infection, evidence suggests that non-AIDS-defining illnesses, in particular psychiatric and renal disease, may also be reduced when on HAART. (medscape.com)
  • Currently, no study from Indian NGOs has compared the direct and indirect costs of solely managing opportunistic infections (OIs) vs HAART. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Cryptococcal meningitis is a severe invasive fungal infection caused by a yeast. (pasteur.fr)
  • When it affects the vagina, it is called a vulvovaginal yeast infection . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Penile yeast infections are also possible. (healthline.com)
  • Candida albicans is a species of fungus that is associated with oral thrush and gastrointestinal infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • HIV Qualities: The Human Immunodeficiency Infection (HIV) genome contains nine qualities that encode for various viral proteins. (essaystudyhelp.com)
  • Opportunistic infections (OI) are the major cause of morbidity and mortality among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected individuals. (jnsbm.org)
  • Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is caused by the HIV virus, which can be transmitted through sexual contact, blood transfusion, and, in young children, is typically acquired from the mother at the time of birth. (msdmanuals.com)
  • One study found significantly reduced incidence of OI after ART initiation, from 15.1 infections per 100 person-years in the 6 months before starting ART to 2.2 infections per 100 person-years after 9 to 15 months of treatment. (medscape.com)
  • A study reported the incidence of opportunistic infections during ibrutinib treatment for hematological malignancies and identified potential risk factors. (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • At a median follow-up of 2.69 years (range, 0.03-6.40 years), 23 cases of opportunistic infections occurred, which yielded an incidence rate of 1.9 per 100 person-years (95% CI, 1.2-2.8). (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • Incidence of opportunistic infections during ibrutinib treatment for B-cell malignancies [published online May 13, 2019]. (cancertherapyadvisor.com)
  • Histoplasma capsulatum is a species of fungus known to cause histoplasmosis, which can present with an array of symptoms, but often involves respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • The present study was a one-year study conducted at Narayana Medical College and all the cases of HIV presented with signs and symptoms of lower respiratory tract infections were included after obtaining consent. (ijmedicine.com)
  • When a person first contracts HIV, they often experience an initial period of flu-like symptoms within 2-4 weeks of infection, known as acute HIV . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The signs and symptoms of an infection depend on the type of disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • As bacterial and viral infections can both cause the same kinds of symptoms, it can be difficult to distinguish which is the cause of a specific infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • In addition to dry skin, people in this second phase of infection may also experience sore throat, fever, and symptoms that resemble the flu . (healthline.com)
  • Herpes is an STD caused by a herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection. (healthline.com)
  • Advances in the treatment of HIV infection with antiretroviral therapy have led to dramatic reductions in opportunistic infections and death. (bhiva.org)
  • Table 5 provides clinicians with information regarding known or suspected drug interactions between drugs commonly used for treatment or prevention of HIV-associated OIs and treatment of HIV infection. (hiv.gov)
  • The Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) issued updated guidelines in November 2021 for the management of HIV infection. (medscape.com)
  • [1] An infectious disease , also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease , is an illness resulting from an infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • [4] The branch of medicine that focuses on infections is referred to as infectious diseases . (wikipedia.org)
  • An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host. (wikipedia.org)
  • One study of nearly 7000 men with HIV infection found that annual mortality rates decreased from 7% in 1996 to 1.3% in 2004, although the findings highlighted the fact that non-AIDS-related illnesses were accounting for a greater proportion of deaths. (medscape.com)
  • Although uncommon, non-CMV ocular opportunistic infections may be associated with high rates of visual loss and/or mortality. (entokey.com)
  • The authors, led by Horst Penkert, MD, Technische Universität München, Germany, report that the patient had a medical history that included hypothyroidism , recurrent infections, and an anorectic disorder (body mass index of 14 kg/m 2 on admission). (medscape.com)
  • HIV-related infections and malignancies escalate in frequency and severity as the absolute CD4 T cell count falls toward 200 cells/μL and below. (medscape.com)
  • One-half of the estimated 1.1 million people in the United States with HIV infection are not receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) or are receiving ART that is not sufficiently effective to achieve key clinical outcomes. (aafp.org)
  • A large-scale clinical trial has demonstrated the efficacy of a new therapeutic protocol to treat cryptococcal meningitis associated with HIV infection and shown that it leads to fewer adverse effects. (pasteur.fr)
  • This course covers transmission of HIV and infection control, Washington laws concerning confidentiality and testing, clinical manifestations and treatment, psychosocial issues, and legal and ethical issues. (wildirismedicaleducation.com)
  • PCP is often the initial clinical sign of HIV infection, particularly among infants. (cdc.gov)
  • Conclusions An opportunistic chlamydia screening programme, as modelled in this study, would be expensive to implement nationally and is unlikely to be judged cost effective by policy makers in Ireland. (bmj.com)
  • Salmonella is a genus of bacteria, known to cause gastrointestinal infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infection with the Salmonella bacteria causes approximately 1.35 million illnesses in the U.S. every year. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • For people with HIV, a Salmonella infection may progress to a severe form called Salmonella septicemia that spreads to the bloodstream. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It is currently unknown whether HIV infection affects a person's risk of acquiring Monkeypox virus infection and developing disease after exposure. (cdc.gov)
  • PPT HIV AND AIDS PowerPoint Presentation, free download ID670335 from www.slideserve.com Web opportunistic infections and diseases. (scihub.world)
  • Web opportunistic infections and diseases. (scihub.world)
  • WHO model prescribing information : drugs used in sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection. (who.int)
  • Drugs used in sexually-transmitted diseases and HIV infection. (who.int)
  • Diseases caused by helminths are sometimes termed infestations, but are sometimes called infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • For discussion of antiretroviral drugs and regimens, see Antiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection . (medscape.com)
  • Legionella pneumophila is a bacterium that causes Legionnaire's disease, a respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Arthropods such as ticks , mites , fleas , and lice , can also cause human disease, which conceptually are similar to infections, but invasion of a human or animal body by these macroparasites is usually termed infestation . (wikipedia.org)
  • As of July 29, 2022, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and state and local public health partners are reporting 5,189 cases of Monkeypox virus infections in the United States across 47 states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. (cdc.gov)
  • Objective The objective of this study was to estimate the cost and cost-effectiveness of opportunistic screening for Chlamydia trachomatis in Ireland. (bmj.com)
  • Chlamydia Screening in Ireland: a pilot study of opportunistic screening for genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in Ireland (2007-2009). (rcsi.com)
  • Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii) is a fungus that causes pneumocystis pneumonia, a respiratory infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • A vaccination for a particularly severe form of bacterial pneumonia (pneumococcal pneumonia) is available to prevent infection. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • One opportunistic organism is a type of fungus called pneumocystis, which can cause an infection called pneumocystis pneumonia. (kidshealth.org.nz)
  • We knew that individuals who had advanced infection had a particular pneumonia, and it was just about managing that. (yahoo.com)
  • Pneumonia is just one HIV-related opportunistic infection. (yahoo.com)
  • The story of drug resistance in TB is paralleled in many other bacteria over use and improper use of antibiotics stimulates drug resistance, which makes treatment of bacterial infections more difficult. (cdc.gov)
  • In 2019, about 36,000 new cases of HIV infection in the United States were diagnosed. (msdmanuals.com)